1

Telephone Losses
The common telephone losses that is normally
due to the following:

Net Loss
The ratio of the signal power at the input and
output of the channel.

Insertion Loss
Ratio of the power delivered from a source to a
load, to the power from that same source to that
same load through a transducer. It is the loss
caused by the insertion of a gain element to a
transmission channel.


2
Telephone Losses
Return Loss
A measure of the match between two
impedances on either side of a junction point.

Return Loss Formula (dB value)




where: Z
1
and Z
2
= complex impedances of
the two halves of the circuit ()

3
Telephone Losses
Echo Return Loss (ERL)
The weighted power-average return loss at the reflection
point covering the band of approximately 500 to 2500 Hz. It
is the ratio of the power of a broadband incident signal to
that of the correspondingly broadband reflected signal.

Singing Return Loss
The as echo return loss, but over a considerably narrow
band near an edge of the voice band, e.g. 200 to 500 Hz or
2500 to 3200 Hz.

Singing
It is the result of sustained oscillations due to positive
feedback in telephone amplifiers or amplifying circuits.


4
Telephone Losses
Other Losses:
Crosstalk
Unwanted interference picked-up by one
channel of an electronic communication system
from the other channel.

Far-End
Measured on a channel at a receiving point near
the sending point of the interfering channel.

Near-End
Measured on a channel at a receiving point
near the receiving point of the interfering
channel.

5
Telephone Losses
Other Losses:
Telephone Echo
Maybe classified as talker or listener echo.

Talker Echo
A signal returned to the talker after making one
or more round trip between the talker and a
distant reflection point.

Listener Echo
A signal first returned down to the talker at a
distant reflection point and then reflected again
towards the listener.

6
Telephone Losses
Other Losses:
Propagation Time
CCITT recommends the following limitations on
mean, one-way propagation time when echo
source exist.
0 to 150 ms acceptable
150 to 400 ms, acceptable, provided that care is
exercised connection when the mean, one-way
propagation time exceed about 300 ms
Above 400 ms, unacceptable

7
Telephone Losses
Other Losses:
Propagation Time Delay
Due to the great distances involved between
parties at the opposite end of the local loop.
For Analog Network:
For Digital Network:
] 0 0 4 . 0 [ 1 2
) ( ) ( k m m s
d D e l a y
] 0 0 4 . 0 [ 3
) ( ) ( k m m s
d D e l a y

8
Telephone Losses
Propagation Time

Example:

Calculate the one-way propagation delay for an
analog network and digital network which spans 5
km and 8 km respectively.

9
Telephone Losses
Other Losses:
VIA NET LOSS (VNL)
A concept of transmission planning that permits a
relatively close approach to an overall zero transmission loss
in the telephone network and maintains singing and echo
within specified and tolerable limits.
In short, VNL is a loss to be introduced to avoid singing
phenomenon
Where:
L = One-way length of the
trunk

Vp = Velocity of propagation

t = One-way propagation
time delay (ms)

10
Telephone Losses
Other Losses:
VIA NET LOSS FACTOR (VNLF) in dB/km




Overall Connection Loss
(OCL)



Fixed-Loss Plan
It is based on a 0-dB loss on all-digital intertoll trunks. It
specifies a 6-dB trunk loss betweem local exchanges
regardless of the connection mileage.

Where:
D = path delay (ms)

Vp = Velocity of propagation

N = number of trunks in
tandem

11
Telephone Losses
Via Net Loss

Example:

A telephone signal takes 11.8 ms to reach its
destination.
a. Calculate the via net loss required for an
acceptable amount of echo.
b. Find VNLF if the distance covered is 20 miles.
c. Find the OCL if there are 12 trunks in tandem.

12
Telephone Traffic
1. How many lines / switches do I need?

Why cant I get through sometimes?

2. What happens to the call?

Erlangs formula
Blocked?
Delayed?

3. Demand

4. Dimensioning

5. Grade of Service


13
Traffic Engineering
it is the application of knowledge of statistics
including queuing theory, the nature of traffic,
their practical models, their measurements and
simulations to make predictions and to plan
telecommunication networks.

TERMINOLOGIES

Concentration
The function associated with a switching network having
fewer outlets than inlet terminals

Coordinate Switch
A rectangular array of cross-points in which one side of
the crosspoint is multiplied in rows and the other side in
columns


14
Traffic Engineering
TERMINOLOGIES

Crosspoint
A two-state switching device containing one or more
elements that a low transmission impedance in one state
and a very high one in the other

Full availability
Property of a switch or switching network capable of
providing a path from every inlet terminal to every outlet
terminal

Internal Blocking
The inability to interconnect an idle inlet to an outlet
because all possible paths between them are already in use
Number of crosspoint required = N(N-1)/2


15
Traffic Engineering
TERMINOLOGIES

Busy Hour
The continuous one-hour period that, on consecutive
days in the busy part of the year, contains the maximum
average traffic intensity

Call
A discrete engagement or occupation of a traffic path

Calling Rate
The average number of calls placed during the busy hour

Occupancy
The traffic intensity per traffic path. One hundred percent
occupancy implies all paths busy.


16
Traffic Engineering
TERMINOLOGIES

Traffic Concentration
the average ratio of the traffic quantity during the busy
hour to the traffic quantity during the day

Traffic Intensity/Traffic Load
the average number of calls present on a group of traffic
paths over a period of time

Traffic Path
A channel, time slot, frequency band, line, trunk, switch,
or circuit over which individual communications pass in
sequence


17
Traffic Engineering
TERMINOLOGIES

Traffic Quantity
the aggregate engagement time or occupancy time of
one or more traffic paths

Call Intensity
For many traffic-carrying elements, the number of calls
making up the total traffic load is immaterial; the load
represented by two calls or ten minutes duration has the
same impact as one call of twenty minutes duration

18
Traffic Engineering
A systematic means of handling voice traffic in
a telephone network.

Measurement of Telephone Traffic:
T C A
Where:
A = Traffic intensity in Erlang

C = Number of calls during a period of 1
hr.

T = Average holding time per hour, or per
minute

S = Sum of all the holding time (min)

t = Observation period (1 hr or 60 min.)
t
S
A

19
Unit of Traffic Intensity

The Erlang Unit
The international dimensionless unit for traffic
intensity.

One Erlang is the traffic represented by an
average of one circuit busy out of a group of
circuits over some period of time usually one hour
or 60 minutes.



20
Traffic Engineering
Other Units of Traffic Intensity

Call-Second (Cs) /Call-Minute (Cm) /Call-Hour (Ch)
Units of traffic quantity representing occupation of a
circuit for a second, minute or hour.

Century Call-Seconds (CCS)
Unit of traffic intensity equal to 1/36 of an Erlang. Also
known as Hundred Call-seconds

Equated Busy-Hour Call (EBHC)
European unit of traffic intensity equal to 1/36 of an
Erlang. 1 EBHC is the average intensity in one or more traffic
paths occupied in the busy-hour by one 2-min call or an
aggregate duration of 2 min.

21
Traffic Engineering
Other Units of Traffic Intensity

Traffic Unit (TU)
1 TU is the average intensity in one or more traffic paths
carrying an aggregate traffic of 1 call-hour in 1 hour (the
busy hour unless otherwise specified)

Relation between different traffic units

1 Erlang = 1 TU = 1 Ch = 60 Cm = 3600 Cs = 36 CCs = 30 EBHC



22
Traffic Engineering
1 Erlang is equivalent to traffic intensity that keeps:
1 circuit busy 100% of the time, or
2 circuits busy 50% of the time, or
4 circuits busy 25% of the time, etc.

While 26 Erlangs is equivalent to traffic intensity that keeps:
26 circuits busy 100% of the time, or
52 circuits busy 50% of the time, or
104 circuits busy 25% of the time, etc.

1 ccs is volume of traffic equal to:
1 circuit busy for 100 seconds, or
2 circuits busy for 50 seconds, or
50 circuits busy for 2 seconds, or
100 circuits busy for 1 second, etc.


23
Traffic Engineering
Call Rate (C)
The number of times a route or traffic path is
used per unit period, or, more properly defined,
the call intensity per traffic path during the busy
hour

Average number of calls initiated per unit time
(e.g. attempts per hour)

also known as Arrival Rate



24
Traffic Engineering

25
Traffic Engineering

26
Traffic Engineering
Traffic Volume (usually in ccs)

V = n x T

where: V = volume of calls in time t
n = # of calls in time period T
T = mean holding time per call

27
Traffic Engineering
Traffic Intensity (A)

Traffic intensity or traffic flow is a total traffic
volume divided by the duration of time.

I. For a single terminal
The traffic in Erlang is the average occupancy
of the terminal while the traffic intensiuty or
traffic flow is just the percentage of time the
terminal is busy


28
Traffic Engineering
Traffic Intensity (A)

II. For a group of circuits or terminal
a. The average number of circuits simultaneously busy within
a group.
b. The expected number of call arrivals per unit holding time.
c. The number of circuits required to completely carry the
offered traffic if each circuit were operating at 100%
occupancy.



Where: A = traffic intensity in Erlang C = calling rate
T = mean time holding time per call V = volume of calls
n = # of calls in time period t
t = time period of observations
= departure rate


29
Exercises
Problem

Supposed that the average holding time is 2.5
min and the calling rate in a busy hour for a
particular day is 237. What is the value of traffic
intensity in Cm and Ch?

Problem

If the total traffic handled by a telephone
exchange is equivalent to 7200 ccs. What is the
total traffic handled in Erlangs?

30
Exercises
Problem

Call established at 2 am between a central
computer and a data terminal. Assuming a
continuous connection and data transferred at 34
kbps, what is the traffic if the call is terminated at
2:45 am?

Problem

A group of 20 subscribers generate 50 calls
with an average holding time of 3 minutes, what is
the average traffic per subscriber?

31
Traffic Engineering
Offered Traffic (To)

Offered traffic is the traffic intensity that would
occur if all traffic submitted to a group of circuits
could be processed.

The volume offered to a switch

Carried Traffic (Tc)

Carried traffic is the traffic intensity actually
handled by the group of circuits.

The volume of traffic actually carried by a
switch.


32
Traffic Engineering
Lost Traffic (T
L
)

Blocked traffic is that portion that cannot be
processed by the group of circuits

The difference between the offered and carreid
traffic.

Relation between To, Tc and T
L

To = Tc + T
L
T
L
= To x P(B)
T
C
= To x (1 - P(B))

Where: P(B) = blocking probability or call congestion



33
Traffic Engineering

34
Blocked Calls and Lost Calls

Blocked Calls
Call attempts that were not able to progress
because of the unavailability of circuit/s.

Lost Calls
Calls that had been blocked and were
terminated (removed from the queue) by the
switch.

35
Grade of Service (GoS) or Blocking Probability

The probability of meeting blockage during the
busy hour of traffic.

The typical GoS is 0.01, meaning, an average
of one call in 100 will be blocked or lost during a
busy hour.

The ratio of the number of lost calls to the
number of calls offered.

36
Exercises
Problem

Calculate the trunk efficiency for a group of 26
trunks that offers 10 Erlangs of traffic and a
blocking probability of 0.2%.

Problem

If we know that there are 354 seizures (lines
connected for service) and 6 blocked calls (lost
calls) during the BH, what is the grade of service?

37
Blocking Probability Models

The Erlang B
Blocked Calls Cleared or Lost Calls Cleared

The Erlang C
Blocked Calls Delayed or Lost Calls Delayed

The Poisson Model
Blocked Calls Held or Lost Calls Held

38
Lost Calls Cleared (Blocked Calls Cleared)

The LCC concept, which is use primarily in Europe or
those countries accepting European practice, assumes that
the user will hang up and wait some time interval before
reattempting if the use hears the congestion signal on the
first attempt. Such calls, it is assumed, disappear from the
system.

The assumption that calls not immediately satisfied at
the first attempt are cleared from the system and do not
reappear during the period under consideration. Used in the
Erlang B-Loss probability equation.
Where:
A = traffic intensity in Erlang
N = # of trunks


39
Exercises
Problem

Suppose we use 5 trunks, and the route
offered 1.66 Erlangs of traffic. Calculate the
grade of service required to implement this
configuration.

40
Lost Calls Delayed (Blocked Calls Wait)

The LCD concept assumes thatr the user is
automatically put in queue (a waiting line or pool). For
example, this is done when the operator is dialed. It is also
done on most modern computer-controlled switching
systems, generally referred ti under the blanket term stored
program control (SPC).

The assumption that calls not immediately satisfied at
the first attempt are held in the system. Used in the Erlang
C delay-probability equation.

41
Lost Calls Held (Blocked Calls Held)

The LCH concept, which is the principal traffic formula
used in North America, assumes that the telephone user will
immediately reattempt the call on receipt of a congestion
signal and will continue to redial. This concept further
assumes that such lost calls extend the average holding
time is zero, and all the time is waiting time.

The assumption that calls not immediately satisfied at
the first attempt are held in the system until served or
abandoned. Used in the Poisson (Molina) loss probability
equation.

42
Congestion

1. Time Congestion
Proportion of time a system is congested (all servers
busy)

Probability of blocking from point of view of servers

2. Call Congestion
probability that arriving call is blocked

Probability of blocking from point of view of calls


43
%Overflow or Blocking
The measure of the rate at which subscribers
call attempt failed or blocked.

%Overflow= ______# of calls rejected________
# of calls accepted+ # of calls rejected

Occupancy or Utilization
The traffic intensity per traffic path.

%Occupancy= ____Total traffic____
Total number of lines

44
Offered traffic
The equivalent traffic offered to a group of
switch.

Offered traffic= ____carried traffic______
(1 - %Overflow)

Carried traffic
The equivalent traffic carried by a group of
trunk lines.


45
Assignment
Problem

During the busy hour, the average calling
rate per subscriber of a 2000 line telephone
exchange is 0.80. The holding time per call is 5
minutes. What is the total traffic handled by the
telephone exchange in erlang during the busy
hour?

Problem

On particular traffic relation, the calling rate
is 461 (calls in a 1-hr period) and the average
call duration is 1.5 minutes during the busy hour.
What is the traffic intensity in Erlangs? In ccs?



46
Assignment
Problem

Company X has 10 employees, each placing
an average of 20 minutes of loing-distance calls
per day. The average call lasts 5 minutes. It has
been determined that 20% of the calls are made
during the busy hour. A total of 4 external phone
lines are used to place the pool of calls. Calculate
the traffic intensity in Erlang, during the busy
hour.

47
Assignment
Problem

Suppose 100 data terminals are used to be
connected to a computer by way of leased
circuits:
1
st
plan: the terminals are clustered into four
groups that use separate groups of shared
circuits
2
nd
plan: Traffic from all terminals is
concentrated into one group of circuits
Determine the cluster traffic in both cases
assuming each terminal is active 10% of the
time.