Chnical Manual On Small

chnical manual on small-scale processing of fruits and vegetables
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Gaetano Paltrinieri
Senior Food Technology and Agroindustries Officer
FAO
Fernando Figuerola
Food Science and Technology Expert
Loreto Rojas
Food Technology Expert
FAO REGIONAL OFFICE
FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
Santiago, Chile
1997
The authors, Fernando Figuerola and Loreto Rojas are FAO Consultants.
The information, names and points of view that appear in this book are the exclusive
responsibility of the authors, and as such should not be considered as the expression of any
opinion of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, with respect to the
legal situation of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or with respect to
the delimitation of its borders or boundaries.
Any reference to specific enterprises, products, brands or certain manufacturers does not
mean that they are being recommended by FAO or by the authors over others of the same
nature and characteristics that are not specifically mentioned in the text.

Contents

Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1
Necessary infrastructure
Physical layout
Production sites
Basic installations or services
Basic facilities
Equipment
Equipment for a small-scale industrial plant
Chapter 2
Staff
Permanent staff
Temporary or seasonal staff
Chapter 3
Industrial sanitation and health
General sanitary standards
Industrial health standards
Microbiological tests
Chapter 4
Raw material
General principles
Production systems and their influence on processing
Harvest and post-harvest care as a quality factor
Fruits
Temperate climate fruits
Tropical and subtropical fruits
Vegetables
Warm temperate climate vegetables
Cold climate vegetables
Chapter 5
Processes
General description of the processes
Preliminary operations
Food preservation principles
Application of processes to the small-scale industry
Quality
Integral quality control program
Quality control for the production of juices
Quality control for the production of preserves: Definition of critical points
Quality control tests to be carried out in the laboratory
Chapter 6

Fruit and vegetable processing

Mango and guava nectar

Pear nectar

Peach or apricot nectar

Mango bars

Natural carambola and mango juice

Natural apple puree

Mango sauce

Guava puree

Tropical fruit jam (Pineapple, Guava, Papaya and Maracuya)

Apricot jam (extra)

Jam from "small" berries

Carrot and lemon jam

Rhubarb jam

Carrot and rhubarb jam

Orange marmalade

Peaches in syrup

Pineapple in syrup

Guava halves and slices in syrup

Preparation of aromatic vinegar for pickled vegetables.

Mexican-style pickled carrots

Mixed pickled vegetables

Pickled chili peppers

Artichoke hearts in oil

Eggplant in vegetable oil

Bell peppers in oil

Italian-style tomato sauce

Tomato juice

Tomato puree and simple concentrate

Whole peeled tomatoes

Dried tomatoes

Dried bananas

Chapter 7

Industrial agricultural production unit

Relationship between the production of raw material and processing techniques.

The varieties or cultivars to use

Cultivation, harvest and post-harvest care

The relationship between production costs and processing

Consistency between agricultural production capacity and processed output

Chapter 8

Cost structure to be considered

Investments

Total operating costs

Chapter 9

The destination of processed fruits and vegetables

Self-consumption

Community consumption

Small-scale marketing

Marketing at a regional and national level

Chapter 1
Necessary infrastructure
When considering the setting up of a fruit and vegetable processing plant, whether it be a
cottage industry or a small industrial scale system, the first point to bear in mind is the
infrastructure required to properly lodge all of the necessary equipment.
Some time must thus be devoted to coordinate two aspects that are vital to the
development of a project of this nature, namely costs and the quality of the infrastructure
needed to achieve the established goals.
It must always be borne in mind that since the food to be processed is intended for human
consumption, the infrastructure must meet several requirements. The basic general aspects
of such requirements will be analyzed in this chapter.
The infrastructure comprises different aspects of a project's implementation. Issues like
physical layout, basic services or installations and equipment must thus be taken into
account.
Physical layout
The physical layout of a plan of this nature may be very simple, as it refers to a basic
production system, involving small volumes and simple products, from a technological point
of view.
Nevertheless, in the case of a cottage industry and a small industrial scale system alike,
simplicity must never neglect the basic principles governing industrial health and hygiene,
which must characterize a food production system.
Production sites
Several different processes take place on the site where the production activity is
performed, from the reception and conservation of raw materials, to the storage of finished
products.
One aspect that must be borne in mind relates to construction details, which determine a
plant's capacity to meet two objectives: to adjust to the production of foods and to ensure a
sufficiently long shelf life. However, when considering home or small-scale industrial
processing facilities, the cost of construction is an important factor which must be taken into
account.
The building materials must be as light as possible, easy to readapt and install, considering
that often the system users develop the plan themselves, by means of self-construction
methods.
The buildings materials must be easy to readapt because these home-made systems are
rather dynamic, that is, they require frequent changes or must adjust to different processes,
so that the space that they occupy may be exploited all year round. On the other hand,
these systems must be considered "expandable" to accommodate possible evolutions in
time.
In addition to the previously mentioned characteristics, the materials must be easy to wash
and disinfect, especially those in the clean areas of the processing rooms. Complex type of
construction, resulting in the creation of places that are not easily accessible for cleaning
must be avoided, for they may turn into bird nests, and contamination foci for rodents,
insects, and of course, micro-organisms.
Requirements pertaining to the materials and construction characteristics of the sites do not
vary greatly for home processing or small-scale industrial plants. The basic difference lies in
the equipment and the way it is set up in the processing lines. The home-processing system
is temporary and versatile, and there are no special areas devoted to a single process. In
general, all of the premises serve several purposes, according to the type of process and
raw material being used.
The small-scale industrial system, on the other hand, is more complex in its organization,
and therefore specific activities are carried out in determined areas. Nevertheless, the
general requirements for both systems are similar, the difference being in the way such
requirements are met.
Some of the aspects that may be considered important in relation to the architectural and
construction elements are listed below:
The ceiling and walls of the processing room must be of washable and easily dried
materials; they must be neither absorbent nor porous.
- The lighting should be natural, as far as possible. However, if artificial lights must
be used, they should not hinder activities in any way. Artificial lighting must be
protected, to prevent fragments of glass from falling into the product as it is being
processed, in case of accidents.
- Ideally, the working environment should always be appropriately ventilated, to
facilitate the workers' performance. Poor ventilation in highly enclosed and densely
populated premises may generate defects. It is also important to provide for the
elimination of heavily contaminating odours, even if they are not necessarily toxic.
On the other hand, excess ventilation, especially in places characterized by great aerial
contamination external to the processing site, dust and insects essentially, may prove to be
counterproductive. Appropriate ventilation must therefore be based on an efficient system
controlling the access of foreign material from the external environment.
- The floors must be of a solid material, never earth or plant covering. Like the walls
and ceiling of the processing room, the floor must be washable, to ensure
compliance with the premises' hygienic and health standards. The floor must also be
sloped to allow appropriate drainage, avoiding at all costs the formation of pools in
the processing area. At the same time, care must be taken to prevent the floor from
being slippery.
These are some examples of the features that must characterize a fruit and vegetable
processing site to guarantee a quality product suitable for human consumption.
Basic installations or services
Three basic services are required for the operation of a system as the one in question:
electrical power, drinking water and the disposal of waste waters.
Occasionally, small-scale industrial plants are equipped with a steam production system,
which however is more seldom found in home-processing plants.
Even when a home-processing plant can operate without electrical power, it is better for this
service to be available, essentially to facilitate the processes by means of small devices that
were developed and that improve workers' performance, thus guaranteeing a greater
uniformity of products.
Electrical power is also absolutely necessary if one is to rely on an appropriate lighting
system, so that work shifts may be prolonged, especially when there is a surplus production
of raw materials.
In small-scale industrial production systems, electrical energy is indispensable, due to the
greater degree of mechanization of the processes involved. All lights must be installed on
the ceiling at a safe distance to prevent them from getting wet and getting in the way of
workers in the processing room.
As to water supply, the problem is slightly more critical. Sufficient drinking water must be
available to ensure the development of a hygienic process, managed by clean people and
with appropriately disinfected equipment. Also, many processes require water, as a result of
which water of an appropriate quality must be available.
Since water does not come in abundant quantities, its use must therefore be regulated by
strict savings principles, especially in small or home-processing installations that normally
are not equipped with sophisticated water harnessing devices. Water must be protected
from possible sources of contamination and must be supplied on a continuous basis at all
times. The consumption of water will depend upon the process in question and the design of
the production systems.
The supply of water must be ensured on a permanent basis, as a result of which the plant
will need to be equipped with an elevated storage tank to avoid being dependent on the
supply of electricity. A reserve must be created, so that water is available even when there
is no electrical power. Tank storage will also allow for treatment through the addition of
disinfectants.
In general, it is advised that chlorine be added to the water supplying the entire plant, so as
to provide for permanent disinfection. To this end, a dose of 2 ppm of residual free chlorine
is suggested. It should also be borne in mind that the tank must be covered and not
exposed to sunlight, to prevent the chlorine from decomposing. As a term of reference, 100
ml of a sodium hypochlorite solution for every 2000 liters of water may be used, assuming
that the hypochlorite solution contains about 50 mgr of active chlorine per litre of solution.
This will prevent the water from having any chlorine-like taste.
Basic facilities
A fruit and vegetable processing plant must be set up in such a way as to rely on a number
of basic facilities, which are generally similar in home-processing and small-scale industrial
systems. Figure 1 shows a small-scale industrial production system for the processing of
fruits and vegetables.
Reception of Raw Material
The plant must be equipped with a special area for the reception of raw materials, that is, a
site where the raw material received in appropriate conditions may be stored until it is used
in the process. This site, which may simply be a shed or a more appropriately designed
room, must meet certain special standards in terms of temperature, humidity cleanliness,
and exposure to sunlight. It is important to consider that the quality of most raw materials
covered in this manual rapidly deteriorates. That is, even though many species do preserve
their integrity, their inner quality is subjected to variations if storage conditions are less
than adequate.
It is for this reason that the temperature must be as low as possible; it must be cool. The
raw material must not be directly exposed to sunlight. Since storage temperature is a very
important factor, if a refrigeration system is not available, the material must be collected in
the cool hours of the day.
If the storage site is cool, it is important for the humidity to be relatively high to prevent the
material from dehydrating and losing its quality. This problem does not apply to areas with
a high relative humidity, in which case the only requirement is to find a cool site.
It is important to underscore that the raw material storage area must not be used for the
storage of other products that may be contaminating, such as pesticides, paint, or cleaning
utensils, all of which must be kept in specially designated areas.
It must never be forgotten that the quality of the product will reflect the quality of the raw
material from which it was made; it is therefore important to take this aspect into due
account.
This storage site must be provided with basic equipment for the reception of the material.
The scale and other instruments for primary quality control must be kept in a safe place,
where they will not be damaged. An appropriate place must have an average temperature
no higher than 30C and a humidity no greater than 70%. The tools must be kept in their
respective cases at all times, clean and dry.
FIGURE 1. Fruit and vegetable processing plant.

FIGURE 2. Double-bottom kettle

FIGURE 3. Hand press

Processing room
The processing room is the main facility in a plant of this type. It is here that the different
materials used in the processing of the raw material are stored. On such premises, a
continuous production line may be set up, or simply an ensemble of small machines
allowing the products to be processed by hand and on a discontinuing basis. Ideally, this
room should be big enough to lodge all of the necessary equipment on a continuous line,
even in barely automated facilities. Even in the case of work benches where the work is
performed by hand, the process must be carried out on the basis of a continuous line, to
step up efficiency.
The processing room should ideally be divided into areas where different functions are
performed. This may be achieved by separating such areas physically. Generally, there is a
"dirty" area, that is, an area where the raw material is washed and peeled, and where
operations like pitting, coring, and the removal of inedible parts are performed. This "dirty"
area must not extend to the section of the plant or of the processing room where the
cleanest operations are carried out, like pulp extraction, grinding, cutting and the filling of
containers.
One way of achieving this separation is through the use of light partitions, painted wood
panels used to simply separate one area from the other. Much care should be taken to avoid
contamination by run-off waters. The recontamination of materials that have already been
washed and disinfected is a common problem in home or small-scale industrial processing
plants.
Quality control
Ideally, quality control operations should be performed in small quarters, which may also be
separated from other areas by wood panels, where the basic tests required to establish the
quality of a given raw material or a given process may be performed. This area should
preferably be equipped with a small sink, running water and a counter where tests may be
carried out.
It should be separated from the other quarters so that basic calculations may be carried out
in a quiet environment.
Storeroom for finished products
The storeroom is fundamental in a plant of this type. It is often necessary for the product to
remain under observation before being consumed. Sometimes, the products must settle for
a while to achieve a certain level of homogeneity, whereas in other cases the material must
await labelling. Finally, in addition to being able to rely on a room where the material may
be safely stored, it is also necessary to have access to a site where the process may be
completed. Such a place must be clean, the temperature and humidity levels must be
appropriate (less than 25 C and 60% of relative humidity), and it must be protected from
foreign matter, and naturally, from thieves. It should be easily accessible, so that tests may
be performed during product storage, and any problems may be detected on the spot.
Other facilities
Some equipment, due to its nature, cannot be installed in the main facility of a processing
plant. The boiler is an example. If the plant is equipped with a small steam generator, it
should be located outside the processing room, to avoid contamination problems, and at the
same time ensure personnel safety.
A drier is another special system, which should be installed in a rather dry place and not in
the processing room, as this is an especially humid area in the plant.
Dehydrated products should normally be very low in moisture, a condition that can only be
fulfilled if dehydration is carried out in an especially dry place, even if an artificial drier is
employed. Otherwise, the energy consumption cost will be very high, since a great amount
of heat will be required to dry the air.
Sanitary facilities
Sanitary facilities are believed to deserve special mention, due to the significant role that
they play in preserving health and sanitary standards in a plant of this type.
The conditions in which the sanitary facilities operate, the type of evacuation system serving
the plant, the location of the facilities and the sanitation plan are crucial to the quality of the
process.
One basic condition is for the facilities to be erected in a separate location from the area
where the raw material is received and processed, to prevent possible flooding. The facilities
must be periodically disinfected, and the firm's supervisors must exercise very strict control
in this regard.
It should be borne in mind that even though the current cholera outbreak in Latin America
is viewed as an isolated case, health care should not be a priority in times like these alone.
Indeed, there is always some micro-organism around that may be detrimental to the health
of whoever consumes the product.
Sanitary facilities must never be short of water. Its supply must be guaranteed, since the
cleanliness of the toilets will determine the cleanliness of the workers, and the products'
sanitary qualities will ultimately depend on the cleanliness of the workers.
Equipment
Figures 2-4 and pictures 1-20 illustrate different implements and machines comprising the
basic equipment required for the home processing of fruit and vegetables. Figure 2 shows a
steam-powered heating system, figure 3 shows a press for the extraction of juice, and
figure 4 shows a pulp removing machine.
The most common processes that apply to fruit are drying, preservation, pulp concentration,
the manufacturing of juice, nectars and sweets, and concentrated pulp processing.
Home Processing Equipment
Pictures 1 to 4 illustrate milling systems. In the first case, a pulp extractor used for fruit as
well as tomatoes and vegetables is shown. It is provided with a sieve to separate the seeds
and skin from the juice, which is the basic raw material to be used in the process.
Picture 4 shows a common hand powder separating sieve.
Picture 5 shows a multiple use kit containing a series of materials for fruit processing. This
kit is used for training courses, but it contains all of the elements which, on a larger scale
may constitute the basis for the home processing of various fruits and vegetables.
Picture 6 shows a cooking system easily installed in sites characterized by more precarious
conditions. Some of these systems may be installed indoors using the chimney system
shown in picture 7.
Picture 1. Electrically powered pulp extractor. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 2. Manual pulp extractor. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 3. Hand mill. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 4. Commonhand sieve. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 5. Kit containing the equipment and demonstration materials. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 6. Easy-to-install sterilization system. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 7. Easy-to-install cooking system. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 8. Movable solar drier. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Pictures 8-12 show different easy-to-build drying systems, some cheaper than others, but
low-cost in general and fit for the process.
Picture 13 shows a sealer for flexible plastic containers, which is of great use for the
packaging of jams, sweets and dried products.
Pictures 14-16 show three bottle capping machines which use crown caps and are frequently
employed in the manufacturing of drinks and sauces.
Pictures 17 and 18 show other items comprising the multi-use kit, a scale and a citrus fruit
extractor.
Finally, pictures 19 and 20 show a refractometer, an absolutely indispensable instrument in
fruit and vegetable processing, used to measure the concentration of sugar in products
preserved according to this method.
In summary, the materials and equipment considered to be the basis of a fruit and
vegetable home processing plant will be illustrated in the following pages, along with the
minimum requirements for the processing areas, the materials and equipment required to
perform demonstrations and commercial processing of fruit and vegetables. All of these
aspects are fundamental to the setting up of small rural agroindustrial enterprises.
Specifications for the building or adaptation of industrial premises
- A processing area (5(10) x 10 m approx.) possibly equipped with a ceiling fan, a
mosquito-net and a room in which to store packaging material, additives and finished
products (4 x 4 m). Ample natural and artificial lighting.
- Sanitary facilities outside the processing area.
- Electrical power supply, and to the extent possible, sockets on each wall of the
processing area, high up above the ground and away from the humid floor.
- Double dishwasher, preferably enamelled or of stainless steel, with running
drinking water.
- Two double gas stoves, with their respective cylinders and regulators. As an
alternative, electrical, paraffin or firewood-generated heat may be used.
- Drinking water (in the processing area and surroundings).
- Two enamelled or painted wood tables (180 x 120 x 80 cm approximately), with a
galvanized steel or ideally a stainless steel covering.
FIGURE 4. Components and diagram of a pulp extractor.

Materials
- Bottles with crown cork. As an alternative, use between 500 and 1,000 disposable
or returnable beer bottles (of approximately 200-280 ml).
- Between 2,000 and 5,000 metal crown cork.
- 500 glass jars (of 450 gr approximately) with screw-on or twist-off lids.
- 200 glass jars (of 900 gr approximately) with screw-on or twist-off lids.
- Screw-on or twist-off lids for jars of different sizes.
- Adhesive labels for bottles and jars.
- Citric acid, 500 gr, or lemon juice, 3 litres.
- Pectin powder for foods, 2 kg.
- Refined sugar, the amount of which will depend on the volume of the product to be
obtained.
- 10 empty sacks of flour (1m x 0.5 m approximately).
- 1 kg of sodium benzoate for foods, optional.
- 1 kg of potassium sorbate for foods, optional.
- 1 kg of sodium metabisulfate, optional.
- Caustic soda.
Equipment
- Scale (from 50 to 100 kg).
- Scale (from 3 to 5 kg).
- Scale (from 100 to 500 gr).
- Hand refractometer (0 - 90 Brix)
- Refractometer (0 - 30 Brix)
- Stainless steel thermometer (0 - 150C)
- 2 cast aluminium pots with lid (with a capacity of approximately 50 litres).
- 10 wooden chopping boards (40 x 30 cm).
- 5 stainless steel knives with a thick blade (15-20 cm x 2 cm).
- 5 stainless steel knives with a thick blade (10 cm x 1 cm).
- 5 colanders (25-20 cm diameter) with aluminium mesh.
- 5 plastic trays (40 x 60 x 5 cm).
- 10 plastic buckets (20 litres).
- 10 plastic buckets (10 litres).
- 2 plastic or aluminium funnels (20 cm diameter).
- 2 plastic or aluminium funnels (15 cm diameter).
- 3 stainless steel spoons of different sizes.
- 3 large plastic spoons.
- 3 medium wooden spoons.
- 3 large wooden spoons.
- 2 manual pulp extractors/separators.
- 2 manual cappers for crown cork.
- 5 perforated plastic cases for fruit for 18-20 kg.
Equipment for a small-scale industrial plant
When analyzing the equipment required by a small-scale industrial plant, it may be
observed that there are no great differences in terms of basic principles.
The difference essentially lies in the size and application of electrical and mechanized
equipment of a greater unit capacity, probably characterized by a greater resistance and
durability, but based on the same technological principles.
In the specific case of a semi-industrial plant, the pots will be replaced by steam kettles,
heating will be provided by a steam-boiler, and a small press as well as an autoclave will be
available. A list of additional equipment that must be installed in a small-scale industrial
plant is provided below.
- A small boiler producing 250 kilos of steam per hour.
- A vertical autoclave with a capacity for about 200-500 g jars.
- A pulper, which operates manually or electrically.
- A hand-operated hydraulic press.
- A pressure bottles closer.
- Two double-wall kettles.
Figure 5 illustrates the procedures involved in the preservation and processing of
concentrates, in which the handling takes place on a larger scale as compared to home
processing. It may also be observed that with the exception of the vacuum evaporator (9),
the rest of the equipment is rather similar to that analyzed in the previous section, with a
significant difference in size but governed by the same principles.
Since it is larger, automated to some extent and characterized by a greater use of
electricity, a small-scale system requires installations in better conditions than a home
processing system, although such requirements are significant in terms of space only.
FIGURE 5. Jam making plant

Picture 9. Stationary drier (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 10. Sun drying of-peeled peaches. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 11. Solidly-built stationary solar drier made of concrete, metal and glass. (G.
Paltrinieri)

Picture 12. Electric fruit dehydrator. (TCP/JAM/0154 Project)

Picture 13. Electrical sealer for flexible plastic bags. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 14. Bottle capper with a crown cork. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 15. Crown corks. (TCP/SEN/8954 Project)

Picture 16. The crown cork being placed under the capper's magnet (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 17. Weighing pectin on a scale. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 18. Lemon squeezer. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 19. Refractometer to measure the Brix. (G. Paltrinieri

Picture 20. Refractometer to measure the Brix. (G. Paltrinieri)

apter 2
Staff
Permanent staff

Chapter 2
Staff
In food manufacturing, the staff are the most important resource in the production process.
This is equally true of home and small-scale industrial processing operations, in spite of the
fact that they are essentially self-managed.
When speaking of home processing, it is immediately assumed that none of the staff are
hired on the basis of regular employment conditions. The situation thus must be analyzed
from a different perspective than that normally adopted for an activity of this kind.
The purpose of these considerations is to stress that even in home or small-scale industrial
processing operations, or in the case of a small group of people, there is a value that must
be duly assessed, namely the labour involved in the process. It should be borne in mind
that even in the case of small businesses, there may be the traditional division between
temporary and permanent staff. The permanent staff will undoubtedly comprise the
entrepreneurs, those who are financially responsible and have set up the small or very small
firm. The temporary staff will comprise workers hired on a provisional basis, as a result of a
seasonal surplus of raw material, who will come to be part of a process that does not
involve them financially or emotionally.
Permanent staff
The permanent staff are responsible for the business, and have the greatest interest in the
production activity. They are usually involved in the enterprise on both an emotional and
financial level. In this type of firm, the permanent staff generally include the owners, those
who conceived the idea of setting up the business, the developers, the sales people and the
innovators. It is extremely important for this staff to receive training in the area of
management as well as technology, although emphasis should be placed on management.
The training of temporary workers should especially focus on technology; it should be
demonstrated to them how important it is to do things right from the beginning. It should
be borne in mind that in a home or small-scale industrial processing system, the incidence
of labour is of vital importance in the enterprise's financial position.

Chapter 3

Chapter 3
This chapter will examine all of the aspects that need to be considered in a successful food
processing practice. It will analyze in general terms the sanitary management of a home
processing system, which is very sensitive and often is characterized by serious failures
deriving from the lack o: financial resources.
Quality and health standards and regulations must be strictly applied, or the product will be
exposed to contamination by bacteria, mould and yeasts, thus jeopardizing the expected
development of an agroindustrial enterprise.
Such measures must be adopted as early as in the production phase, and must continue in
the post-harvest, transportation, storage, preparation and processing phases.
In line with these principles, the following sanitary standards must be fulfilled and applied
by workers on the production premises:
- Workers must wash their hands and clean their nails carefully before engaging in
any process. They must keep their nails short, and if possible, use rubber gloves.
- To enter the working area, workers must wear a clean smock, a hair net to protect
the food from possible contamination by hair, and a mask to avoid microbial
contamination.
- The working utensils and equipment must be cleaned appropriately to remove any
waste or residual organic material.
- The containers (glass jars and bottles) must be washed with hot water before being
filled with food.
- The waste generated by the production process must be removed from the
production area on a daily basis.
- Clean and dry the outside of the containers with the product before labelling and
storing.
- The storage site of the finished product must be clean and free from all possible
contamination (it must have been previously fumigated). It must also be cool and
dry.
- Once the working cycle has been completed, the production area must be left
perfectly clean. It will therefore have to be pre-rinsed with water at a temperature of
40C (to remove about 90% of the dirt), washed with detergent, and finally rinsed
with water at a temperature of 38-46C.
- Both the premises and the equipment will have to be disinfected on a fortnightly
basis. Caustic soda will be applied first (2%), and then nitric acid (1.5%) at a
temperature of 75 0 C after which they will be rinsed with water.
Whereas hygiene is a principle that applies to people, industrial health applies to the
equipment, facilities and premises utilized in the production process. It is extremely
important to adopt measures to ensure that the facilities meet the industrial health
standards which guarantee an efficient implementation of the process.
These standards apply to small, medium and large enterprises and cottage industries alike,
and should also be applied at the home level. They may be summarized as follows:
Picture 21. Note the smock, cap and mask to be worn on the job. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 22. Washing recyclable glass containers with sand. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 23. Storage of clean and sterilized glass containers (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 24. Bottle and jar, extensively used in small-scale processing. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 25. Staff preparing dishes for the "seeding". (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 26. Inoculated dishes with Petri results of inoculation after 4-6 days at 25-30C.
(Raquel Stagnaro)

Picture 27. Inoculated dishes with results after 4-6 days at 25-30C (Raquel Stagnaro)

Picture 28. Test results of other dishes after 4-6 days at 25-30' C. (Raquel Stagnaro)

- The buildings must be adjusted so that they can be easily cleaned. There should be
no blind spaces inaccessible to the cleaning and disinfection system.
- The equipment must be designed in such a way that no empty spaces are left to
facilitate the accumulation of material that may decompose and cause severe
contamination problems.
- All surfaces exposed to food must be properly cleaned and disinfected, with a
frequency that will depend upon the type of raw material and process being used.
Fruit and vegetable residues are generally easy to clean.
- A disinfection process can never be performed on a dirty surface. In order for the
disinfection process to be successful, the surface must have been cleaned
beforehand.
- The products used both in the cleaning and disinfection processes must be included
in the list of products authorized by local health authorities. Special care must be
taken to avoid polluting the environment by using products with an uncertain
degradability.
- No disinfection process by itself will ever be able to replace the need for daily
compliance with general sanitary requirements.
Picture 21 shows a worker wearing her working outfit, which, as may be observed, she
keeps with great care. Picture 22 shows a group of women workers cleaning recycled glass
containers by washing them with a detergent solution and using sand as an abrasive agent.
Such containers are sterilized in boiling water before they are used, and are stored in clean
bowls, as shown in picture 23.
To emphasize and help the staff of a food processing firm understand the importance of
industrial sanitation and health, a simple test may be performed. All one needs is the
cooperation of a centre equipped for the preparation of Petri dishes with a general-purpose
microbiological culture medium like agar-starch-dextrose, and their subsequent incubation.
A certain number of Petri dishes are prepared and sterilized. If there is no university centre
or a similar institution in the area, a local hospital may be asked to collaborate in the
performance of this task. The dishes must be "seeded" with different elements that may
constitute the source of possible microbiological contamination.
These may include the workers' hands, nails, hair or shoe soles (a smear is made in this
case), the counters in the processing area (SMEAR), skin from the face of staff members
(especially in the area near the mouth and nose), the air in the environment, the water
utilized in the process and other elements that one might wish to analyze.
A smear is made by rubbing a sterilized cotton swab on the area to be analyzed and then on
the agar surface. The cotton ball is normally placed on a wooden stick 10 cm long and 2-3
mm thick, so that it forms a small brush.
Picture 25 shows a working group with the sterilized dishes ready to be "seeded". After
being inoculated, the dishes are properly marked, sealed, and are left to incubate at a
temperature between 25 and 30C. Qualitative findings will be observable after 4-6 days,
and will be sufficient for a general analysis of the working environment.
Pictures 26 to 28 show the-dishes with different elements, some of which have exhibited
remarkable micro-organism development, while others have not been characterized by any
sort of growth process. It is interesting to observe that the particles collected from the
workers' fingertips in the illustrated case did not elicit the development of microorganisms.
The same may be said for the particles collected from the counters and the workers' hair,
which is indicative of excellent sanitary and health conditions. On the other hand, it is
important to observe that the water used in the tests and shown in the picture elicited
minor but detectable microorganism growth. This is an important finding, as the water used
was drinking water drawn from the general water supply system serving the institution
involved, which was fed by a supposedly sterile deep well.
It is also interesting to note the contamination developed by skin particles, which in this
case were collected from the forehead and the nose region of a production line woman
worker.
The air from the environment was also found to be highly contaminated, probably by dust,
unlike the sample containing particles from the cough of a worker with incipient influenza.
Nail particles showed a small degree of micro-organism growth.
A similar test may be carried out periodically to monitor the general level of the working
environment and to raise the awareness of the staff as to the need for personal as well as
plant hygiene.

Chapter 4
Raw material
General principles
Fruits
Vegetables

Chapter 4
Raw material
Raw materials are one of the most important aspects to consider in fruit and vegetable
processing. The fruit and vegetables themselves are the raw materials, the reason for the
development of preservation processes. Due to the great number of species suitable for
industrialization, only a few will be mentioned, and of these, greater emphasis will be placed
on the ones most commonly used.
The objective of this manual is not to specifically define each of the species. Rather, it is to
provide the necessary elements and principles to allow the producers of raw material of any
nature to explore the possibility of engaging in processing activities.
General principles
When speaking about raw materials, especially those used by industrial firms and
particularly cottage industries, it must be considered that they may have two different
origins: they may either grow spontaneously or be cultivated.
In both cases, the quality of the raw material is crucial to the fulfilment of the goals pursued
in the processing and preservation of the product, and also determines the level of profit.
The material must therefore be of good quality and its industrial performance, which is
strongly dependent on the quality of the raw material, must be high. In addition to this, the
raw material must meet certain basic sanitary quality requirements.
As stated previously, the quality of a processed product essentially depends on the quality
of the raw material. On the other hand, the quality of the raw material also depends on the
way that it is handled during the production process.
This is partly true in the case of species that grow in the wild. It is partly true because
harvest and post-harvest handling also influences the quality of a product. This is the case
of species that are highly sensitive to post-harvest handling like berries, for instance.
However, it is not only the harvest and post-harvest processes that have an impact on the
quality of the raw material. The entire production process is important, from planting or
sowing to harvesting. And even before sowing, the selection of the soil, of the genetic
material to be planted and of the geographical location, will undoubtedly have a significant
impact on the final outcome, on the quality of the raw material, and on the processed
product.
Of course, some species and specific cultivars or varieties within them, are highly
susceptible to environmental conditions, while others are much more resistant to the
conditions of the ecosystem in which they grow.
Some of the vitally important factors in the handling of crops or natural resources are
presented in the following paragraphs:
- Utilization of cultivars or varieties suitable to the characteristics of the specific
environment.
- Technical management of the levels of fertilization required for an appropriate plant
growth, reconciling yield with a number of quality-related factors which depend on
soil nutrient levels and on the plant. For instance, a proper balance between soil
nitrogen and phosphorus, in many vegetables will determine the quality of their
colour, texture, and development, and their preservation capacity in the post-harvest
stage.
- The control of the plant's water resources is a factor which largely determines final
quality. A material that has been somewhat deprived of water will not be suitable for
processing. Its sugar and organic acid levels will not allow for healthy development.
- The management of all aspects related to plant health is crucially important in the
case of a raw material that must meet minimum quality requirements to be
processed, as health standards will determine final quality. For example, certain
products intended for dehydration present very serious defects when processed from
a fungi infested raw material. Plant health becomes a basic priority in post-harvest
preservation. This is a very important aspect of processing in small-capacity cottage
industries, where part of the harvested material must often be stored with no
refrigeration for a short period of time.
Harvest and post-harvest care is an aspect of paramount importance, as fruits and
vegetables are usually rapidly perishable. Therefore, since industrial performance depends
on post-harvest quality, special care must be taken in the period between harvesting of the
material and the beginning of processing.
The harvesting method employed and the duration of the harvesting period will also
influence the quality of the raw material. Hand harvesting obviously seems more suitable for
small plots of land, as those which will be the object of the activities of a small enterprise or
a home processing system. In this case, care must be taken to make sure that the harvest
operation is performed properly, at the right time and in a way that will not affect the
product.
The transportation of the material to the farm and its preservation, the use of containers
that will not spoil the material, and transportation from the farm to the plant are factors
that also influence the quality of the material to be processed. Very sensitive materials, with
a high respiration rate must be processed rapidly or must be stored at relatively low
temperatures. Less sensitive materials, on the other hand, do not require such care. Pulses,
for instance, must be harvested, transported and subjected to processing very rapidly, for
they tend to ripen very quickly.
The post-harvest of such raw materials must be strictly controlled, for they belong to rapidly
perishable species. Of course, the idea is to process high quality material, but it is also
important to process the greatest amount possible of harvested material. Processing is an
alternative way to preserve these products so rich in extremely valuable nutrients, like
vitamins, minerals and fibres. Processing must therefore be placed at the service of the
preservation of materials that is normally lost in great amounts for want of care.
Fruits
The basic characteristics of a number of fruits suitable for processing and their most
important processes are illustrated in the following paragraphs.
These species grow in areas characterized by a temperate climate, that is, where
temperatures are never extremely cold.
They include the following species which have an actual and potential economic importance.
SPECIES SCIENTIFIC LATIN NAME
Apple Pyrus malus
Pear Pyrus communis
Peach Prunus persicae
Plum Prunus domestica
Curuba Passiflora mallisima
Passion-fruit Passiflora lingularis
Blackberry Rubus Glaucus
Cherimoya Annona cherimola
Feijoa Feijoa selowiana
Strawberry Fragaria x Annannassa
Tree tomato Cyphomandra betacea
Tropical and subtropical fruits include members of the Anacardiaceae family, which
comprises about 59 genera and 400 species. Such species are generally found in tropical
areas and in high temperature zones throughout the world, as in the Caribbean, Brazil,
Central America and Africa. Some plants are considered to be of economic importance, such
as mango (Mangifera indica L.), pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) and cashew nut (Anacardium
occidentale L.).
These fruits are generally very fragile and sensitive, and therefore require special handling
and proper storage conditions. Nevertheless, they are in great demand all over the world
and sell at rather high prices, mainly due to the fact that very few countries offer
appropriate conditions for their cultivation.
These fruits may be broken down in two groups:
- Fruit trees growing in warm climates of a short, medium and long growth period, of
which the following are of great economic importance today.
SPECIES SCIENTIFIC (LATIN) NAME
Mango Mangifera indica L.
Guava Psidium guajava
Pineapple Ananas comosus
Papaya Carica papaya
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Lulo Solanum nucifera
Maracuya Passiflora edulis
- Fruit trees growing in warm climates of a short, medium and long growth period,
and of potential economic importance:
SPECIES SCIENTIFIC (LATIN) NAME
Mangosteen Garcinia sp.
Carambola Averhoa carambola
Tamarind Tamarindus indica L.
Sapote Matisia cordata
Guava (Coronilla) Psidium araca
Soursop Annona muricata L.
Breadfruit Artcarpus altilis
Tacay or Inchi Cardiodendron sp.
Caimarn or uvilla Pouroma sp.
Boroj Borojoa patinoi
In the following paragraphs, some general background information will be provided for
some fruits with an industrial potential.
Banana
Only a very small part of the banana production is preserved by means of drying, freezing
and canning, although such preservation processes are quite important in the areas where
these fruits are grown extensively.
The most common industrial forms are dehydrated bananas and banana flour. The latter is
produced from fully developed green bananas. Such products are mostly manufactured in
Ecuador, Brazil and Costa Rica, among other Latin American countries. Most banana flour is
processed with drum dryers, as with spray drying great quantities of product are lost
because the material sticks to the equipment. It should be noted that while banana products
like flour and pancakes are processed from a well developed and green raw material, in the
case of dehydrated bananas the raw material must be ripe.
The varieties most used for dehydrated and dried products are Gros michel, Cavendish,
Lady finger and Plantain.
Citrus fruits
The industrialization of citrus fruits requires a raw material with a uniform shape and size.
The varieties with a thin and sufficiently hard rind are preferred, as those with a soft rind,
like mandarins, require special handling in the preparation and juice extraction processes.
The products obtained from citrus fruits include orange juice in the concentrated and frozen
form, and by-products like essential orange oil, washed pulp juice, frozen concentrate,
concentrate for animals and d-limonene.
For juice processing, it is essential to use varieties with a high juice content and a good
Brix-acidity balance. The colour is an especially important quality standard in concentrated
orange juices, and in the preparation of citrus product bases. Juices squeezed at different
times are usually combined to obtain a product with a balanced colour and taste.
Since vitamin C is the most important nutrient in citrus fruit juice, it should be present in
great concentrations in the form of ascorbic acid. Another processing requirement is that
the raw material must not have an excessively bitter flavour, or that it does not acquire a
bitter flavour as a result of thermal processing.
Citrus fruit segments are another derived product. When citrus fruit segments are
packaged, it is extremely important for the raw material to have a firm and seedless
texture, as deseeding is a very time-consuming and expensive process which spoils the
fruits, making them less attractive to consumers.
Grapefruit, mandarin and orange segments are in greatest demand. These fruits must
preferably be fully ripe.
Fig
Figs are very suitable for being canned, dehydrated, presented as paste and processed into
frozen products or into compote. In their fresh state, however, they spoil rapidly.
They are difficult to transport and cannot adapt to storage conditions, not even if they are
refrigerated.
Figs intended for dehydration must be left to fall from the tree when they are ripe. They
must be picked from the ground frequently, to prevent hardening of the skin, the growth of
fungi and attacks by insects.
Tree tomato
This fruit is characterized by the fact that it has an ovoid-apiculate shape, that it is green in
colour when unripe and reddish-orange when ripe. It is between 6 and 9 cm long, and its
widest part measures between 4 and 6 cm. Its average weight may range between 70 and
80 grams. Its skin is thin, smooth and resistant, the pulp has a very pleasant and peculiar
flavour, and many seeds are concentrated in the middle of the fruit.
This fruit is currently used to make home-made compotes, to make drinks by homogenizing
the pulp with water and sugar, to produce spicy sauces, and as seasoning to prepare certain
dishes.
Carambola
The carambola is also known as star-fruit; it also has other specific names, according to
geographic location. It originated in Ceylon and in the Moluccas, and has been grown in Asia
for a very long time. It may be propagated in tropical and subtropical climates and is grown
in Australia, the Philippines and other islands of the South Pacific, Central America, South
America, the islands of the Caribbean, Africa, Israel and subtropical areas of the United
States.
The carambola tree is relatively small and is 6 to 9 m high, its crown being between 6 and
10 m wide. Its leaves are dark green, its flowers have a colour ranging between pink and
purple, and a diameter of 6 mm.
The shape of a carambola is between oblong and ellipsoidal, it is between 6 and 15 cm long,
with 4 to 6 longitudinal sections, so that when it is cut into cross sections, the fruit has the
shape of a star. Its skin is translucent, soft and waxy, and its colour ranges from white to a
deep golden yellow. Its taste varies between sweet and sour. The carambola is used to
produce juice, nectar, pulp and jam. It may also be preserved in syrup, after having been
cut in cross sections.
Lulo (Naranjilla)
The lulo or naranjilla, as it is also known, grows better in the humid valleys of the Andes
near Ecuador, at an altitude between 1,200 and 2,100 m.
In Ecuador, where it originates, the species is found throughout the country, from the
Colombian border to the south, in the Loja province. In Colombia, the main production area
is located between Cali and Ipiales.
The fruits are round or slightly oval-shaped, of an orange-yellow colour, with a short
peduncle of sepals similar to those of the tomato, adhering to the fruit. As a result of the
orange colour and the smooth and resistant aspect of the skin, as well as the predominantly
sour taste of the pulp, resembling that of an unripe orange, the fruit is commonly known as
"naranjilla" (little orange).
The fruits weigh between 40 and 70 g, and their diameter is comprised between 4 and 5
cm. The internal part of the fruit resembles that of a tomato. The pulp is juicy, of a greenish
color, and it is divided in four almost symmetrical sections. The seeds are smooth and
roundish, with a diameter of 3 mm and light yellow in colour.
By industrially processing this fruit, the following products may be obtained: nectars and
juices, frozen pulps, 65 Brix concentrate, jams and jellies.
Blackberry
Numerous species of blackberries or brambleberries have been found to grow in the high
areas of tropical America, especially in Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Central American
countries and Mexico.
The Rubus and Rosa genera, which belong to the Rosaceae family, are very similar, which is
why the blackberry plant rather resembles wild rose plants, with thorns and composite
leaves behind five leaflets. The differences between these genera lies in the fruit, as
blackberries look like oblong or thimble-shaped strawberries, and when they are ripe they
acquire a black, red or purple color.
There are believed to be as many as 300 species of blackberries of a relative importance
throughout the world, according to the commercial value that they are attributed in the
different areas.
The following industrialized products may be obtained from this fruit: nectars and juices,
frozen pulps, 65 Brix concentrate, jams and jellies, 33 Brix concentrates, wine and sulfite
pulps.
Cashew
Cashew trees originate from the southern tropical regions like Mexico, Peru, Brazil, as well
as Eastern India. However, they are grown in the tropical regions of America, Asia and
Africa.
The cashew tree has an average size and can reach a height of 12 m. The fruit (apple) is
rhomboidal in shape and is between 5 and 20 cm long, 4-8 cm wide, with a slight red,
yellow, or red and yellow skin, which is thin and waxy. The pulp is soft, juicy, yellow,
astringent and sour.
Cashews grow better in tropical climates at an altitude below 100 m. They tolerate different
degrees of exposure to sunlight, but cannot withstand the cold or floods.
Cashew apples are rapidly perishable. However, the people of India and Latin America
consume them in their fresh state and also process them into juices, wines and syrups.
Soursop and Cherimoya
These fruits are rapidly perishable, and must be hand harvested when completely ripe, to
prevent them from falling from the tree branches and bruising. The ripe fruit is washed with
chlorinated water to remove the soil and minimize the presence of bacteria. Once it is
washed, the fruit is peeled and the pits are removed by hand, for there is no current
alternative to this procedure.
Soursops and cherimoyas may be consumed as a dessert, although they are mostly used in
the form of frozen pulp in foods like ice cream and syrups, and in drinks.
The diluted pulp may be used to produce nectars and juices with special characteristics. The
frozen puree is sold with added sugar, up to 59 Brix. Storage life may be prolonged by
adding ascorbic acid in concentrations of up to 10-30 g/100 kg. Other products include the
combination of soursop pulp and refined tamarind puree and sugar cane or papaya juice.
Guava
The characteristics of a few varieties of this species have been established. Guava is an
excellent source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and to a lesser degree, of vitamin A,
phosphorus, pantotenic acid and B complex vitamins. Its seeds may find a potential
application in the production of pectin and oils.
The fruits must have a nice colour, a pH near 3.4 and a solids content between 9 and 12%.
The market requires large completely ripe fruits with a firm pulp. Their industrial potential
derives from the fact that they may be used to make pulps, purees, powder for nectars,
jams, jellies and sweets of 70-75 Brix (ate).
Mango
Like many other tropical fruits, during thermal processing mangoes undergo chemical
changes in terms of their nutritional and organoleptic properties, mainly flavour. It is
therefore important to employ procedures that will not affect such thermolabile compounds
to a significant degree, like freezing or carefully performed thermal techniques, even at a
home-processing level.
Mangoes may be processed into different products, such as puree, frozen pulp, nectar,
concentrated and frozen pulp and in a high-sugar pulp preparation known as "ate". Mango
pulp may also be dehydrated to produce bars. Mango slices in syrup or in the dehydrated
form are also consumed. This fruit is also excellent when pickled.
Papaya
In addition to being widely consumed as fresh fruit, papayas have other applications as food
products.
Like other tropical fruits, papayas are prepared and preserved according to different
methods. Nectars or juices may be produced by using papaya puree, which either alone or
in combination with different-flavoured fruits makes a very tasty product. Papaya pulp is
also a very popular product.
Tamarind
This species belongs to the leguminosae family, and every part of the tamarind tree, namely
the wood, bark, leaves and fruits, may be used in many different ways. The tamarind has
been utilized as medicine since ancient times, for its pulp can combat scurvy and has
laxative properties, while its leaves have diuretic properties. However, the tamarind is
mostly used as food. The seeds, the soft leaves and the flowers of fully grown trees are
utilized in salads and to make soups. Unripe and tender husks are used as seasoning in
boiled rice, fish and meats.
The pulp obtained from a ripe fruit is an agroindustrial product of considerable economic
value in many parts of the world.
The pulp of the fruit is slightly difficult to extract due to its low water content and, because
it is sticky. To remove it, the fruit is normally subjected to a steam bath for several hours. A
syrup of about 13.2 Brix may thus be obtained.
Vegetables
Vegetables may be divided into the following categories, on the basis of their capacity to
adapt to different climates:
Group A: Vegetables that adapt well to temperatures ranging between 18 and 27C. They
do not tolerate frost. This group includes sweet corn, beans, lima bean, tomato, bell pepper,
squash, cucumber and melon.
Group B: Crops characterized by a long growth period, which thrive in areas where the
temperature is above 21C. This group includes the watermelon, sweet potato, eggplant
and chili pepper.
Group C: Tropical species growing in very humid areas where the temperature is high. This
group includes the "bilimbi".
Group D: These vegetables thrive in areas where the mean monthly temperatures range
between 15 and 18C. They are intolerant to temperatures between 21 and 24C, and
tolerate weak frosts. This group includes spinach, lettuce, broccoli, beetroot, Brussels
sprout, cabbage, radish, rhubarb and watercress.
Group E: These vegetables thrive in areas where the temperature ranges between 15 and
16C. They do not tolerate temperatures between 21 and 24C. They may be damaged by
frost when approaching maturity. This group includes the cauliflower, artichoke, lettuce,
green pea, white potato, celery, carrot, chicory, endive, parsley and chard.
Group F: These vegetables adapt well in areas where the temperature ranges between 13
and 19C. They are tolerant to frost. This group includes the onion, asparagus, garlic, leek
and shallot. Some of the vegetables suitable for industrial processing are presented in the
following paragraphs.
Tomato (Lycopersicon lycopersicum)
The tomato is a plurannual or perennial plant cultivated as an annual, which belongs to the
Solanaceae family.
The fruit is a berry with 2 to 9 loculi. The fruits with many loculi generally have an irregular
shape. Their weight ranges between 40 and 300 g.
The tomato is one of the vegetables that enjoys the greatest consumption, both fresh and
as a preserve, paste, juice and dehydrated product.
Bilimbi
The bilimbi may be found throughout South-eastern Asia and across Malaysia, which is its
region of origin. However, the bilimbi is only known as a species crop. The bilimbi was
introduced in Australia, the Caribbean, South and Central America, Florida and Hawaii.
The bilimbi tree can reach a height of up to 18 metres, although it is usually 15 metres tall
or less. The bilimbi fruit is cylinder-shaped, between 5 and 7.5 cm long, although its length
is usually 5 cm. It is yellow-greenish when ripe, and its skin is thin and soft. Its pulp is
green, soft, juicy and very sour, with few seeds.
The bilimbi adapts better to heat, grows well in humid tropical areas, and cannot tolerate
freezing temperatures. Young trees may be damaged by temperatures between -1 and -
2C.
The bilimbi is not an important product on the world market as a fresh fruit, although it is
processed into jellies, sauces, pickles and - juices.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena)
Eggplant is native to India. It is a perennial solanaceous plant, but is cultivated as an
annual.
Its fruit is spherical, elongated and pear-shaped or cylindrical. Its colour is purple when it is
ripe, due to the presence of anthocyanin. Some varieties have white fruits. Its pulp is cream
coloured and crumbly.
Eggplant may be used for the preparation of preserves in brine and oil, in frozen vegetable
mixes, and pickled.
Bell pepper - Chili pepper (Capsicum spp)
There are two types of pepper, the sweet and the hot pepper, the former being used more
extensively.
It is a perennial solanaceous plant, grown as an annual. The fruit comprises a composed
pericarp, an endocarp and seeds. Inside, it is divided into lobuli. The shape and size of the
fruit varies according to the different varieties.
The colour of the fruit is determined by lycopersicine and carotene, and the yellow by the
xanthophyll. The scent is determined by its ethereal acid content. The fruit also contains
carotene or provitamin A.
Its pungency (degree of spiciness) is determined by the alkaloid called capsicine, whose
content ranges from slight traces to 0.71%, mostly concentrated in the pulp.
The product may be consumed directly, or in the form of preserves, pickled peppers or
powder.
Carrot (Daucus carota)
The carrot is an umbelliferous biannual root. It is rich in calcium, phosphorus, iron and
carotene (vit. A).
This root is mainly used to prepare pickles and dehydrated products, and is employed in
soup mixes, preserves and frozen products, either alone or in combination with other foods.
Carrots may be consumed cooked, in syrup and in the form of juice and jam.
Green pea (Pisum sativum)
The green pea originated in Ethiopia and in Mediterranean Europe. It belongs to the
Fabaceae family (ex Leguminoseae). It is a climbing, herbaceous annual and requires an
amount of water equivalent to 45 cm.
Horticultural green peas may be consumed directly, or as preserves or frozen products. In
agriculturally advanced countries, preserved and frozen peas are increasingly taking the
market share of fresh peas. Dried grains are used to prepare pre-cooked flours and soups.
Dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
The dry bean is native to Mexico, Peru and Bolivia and originates from the Phaseolus
aborigeneus.
It is a leguminous plant, which reaches between 105 and 120 cm, and is distributed
extensively on the superficial layer.
The fruit is a pod composed by a pericarp and seeds. For green beans, it is preferable to
avoid the formation of parchment between the fleshy parts of the pericarp. The formation of
"strings" or "fibres" in the seams of the pod should also be avoided. The dried fruit may be
used to prepare soups and dried vegetable mixtures, it may be pickled or employed in the
preparation of acidified preserves.
Horticultural beans are consumed directly, both in the green pod as grains and therefore
half-ripe, or as preserves. They may also be consumed in the frozen form. Green beans
have a low-calorie content, and a high nutritional value because they contain vitamins,
minerals and carbohydrates.
Onion (Allium cepa)
Onions are bulbous vegetables, important both in terms of domestic consumption and
export. The bulb is consumed in its tender state, raw, ripe, pickled or in form of powder. At
a nutritional level, it stimulates appetite even if its calorie content is normal, its protein and
dry material content is low, and its vitamin level is not very high.
The bulbs may be red, white or yellow in colour.
Leek (Allium porrum)
The leek originated in the Near East. It does not form bulbs. It is consumed on a small scale
in soups, contains less volatile oils than garlic and onion, and is rich in organic sulphur. It is
mainly used as a dehydrated product in the preparation of sauces and soups.
Garlic (Allium sativum)
Garlic is native to Southern Europe and Central Asia. It is an annual, of the Amarylidaceas
family. The bulb is characterized by antiseptic, diuretic, expectorating, anti-scurvy and
antirheumatic properties. It is consumed directly, in the dehydrated form, and may be used
in the preparation of pickles and sauces.
Asparagus (Asparragus officinalis)
The asparagus is a perennial vegetable, which contains a high level of thyamine, riboflavine
and ascorbic acid. It is consumed in the direct form or as a preserved product. It is native to
Europe, the Caucasus and Siberia.
The asparagus belongs to the Liliaceas family. It is made up by a mass of rhizomes with
buds on the tip, which give origin to the edible spears. The stalk or turions have a diameter
between 6 and 23 mm and grow from buds on the rhizomes. This vegetable is especially
used for making dehydrated products and soups.
Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)
This crop is indigenous to Southern Europe. Although it is considered to be a perennial
plant, it actually is not, for after it blossoms it dies and is replaced by a shoot. The artichoke
belongs to the Compuestas family.
Artichokes are consumed cooked, and the edible portion is the base of the bracts and the
heart. Such parts may also be preserved.
Parsley (Petroselium crispum hortense)
Parsley is used as seasoning in soups and sauces. It is a biennial plant and belongs to the
family of Umbeliferas.
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
This crop is native to southern Europe. It belongs to the family of Umbreliferae. Its leaves
are used for seasoning, and its seeds are used to make liquor.
Sweet basil (Ocicum basicilicum)
The green or dried leaves of this plant are used as aromatic flavouring. The crop belongs to
the Labiadae family.
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata var. subauda)
Cabbage is a very important vegetable due to its high yield. It is used directly in soups or
stews and is processed into a fermented product. The crop is native to Asia Minor and the
eastern Mediterranean region.
Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)
Cauliflower may be consumed directly or pickled. It is indigenous to the island of Cyprus. It
may be used to prepare pickles, alone or in combination with other vegetables.
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
Cucumber is consumed directly in salads and pickled. It is not very important from a
nutritional point of view, as it has a 95-96% water content and few vitamins. It originated in
the humid areas of India, and was later exported to China and South-eastern Asia.
Cucumber may be used to make dehydrated products, it may be preserved in oil or vinegar
or be processed into naturally fermented pickles.
Pumpkin (Cucurbita spp)
Pumpkin is important in terms of its composition and of its relatively high yield. It may be
consumed directly in stews and in pies or in syrup. It is native to Central and South
America. The plants are annuals and bear large fruit that may even weigh 50 kg. Their pulp
has a variable thickness and may be white, off-white, yellow, etc. in colour. The pulp may
be used to make pies or it may be preserved as acidified and sterilized pieces in syrup.
Zapallo hoyo and zucchini (Cucurbita spp)
The so-called zapallos tiernos include hoyo, zucchini and hoyito. They may be consumed
when they are still unripe in soups or stuffed. Their vitamin and sugar content is lower than
in that of pumpkins.
These vegetables have an elongated shape, their surface is rough and they are dark green
in colour. Zucchini may be preserved as dehydrated products or in oil, after having been
sterilized.
As shown in pictures 29 to 53, the great diversity of raw materials existing both in this
region and in the rest of the world, is such that it would be impossible to engage in an
exhaustive analysis of all of the species suitable for industrialization.
In the specific case of vegetables, practically all species may potentially be subjected to
industrialization processes, with the exception of lettuce, which can only be fermented. The
rest of the species, however, are all suitable for processing.
In the case of fruit, the number of both tropical and subtropical species that may potentially
be subjected to processing greatly exceeds that of species not suitable for industrialization.
Picture 29. Fruits from dog rose, a wild rosaceous plant growing in south-central Chile. (G.
Paltrinieri)

Picture 30. Miniature squashes cultivated in Mexico. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 31. Recently harvested broccoli. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 32. California-type bonnet peppers. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 33. Italian-type tomatoes ready to be harvested. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 35. Garlic in plastic nets ready for the market. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 34. Cases of recently harvested tomatoes. (Fernando Figuerola)

Picture 36. Onions in nets ready for the market. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 37. Bilimbi fruit ready for processing. (G. Amoriggi GUY/86/003)

Picture 33. Carambola fruit washed and ready for sorting. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 39. Mangoes ready for processing. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 40. Cashew with its false fruit hanging from it, i.e. the nut. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 41. Raspberries in trays ready for processing. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 42. Passion fruit. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 43. Sweet oranges. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 44. Cherimoya packed for the market. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 45. The pineapple has many industrial uses. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 46. A whole and half a guava fruit. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 47. Tree tomato fruit. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 48. Lulo fruit. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 49. Wild blackberries (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 50. Papayas. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 51. Curuba fruit. (FEDERACAFE, Colombia/RLC)

Picture 52. Maracuya fruit. (G. Paltrinieri)

Chapter 5
Processes
Quality

Chapter 5
Processes
This chapter will present some of the most widely applied procedures in home-made or
small-scale processing systems.
The general concept underlying the preservation of foods aims to prevent the development
of micro-organisms (bacteria, yeasts and mould), to avoid food spoilage during storage. At
the same time, the chemical and biochemical changes that bring about the deterioration
process must be controlled. This way, it will be possible to obtain a food whose typical
organoleptic characteristics will have remained unchanged (colour, flavour and aroma), and
which can be safely consumed within a certain period of time (at least a year).
Recently, there have been many innovations in industrial food processing. The techniques
employed today to preserve foods are characterized by different levels of complexity
compared to ancient fermentation and sun drying methods. These include irradiation and
freeze-drying. However, when considering relevant food preservation techniques in small-
scale industrial systems, the discussion should be limited to the simplest methods.
Such methods include:
- Canning
- Concentration
- Fermentation
- Dehydration
These operations include washing, sorting, peeling, cutting or grinding and blanching,
among others.
The raw material must be processed as soon as possible (between 4 and 48 hours after it is
harvested), to prevent spoilage. These preliminary operations are required for the
processing of all fruits and vegetables, which must generally be washed before anything
else takes place (onions and cabbages, for instance, will be washed after the removal of the
dry outer layers and external leaves, respectively).
Washing
Washing is an operation that generally is the point of departure of any fruit and vegetable
production process. In a small-scale operation, this activity is normally carried out in basins
with recirculating water, or simply with still water that is continuously replaced.
The operation consists of eliminating the dirt sticking to the material before it enters the
processing line, thus avoiding complications deriving from the possible contamination of the
raw material. The washing must be performed using clean water, which should be as pure
as possible, and if necessary should be made potable by adding sodium hypochlorite, 10 ml
of 10%, solution for every 100 litres of water.
It is advisable to use implements that allow for an adequate cleaning of the material, so
that no traces of dirt are left in the subsequent phases.
Sorting
Once the raw material is clean, it must then undergo the selection phase. At this stage, the
material that will really be used in the process will be separated from material presenting
some sort of defect, which will become second-choice and will be used for a different
purpose, or will simply be eliminated.
In the case of a semi-mechanized small-scale plant, the selection is carried out on a table
suitable for this process or on a conveyor belt. Such a process will entail the removal of all
of the fruit and vegetables that do not have uniform characteristics compared to the rest of
the lot, in terms of ripeness, colour, shape and size, or which present mechanical or
microbiological damage.
Sometimes, to appreciate the uniformity or quality of a material, it is necessary to cut it in
half to verify its inner contents. Uniformity is a significant quality factor, since it is of utmost
importance for the material to be even and uniform. The function of the sorting process is
precisely that of securing such a homogeneity.
Peeling
This operation too is performed on a regular basis. It consists of the removal of the skin of
the fruit or vegetable. It may be performed by using physical devices like knives or similar
instruments, by using heat or chemical methods. Such methods basically aim to bring about
the decomposition of the walls of the external cells of the skin, so that the skin is removed
as a result of the tissue's loss of integrity.
Peeling is an operation that allows for a better presentation of the product, and at the same
time fosters sensory quality, for the material with a firmer and rougher texture is
eliminated. Moreover, the skin often presents a colour that has been affected by the thermal
processes normally used in processing methods.
Cutting
Cutting is an operation that is usually included in the different preservation processes. This
operation makes it possible to achieve different objectives, like an even penetration of heat
in thermal processes, uniform drying and a better package appearance, since the packed
material is more even in terms of its shape and weight. In the specific case of drying,
cutting enhances the surface/volume ratio, which increases the efficiency of the process.
When performing the cutting operation, special care must be taken to fulfil two conditions.
First of all, the cutting tools or devices must produce clean and clear cuts not involving more
than a few layers of cells, to the extent possible. In other words, they must not cause
excessive damage to the tissue, to avoid detrimental effects like a change in colour, and
subsequently a change in the product's flavour. Moreover, the cutting must be performed in
such a way as to allow for a viable industrial performance. A way must always be found for
the cutting operation to supply the greatest possible amount of usable material.
Blanching
This is another widely employed operation in fruit and vegetable processing. It is a form of
thermal treatment, the aim of which is to condition the material in several ways: to soften it
to facilitate the filling of the containers and to inactivate enzymes which cause an
unpleasant smell and flavour, as well as defects in the natural colour of the product.
This operation requires great care, that is, it must be properly controlled and the
temperature and time of application are to be closely monitored. Also, the treatment must
be rapidly followed by means of efficient cooling. A high-temperature treatment for a brief
period of time is always preferable. Furthermore, it is best to use steam rather than hot
water in the blanching process, mainly to avoid the loss of soluble solids, like water-soluble
vitamins, which occurs when hot water is used.
The most common method used to perform the treatment is the immersion of the product
packed inside a metal basket in a bath of boiling water or in a pot in which a small portion
of water forms an atmosphere of high-temperature saturated steam. In a more automated
system, a steam tunnel may be used, with a continuous line or a chain conveyor which is
submerged in a hot water bath. In both cases, jets of water are used for cooling.
The operations described above may be applied on a general basis, in different processes.
However, some procedures are intended for more specific applications, such as the removal
of pits, coring, pulp extraction and others, which must be carefully studied on a case-by-
case basis to determine the best way to proceed. In view of the limited scope of this
manual, it would be impossible to provide a detailed description of each of these techniques.
It is thus recommended that the general quality criteria described previously be used to
implement such specific operations.
Food preservation may be defined as the set of treatment processes that are performed to
prolong the life of foods and at the same time retain the features that determine their
quality, like colour, texture, flavour and especially nutritional value.
Food preservation processes require a varied and broad time scale, ranging from short
periods needed for home cooking and cold storage methods, to much longer periods of time
required by strictly controlled industrial procedures such as canning, freezing and
dehydration.
When microbial stability is considered, short-term preservation methods like refrigeration
are inadequate after a few days or weeks, depending upon the raw material, for accelerated
microbial development occurs.
In the case of industrial processes, in which the preservation is achieved by commercial
sterilization, dehydration or freezing, microbial development is controlled until the processed
food may be safely consumed. It should also be borne in mind that the use of appropriate
containers is extremely important, for the processes would be completely useless if the
containers employed were not able to prevent subsequent contamination.
The preservation of fruit and vegetables entails the integral or partial utilization of the raw
material. In some cases, during the process it becomes necessary to add a packing
medium, syrup or brine, while in others the raw material is used alone, as in frozen
products. The raw material may be processed differently, depending upon the product to be
obtained, as vegetables in sauce, soups, jellies, pickles and juices, for instance.
The same raw material may be processed in different ways, as a result of which, different
products will be manufactured.
The case of the pineapple is a good example, for the same raw material may be processed
into canned slices or rings, pulps or juices.
In general terms, processing methods may be divided into three groups:
Short-term Processing Methods
- Refrigeration
- Cold storage with modified atmosphere
- Superficial chemical treatments
- Special storage conditions
- Packaging systems involving modifications in atmosphere
Preservation Methods by Chemical Action
- Preservation with sugar
- Addition of sulphur dioxide
- Preservation by fermentation and salting
- Treatment with acids (addition of vinegar)
- Use of chemical additives for microbial control
Preservation Methods by Physical Treatment
- Use of high temperatures
- Use of low temperatures
- Use of ionizing radiation
Most of these methods entail a combination of techniques. For instance, there is a
procedure combining freezing, dehydration and preservation, fermentation and
pasteurization. It will also be necessary to be provided with appropriate containers and
packages protecting the food from microorganisms.
The preservation methods that will be mentioned in this manual are the following: canning,
pasteurization, preservation by the addition of soluble solids (sugar), the addition of acid
(vinegar) and the natural drying of fruits and vegetables.
High-Temperature Preservation
The processes that use high temperatures as a way to preserve foods include canned and
pasteurized products (juices, pulps). Such thermal processes involve sterilization or
pasteurization in jars, bottles or other containers serving the same function. Other
containers include tin cans. The bulk sterilization of products and their packaging in aseptic
containers is another procedure based on the utilization of ultra high temperatures.
Commercial sterilization
Sterilization as a preservation method may be applied to any product having been peeled,
cut or having undergone some other preparation procedure, provided that it has been
packaged in an appropriate container and sealed hermetically to prevent the penetration of
micro-organisms and oxygen.
The purpose of canning, which is based on commercial sterilization, is to destroy any
existing pathogenic microorganisms and prevent the development of those that may cause
the product to deteriorate.
Sterilization prevents the survival of pathogenic or disease-causing organisms whose
presence in the food and accelerated multiplication during storage may be a serious hazard
to the health of consumers. Micro-organisms may be destroyed by heat, but the
temperature required varies. Many bacteria exist in two forms: vegetative bacteria, which
are less resistant to temperatures, and sporulated bacteria, which are more resistant. An
analysis of the micro-organisms present in food products has led to the selection of the
presence of certain types of bacteria as indicators of a successful process.
"Indicator" micro-organisms are the most difficult to destroy by means of thermal
treatment. This means that if the treatment is successful in destroying them, it will be all
the more so in the case of other more heat-sensitive microorganisms.
One of the micro organisms mostly used as indicators in commercial sterilization processes
is the Clostridium botulinum, which causes serious intoxications in low-acidity foods, a
condition which elicits toxin production by the micro-organism.
Heat destroys the vegetative forms of micro-organisms and reduces the security level of the
spores, that is, the resistant forms of micro-organisms, making sure that the product may
be consumed safely by humans.
The products that may be subjected to preservation by means of commercial sterilization
are quite varied. Fruits in general may be processed this way, pineapple and guava being
two examples. They are acidic and very safe in terms of the presence of Clostridium
botulinum, for this degree of acidity does not provide the micro-organism with suitable
conditions to produce the toxin, which is highly dangerous and deadly to humans. Low-
acidity products like most vegetables, may be contaminated by the micro-organism and
produce the toxin during storage.
Due to the afore-mentioned reasons, it is not advisable to process low-acidity vegetables in
home settings which do not allow for an appropriate control of the process.
Pasteurization
The application of this method is crucial to the products covered in this course, like pulps or
juices.
Pasteurization consists of a thermal treatment that is less drastic than sterilization, but
sufficient to inactivate the disease-causing micro-organisms present in the foods.
Pasteurization inactivates most of the vegetative micro-organism forms but not the spore-
bearing forms, which is why it is suitable for short-term preservation. Furthermore,
pasteurization fosters the inactivation of enzymes that may cause the food to deteriorate.
As with sterilization, pasteurization is performed according to an appropriate combination
between time and temperature.
The processing of fruits and of some vegetables into juices and pulps extends their storage
life. This is made possible by pasteurization, which considerably reduces the number of
fermentative micro-organisms that contribute to the acidification of juice, at the expense of
sugars.
The pasteurization of clear and pulp-containing juices and of fruit pulp, provides for their
stabilization so that they can be preserved in combination with other methods like chilling or
freezing. All of these procedures will contribute to guaranteeing the quality and shelf life of
the product over time.
Drying
The preservation of foods through the removal of water is probably one of the oldest
techniques. In the past, the process was simplified by directly exposing the product to
sunlight. The crop was spread on the ground directly or over sacks or mats made from plant
leaves.
Today, the quality of dried products has improved thanks to a number of factors, including
the following.
- The use of dehydrating equipment for solar and artificial drying, which increases
the efficiency of dehydration.
- The use of chemical pre-treatment to better preserve the colour, aroma and flavour
of the products.
The fundamental principle on which dehydration is based is that at low moisture levels, the
water activity drops down to levels at which neither micro-organisms nor deteriorating
chemical reactions can develop.
Generally speaking, vegetables with less than 8% moisture and fruits with less than 18%
residual moisture are not favourable substrates for the development of fungi, bacteria or
important chemical or biochemical reactions.
There are reactions, such as non-enzymatic browning, which may develop at slower rates in
low water-level environments, but that requires high temperatures. Other reactions include
fat oxidation, which may occur at very low water levels, but which is accelerated by light
and temperature. The container and environment in which the dehydrated products are kept
are thus extremely important to guarantee good preservation.
Fruits and vegetables can be dried using simple apparatus, as shown in pictures 8 and
onwards. The quality of the products dried according to these methods is much better than
that of products that are simply spread over the ground to dry in the sun.
It is very important to avoid contamination by dust and other substances that may be the
carriers of micro-organisms which are resistant to low moisture levels, as for example the
excrements or urine of rodents or domestic animals, chemical products, pesticides and
others. The sites used for the drying process must also be very carefully chosen. All of such
risks are greatly reduced when equipment as that illustrated in pictures 8-12 is employed.
The drying time and the product's final moisture level will depend on the location of the
dryer, the climatic conditions of the place and the characteristics of the product. Material cut
in small sections and with a greater drying surface will dry more rapidly.
The drying process must be handled with great care, if one wishes to obtain a quality
product. Often, the drying must take place in the shade in order to preserve the product's
sensory qualities, like colour, aroma and texture.
Preservation by the addition of sugar
Sugar is generally added in the processing of jams, jellies and sweets. The fruit must be
boiled, after which the sugar is added in variable amounts, depending upon the kind of fruit
and the product being prepared. The mixture must then continue to boil until it reaches
such a level of soluble solids, which allows for its preservation.
The addition of sugar plus certain fruit substances produces a gel-like consistency, which
characterizes the texture of jams and jellies. To achieve this, appropriate acidity levels and
sugar contents are necessary. Some fruits do not contain sufficient amounts of the
substance known as pectin to form a proper gel. In such cases, exogenous pectin must be
added. There is a difference between apples or citrus fruits and berries, like raspberries or
Chilean strawberries. The level of pectin is high in the former and low in the latter.
While the fruit is boiling, after sugar has been added, sucrose - which is the aggregate
sugar - breaks down into its components, fructose and glucose. This determines two major
effects on the product: greater solubility, which prevents crystallization, and a sweeter
taste. This process is known as sucrose inversion.
Jams and the other products mentioned are preserved on the basis of a principle named
water activity. It refers to the availability of water that is free to react with and allows the
development of micro-organisms. The lower the level of water activity, the lower the
incidence of deteriorating chemical reactions and micro-organism development.
The level of water in jams may permit the development of old. Therefore, if the product is to
be preserved, it must be packaged under vacuum by means of the heat filling method, or
else fungistatic chemical substances, like sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate may be
used, which inhibit the development of fungi. Whenever possible, it is always best to opt for
the first alternative, although it requires the use of glass containers, which are more
expensive.
Preservation by means of pH regulation
Most foods may be preserved by heat treatment when the medium has a pH lower than 4.0.
It is for this reason that several methods have been developed which seek to control the pH
through the endogenous production of acid, or the exogenous addition of some organic acid,
like acetic, citric and even lactic acid.
The acidification of low-acidity vegetables for commercial sterilization-based processing,
with brief sterilization periods at temperatures around 100C, is a very practical method to
employ in small-scale and even home processing.
The preparation of pickles from different vegetables, by means of natural fermentation with
the production of lactic acid, is also a very suitable method for the preservation of
cucumbers, small onions, carrots, peppers and other crops that are regularly marketed in
large volumes throughout the world.
It is important to make sure that the pH is kept at a level of about 3.5, so that the product
will have a pleasant flavour and not taste like lactic acid. Lactic acid is naturally produced by
the fermentation of substrates constituting the material, carried out by micro-organisms.
The acidity of a pickle having been prepared by the addition of acetic acid or vinegar, must
be around 4% and not over 6%, expressed as citric acid. In addition to acid, pickles are also
prepared with salt, which is known to possess antiseptic properties, and at appropriate
concentrations preserves the quality of the product for a long time, as well as enhancing the
product's sensory qualities, like its texture and flavour.
It should be stressed that these natural fermentation processes in brine are produced by
micro-organisms that thrive in anaerobic conditions. Therefore, to obtain a good product,
the system must be characterized by a low oxygen content.
The product is immersed in brine, or a small amount of dried salt is added (as in fermented
cabbage) and anaerobic conditions are provided in a polyethylene bag or in a container that
should be as hermetic as possible.
Temperature is an important factor in this type of process. It should be no lower than 15C,
with best results obtained at 25C.
As established previously, small-scale industrial processing does not differ greatly from
home processing, as far as the main principles are concerned. The great difference lies in
the procedures and equipment employed in a low-level industrialized plant.
The processes are similar to those analyzed previously, but their volume is greater, which
makes it necessary to have greater control over the components to be able to manage any
problem that may arise during the process.
All of the products that are illustrated may be employed in the same way in a small-scale
process, except for the fact that pots will have to be replaced by double-bottom large
kettles normally made of stainless steel, heated by steam. The process is more efficient
thanks to the advantages afforded by the steam heating system, the preparation time is
shorter and inspections will also require less time.
On the other hand, the amounts of raw material will be larger, and this will require greater
promotional efforts in the case of home processes. However, a sound home-processing
system also requires planning in terms of raw materials and goods. As a result, the
difference is not so significant after all.
In a small-scale industrial process, the equipment fixed in a solid premise has the
inconvenience of not being very flexible, especially when small quantities of raw materials
are involved.
Quality
This is a priority concept when considering food processing, even if home or small-scale
industrial processes are involved. The concept of quality is rather complex although
common sense has instilled some idea of this basic principle in our heads.
Quality may be defined as the set of attributes or characteristics which describe the nature
of a given good or service. This means that quality is not synonymous with good quality, as
is often thought. Quality is nothing but quality, with no adjectives; it is a set of
characteristics that must be defined more accurately when describing a given product or
service.
The determination of quality is just important a process as the proper food preparation. To
determine quality, one must rely on a system, a defined and systematic methodology. The
best way to go about it is to focus on quality production, that is, apply the good quality
concepts to each and every step of the process that leads to the final product.
The control of the product's quality, as the only quality control method, is totally outdated.
The idea today is to produce properly once and for all. In other words, one should seek to
avoid having to go back to the production line to correct the mistakes made in the previous
steps. Having to go back is very expensive in terms of current expertise standards.
It is for these reasons that quality should be an assimilated concept, so that emphasis is
placed on the production of goods that will always be acceptable to the consumers, whose
demand is predictable.
Quality control must be intended as a planned activity or as a complete system, with written
specifications and standards calling for the revision of raw materials and other ingredients,
the inspection of critical process control points, and finally the revision of the entire system,
including an inspection of the finished product.
An integral quality control program must contemplate a series of operations, which are
listed in the paragraphs below:
- Inspection of the inputs to prevent damaged raw materials or faulty containers
from reaching the processing area.
- Process control.
- Inspection of the finished product.
- Monitoring of the product during its storage and distribution. This point is generally
disregarded, as a result of which all of the previous quality control efforts may turn
out to be fruitless.
It is important to bear in mind that to achieve a good quality product, the following points
must be considered:
Processing instructions for each product:
- Specific processing equipment.
- Processing temperatures and times.
- Packaging materials.
- Weight or volume limitations per package.
- Product labelling.
Specifications for each ingredient and finished product, including the measurement of
chemical parameters:
- pH.
- Acidity.
- Soluble solids.
Sampling and analysis regulations to ensure the fulfilment of standards.
The production plant must be inspected at regular intervals to ensure the following:
- Sound processing and health standards.
- Compliance with industrial regulations.
- Compliance with safety standards.
- Implementation of environmental control measures
- Promotion of energy conservation.
In the following paragraphs, two examples of the implementation of quality systems applied
to fruit and vegetable processes will be presented.
Selection and inspection: one of the most important factors in the achievement of the end
product is the selection of the raw material, which in the case of fruit will have to be firm
and mature, free from insect or rodent bites and free from all signs of deterioration.
Washing: this operation must be performed with abundant water, to eliminate soil or any
other source of contamination. The water must be potable and contain some sort of
disinfectant, such as chlorine in low concentrations.
Pasteurization: in the case of juices contained in glass bottles, this operation will have to
be carried out at a temperature of 70C for 30 minutes.
Pulp extraction: in this process, the size of holes in the sieve placed in the pulping
machine will have to be controlled, as it will determine the quality of pulp that is obtained.
For instance, an excessively fine sieve will retain a lot of fibre, which will decrease the yield
of the finished product.
Soluble solids: the concentration of soluble solids will be determined by a refractometer,
and will be no higher than 18 Brix.
Product storage and labelling: the labels must be clean and firmly adhere to the container.
Labels must not be placed on other existing labels, except for the cases in which they
complement the already existing information.
Labels must contain the following information:
a) Name of the product, in big letters.
b) Type, class and grade.
c) Production area.
d) Net contents.
e) Indication of the product's origin.
f) Name or corporate name and address of the manufacturer or distributor.
g) Certification of standard compliance, if pertinent.
h) Additives used.
i) Authorization by the health authorities.
Selection of the received fruit: the fruits used to make preserves must not be over ripe.
Rather, they should be firm or they will not tolerate sterilization temperatures and will cause
the preserves to have an unpleasant appearance. Fruit selection must be performed
according to homogeneous criteria; in the case of pineapple, for example, the slices must be
of the same size.
Fruit peeling: this operation must be carried out in such a way as to avoid the excessive loss
of pulp, for this would have a significant influence on the yield of the finished product.
Packaging: the packaging must be performed in such a way that a minimum head-space is
left to produce the vacuum and allow the product to expand at the different temperatures
which it undergoes during the process. The package must have a head-space of 5 mm after
the hot product is filled.
Sealing: this is one of the critical and most important stages of the process, for it
determines to a great extent the quality of the finished product. After sterilization and
chilling, it must be checked that the lids of the jars have a concave shape, for if they are
lifted it means that the product has not been properly sealed. As a result, the product is not
safe for consumption because it is exposed to contamination by microorganisms, mainly
yeasts and fungi. Therefore, the product cannot be stored and must be reprocessed.
Sterilization: the sterilization of preserves will be performed by means of an autoclave at a
temperature of 100C for 15-22 minutes.
Yield of the finished product: to assess the yield of the product, one has to proceed in the
following manner:
- Weigh the raw material.
- Weigh the fruit eliminated in the sorting stage.
- Weigh losses like peel, seeds and fibre generated in the peeling and cutting
processes.
- Sum up all of the previous weight values.
- Obtain the weight of the fruit pieces ready to be packaged.
On the basis of these assessments, it will be possible to obtain the yield by calculating the
percentage of finished product obtained and the percentage of waste in relation to the
processed raw material, considering that the raw material to be processed has a value of
100%.
Tests will be carried out on the following parameters:
a) Acidity
b) pH
c) Soluble solids
To perform such tests, a laboratory will have to be equipped with the following instruments
and materials:
- A 50 cc burette.
- 100 and 250 cc precipitation beakers.
- A burette support.
- A nut fixing the support.
- A potentiometer (pH meter).
- A magnetic agitator.
- 10 and 20 cc pipettes.
- A refractometer.
- A 250 cc glass flask.
- Distilled water.
Reagents:
- Alcohol
- Sodium hydroxide
pH determination: this test will primarily be performed on juices and jams, but may be
carried out on pickles as well.
- The pH value will be determined by means of the potentiometer (pH meter), which
will have to be calibrated with buffer solutions 4 and 7 before every group of
determinations.
- If a potentiometer is not available, Litmus paper may also be used to determine the
pH.
Determination of the acid content:
Using a potentiometer:
Principles
The method is based on the titration of the sample with a sodium hydroxide solution, using
the potentiometer to control the pH.
Reagents
- Decinormal sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH; 0.1 N)
- Buffer solutions of a known pH, 4 and 7.
Instruments
- Potentiometer with glass electrodes.
- Magnetic agitator.
Procedure
- Calibrate the potentiometer by means of buffer solutions 4 and 7.
- Repeat the determination twice.
- Place 25 to 100 cc of the sample in a pipette, according to the expected acidity.
Introduce the potentiometer electrodes into the sample. Add 10 to 50 cc of sodium
hydroxide solution from a burette, until a pH near 6 is reached.
Then slowly add the sodium hydroxide solution until a pH of 7 is reached.
Continue the titration with the sodium hydroxide solution, by adding 4 drops at a time and
reading the volume of sodium hydroxide spent as well as the potentiometer, until a pH of
8.3 reached.
By interpolation, work out the exact volume of sodium hydroxide solution that corresponds
to a pH of 8.1; record volume V.
Results
Express the level of acidity as the acid content per sample mass or volume. If there is no
express indication, the acidity will be expressed on the basis of the acids presented below.
citric acid for citrus fruit products or berries;
malic acid for products derived from pit-bearing fruits;
tartaric acid for grape products and others.
Calculations
Work out the acidity content from the following formulas in meq/kg

In which:

A = acidity, in meq/kg.

V = volume in cc of NaOH used.

N = normally of the NaOH solution.

m = mass in g, of the sample.

- in g/1

In which:

A = acidity.

V = volume in ml of NaOH used.

N = normality of the NaOH solution.

n = number of replaceable H+ (Hydrogen ion) of the acid used to express the acidity.

M = molecular weight of the acid used to express the acidity.

v = volume of the sample, in cc.

Note: the factor (M/n) for the considered acids will be as follows:

malic acid 67

citric acid 64

tartaric acid 75

Note: As a result take the average of two measurements performed on the same sample. Round off the result to the first decimal figure.

Precision

If the difference between two determinations performed on the same sample is greater than 1%, repeat the tests.

Determination of soluble solids: the soluble solids content is determined by means of the index of refraction. This method is widely used in
fruit and vegetable processing to determine the concentration of sugar in such products.

Sugar concentration is expressed in Brix. At a temperature of 20C, the Brix is equivalent to the percentage of weight of the sucrose
contained in an aqueous solution. If at 20C a solution has 60 Brix, then it means that it has a 60%, sugar content.

In products like juices and jams, the presence of other solid substances influences the refraction of light. Nevertheless, the index of refraction
and the Brix are sufficient to determine the content of soluble solids in the product.

As it is extremely handy, a great use is made of the portable refractometer, as the one shown in pictures 17-20 and drawn in Figure 6, which
usually has a scale in Brix. Its most important parts are the following:

(1) Light refracting prism

(2) Measuring prism

(3) Entry of light

(9) Calibrating light

(5) Focus button

(6) Focusing and determination mechanism

Figure 6. Diagram of a typical refractometer.

To determine the Brix of a solution with an Abbe-type refractometer, the prism temperature must be maintained at 20C. Then the prism is
opened and a drop of solution is placed inside. The prism is then closed. The light entry is opened. In the field of vision, it will be possible to
see a transition from a light to a dark field. The limit between fields is set with the compensation button, as accurately as possible.

Figure 7. Measuring the Brix.

How to proceed:

1. Place one or two drops of sample on the prism.

2. Close the prism with great care.

3. The sample should now be evenly distributed over the surface of the prism.

4. Draw the device near a source of light and look through the field of vision.

5. The line between the dark and the light fields will be observed in the field of vision. Read the corresponding number on the scale. This
number expresses the percentage of sugar in the sample.

6. Now open the prism and remove the sample with a piece of paper or clean and wet cotton (use only distilled water).

Chapter 6



Pear nectar


Mango bars


Natural apple puree

Mango sauce

Guava puree


Apricot jam (extra)



Rhubarb jam


Orange marmalade

Peaches in syrup

Pineapple in syrup








Bell peppers in oil


Tomato juice



Dried tomatoes

Dried bananas

Chapter 6



This chapter will present the raw materials, auxiliary materials, equipment and processing operations for a series of products preserved by
means of different home-processing or small-scale industrial techniques. Part of the many possibilities offered by this activity will thus be
illustrated, and the significance of their development in different communities possessing the necessary resources will be shown.


Raw material

- Mature mangoes and guavas

- Sugar

- Lemon juice or citric acid

- Water

Materials and equipment

- Aluminium pot with lid.

- Pulper.

- Capper.

- Crown corks and glass bottles.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, funnel, skimmer, chopping blocks, an assortment of plastic containers and kitchen
cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the mangoes and guavas in clean water.

- Drain.

- Peel the mangoes and separate the pulp from the pit. Cut the guavas in four sections and blanch them in boiling water for 3 to 10
minutes, according to their degree of maturity.

- Extract the mango and guava pulp by means of the pulper.

- Mix the ingredients as described below:

Boiling water: 1 litre per kilo of pulp.

Sugar: 200 g per kilo of pulp.

Lemon juice: 2 spoonfuls per kilo of pulp.

- Boil the water with the lemon and sugar, and then add the pulp, so that the mixture has a 19% solids concentration, measured
by means of a refractometer, and a pH value between 3.5 and 3.8.

- Remove the foam with a skimmer.

- Pack while it is still hot, cover with a lid and sterilize for 10 minutes in boiling water for 0.33 l bottles; 15 minutes for 0.5 l
bottles, and 20 minutes for 0.75 l bottles.

- Let the bottles cool.

- Label and store.

Picture 53. Hand pulper to obtain guava pulp. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 54. Another model of a mango pulper. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 55. The removal of foam during the cooking of the pulp. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 56. Filling the bottles with the hot nectar. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 57. Cutting pears in quarters before blanching. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 58. Pear pulp extraction. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 59. Coring peaches to prepare the nectar. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 60. Filling jars with apple puree. (G. Paltrinieri)

Pear nectar

Raw material

- Mature pears

- Sugar


- Water



- Pulper.

- Capper.


- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, skimmer, funnel, chopping blocks, an assortment of plastic containers and kitchen
cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the pears in clean water.

- Drain. Possibly peel, according to the variety.

- Cut the pears in quarters and blanch them in boiling water for 2 to 10 minutes, depending on their degree of maturity.

- Extract the pulp by means of the pulper.

- Mix the ingredients as explained below:

Water: 1 litre per kilo of pulp; sugar: 200 g per kilo of pulp; lemon juice: 2 spoonfuls per kilo of pulp. The quantity of the
ingredients varies according to the pear variety and consumer taste. Another widely employed formulation is as follows: 37% pear
pulp, 55% water, 8% sugar, and lemon juice or citric acid up to a pH value of 3.6.

- Boil the water with the lemon and sugar, then add the pulp, so that the mixture has a 12-13% solids concentration, determined
in the cold state with a refractometer, and a pH value between 3.5 and 3.8.

- Remove the foam with the skimmer.

- Pack while hot, cover with a lid and subject to sterilization for 10 minutes in boiling water for 0.33 l bottles; 15 minutes for 0.5 l
bottles, and 20 minutes for 0.75 l bottles.

- Let the bottles cool. Label and store.


Raw material

- Mature peaches (or apricots)

- Sugar


- Water



- Pulper.

- Capper.


- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, skimmer, funnel, wooden chopping blocks, an assortment of plastic containers and
kitchen cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the peaches in clean water. Drain.

- Peel the peaches, according to the variety, and separate the pulp from the core.

- Extract the pulp from the peach with the pulper.

- Mix the ingredients, as explained below:

Boiling water: 1 liter per kilo of pulp; sugar: 200 g per kilo of pulp; lemon juice: 2 spoonfuls per kilo of pulp, or citric acid.

- Boil the water with the lemon and sugar, then add the pulp, so that the mixture has a 12-13% solids concentration, determined
in the cold state by means of a refractometer, and a pH value between 3.5 and 3.8. The quantity of the ingredients will vary
according to the peach variety and consumer taste. A widely used formulation is the same as that reported for the pear nectar.


- Pack while hot, cover with a lid and sterilize for 10 minutes in boiling water for 0.33 1 bottles; 15 minutes for 0.5 1 bottles, and
20 minutes for 0.75 1 bottles.

- Let the bottles cool. Label and store.

Picture 61. Mangoes being peeled before processing. (TCP/JAM/0154 Project)

Picture 62. Extracting pulp from mangoes. (TCP/JAM/0154 Project)

Picture 63. Greasing the tray surface to prevent the product from sticking. (TCP/JAM/0154 Project)

Picture 64. Uniform distribution with glycerine of the mango juice and sugar and mixture on the tray. (TCP/JAM/0154 Project)

Picture 65. Drying the mango pulp in a portable solar drier. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 66. Superimposing dehydrated layers to increase thickness. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 67. Cutting uniform-sized bars. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 68. Bars wrapped in cellophane. (G. Paltrinieri)

Mango bars

Raw material

- Fully ripe mango

- Sugar

- Lemon or lime juice or citric acid

- Sodium or potassium metabisulfite

- Glycerine for foods


- Aluminium or stainless steel pot with lid; trays.

- Pulper.

- Solar dryer.

- Cellophane to wrap the bars.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, funnel, wooden chopping blocks, an assortment of plastic containers and kitchen cloths.

Processing

- Wash the mangoes and cut them in pieces.

- Extract the pulp with the pulper.

- Add the ingredients as explained below:

Sugar: 10-15% the weight of the pulp, according to the variety used.

Lemon juice: 2 spoonfuls per kilo of pulp.

Sodium or potassium metabisulfite: 2 g per kilo of pulp.

Mix and heat at 70-80C.


- Grease the surface of the trays with glycerine to prevent the product from sticking.

- Place the mixture on aluminium or steel trays, at a ratio of 15 kilos per square metre of tray area.

- Place the trays in a solar dryer. The dehydration is complete when the product acquires a leather-like consistency (about 15%
moisture).

- Place three layers of product on top of each other and cut in small 4 x 4 cm squares.

- Wrap each square in cellophane.

- Pack in plastic bags, label and store.


Raw material

- Completely ripe mangoes (spicy variety): 5 kg

- Ripe carambola (bitter variety): 8 kg



- Pulper or disc-extracting machine.

- Manual capper.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, funnel, skimmer, wooden chopping blocks, an assortment of plastic containers and
kitchen cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash and peel the mangoes.

- Wash the carambola.

- Cut the fruit in pieces.

- Separately extract the mango pulp (18-19 Bx sugar content and a pH value of 4.5) and the carambola juice (6-8 Bx sugar
content).

- Mix approximately 4 parts of mango pulp and 3 parts of filtered carambola juice.

- Taste the nectar and add more-mango or more carambola, depending on the product that one wishes to obtain, with 10-12B of
solids and a pH value of 3.5.

- Heat the mixture until it begins to boil.


- Pack while still hot in 0.33 1 bottles and sterilize for 10 minutes in boiling water.

- Cool, label and store.

Picture 69. The carambola fruit is softened before pulp extraction. (if necessary) (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 70. Extracting the carambola pulp. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 71. Heating of the pulp mixture and removal of the foam (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 72. Filling the bottles with hot juice and capping them. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 73. Adding water to the apples to soften them. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 74. Pieces of quartered apples ready for pulp extraction. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 75. Extraction of apple puree. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 76. Concentration of the pulp to form a light puree until the pulp volume is halved. (G. Paltrinieri)

Natural apple puree

Raw material

- Fresh apples of the green variety, if possible (Grand Smith): 20 kg.

- Cinnamon or clove: optional



- Boards for cutting the fruit.

- Pulper.

- 250 or 500 g jars with screw-band lids.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, funnel, skimmer, wooden chopping blocks, an assortment of plastic containers, kitchen
cloths.

- Clothbag for the sterilization of jars (optional).

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the fruits in drinking water.

- Blanch the fruits whole (the smallest) or in halves (the larger ones) for 10-15 minutes until they become softer.

- Cool the fruits partially and cut them in small pieces.

- Put the pieces through the pulper.

- Weigh the pulp.

- Heat the pulp, with or without cinnamon, in a pot until its volume is reduced by half. Use a wooden spoon to stir the mixture
every now and then, to make sure that it does not stick to the pan.

- Pack the concentrated pulp in the jars, previously cleaned and sterilized with boiling water, making sure that they are filled to the
brim with the pulp still hot. -

- Seal the jars.

- Sterilize the jars in boiling water for 15 minutes.

- Cool the jars with a jet of cold water, making sure that they do not break.

- Dry the jars and screw the lid on more tightly.

- Label and store.

Mango sauce

Raw material

- Grated mango: 2 kg

- Sugar: 900 g

- Salt: 50 g

- Red chili peppers: 10 g

- Ginger: 15 g

- Onion (chopped): 60 g

- vinegar: 600 ml

- Sweet pepper: 10 g

- Garlic: 10 g

- Seasoning mix: 30 g

- Raisins: 170 g



- Glass jars with metal screw-band lids. As an alternative, previously sterilized jars with twist-off lids may be used.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, wooden chopping block, an assortment of plastic containers, kitchen cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- The fruit must be selected so that it is green, firm and fully developed with a yellow pulp.

- Wash and peel the fruit, using a stainless steel knife.

- Cut the fruit in slices.

- Cook the slices with a little water, to soften them.

- Add salt and sugar.

- Mix the vinegar with the spices and heat the mixture for 3 minutes.

- Add the vinegar and spices to the mango slices and cook until the product acquires a gel-like consistency (60 Brix, measured with a
refractometer).

- Pour the product into clean jars and close hermetically.

- The jars must be washed and labelled before storage.

Picture 77. Separating the pit from the mango by hand. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 78. Separating the pulp of mature fruits by means of a sieve. (G. Amoriggi)

Picture 79. Cooking the pulp and adding the ingredients. (G. Amoriggi)

Picture 80. The product in its final container. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 81. Cutting the guavas. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 82. Cooking the pulp until it boils. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 83. Filling the-glass jars with the hot puree. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 89. The finished product in its recyclable container. (G. Paltrinieri)

Guava puree

Raw material

- Ripe guavas



- Pulper.

- Sieve (0.05 cm mesh).

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knives, wooden chopping block, an assortment of plastic containers, kitchen cloths.

- Glass jars with screw-band lids.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the guavas and drain.

- Cut in quarters and blanch, if necessary.

- Extract the pulp.

- Sieve the pulp so that it acquires a uniform consistency (optional).

- Pasteurize at 90C for 60 seconds and pack.

- Label and store.

This is a basic product for the subsequent processing into other finished products, such as nectars and clarified juices, pastes, jellies and
jams.


Raw material

- Pineapples: 6 kg (peeled)

- Sugar: 3 kg

- Lemon juice: 50 cc


- Aluminium pot and lid.

- Previously sterilized, different-sized glass jars with screw-band lids. Jars with twist-off lids may be used as an alternative.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, wooden board, knives, spoons and funnel.

- Plastic or metal bowls.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Remove the unripe fruit and those affected by blemishes or signs of decay.

- Wash in abundant water and let drip.

- Remove the skin, according to the fruit being processed.

- Cut the fruit in halves or quarters, according to its size, and place in a pot.

- Cook on low heat and stir frequently with a wooden spoon to prevent the product from sticking to the bottom of the pot and
burning.

- Simmer for 15 minutes.

- Cook on a higher flame for 15 more minutes and stir frequently with the wooden spoon.

- Add 1 kg of sugar and dissolve rapidly.

- Let cook for 30 minutes.

- Add 50 cc of lemon juice.

- Add the remaining 2 kg of sugar, dissolve rapidly and boil for 15-20 minutes.

- When the product has become thicker and has reached the setting point, remove from the fire.

- Fill the previously washed and dried glass jars with the hot jam up to 1.5 cm from the rim.

- Clean the upper part of the jars from possible jam residues.

- Close with screw-band lids.

- Turn the lid-bearing jars upside down, to sterilize the lids until the content cools off.

- Remove all jam residues from the outside of the jars and lids.

- Label each container, indicating the name of the product, the ingredients and date on which the product was prepared.

- Place a strip of adhesive paper over jar and lid, so as to be able to check whether the container was previously opened, before
consuming the contents.

- Store in a dry place, free from dust and away from light.

- The product may be preserved for at least 12 months.

- Since less sugar than normal is used to make an extra-quality jam, once the jar is opened the product must be stored in the
refrigerator.

NOTE: To make maracuya and guava jams, the pulp is extracted beforehand, the seeds are removed and pectin must be added.

Picture 85. Pulp extraction and removal for preparing maracuya dam. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 86. Adding sugar while preparing jam with sliced impelled guavas (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 87. Jam of the right consistency ready to be packed. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 88. Papaya jam in jars. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 89. Concentrating the jam made with apricot halves. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 90. Adding lemon juice during the concentration. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 91. The product is stirred frequently to prevent it from sticking to the bottom of the pan. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 92. Checking the "point" of the apricot jam. (G. Paltrinieri)

Apricot jam (extra)

A recipe is presented for the preparation of apricot jam (extra quality). The quality of this jam depends on the amount of sugar added to the
raw material.

Raw material

- Fresh apricots

- 6 kg Sugar, 3 kg

- Lemon juice, 50 cc



- Previously sterilized, different-sized glass jars with screw-band lids.

- Jars with twist-off lids may be used as an alternative.

- Kitchen utensils: big wooden spoons, wooden board, knives, spoons and funnel.

- Plastic or metal bowls. source of heat.

Processing

- Collect fully but not over mature apricots.

- Remove the unripe fruits, or those that are affected by blemishes or show signs of deterioration.

- Wash with plenty of water and drain.

- Remove the stalk, resin residues and parts of the apricot presenting small spots or initial signs of decay.

- Split each fruit open in half and remove the pit.

- With a knife, remove any internal defects.

- Weigh the fruit.

- Place the halves in a pot. Optional: cut the halves in two with a knife.

- Cook on a medium fire and stir frequently with a wooden spoon to prevent the product from sticking to the bottom of the pot and
burning.

- Simmer for 15 minutes.

- Use the large spoon to remove pieces and residues of dark skin left on the fruit.

- Cook on a higher flame for another 15 minutes, frequently stirring the mixture with the wooden spoon.

- If there is not enough time to complete the process now, remove from the fire and let the product cool off. Cover the pot with the
lid until the following day.

- On the following day, cook the product on a medium fire for 15 minutes.

- Add 1 kg of sugar and dissolve rapidly.

- Boil for 30 minutes.

- Add 50 cc of lemon juice.

- Add the remaining 2 kg of sugar, dissolve rapidly and boil for 15-20 minutes.

- When the product has reached the setting point and has become thicker, remove from the fire.

- Fill the previously washed and dried glass jars with the jam up to 1.5 cm from the brim.

- Clean the upper part of the jars.

- Close the jars with the screw-band lids.

- Turn the lid-bearing jars upside down to sterilize the jars, until the contents cool off.


- Label each container, indicating the name of the product, the ingredients and the date on which the product was prepared. Place
a strip of adhesive paper over jar and lid, to check whether the container was opened previously, before consuming the contents.



- Since less sugar than normal is used to make an extra-quality jam, once the jar is opened it should be stored in the refrigerator
or it should be consumed within a few days.


This recipe is used to make jams with Chilean strawberries, raspberries, sarsaparillas, "calafate" and other berries. Some fruits, as those
illustrated in the previous recipes, may be combined to make mixed jams.

Raw material

- Ripe Chilean strawberries, 2 kg

- Large lemons: 4, or lemon juice: 50 cc

- White refined sugar: 2 kg

- Pectin: optional


- Aluminium pot and lid.

- Previously sterilized glass jars with screw-band lids.

- Jars with twist-off lids may be used as an alternative. Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, funnel with a large mouth,
wooden board, an assortment of plastic containers, kitchen cloths.


- Source of heat.

Processing

- Select the fruits according to their degree of maturity. Those that are not ripe should be left to the side until they ripen. Remove
the parts presenting signs of decay and other defects.

- Wash with plenty of water and drain.

- Remove the stalks.

- Cut the fruits in halves or quarters, according to their size, and place in a pot.

- Add the lemon juice free from pips and small pieces of the rind.

- Add 200 g of sugar.

- Stir with a wooden spoon.

- Cover the pot with lid and let the contents settle for 1 or 2 hours, so that the strawberries release their juices.

- Let the mixture simmer, so that the fruit releases the juice and stir frequently with a wooden spoon to prevent the product from
sticking to the bottom of the pot and burning.

- Let it simmer for 10-15 minutes to concentrate the juice.

- Add the rest of the sugar and stir until it dissolves.

- Cook on a high flame and stir frequently to reach the setting point. Remove the froth with the skimmer, if necessary.

- Remove from the fire and let the jam cool slightly to 90-95C before filling the jars.

- Follow the same steps as those illustrated in the apricot jam recipe.

Picture 93. Selection and removal of the peduncle from the strawberries. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 94. Concentrating the strawberry jam. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 95. Concentrating the wild "calafate" berry. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 96. Filling the glass with hot "calafate" berry jam. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 97. Careful selection of wild blackberries before making the jam (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 98. Separating the blackberry pulp from the seeds. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 99. Concentrating blackberry jam: with and without seeds (in the foreground and background respectively). (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 100. Filling glass jars with hot seedless blackberry jam. (G. Paltrinieri)


Raw material

- Carrots: 2-4 kg

- Lemons: 4-8 fruits of a medium size

- Sugar: 3.5 kg

- Lemon juice: 35 cc (four soupspoonfuls) or 2 more lemons

- Water: enough to cover the carrots

- Pectin: optional

- Preservative: optional



- Glass jars with screw-band lids. Previously sterilized jars with twist-off lids may be used as an alternative.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, wide-mouth funnel, wooden boards and cheese grater.


- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the carrots with plenty of water, and use a brush to remove all soil residues from the roots.

- Drain.

- Select the carrots according to their degree of maturity and size.

- Remove the left-over green stalk residues.

- Cut lengthwise in 3-6 mm thick strips Optional: grate the carrots with a cheese grater.

- Cut the strips in half, and cut the strips of the longer roots in quarters.

- Weigh.

- Place the pieces in a pot.

- Wash the lemons.

- Cut them in thin slices.

- Remove the pips.

- Cut the rind in thin strips, without removing the white part.

- Add the strips of rind, the pulp and the juice to the carrots.

- Add enough water to cover the carrots.

- Let the mixture simmer for one-one and a half hours, according to the carrots' degree of maturity. Stir frequently with a wooden
spoon to prevent the product from sticking to the bottom of the pot and burning.

- When the carrot pieces begin to disintegrate and become transparent, and the lemon rind strips are soft, add 1/3 of the total
sugar and dissolve rapidly.

- Continue cooking on a medium fire for 10 minutes.

- Add the remaining 2/3 of sugar and dissolve rapidly. Boil on a high fire until the mixture sets while stirring with the wooden
spoon.

- Remove from the fire.

- Fill the previously washed and dried jars with the hot jam up to l-1.5 cm from the rim.



- Turn the closed jars upside-down to sterilize the lids, until the content cools off.


- Label each jar, indicating the name of the product, the ingredients and the date on which it was prepared.

- Place a strip of adhesive paper over the lid and jar, so as to check whether the jar was opened previously, before consuming the
contents.



- Once the jar is opened, it should be kept in the refrigerator, if possible.

Picture 101. Grating the carrots. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 102. Cooking the carrot and lemon jam. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 103. Rhubarb, carrot and lemon mixture right before heating. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 104. Jars with the finished product, upside-down to sterilize the lids. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 105. Washing the rhubarb stalks. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 106. Weighing the stalks. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 107. Pieces of rhubarb with part of the sugar being added, just before heating. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 108. Jars with the finished product. (G. Paltrinieri)

Rhubarb jam

Raw material

- Rhubarb, 8 kg

- Water, 250 ml

- Sugar, 6.5 kg

- Lemon juice, 4-6 tablespoons: 60 g

- Lemon rind: optional

- Crystallized ginger: optional

- Pectin: optional



- Previously sterilized glass jars with screw-band lids. Jars with twist-off lids may be used as an alternative.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, wide-mouth funnels, wooden board and cheese grater.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Choose rhubarb stalks free from fiber, if possible.

- Wash the rhubarb stalks in plenty of water.

- Drain.

- Cut the stalks in 2-3 cm thick strips.

- Weigh the amount indicated in the recipe or its proportions.

- Place the strips in the pot together with the water. As an alternative, add 20% of the total amount of sugar to the strips. Stir the
sugar and strips, cover the pot with the lid and let the contents settle until the following day, so that the rhubarb releases its juice.
Then proceed without adding water.

- Wash the lemons.

- As an option, add a soupspoon of grated lemon rind to the mixture in the pot.

- Extract the juice from the lemons and add 8 soupspoons of juice to the pot containing the water.

- Place the pot with the ingredients on a low-medium fire, and stir every now and then with a wooden spoon.

- Cover the pot with a lid and let its contents boil for 60 minutes.

- Weigh 200 g of sugar for every 250 g of fruit.

- Add the sugar and dissolve when the mixture is not boiling.

- Once the sugar is dissolved, bring the mixture to a boil and remove the lid for about 15 minutes or until the setting point is
reached.


- Fill the previously washed, sterilized (if possible) and dried glass jars with the hot jam all the way up to l cm from the rim.


- Close with screw-band or twist-off lids.

- Place the closed jars upside down to sterilize the lids, until the contents cool.


- Label each jar indicating the name of the product, the ingredients and the date in which it was prepared.

- Place a strip of adhesive tape on the lid and jar to be able to check whether the container was previously opened, before

- Store in a dry place, free from dust and not exposed to light.

- The product may be stored for at least 12 months.

- Once the jar has been opened, store in the refrigerator, if possible.


Raw material

- Carrots: 2 kg

- Rhubarbs: 2 kg

- Lemon rind: 1 tablespoon = 10 g

- Sugar: 4 kg

- Lemon juice: 8 tablespoons = 80 g

- Water: 4 1

- Crystallized ginger: optional

- Pectin: optional



- Glass jars with screw-band lids. As an alternative, use previously sterilized jars with twist-off lids.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, wide-mouth funnel, wooden board and cheese grater.


- Source of heat.

Processing

- Remove the remaining leaves from the carrot stems.

- Wash the carrots with plenty of water, using a brush to remove all soil residues from the roots.

- Drain.


- Remove all remaining green residues from the stem.

- Cut lengthwise in 5-6 mm thick strips. As an option, cut in 5 mm thick slices.

- Cut the strips in half and quarter the strips of the very long roots.

- Weigh the amounts indicated in the recipe or their equivalent.

- Place the strips in a pot.

- Choose rhubarb stalks free from fiber, if possible.

- Wash the rhubarb stalks with plenty of water.

- Drain.

- Cut the stalks in 0.50 or 1 cm thick rings or slices.

- Weigh the amount indicated in the recipe.

- Place the rhubarb slices in the same pot as the carrots.

- Wash the lemons.

- Add one soupspoon of grated lemon rind.

- Extract the juice from the lemons and add 8 tablespoons of juice to the contents of the pot.

- Weigh and add 4 1 of water.

- Place the pot with the ingredients on a low or medium fire, and stir with a wooden spoon every now and then.

- Cover the pot with a lid and boil for 15-30 minutes until the carrots become soft.

- Add the sugar and dissolve while the mixture is not boiling.

- Once the sugar is dissolved, bring the mixture to a boil and remove the lid, until the setting point is reached.


- Fill the previously washed, sterilized (if possible) and dried glass jars with the hot jam up to 1-1.5 cm from the rim.



- Place the closed jars upside down to sterilize the lid, until the contents cool.


- Label each jar, indicating the name of the product, the ingredients and the date in which it was prepared.

- Place a strip of adhesive paper over the lid and jar to be able to check whether the container was previously opened before
consuming the products.


- The product may be stored for at least 12 months.

- Once the jar is opened, store in the refrigerator if possible.

Orange marmalade

Raw material

- Unblemished juicy oranges of sweet varieties.

- Sugar, one part sugar for every part of juice.

- Pectin, 0.5% of the total weight of the mixture.


- Orange squeezer.

- Plastic containers to store the juice.

- One thin and one thick filtering cloths.

- Medium and large pot and lids. Various utensils: knives, wooden spoon, cloths, trays, sieves.

- Scale.

- Refractometer.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Select unblemished fruits.

- Wash the fruits with water and drain.

- Halve the fruits and squeeze out the juice.

- Preserve the peel in clean containers.

- Filter the juice twice, once through a thin and once through a thick cloth.

- Weigh the juice to calculate the amount of sugar and heat to slowly bring to a boil with the pot covered. Add several large pieces
of peel, from which the albedo (white part) has been removed. Soak the peel in the juice for 15 minutes.

- Remove the peel.

- Weigh the sugar so that it equals the weight of the juice.

- Preserve 1% of the sugar to mix it with the pectin at a later stage.

- Add the sugar to the boiling juice, dissolving it rapidly without leaving crystals on the walls of the pot.

- Weigh the pectin so that it accounts for 0.5% of the total expected weight of the juice-sugar mixture, and blend with the 1% of
sugar that was preserved.

- Cut the peel in thin strips (3-4 mm wide and 3 cm long), after having removed the albedo (white part).

- Add the peel to the boiling mixture and cook for 5 minutes with the pot covered.

- Add the pectin to the juice and dissolve properly.

- Boil on a high flame until 64-65 Brix or a temperature of 104C is reached.

- Pour the mixture in the jars, making sure that they are filled to the brim.

- Close the jars and turn them upside down to cool.

- Clean the jars and seal the lids with adhesive tape. Label and store.

Peaches in syrup

Raw material

- Peaches for canning.

- Sugar.

- Caustic soda, optional.


- Aluminium pots (iron, copper or stainless steel) with lids.

- Glass jars with screw-band lids.

- Kitchen utensils: knives, spoons to scoop out pits, wooden spoons and chopping board, rubber gloves.

- Refractometer.

- Scale.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Select the fruits according to their degree of maturity and size.

- Wash the peaches with clean water and drain.

- Cut each fruit with a knife lengthwise, until the pit is reached.

- Scoop out the pit with the spoons.

- Place the peach halves in water, to prevent the pulp from darkening.

- In a pot, prepare a 2% caustic soda lye.

- Heat the solution to 80C.

- Place the peach halves in a plastic mesh bag, and introduce the bag in the solution, turning it over until the skin begins to peel
off from the peaches.

- Empty the bag's contents in a pot with running water, until all of the skin residues are removed. In case remaining skin is to be
removed by means of a knife, wear rubber gloves.

- For the syrup, prepare a 30% sugar and water solution and bring to a boil. The amount of sugar will depend upon the Brix of the
fruit and the desired sweetness.

- As an option, the peach halves may be heated in the syrup for a few seconds before filling the jars.

- Introduce the peach halves in the jars, arranging them in such a way that the external part is facing up. Use a spoon if
necessary.

- Fill the jars to the brim.

- Add the hot syrup to the jars containing the peach halves, making sure that the liquid fills the jars to the rim.

- Close the jars tightly and let them settle for 2 minutes to warm up.

- Place the warm jars in a bag, and introduce the bag in a pot containing water. Bring to a boil.

- Sterilize the jars for 20 minutes and then cool under running water, making sure that the cool water does not touch them
directly.

- After cooling, dry the jars, label and store away from light.

- The finished product may be consumed after 15-20 days, that is, when the sugar content and the syrup have stabilized.

Note: If pit-removing spoons are not available, varieties of peaches for canning may be used.

If caustic soda is not available, the peaches may be peeled by hand with knives, taking care not to remove too much pulp. Then cut the fruits
in slices, as uniformly as possible.

Picture 109 Cutting the orange peel in strips after the albedo has been removed. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 110. Concentrating the orange marmalade containing peel. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 111. Selecting the peaches according to degree of maturity. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 112. Detail of removal of the pit by means of a spoon. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 113. Peach halves attractively arranged in the jar. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 114. Adding the hot syrup (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 115. Jars ready to be sterilized. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 116. Jars containing the finished product and ready to be labelled. (G. Paltrinieri)

Pineapple in syrup

Raw material

- Fresh and unspoiled pineapples.

- Sugar.

- Pineapple juice, optional.


- Wooden boards to prepare the pineapple.

- Clean plastic or metal containers to hold the prepared pineapple pieces.

- Large and medium knives.

- Large and medium pot with lids.

- Washing system.

- Scale.

- Wooden spoon.

- Refractometer.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Reception and weighing of pineapples.

- Select the raw material and remove damaged parts.

- Remove the stem.

- Wash the pineapples in drinking water.

- Peel the pineapples and remove the inedible parts.

- Cut the pineapples as required. They may be cut in cubes of different sizes, rings, bars or slices.

- Heat the pineapple pieces in the pot, as illustrated in the following page.

- Fill the jars with the pieces while they are still warm, up to approximately two thirds of their capacity.

- Preparation of the syrup.

Picture 117. Cutting the pineapples in rings by hand. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 118. Heating the pineapple pieces in the pot before filling the jars. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 119. Filling the jars. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 120. Placing the hot sealed jars in bags for their sterilization in boiling water. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 121. Removing the seeds from guava halves. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 122. Guava slices. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 123. Checking the Brix of the syrup. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 124. Sterilization of the jars in boiling water. (G. Paltrinieri)

The packaging medium may consist of simple syrup. In this case, prepare a sugar and water solution at an appropriate concentration to
obtain the degree of sweetness desired in the final product, according to the fruit's Brix. Normally, sugar accounts for 30-35% of the
solution.

Another packaging medium may be based on the juice of the pineapples, to which sugar is added to achieve the desired degree of sweetness.

The syrup is prepared by dissolving the previously weighed sugar in juice or water and bringing the solution to a boil. Make sure that the
water does not evaporate.

- The hot syrup is added to the fruit which has been arranged in the jars. Make sure that the jars are filled to the brim.

- Let the jars settle for 5 minutes to allow them and the fruit to warm up.

- Seal the jars hermetically.

- Sterilize the jars in boiling water for 20 minutes after placing them in bags to prevent them from knocking against each other and
breaking when the water begins to boil.

- Cool the jars with running water.

- Dry, seal with adhesive tape, label and store.


Raw material

- Unblemished and ripe guavas.

- Sugar and lemon juice.


- Medium and large pot with lid.

- Scale.

- Plastic containers in which to store the guava pieces.

- Utensils: knives, trays, sieves, clean cloths, wooden spoons and wooden board.

- Refractometer.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Select the unblemished fruits.

- Wash the fruits with drinking water and drain.

- Peel the fruits with a knife, taking care not to remove too much pulp with the skin.

- open the fruits in half and remove the pulp containing the seeds.

- Part of the halves that have been scooped out may be cut in smaller pieces.

- Blanch the guava pieces in boiling water for 2 minutes and cool with running water.

- Place the pieces of fruit in clean and sterilized jars. Fill them to two thirds of their capacity approximately.

- Prepare the syrup:

The packaging medium may be constituted by the juice of the guavas, obtained by squeezing the pulp that contained the seeds. Add sugar to
the juice to obtain a certain Brix, according to the final degree of sweetness desired (usually, the syrup should be of about 30-35 Brix.

On the other hand, the syrup may consist of a simple sugar and water solution with the required Brix.

- Heat the syrup and bring to a boil. Add two spoonfuls of lemon juice per liter.

- Add the hot syrup to the guava pieces in the jars, filling the jars to the brim.

- Close the jars tightly and let them settle for 2 minutes, so that they warm up.

- Place the hot jars in a bag and introduce the bag in a pot containing boiling water.

- Sterilize the jars for 20 minutes and then cool with running water, making sure that the cold water does not come into direct
contact with the jars.

- Dry the jars and seal the lids with adhesive tape.

- Label the jars and store.


There are different recipes and different ways of making aromatic vinegar, according to one's preference for the spices that may be used. For
tasty pickled vegetables, the vinegar must be seasoned with spices and/or herbs. Whole herbs should be used to guarantee maximum
transparency. The vinegar may be produced from fruit or red or white wine, which will give it a more refined taste. The procedure illustrated
in the following paragraphs involves the preparation of 1 liter of basic aromatic vinegar.

Formula 1. Vinegar produced from spices.

Ingredients:

- Vinegar of approximately 3, preferably made from white or non-coloured wine: 1 l.

- Cinnamon: 20 g.

- Cloves: 10 g.

- Nutmeg or mace: 10 g.

- Ungrounded black pepper: 10 g.

-Laurel leaves: 2.

- Iodized salt: 40 g.

Slow process

- Place the ingredients in a clean and dry bottle.

- Pour in the vinegar and fill the entire bottle.

- Seal the bottle.

- Leave the bottle in a dry place away from light for 1 or 2 months, occasionally shaking its contents.

- Filter the contents of the bottle through a cloth before use.

Quick process

- Place all of the ingredients and the vinegar in a pot:.

- Cover the pot.

- Place on a low-medium fire and bring to a boil.

- Remove the pot from the fire.

- Let the contents settle for 2-3 hours.

- Filter the contents through a cloth before use.

- As an option: boil the ingredients with half of the vinegar.

- Add the other half after having filtered the mixture.

The procedure described in the following paragraphs involves the preparation of 10 litres of basic aromatic vinegar.

Formula 2. Spice and herb vinegar.

Ingredients:

- Vinegar with an acidity between 2 and 4

- Iodized salt: 400 g

- Cinnamon: 20 g

- Dried oregano: 20 g

- Cloves: 10 g

- Dried thyme: 20 g

- Ground pepper: 35 g

- Dried marjoram: 10 g

Quick process

- Place all of the ingredients in a pot.

- Add half of the vinegar.

- Cover the pot.

- Place it on a low-medium fire and bring to a boil.

- Boil for 4 minutes.


- Let the contents cool.

- Filter the contents through a cloth before use.

- Add the other half of the vinegar.


This recipe is based on a procedure that is widely used in Mexico. The same approach may be used to prepare mixed vegetables.

Raw material

- Carrots: 2 kg

- Aromatic vinegar: see formula 2

- Vegetable oil: 150 ml

- Onion: 150 g

- Garlic: 20 g

- Laurel leaves and chili peppers to taste (optional)


- Pot with lid.

- Skillet.

- Glass jars with vinegar-resistant screw-band lids. As an alternative, use jars with twist-off lids. Wash and dry the jars and lids
properly and sterilize them, if possible.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, funnel and wooden chopping board.

- Plastic, glass or metal bowls.

- Scale.

- Cloth to filter the vinegar.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Prepare the aromatic vinegar in advance, as indicated above.

-Remove the residual leaves from the carrot stems.

- Wash the carrots with plenty of water, using a brush to remove all soil residues from the roots.

- Drain.


- Eliminate any green residues from the stems.

- Cut lengthwise in 1 cm thick strips.

- Blanch the carrots in boiling water for 5 minutes.

- Let them cool in cold water and drain before placing them in the containers.

- Peel the onions and cut in 1 cm thick rings.

- Peel the garlic cloves and cut them in small cubes.

- Place the oil in a skillet and put on the fire.

- When hot, add the onion, the garlic and laurel leaves as an option.

- Saut the ingredients until they become tender and the onions and garlic are browned.

- Mix the carrot strips with the ingredients sauted in the skillet.

- Package the hot mixture in the jars and arrange the carrots so that the product is visually attractive.

- Add the hot aromatic vinegar until the product is totally immersed.

- Seal the jars with the lids. As an option, the product may be pasteurized at 85C, as illustrated in the recipe for the preparation
of artichoke hearts.

- Sterilize the jars with boiling water; those with a 460 ml capacity should be sterilized for 15 minutes, while those with a 940 ml
capacity for 27 minutes.

- Let the jars cool.

- Clean the outside of the jars and lids.


- Place a strip of adhesive tape over jar and lid, to check whether the container was opened previously before consuming the
contents.


- The product may be consumed after 7 days.

- Once the jar is opened, keep in the refrigerator or in a cool place, if possible.


Picture 125. Weighing some of the ingredients to prepare aromatic vinegar. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 126. Heating the vinegar with the spices. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 127. Chili peppers may be added as an option. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 128. Basil is an extensively used ingredient. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 129. Cutting the carrots in uniform slices. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 130. Blanching the slices in boiling water. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 131. Arranging the slices in an attractive way. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 132. Sterilization of the jars in boiling water. (G. Paltrinieri)


There are different recipes to make mixed pickled vegetables, according to the raw materials available and to consumer preference.

Raw material

- Mixed vegetables: 3 kg of spring onions, cauliflower, cucumbers, green beans and carrots.

- Iodized salt: 150 g, as an alternative, a brine may be prepared by dissolving 350 g of salt in 3.5 liters of water.

- Aromatic vinegar: produced from spices and/or herbs 2 1.


- Pot with lid.

- Plastic or glass containers.

- Glass jars with vinegar-resistant, lacquered screw-band lids.

- As an alternative, use jars with twist-off lids. Wash properly, dry the jars and lids and sterilize them, if possible.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, funnel and wooden board.

- Scale.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Prepare the aromatic vinegar beforehand, by following one of the procedures illustrated previously in this manual.

- Wash the vegetables with plenty of water and drain.

- Cut the vegetables in slices, small cubes or pieces, according to the type. The carrots and cucumbers are to be cut in slices or
strips approximately 5 cm thick. Remove the flowers from the cauliflowers.

- Arrange the sliced vegetables in a container in layers, and sprinkle salt over every layer.

- Alternatively, spread the brine over every layer.

- Cover the pot.

- Leave the vegetables in the pot for 24 hours so that they release the water.

- Rinse the vegetables with plenty of water to remove excess salt. Drain and dry properly with paper towels or clean cloths.

- Alternatively, blanch the cut vegetables in water containing 2% salt: 5 minutes for carrots, 2 minutes for cauliflower and 1
minute for large cucumbers.

- Place the hot vegetable slices in the jars and arrange them in an attractive way. As an alternative, arrange the vegetables in
separate layers. If they are not available in equal amounts, arrange them randomly.

- Remove any water from inside the jars.

- Fill them to the brim with the hot aromatic vinegar, until they are completely covered.

- With a spatula, remove any air bubbles that may have formed between vegetables.

- Seal the jars with lids. As an option, the product may be pasteurized at 85C, as illustrated in the recipe for the preparation of
artichoke hearts.



- Place a strip of adhesive tape over the jar and lid to check whether the container was opened previously before consuming the
product.



- Once the container is opened, store in the refrigerator or in a cool place, if possible.


- If one wishes to preserve the product for a longer time, it must be sterilized in a boiling water bath, as illustrated in the recipe for
the preparation of artichoke hearts.


There are different recipes for making this product, according to the variety of chili peppers available and to consumer preference. Red,
yellow and green peppers may also be used, provided that they are cut in slices, and that the internal placenta and seeds are removed.

Raw material

- Green or coloured chili peppers

- Salt

- White wine vinegar


- Pot, possibly enamelled or made of stainless steel, and lid.


properly, and sterilize them if possible.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, funnel and wooden chopping block.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash the chili peppers with plenty of water and drain.

- Cut the peduncle by 1 cm and make a lateral incision to remove the seeds.

- Optional: leave the chills to dry in the sun on trays for 1-2 days to reduce the product's moisture.

- Place a pot with vinegar containing 5% salt on the fire.

- When the vinegar comes to a boil, add the chills and rapidly remove from the fire.

- After 1 hour, remove the chills.

- Arrange the product in jars in an attractive way, pressing the chills together to fill empty spaces.

- Cover with hot vinegar containing 1% salt.

- Place a lid on each jar but do not close tightly.

- Place the jars in a hot water bath, making sure that the level of water is 1 to 2 cm below the lid.

- Remove the jars from the bath when the product has reached the temperature at which pasteurization occurs, approximately
85C.

- Use a spatula to remove any air bubbles that might have formed between the product and the jar walls.

- Fill to the brim with hot vinegar, if necessary.

- Seal the lids of the jars.



- Place a strip of adhesive paper over the jar and lid, in order to check whether the product was opened previously, before




- Once the jar is opened, store in the refrigerator or in a cool place, if possible.

- If one wishes to store the product longer, it must be sterilized in a boiling water bath, as mentioned in the recipe for the
preparation of artichoke hearts. The sterilization time will depend on the size of the jar.

Picture 133. Cutting the different vegetables in a uniform way. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 134. Jars with attractively arranged vegetables. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 135. Adding the hot aromatic vinegar. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 136. The finished product before labelling. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 137. Chilis ready to be packaged after the removal of the seeds. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 138. Adding aromatic vinegar to the chills. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 139. Removal of the external leaves from the artichokes. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 190. Drying the artichoke hearts after cooking. (G. Paltrinieri)


Choose small artichokes, sufficiently firm with a whole heart. If only medium or large artichokes are available, the heart will have to be cut in
quarters.

Raw material

- Artichokes with closed flower

- Refined salt

- Lemon juice

- Vinegar, possibly made from wine

- Vegetable oil


- Aluminium pot with lid and plastic or steel trays.

- Glass jars with screw-band or twist-off lids.

- Source of heat.


Processing

- In a bowl, prepare a water solution with 3% lemon juice (three tablespoons) for every liter of water.

- Remove all of the external fibrous leaves of the flower to extract the heart.

- With a pair of scissors, cut the tip of the middle leaves and remove the stem with a knife. If the heart begins to open, then the
artichokes will not be suitable for this procedure.

- Place the artichoke bases in the water and lemon solution to avoid oxidation. If the bases have a diameter greater than 3 cm, cut
them in half. Quarter them if they are even larger.

- Stir the artichokes. once the artichokes have been cleaned, place a solution containing water, 2% salt and 20% of perfectly white
vinegar in a pot and put on the fire.

- Cover with the lid and cook.

- When the solution begins to boil, add the hearts.

- Cook for 20 to 40 minutes.

- Make sure to check that the hearts are not overcooked.

- Remove the hearts from the pot, drain and place on a table on a kitchen cloth. Cover them with another kitchen cloth.

- The following day, or whenever they are dry, fill the glass jars/previously washed) with the hearts and arrange them in a visually
attractive way.

- Fill the jars to the brim with hot but not boiling oil.

- Place a lid on each jar without closing it tightly (leaving it loose).

- Place the jars in a hot water bath, making sure that the level of the water remains 1-2 cm below the lid.

- Remove the jars from the pot when the product has reached the pasteurization temperature, approximately 85C.

- With a spatula remove the air bubbles that may have formed between the product and the walls of the jar.

- Fill to the brim with hot oil, if necessary.

- Seal the jars with the lids.*



- Place a strip of adhesive paper over jar and lid to check whether the container was previously opened, before consuming the
contents.




- The product may be preserved for at least 6 months'

* If one wishes to preserve the product for longer, it must be sterilized in a boiling water bath, as mentioned in the recipe for the preparation
of tomato sauce.


Choose medium, fully ripe eggplants with an elongated shape and without seeds. This same recipe may be used for zucchini.

Raw material

- Eggplant

- Refined salt

- Garlic

- Pepper

- Parsley

- Hot chili peppers

- Vinegar, produced from wine to the extent possible

- Vegetable oil


- Aluminium pot with lid and plastic or steel trays.


- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, wooden board, knives, sieve, funnels and scissors.

- Kitchen cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Wash and dry the eggplants properly.

- Cut every eggplant in slices approximately 0.5 cm thick, and discard the external slices with a thick skin.

- Place a sufficient amount of refined salt properly distributed on both sides of each slice to remove part of the water. The amount
of salt will depend upon the bitter flavour of the eggplant variety.

- Pile the slices on a sloping board.

- Cover the upper layer with another wooden board.

- Place more weights, such as clean river pebbles, on top of the upper board in order for the water to drain and the bitter flavour
to disappear.

- The following day, or whenever they have released the water, containing 2% salt and 20% vinegar in a pot.

- Introduce the slices in the boiling solution and remove 2 minutes after the solution begins to boil.

- Dry properly between two kitchen cloths.

- Season the slices with a mixture of finely chopped garlic, parsley, pepper and hot chili. As an option, add more salt and place in
the jars.

- Fill the jars with hot but not boiling oil up to 1/2 cm from the top.

- Place the lid on each jar without closing tightly (leave lid loose).

- Place the jars in a hot water bath making sure that the level of the water is 1-2 cm below the lids.

- Remove the jars from the bath when the product has reached the temperature at which pasteurization occurs, 85C
approximately.

- Fill to the brim with hot oil, if necessary.

- Seal the jars with the lids.



- Place a strip of adhesive paper over jar and lid so as to check whether the container was previously opened, before consuming
the contents.


- The product may be consumed after 7 days. once the jar is opened, store in the refrigerator or in a cool place, if possible.

- The product may be preserved for at least 6-12 months.

- If one wishes to preserve the product longer, it must be sterilized in a boiling water bath, as mentioned in the recipe for the
preparation of artichoke hearts.

Picture 141. Jars containing artichoke hearts before the oil is added. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 142. The finished product before labelling. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 143. Artichoke hearts packaged in polyethylene bags. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 194. sterilization in boiling water of the finished product packaged in jars. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 145. Blanching the eggplant slices in vinegar. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 146. Drying the slices after blanching. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 147. Preparing the garlic and parsley seasoning. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 148. Seasoning the eggplant slices after blanching and drying. (G. Paltrinieri)

Bell peppers in oil

The bell peppers must have a thick pulp, they must be ripe, and red or yellow in colour.

Raw material

- Large, ripe and coloured bell peppers.

- Vegetable oil. As an option, it may be mixed 50% with partially unscented olive oil, to enhance the flavour of the product.

- Salt.

- Pepper.

- Garlic.

-Vinegar.


- Skillet.

- Pot, possibly enamelled or made of stainless steel, and lid.


properly and sterilize them, if possible.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoons, knives, spoons, funnel and wooden chopping block, kitchen cloths.

- Heat production system.

Processing

- Wash the bell peppers with water and drain.

- Dry with a clean cloth.

- Remove the peduncle.

- Cut lengthwise in slices (8 or 6 depending on size).

- Remove the internal placenta and the seeds.

- Place a gridiron over the fire.*

-* Grease the gridiron.

-* Place the slices on the gridiron so that the side with the skin is facing downwards so it becomes loose.

-* Make sure that the skin does not stick.

-* Remove the slices from the gridiron when the skin begins to peel off.

- Remove the skin with your fingers and with the help of a knife.

- Place a bit of oil in a skillet and add chopped garlic, salt and pepper to taste, and an amount of vinegar equivalent to 5% the
weight of the mixture.

- Add the bell pepper slices.

- Stir until the slices become soft, making sure that they do not burn.

- When they have become soft, remove them from the skillet.

- Drain the oil.

- When they are still hot, arrange them in the jars with the spices, making sure that they are visually attractive.

- Press them together to reduce empty spaces.

- Fill to the brim with hot but not boiling oil.

- With a spatula, remove the air bubbles that may have formed between the product and the walls of the jar and add more oil, if
necessary.

-** Seal the jars with the lids. As an option, the product may be pasteurized, as illustrated in the recipe for the preparation of
artichoke hearts.

Clean the outside of the jars and lids.


- Place a strip of adhesive tape over jar and lid, so at to be able to check whether the container was previously opened, before
consuming the product.





Note: The same procedure may be used to prepare zucchini in oil, without removing the skin.

* Optional operations.

** If one wishes to preserve the product longer, it must be sterilized in a boiling water bath for 10 to 20 minutes, as mentioned in the
procedure for the preparation of artichoke hearts. The sterilization time will depend on the size of the jar.

Picture 149. Eggplant slices seasoned with the ingredients. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 150. sterilized jars ready for labelling. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 151. Like eggplant, zucchini too may be prepared in oil. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 152. Removal of the in placenta and seeds (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 153. Drying the bell peppers. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 154. Cooking the slices in oil to make them tender. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 155. Filling the jars. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 156. Bell peppers in oil: the finished product. (G. Paltrinieri)


The following is a standard recipe to make Italian-style tomato sauce, which may be used to season pasta, rice and stews.

The recipe may be adapted to the consumer's taste.

Raw materials

- Fresh tomatoes: 5 kg of 4.2 to 4.5 Brix

- 1 medium onion for every kg of tomatoes

- 5 medium garlic cloves for every kilo of tomatoes

- Salt to taste

- Pepper to taste

- Oil: 50/100 g

- Carrots, 1 kg for every 5 kg of tomatoes

- Dried oregano, fresh basil, and as an option chili pepper to taste


- Aluminium pot with lid and skillet.

- Pulper.

- Jars with screw-band lids (200 ml approximately) or bottles with screw corks (200 ml approximately).

- Manual capper and crown corks.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knife, spoons, funnels and wooden chopping block.


Processing

- Store the raw material in a shed until it is used.

- Select the tomatoes according to their degree of maturity. Use ripe tomatoes and eliminate those presenting signs of rot.

- Wash in clean water and drain.

- Cut the tomatoes in half and eliminate the halves rotting inside.

- Chop the onion in small cubes. Cut every garlic clove in quarters.

- Add oil to the skillet and place on a low fire.

- Add the onion and garlic cloves and fry until the onion becomes pink.

- stir constantly with a wooden spoon to prevent the onion from sticking to the bottom of the pot and burning.

- Place the tomatoes in the pot and put on the fire. Add the onion when it is pink, add salt, pepper and hot chili. Increase the fire
and boil for 40 minutes, stirring c constantly, until 10-12 Brix are reached.

- Add fresh basil or dried oregano to taste.

- Boil for an additional 5 minutes and remove the pot from the fire.

- Remove the seeds and the skin from the pulp with a manual pulper.

- Cook the sauce for 10-15 minutes in case it is not thick enough. Check that the pulp has reached 10-12 Brix.

- Fill the jars or bottles to the brim with hot sauce. See note.

- Immediately close the containers with lids or corks.

- Place the containers in water while they are still hot, making sure that the temperature of the water and of the container is the
same to prevent the glass from breaking.

- The water must cover the jars or bottles.

- Sterilize in boiling water for 45 minutes from the moment in which the water starts to boil.


- Introduce a jet of cold water in the hot water until the containers cool off. Make sure that the water is lukewarm by the time that
it comes into contact with the containers to avoid breakage. As an alternative, let the containers cool in the pot until the next day.
Another possibility is to use tongs to take the jars or bottles out of the pot and place them on a wooden board. Avoid placing the
hot containers on cold surfaces. If a flour bag is used, take it out of the pot and allow it to cool.

- Dry the containers.

- Label each container with the name of the product, the ingredients and the date on which it was prepared.

- Place a strip of adhesive paper over jar and lid so as to check whether the container was previously opened, before consuming
the contents.



- When the sauce is to be used in pasta or rice, take it out of the container, heat and add butter and grated

- Parmesan-type cheese to enhance the flavour of the dish.

Note: As an alternative, fill polyethylene bags with cold sauce. Close the bags with string or wire and place in freezer. Take the bags out of
the freezer 2 hours before consuming the sauce. This way, the product may be preserved for 6 months.

Tomato juice

The following is a recipe to prepare tomato juice that may be used to make cocktails and cook with foods when fresh tomatoes are no longer
available on the market.

Raw material

- Fresh ripe tomatoes of 4.2 to 4.5 Brix

- Lemon juice

- Optional: salt and pepper to taste


- Pot with lid.

- Pulper or disc pulp remover.

- Jars with screw-band lids (200 ml approximately) or bottles with crown corks (200 ml approximately).

- Manual capper.

- Crown corks.

- Kitchen utensils: wooden spoon, knife, spoons, funnel and wooden board, various plastic containers, kitchen cloths.


Processing

- Store the raw material in a shed until it is used.

- Select the tomatoes according to their degree of maturity. Use ripe tomatoes and eliminate those presenting signs of rot.


- Cut the tomatoes in quarters and eliminate those rotting inside.

- Wash the bottles or jars separately and drain.

- Place the tomatoes in a pot and cook on a medium fire, stirring them with a wooden spoon every now and then.

- Add two tablespoons of lemon juice for every kg of tomatoes.

- Optional: add salt and/or pepper to taste.

- Remove the pot from the fire when the contents begin to boil and reach 6.5-6.5 Brix.

- Let the product cool partially.

- Extract the tomato juice by passing the product through the pulper.

- Pass the skin and seeds a second time through the pulper so as to increase the yield of the juice.

- Place the pot with the juice back on the fire and cook until it begins to boil.

- Fill the bottles to the top with hot juice.

- Proceed as in the recipe to make tomato sauce.

Picture 157. Heating and concentrating the ingredients. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 158. Extraction of the pulp to make the sauce. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 159. Filling the bottles and jars with the hot sauce and labelling them. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 160. Placing the bottles in a flour bag to sterilize them in boiling water. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 161. Tomatoes. Top-quality raw material. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 162. Extraction of the tomato pulp. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 163. Concentration of the pulp in the pot by mechanical stirrer. (G. Paltrinieri)

Picture 164. Cooling the puree bottles after sterilization. (G. Paltrinieri)


The pulp-based concentrate product may be classified in puree (10 Brix), simple (16 Brix), double (29 Brix) and triple (30-32 Brix)
concentrate. The double and triple concentrates are prepared by means of vacuum evaporators.

Raw materials

- Fresh ripe tomatoes

- Salt, optional


- The same as those used to prepare tomato juice.

Processing

To prepare the puree, proceed as follows:

- Proceed as in the recipe for the preparation of tomato juice (without adding lemon juice) until the juice is extracted.

- Place the pot with the juice back on the fire and let it concentrate until it reaches 10 Brix, stirring with a wooden spoon every
now and then to prevent the mixture from sticking.

- Once 10 Brix have been reached, add 1% salt, dissolve and remove the pot from the fire.

- Fill the bottles to the top with hot puree and cover.

- Sterilize the bottles as indicated in the procedure to make tomato sauce.

To prepare the simple concentrate, proceed as follows:

- Concentrate the product until 16 Brix is reached.

- Add 2% salt, dissolve and remove from the fire.

- Fill the bottles or jars with the hot product and cover them.

- This product must be sterilized. Proceed as indicated in the recipe for the preparation of tomato sauce.

- Label the containers and seal the jar lids with adhesive tape.

- Once the container is opened, keep in the refrigerator.


Preferably choose cylinder-shaped Italian-style tomatoes, although round-shaped varieties may also be used.

Raw material

- Fresh tomatoes

- Lemon juice

- Tomato juice




- Kitchen utensils: knives, plastic or metal containers, sieve, clean cloths.

- Source of heat.

Processing

- Select fully ripe tomatoes with a firm pulp, with no superficial blemishes and of a uniform size.


- Place 5 1 of water in a pot on the stove.

- Place between 1 and 2 kg of tomatoes in the pot when the water begins to boil for 30 to 60 seconds, until the superficial layer of
the skin becomes soft.

- Rapidly remove them by means of a sieve.

- Place them in a container with cold water so that the skin will peel off.

- Finish peeling the tomatoes by hand and with the help of a knife.

- Fill the jars.

- In order to get more tomatoes into the jar, tap the bottom of the jar with the palm of your hand.

- Add one teaspoon (3 ml approximately) of lemon juice for every 500 g jar.

- Add the hot tomato juice (as in the recipe to prepare tomato juice) and fill to the top, leaving a space of 2 cm.

- If necessary, place the jars with the lids screwed on loosely in a double saucepan, until the temperature reaches 80-85C.

- Add more hot juice, if necessary.

- Seal the jars with the lids.


- Proceed as in the recipe for tomato sauce.

Picture 165. Peeling the tomatoes by hand. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 166. Filling the jars with whole peeled tomatoes (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 167. Adding lemon juice before adding the tomato juice. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 168. Jars with preserved whole peeled tomatoes. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 169. Slices of tomato after blanching (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 170. Blanched slices in the solar drier arranged on trays. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 171. Dried tomato slices. (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Picture 172. Finished product packed in bags., (TCP/BKF/6658 Project)

Dried tomatoes

Raw material

- Unblemished, fully red, ripe and firm tomatoes.


- Sodium metabisulfite powder.

- Knives.

- Trays.

-Scale.

- Plastic buckets.

- Simple solar dryer.

-Polyethylene or polypropylene/cellophane bags.

Procedure

- Select unblemished tomatoes of a uniform colour.

- Wash them in drinking water.

- Remove the calyx and peduncle.

- Cut the tomatoes lengthwise, in quarters or eights.

- Remove the seeds and dry separately in the shade.

- Blanch the tomato pieces in boiling water for 1-2 minutes.

- Cool in drinking water and drain.

- Immerse in a sodium metabisulfite solution prepared with 1 g metabisulfite and 1 l of water. Soak for 15-20 minutes.

- Drain and place on the dryer's trays, in a single layer.

Use trays with a plastic rather than a metal mesh.

- Dry until the pieces become brittle.

- Cool and package in polyethylene or polypropylene/cellophane bags.

- Pack in cardboard boxes to prevent damage caused by light.

- Store in a cool and dry place until the product is consumed.

- The product may be preserved for 1 year.

Dried bananas

Raw materials

- Unblemished, ripe and firm bananas of a pale cream colour (not green)


- Stainless steel knives.

- Trays.

- Plastic buckets.

- Powdered sodium metabisulfite.

- Simple solar dryer.

- Polyethylene or polypropylene/cellophane bags.

Processing

- Peel the unblemished, uniformly-coloured bananas with care to avoid damaging them.

- Use the whole fruit or cut it in 0.5 cm thick slices. Soak the whole fruits or the slices in a metabisulfite solution at a concentration
of 10 g per liter of water.

- Soak the whole fruits for 30 minutes, and the slices for 15 minutes.

- Drain the fruits or the slices and place them on trays with a plastic mesh or a wooden base, and then place them in the dryer.

- Dry in the sun or in the shade, or a combination of both at the beginning and at the end respectively.

- When the slices or fruits are half brittle, package them in polyethylene or polypropylene/cellophane bags.

- Pack them in corrugated cardboard boxes to protect them against damage caused by light.

- Store in a dry, cool place.

- The product may be preserved for 6 months.

Picture 173. Loading the trays with whole bananas. (University of Costa Rica)

Picture 174. Trays inside the solar drier. (University of Costa Rica)

Picture 175. Half-dried bananas, without the addition of sodium metabisulfite. (University of Costa Rica)

Picture 176. Dried bananas in their final stage. (University of Costa Rica)

Chapter 7







Chapter 7


When planning an activity which involves the processing of agricultural raw materials, especially short-term perishable products as is the case
with fruits and vegetables, accurate planning must take place, to avoid coordination problems. This will prevent significant raw material
losses, which often happens in home processing and small industrial scale systems.

Planning is necessary even when very small processing systems are involved, in which the raw material is practically supplied by own
production sources. For example, it is possible to conceive a production program based on a large number of families that obtain their
products from very small family-run orchards, and then process them in their own home-made installations. It is also possible to produce a
given product on a joint basis, so that the production of different centers or families may be sold together and enjoy the benefits of joint
marketing. In this case, it becomes crucial to provide a uniform product, to use high-quality raw material in all cases, and naturally, to exactly
know the potential volumes to be produced, so as to efficiently determine the marketing mechanism. Such a mechanism begins with planning
the production of the raw material.


The relationship between raw materials and processing techniques encompasses a series of aspects which range from the selection of a given
variety or cultivar of a species, to post-harvest handling and the preservation of the quality of the material to be processed.

In this connection, it should be considered that every processed product requires a specific raw material, if excellent quality levels are to be
achieved. There is no reason why a product processed at the level of cottage industries or on a small industrial scale should be of a lower
quality than one processed on an industrial scale. To the contrary, home or small scale processing techniques should give better results, as
the process is looked after more specifically, the individual units are better controlled, and the raw material may be handled appropriately.


There are many different choices possible within a species, for there are varieties or cultivars that present significant differences in terms of
their intrinsic characteristics and nature.

To develop a sound industrialization or processing system, it is important to choose the material that presents the best specific characteristics
in relation to the purpose of the procedure.

This means that several characteristics of the final product will depend upon the nature of the raw material. For example, a good tomato
sauce can only be obtained by using very red tomatoes, at the right stage of maturation, with a firm pulp to ensure a good texture, and with
an appropriate content of solids. If the final product is mango nectar, it is preferable to use varieties with little or no fibre, of a bright colour,
not astringent and sweet. For pickled cucumbers, it is better to use varieties with a smooth skin, of an intense green colour, cylinder-shaped
and with a firm texture.

Therefore, every product will require a raw material that will meet the minimum quality standards that guarantee its suitability for the
market. The characteristics vary at times, when consumer have very peculiar preferences when it comes to a given product.


The way in which a certain raw material is cultivated, harvest and post-harvest care will determine the material's quality, as stated in the
corresponding chapter.

All of these aspects are especially easy to take care of through small-scale production systems, where the goods are handled almost
exclusively by hand.

However, it is important to consider that especially in such cases, the site of primary production and the processing facility must be close to
each other. Indeed, appropriate harvest or post-harvest handling normally cannot be achieved for small volumes when the distance between
the orchard and the processing site is great.

When the harvests are small in volume and the distance is great, to save on transportation costs one must resort to initially storing the goods
on the production site, but this has a detrimental effect on the quality of the material. If the processing plant is adjacent to the site of
production, then all of the problems related to temporary storage are solved, and the material may be processed more rapidly after the
harvest.

Finally, it is advisable to adopt a production rationale based on the production of the species presenting comparative advantages in terms of
nutritional value, greater demand by potential consumers, and a higher market value, if the products are to be marketed outside the
community of origin. This especially applies to raw materials with a greater production cost and for unknown or exotic products.


An industrial production process normally gives an added value to the product. When using a raw material of great value, the added value will
be proportionally lower to that of a material whose quality was poorer at the beginning and which acquires a much greater value as a finished
product.

It is therefore preferable for the value of a product to increase as a result of processing, as generally speaking, the product will generate a
greater demand and will be more widely accepted.

It is not profitable to use costly processes for very inexpensive raw materials, except for the cases in which the demand is great. An example
of this would be frozen peas, where the raw material is relatively cheap and the processing procedure is one of the most expensive, but large-
volume production amply justifies this approach.

In species of a greater value, the use of expensive technologies may be justified, as the process only accounts for a small part of the total
cost of the product whose raw material is quite valuable.


Every time an industrial production process is planned, whether it be on a small, medium or large industrial scale, there must be some
consistency between the potential supply of raw material at the plant and the capacity of the installations to be set up.

Of the two extreme cases that may occur, excessive supply and a shortage of supplies, the former is more difficult to cope with by home
production systems. The only way to change the capacity of a small home-processing plant, which is mainly based on manual procedures, is
by increasing the number of staff. But this solution is complicated if the workers are not trained to meet the same production, productivity
and quality standards as the rest of the permanent staff.

If a temporary or unexpected shortage of supplies occurs, on the other hand, the problem may be solved by working on alternative jobs like
labelling, packaging, cleaning the installations, or engaging in other useful tasks. Obviously, devoting excessive time to such jobs may prove
to be very expensive in the long run, but at least it allows for some readjustment in times of emergency.

Appropriate planning is required in a small industrial scale plant, for any adjustments weigh more heavily on profitability than they do in a
cottage industry. A shortage of supplies may cause serious problems because the installations remain idle, but an excess of supplies may
determine even greater problems due to the inflexible nature of the machines.

Indeed, a machine is less flexible than man.

Chapter 8


Investments


Chapter 8


Investments

Fixed capital investment

Direct or depreciable costs

Equipment:

- 2 kettles.

- 1 vertical autoclave with a capacity of 200 1 approximately.

- 1 boiler.

- 1 press.

- 1 pulper.

- 1 crown cork sealer.

Infrastructure:

Plant layout:

- processing room.

- boiler room.

- storeroom for goods and finished product.

- toilets and dressing rooms.

- quality control laboratory.

- area destined for the reception of raw materials.

Indirect or nondepreciable costs.

Plan and technical consultancy:

- Electrical installation.

- Installation of pipes for the supply of drinking water.

- Installation of pipes for the supply of steam.

- Installation of septic tank, septic pit and toilets.

- Installation of pipes for the disposal of waste waters.

- Installation of equipment in the plant.

Incidental expenses and contingencies.

Working capital

The working capital is usually considered on the basis of three working months.

Variable operating costs.

Fixed operating costs.


Fixed operating costs

Remuneration of permanent staff:

- Quality control supervisor.

- Processing plant workers.

- Boiler room operator.

- Plant cleaning staff.

Maintenance:

- Plant cleaning and disinfection.

- Equipment repair.

Insurance

Variable operating costs.

Products:

- Detergents (soaps and biodegradable detergents).

- Chemical disinfectants (sodium and calcium hypochlorite and cloramines).

- Packages (bottles, jars, cardboard boxes, bins).

- Cleaning materials (large brooms, buckets, hoses, brushes, sponges, etc.).

- Laboratory

- materials (pipettes, burettes, precipitation beakers, potentiometer, refractometer, glass flasks, etc.).

- Apparel (aprons, caps, masks, gloves, rubber boots).

- Utensils (jugs, knives, funnels).

- Twist-off lids for jars and crown corks.

- Additives (sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulfite).

- Sugar.

- Spices (onion, garlic, pepper, oil, oregano, basil, chili, carrot).

- Salt.

Raw materials:

- Fruits (maracuya, pineapple, papaya, guava).

- Vegetables (tomato, cucumber, spices).

Utilities:

- Electrical power.

- Drinking water.

- Fuel.

Chapter 9


Self-consumption




Chapter 9


One of the most important aspects related to the development of an agroindustrial activity, on any scale, is that of marketing.

However, in the case of home-processing activities, the aim of the production may simply be to replace acquired goods with commodities
produced on one's own.

It is perfectly viable to base an activity of this kind on the concrete possibility of self-consumption, that is, consumption by the family or by
the group that participated in the production process, without truly selling the product. In certain isolated communities, this system may
determine the exchange of goods between members, who therefore need not resort to the market of large and distant cities to acquire
commodities at rather high prices.

This problem is normally analyzed from the point of view of the market, but it does have other connotations, as in addition to replacing
externally-produced consumer goods, raw materials that would otherwise go to waste are actually being exploited. These materials, that is
fruits and vegetables, not only have a high nutritional value, but they belong to the class of foods that normally lack in the diet of low-income
populations, who give priority to more "filling" products like starches.

Self-consumption

As stated previously, self-consumption is perfectly acceptable for home-processing systems. The levels of production are normally low,
enough to supply the numerous rural families of Latin America for most of the year. This production management system usually requires an
appropriate storage system, to prevent the products from being damaged as a result of inappropriate conditions.

Bottled preserves, juices and pulps, jams and sauces have a very long storage life, which should never be shorter than one year. Dried
products packaged in flexible plastic containers may also have a storage life close to 12 months, if they are properly protected from light,
humidity and high temperatures. Ideally, however, they should be consumed within 9 months, for they generally tend to change their sensory
qualities as a result of environmental conditions.


This system is more suitable for production on a cottage industry level, for it normally involves procedures which are performed mostly at a
community rather than on a purely family level. According to this approach, production is a collective activity involving a number of members
of different families who make their own contributions. Some will be responsible for the supply of raw materials and goods, while others will
be in charge of transportation, the production of processed commodities and their sale, of course. The products are sold between the
members of the community, who set up a sort of trade system as a result of which each individual receives a return proportional to his
production activity.

This community consumption mechanism may also work on the basis of a system whereby the costs and proceeds from the finished product
are shared among members. Each member constitutes himself as the producer of raw materials, supplier of goods or producer of processed
commodities, and at the end, the profits deriving from his work are shared. In this scenario, organization is a crucial element, as the work of
each individual must be evaluated properly in order to achieve an appropriate balance between the members of the system.


When the production level increases slightly, thus exceeding the community's demand, a small-scale marketing system must be set up, in
order to sell the products in nearby communities and even on the small markets of neighboring towns.

These products are usually especially attractive to tourists, and even to the residents of more developed communities, who do not have the
time to produce their own food, although the natural resources are within their reach.

In such circumstances, one should clearly realize that the marketing conditions must change in more than one way. First of all, one must be
sure that the quality of the products suits the needs of consumers. The term quality here refers to consumer quality, as it is assumed that the
product meets hygienic quality standards, even if the system is based on family or community consumption. It is the consumer quality
standard that must be fulfilled in an open marketing system, even if it is only on a small-scale. A good way to satisfy consumers is to produce
goods that will be attractive to the majority and that do not have peculiar attributes that will only be accepted by a few.

In an open-marketing system, the product's quality must be certified to some degree. It is not enough to assume that everything has been
done properly, it must be proven by tests to be carried out by a competent institution. In a community consumption system, this is replaced
by an appropriate control in the production phase, which requires that the necessary measures be taken on the production line, to avoid
making mistakes that might affect the product's hygienic standards.


Marketing on a regional and national scale is more advanced compared to the systems illustrated previously, both in qualitative and
quantitative terms. In this case, the product is subjected to the judgment of a more demanding public, which has a greater discrimination
capacity as a result of being constantly bombarded by different products, brands and vendors.

A different, more commercial and more advanced technical approach must therefore be adopted. A sales strategy must be devised to consider
packaging types, more accurate quality control and certification systems, timely distribution, and above all, continuity.

All of these aspects are extremely important if this activity is to be converted into a long-term production business. Timely distribution is
based on the concept of choosing the appropriate moment, when the demand justifies the commercial effort, while continuity is indispensable
to accustom the consumer to the product. A sensational product that reaches the market at the wrong time or that is not constantly present
on the market, meaning that it appears and disappears constantly, will not go very far.

It is important to realize that in an open-marketing system, the product will be subjected to the great competition of traditional industrial
products, whose prestige has been acknowledged by consumers. However, it is possible to target consumers seeking "natural" products,
which is synonymous with home-made. They are looking for additive and preservative-free products, made with care by a human operator,
and not by an impersonal machine. These aspects of small industrial scale or home-processing systems must be exploited in a sales strategy
that could even reach the great supermarkets of the world's largest cities.

This is especially true for the products that may be considered as "exotic" in a given region, with the advantage that they are elite products,
for consumers with a high purchasing power. They must be offered quality products; it is impossible to cheat them for they have a great
discrimination capacity and are crucial to the success of the product on such markets.

As it may be observed, the marketing, distribution and final use of the product are also crucial aspects of the production process, in the case
of cottage industries. One must especially make sure that the products are desirable, in good demand and sought after, for this is the only
way that the business will last over time. It should always be borne in mind that a cottage industry, a small industrial scale system or a very
small enterprise may be the point of departure for a given activity or group of individuals, and that it may grow in time.

Its evolution will depend on the work, effort and interest with which the activity is managed, and this manual was written to contribute to the
development of those with such an interest.

Bibliography

Bibliography

AMORIGGI, G. 1990. Technical Report on Small-Scale Processing of Agricultural Products. FAO. Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing
Service GUY/86/003. Rome, Italy. 23 p.

CELATER. 1991. Tecnologia Alimentaria y Agroindustria Rural. Ed. Franois Boucher. RETADAR, Cuadernos de Agroindustria Rural. Doc-Esp-5,
IICA. CELATER. Cali, Colombia. 106 p.

CLARK, PAMELA. 1990. The Book of Preserves. The Australian Women's Weekly Home Library. Australia. 128 p.

FAO. 1985. II Mesa Redonda de la Red Latinoamericana de Agroindustria de Frutas Tropicales. Federacin de Cafeteros de Colombia y Oficina
Regional de la FAO pare Amrica Latina y el Caribe. Santiago, Chile. 325 p.

FAO. 1988. Rural Processing and Preserving Techniques for Fruits and Vegetables. Rome, Italy. 59 p.

FAO. 1990. Preserving Tomatoes. Three Home-processing and Preservation Techniques. TCR/BKF/6658, Rome, Italy.

FAO. 1992. Produccin, Poscosecha, Procesamiento y Comercializacin de Ajo, Cebolla y Tomate. Eds. Juan Izquierdo, Gaetano Paltrinieri y
Ciro Arias. Oficina Regional de la FAO pare America Latina y el Caribe, Santiago de Chile. 413 p.

FELLOWS, P. and HAMPTON, ANN. 1992. Small-scale Food Processing. A guide to appropriate equipment. Intermediate Technology
Publications. London, UK. 158 p.

HENDERSON-BREWSTER, CHARLENE and JOHNSON, LYSTRA-ANN. 1992 Diversification of the Caribbean Banana Industry. Report presented
to the Caribbean Network for Integrated Rural Development (CNIRD). CARICOM. W.I. 59 p.

HOLDSWORTH,: S.D. 1983. The Preservation of Fruit and Vegetable Food Products. MacMillan Press, London. 159 p.

MC WILLIAMS, MARGARET and PAINE, HARRIET. 1977. Modern Food Preservation. Plycon Press, California, USA. 198 p.

MEYER, M.R. and PALTRINIERI, G. 1978. Elaboracin de Frutas y Hortalizas. Proyecto DGETA/FAO. TF Mexico-15-SWL. Mxico. 105 P

NAGY, S., SHAW, P. and WARDOWSKI, W. 1990. Fruits of Tropical and Subtropical Origin. Florida Science Source Inc., USA. 391 p.

OEA. 1976. Seminario Sobre Procesamiento de Frutas Tropicales. Unidad de Desarrollo Tecnolgico, OEA. Mexico. 421 p.

ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. 1976. Tropical Fruit Processing Industry. Development Center of OECD.
Washington D.C. USA. 268 p.

PALTRINIERI, G. and FIGUEROLA, F. 1993. Curso sobre Procesamiento de Frutas y Hortalizas a Pequea Escala en la XII Regin de Chile.
FAO, Oficina Regional de la FAO Para Amrica Latina y el Caribe. INTEC-CHILE, Divisin Agroindustrial. 86 p.

PALTRINIERI, G. and BERLIJN, J. 1991. Taller de Frutas y Hortalizas. Ed. Trillas. 6a Reimpresin. Mexico. 84 p.

PANTASTICO, ER. B. 1975. Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables. The Avi
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RICHARDSON, ROSAMUND. 1986. Harrods Book of Jams, Jellies and Chutneys. Ebury Press. London. 96 p.

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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

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