Sensors and Transducers

Simple stand alone electronic circuits can be made to repeatedly flash a light or play a musical note, but in order for an
electronic circuit or system to perform any useful task or function it needs to be able to communicate with the "real world"
whether this is by reading an input signal from an "ON/OFF" switch or by activating some form of output device to illuminate
a single light and to do this we use Transducers.
Transducers can be used to sense a wide range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant
energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc, and there are many different types of both analogue and digital input and output
devices available to choose from. he type of input or output transducer being used, really depends upon the type of signal
or process being "Sensed" or "!ontrolled" but we can define a transducer as a device that converts one physical "uantity
into another.
#evices which perform an input function are commonly called Sensors because they "sense" a physical change in some
characteristic that changes in response to some e$citation, for e$ample heat or force and covert that into an electrical signal.
#evices which perform an output function are generally calledActuators and are used to control some e$ternal device, for
e$ample movement. %oth sensors and actuators are collectively known as Transducers because they are used to convert
energy of one kind into energy of another kind, for e$ample, a microphone &input device' converts sound waves into
electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify, and a loudspeaker &output device' converts the electrical signals back into
sound waves and an e$ample of this is given below.
Simple Input/Output System using Sound Transducers
here are many different types of transducers available in the marketplace, and the choice of which one to use really
depends upon the "uantity being measured or controlled, with the more common types given in the table below.
Common Transducers
(uantity being
)easured
*nput #evice
&Sensor'
Output #evice
&+ctuator'
,ight ,evel
,ight #ependant -esistor &,#-'
.hotodiode
.hoto/transistor
Solar !ell
,ights 0 ,amps
,1#2s 0 #isplays
Fibre Optics
emperature
hermocouple
hermistor
hermostat
-esistive temperature detectors &-#'
3eater
Fan
Force/.ressure Strain 4auge
.ressure Switch
,ifts 0 5acks
1lectromagnet
,oad !ells 6ibration
.osition
.otentiometer
1ncoders
-eflective/Slotted Opto/switch
,6#
)otor
Solenoid
.anel )eters
Speed
acho/generator
-eflective/Slotted Opto/coupler
#oppler 1ffect Sensors
+! and #! )otors
Stepper )otor
%rake
Sound
!arbon )icrophone
.ie7o/electric !rystal
%ell
%u77er
,oudspeaker
*nput type transducers or sensors, produce a proportional output voltage or signal in response to changes in the "uantity
that they are measuring &the stimulus' and the type or amount of the output signal depends upon the type of sensor being
used. 4enerally, all types of sensors can be classed as two kinds, passive and active.
+ctive sensors re"uire some form of e$ternal power to operate, called an excitation signal which is used by the sensor to
produce the output signal. +ctive sensors are self/generating devices because their own properties change in response to
an e$ternal effect and produce an output voltage, for e$ample, 8 to 89v #! or an output current such as : to ;9m+ #!. For
e$ample, a strain gauge is a pressure/sensitive resistor. *t does not generate any electrical signal, but by passing a current
through it &e$citation signal', its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current and/or voltage across it
relating these changes to the amount of strain or force.
<nlike the active sensor, a passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly generates an electric
signal in response to an e$ternal stimulus. For e$ample, a thermocouple or photodiode. .assive sensors are direct sensors
which change their physical properties, such as resistance, capacitance or inductance etc. +s well as analogue
sensors, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output representing a binary number or digit such as a logic level "9" or a logic
level "8".
Analogue and Digital Sensors
Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to the "uantity being
measured. .hysical "uantities such as emperature, Speed, .ressure, #isplacement, Strain etc are all analogue "uantities
as they tend to be continuous in nature. For e$ample, the temperature of a li"uid can be measured using a thermometer or
thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature changes as the li"uid is heated up or cooled down.
Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal
+nalogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and continuously which are very small in value
so some form of amplification is re"uired. hen circuits which measure analogue signals usually have a slow response
and/or low accuracy. +lso analogue signals can be easily converted into digital type signals for use in microcontroller
systems by the use of analogue/to/digital converters, or +#!2s.
Digital Sensors
+s its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output signal or voltage that is a digital representation of the
"uantity being measured. #igital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a logic "8" or a logic "9", &"ON" or
"OFF"'. his means then that a digital signal only produces discrete &non/continuous' values which may be outputted as a
single "bit", &serial transmission' or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte" output &parallel transmission'.
Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal
*n our simple e$ample above, the speed of the rotating shaft is measured by using a digital ,1#/Opto/detector sensor. he
disc which is fi$ed to a rotating shaft &for e$ample, from a motor or wheels', has a number of transparent slots within its
design. +s the disc rotates with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor inturn producing an output pulse
representing a logic level "8". hese pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the
speed or revolutions of the shaft. %y increasing the number of slots or "windows" within the disc more output pulses can be
produced giving a greater resolution and accuracy as fractions of a revolution can be detected. hen this type of sensor
arrangement could be used for positional control.
!ompared to analogue signals, digital signals or "uantities have very high accuracies and can be both measured and
"sampled" at a very high clock speed. he accuracy of the digital signal is proportional to the number of bits used to
represent the measured "uantity. For e$ample, using a processor of = bits, will produce an accuracy of 9.8>?@ &8 part in
?8;'. Ahile using a processor of 8B bits gives an accuracy of 9.998?@, &8 part in B?,?CB' or 8C9 times more accurate. his
accuracy can be maintained as digital "uantities are manipulated and processed very rapidly, millions of times faster than
analogue signals.
*n most cases, sensors and more specifically analogue sensors generally re"uire an e$ternal power supply and some form
of additional amplification or filtering of the signal in order to produce a suitable electrical signal which is capable of being
measured or used. One very good way of achieving both amplification and filtering within a single circuit is to
use Operational Amplifiers as seen before.
Signal Conditioning
+s we saw in the Operational Amplifier tutorial, op/amps can be used to provide amplification of signals when
connected in either inverting or non/inverting configurations. he very small analogue signal voltages produced by a sensor
such as a few milli/volts or even pico/volts can be amplified many times over by a simple op/amp circuit to produce a much
larger voltage signal of say ?v or ?m+ that can then be used as an input signal to a microprocessor or analogue/to/digital
based system. herefore, an amplification of a sensors output signal has to be made with a voltage gain up to 89,999 and a
current gain up to 8,999,999 with the amplification of the signal being linear with the output signal being an e$act
reproduction of the input, Dust changed in amplitude. hen amplification is part of signal conditioning. So when using
analogue sensors, generally some form of amplification &4ain', impedance matching, isolation between the input and output
or perhaps filtering &fre"uency selection' may be re"uired before the signal can be used and this is conveniently performed
by Operational Amplifiers.
+lso, when measuring very small physical changes the output signal of a sensor can become "contaminated" with unwanted
signals or voltages that prevent the actual signal re"uired from being measured correctly. hese unwanted signals are
called "Noise". his Noise or *nterference can be either greatly reduced or even eliminated by using signal conditioning or
filtering techni"ues as we discussed in the Active ilter tutorial. %y using either a Lo! "ass, or a #igh "ass or
even Band "assfilter the "bandwidth" of the noise can be reduced to leave Dust the output signal re"uired. For e$ample,
many types of inputs from switches, keyboards or manual controls are not capable of changing state rapidly and so low/
pass filter can be used. Ahen the interference is at a particular fre"uency, for e$ample mains fre"uency, narrow band reDect
or Notch filters can be used to produce fre"uency selective filters. Ahere some random noise still remains after filtering it
may be necessary to take several samples and then average them to give the final value so increasing the signal/to/noise
ratio.
Op$amp ilters
1ither way, both amplification and filtering play an important role in interfacing microprocessor and electronics based
systems to "real world" conditions. *n the ne$t tutorial about Sensors, we will look at"ositional Sensors which measure
the position and/or displacement of physical obDects meaning the movement from one position to another for a specific
distance or angle.
"osition Sensors
*n this tutorial we will look at a variety of devices which are classed as Input Devices and are therefore called "Sensors"
and in particular those sensors which are "ositional in nature which means that they are referenced either to or from some
fi$ed point or position. +s their name implies, these types of sensors provide a "position" feedback. One method of
determining a position, is to use either "distance", which could be the distance between two points such as the distance
travelled or moved away from some fi$ed point, or by "rotation" &angular movement'. For e$ample, the rotation of a robots
wheel to determine its distance travelled along the ground. 1ither way, "osition Sensors can detect the movement of an
obDect in a straight line using Linear Sensors or by its angular movement using%otational Sensors.
The "otentiometer&
he most commonly used of all the ".osition Sensors", is the potentiometer because it is an ine$pensive and easy to use
position sensor. *t has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that can be either angular &rotational' or linear &slider
type' in its movement, and which causes the resistance value between the wiper/slider and the two end connections to
change giving an electrical signal output that has a proportional relationship between the actual wiper position on the
resistive track and its resistance value. *n other words, resistance is proportional to position.
"otentiometer
.otentiometers come in a wide range of designs and si7es such as the commonly available round rotational type or the
longer and flat linear slider types. Ahen used as a positional sensor the moveable obDect is connected directly to the shaft or
slider of the potentiometer and a #! reference voltage is applied across the two outer fi$ed connections forming the
resistive element while the output signal is taken from the wiper terminal of the sliding contact as shown below thus
producing a potential or voltage divider type circuit output. hen for e$ample, if you apply a voltage of say 89v across the
resistive element of the potentiometer the ma$imum output voltage would be 89 volts and the wiper will vary the output
signal from 9 to 89 volts, with ? volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at the half/way centre position.
"otentiometer Construction
he output signal &6out' from the potentiometer is taken from the centre wiper connection as it moves along the resistive
track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.
'(ample of a simple "ositional Sensing Circuit
Ahile resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantagesE low cost, low tech, easy to use etc, as a position
sensor they also have many disadvantagesE wear due to moving parts, low accuracy, low repeatability, and limited
fre"uency response. %ut one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor is that the range of
movement of its wiper or slide &and hence the output signal obtained' is limited to the physical si7e of the potentiometer
being used. For e$ample a single turn rotational potentiometer generally only has a fi$ed electrical rotation between about
;:9 to CC9
o
however, multi/turn pots of up to CB99
o
of electrical rotation are also available. )ost types of potentiometers use
carbon film for their resistive track, but these types are electrically noisy &the crackle on a radio volume control', and also
have a short mechanical life. Aire/wound pots also known as rheostats, in the form of either a straight wire or wound coil
resistive wire can also be used, but wire wound pots suffer from resolution problems as their wiper Dumps from one wire
segment to the ne$t producing a logarithmic &,O4' output resulting in errors in the output signal. hese too suffer from
electrical noise.
For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer film or cermet type
potentiometers are now available. hese pots have a smooth low friction electrically linear &,*N' resistive track giving them a
low noise, long life and e$cellent resolution and are available as both multi/turn and single turn devices. ypical applications
for this type of high accuracy position sensor is in computer game Doysticks, steering wheels, industrial and robot
applications.
Inductive "osition Sensors&
Linear )aria*le Differential Transformer
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the ",inear 6ariable #ifferential
ransformer" or LVDT for short. his is an inductive type position sensor which works on the same principle as the +!
transformer that is used to measure movement. *t is a very accurate device for measuring linear displacement and whose
output is proportional to the position of its moveable core.
*t basically consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the primary coil and the other two coils
forming identical secondaries connected electrically together in series but 8=9
o
out of phase either side of the primary coil. +
moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core &sometimes called an "armature"' which is connected to the obDect being measured,
slides or moves up and down inside the tube. + small +! reference voltage called the "e$citation signal" &; / ;96 rms, ; /
;9k37' is applied to the primary winding which inturn induces an 1)F signal into the two adDacent secondary windings
&transformer principles'.
*f the soft iron magnetic core armature is e$actly in the centre of the tube and the windings, "null position", the two induced
emf2s in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as they are 8=9
o
out of phase, so the resultant output voltage is
7ero. +s the core is displaced slightly to one side or the other from this null or 7ero position, the induced voltage in one of
the secondaries will be become greater than that of the other secondary and an output will be produced. he polarity of the
output signal depends upon the direction and displacement of the moving core. he greater the movement of the soft iron
core from its central null position the greater will be the resulting output signal. he result is a differential voltage output
which varies linearly with the cores position. herefore, the output signal has both an amplitude that is a linear function of
the cores displacement and a polarity that indicates direction of movement. he phase of the output signal can be compared
to the primary coil e$citation phase enabling suitable electronic circuits such as the +#?>; ,6# Sensor +mplifier to know
which half of the coil the magnetic core is in and thereby know the direction of travel.
The Linear )aria*le Differential Transformer
Ahen the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the output voltages changes from
ma$imum to 7ero and back to ma$imum again but in the process changes its phase angle by 8=9 deg2s. his enables the
,6# to produce an output +! signal whose magnitude represents the amount of movement from the centre position and
whose phase angle represents the direction of movement of the core. + typical application of this type of sensor would be a
pressure transducers, were the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to produce a force. +dvantages of
the linear variable differential transformer, or ,6# compared to a resistive potentiometer are that its linearity, that is its
voltage output to displacement is e$cellent, very good accuracy, good resolution, high sensitivity as well as frictionless
operation and is sealed against hostile environments.
Inductive "ro(imity Sensors&
+nother type of inductive sensor in common use is the Inductive "ro(imity Sensor also called an Eddy current sensor.
Ahile they do not actually measure displacement or angular rotation they are mainly used to detect the presence of an
obDect in front of them or within a close pro$imity, hence the name pro$imity sensors.
.ro$imity sensors, are non/contact devices that use a magnetic field for detection with the simplest magnetic sensor being
the reed switch. *n an inductive sensor, a coil is wound around an iron core within an electromagnetic field to form an
inductive loop. Ahen a ferromagnetic material is placed within the eddy current field generated around the sensor, such as a
ferromagnetic metal plate or metal screw, the inductance of the coil changes significantly. he pro$imity sensors detection
circuit detects this change producing an output voltage. herefore, inductive pro$imity sensors operate under the electrical
principle of araday+s La! of inductance.
Inductive "ro(imity Sensors
+n inductive pro$imity sensor has four main componentsF he oscillator which produces the electromagnetic field,
the coil which generates the magnetic field, the detection circuit which detects any change in the field when an obDect enters
it and the output circuit which produces the output signal, either with normally closed &N!' or normally open &NO' contacts.
*nductive pro$imity sensors allow for the detection of metallic obDects in front of the sensor head without any physical contact
of the obDect itself being detected. his makes them ideal for use in dirty or wet environments. he "sensing" range of
pro$imity sensors is very small, typically 9.8mm to 8;mm.
"ro(imity Sensor
+s well as industrial applications, inductive pro$imity sensors are also used to control the changing of traffic lights at
Dunctions and cross roads. -ectangular inductive loops of wire are buried into the tarmac road surface and when a car or
other road vehicle passes over the loop, the metallic body of the vehicle changes the loops inductance and activates the
sensor thereby alerting the traffic lights controller that there is a vehicle waiting.
One main disadvantage of these types of sensors is that they are "Omni/directional", that is they will sense a metallic obDect
either above, below or to the side of it. +lso, they do not detect non/metallic obDects althoughCapacitive "ro(imity
Sensors and ,ltrasonic "ro(imity Sensors are available. Other commonly available magnetic position sensor includeE
reed switches, hall effect sensors and variable reluctance sensors.
%otary 'ncoders&
%otary 'ncoders resemble potentiometers mentioned earlier but are non/contact optical devices used for converting the
angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or digital data code. *n other words, they convert mechanical movement
into an electrical signal &preferably digital'. +ll optical encoders work on the same basic principle. ,ight from an L'D or
infra$red light source is passed through a rotating high/resolution encoded disk that contains the re"uired code patterns,
either binary, grey code or %!#. .hoto detectors scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic circuit processes the
information into a digital form as a stream of binary output pulses that are fed to counters or controllers which determine the
actual angular position of the shaft.
here are two basic types of rotary optical encoders, Incremental 'ncoders and A*solute "osition 'ncoders.
Incremental 'ncoder
Incremental 'ncoders, also known as "uadrature encoders or relative rotary encoder, are the simplest of the two position
sensors. heir output is a series of s"uare wave pulses generated by a photocell arrangement as the coded disk, with
evenly spaced transparent and dark lines called segments on its surface, moves or rotates past the light source. he
encoder produces a stream of s"uare wave pulses which, when counted, indicates the angular position of the rotating shaft.
*ncremental encoders have two outputs called "uadrature outputs that are >9
o
out of phase and the direction of rotation can
be determined from output se"uence. he number of transparent and dark segments or slots on the disk determines the
resolution of the device and increasing the number of lines in the pattern increases the resolution per degree of rotation.
ypical encoded discs have a resolution of up to ;?B pulses or =/bits per rotation.
he simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. *t has one single s"uare wave output and is often used in
unidirectional applications where basic position or speed information only is re"uired. he "(uadrature" or "Sine wave"
encoder is the more common and has two output s"uare waves commonly called channel A and channel B. his device
uses two photo detectors, slightly offset from each other by >9
o
thereby producing two separate sine and cosine output
signals.
Simple Incremental 'ncoder
%y using the Arc Tangent mathematical function the angle of the shaft in radians can be calculated. 4enerally, the optical
disk used in rotary position encoders is circular, then the resolution of the output will be given asE G H CB9/n,
where n e"uals the number of segments on coded disk. hen for e$ample, the number of segments re"uired to give an
incremental encoder a resolution of 8
o
will beE 8
o
H CB9/n, therefore, n H CB9 windows, etc. +lso the direction of rotation is
determined by noting which channel produces an output first, either channel + or channel % giving two directions of rotation,
+ leads % or % leads +. his arrangement is shown below.
Incremental 'ncoder Output
One main disadvantage of incremental encoders when used as a position sensor, is that they re"uire e$ternal counters to
determine the absolute angle of the shaft within a given rotation. *f the power is momentarily shut off, or if the encoder
misses a pulse due to noise or a dirty disc, the resulting angular information will produce an error. One way of overcoming
this disadvantage is to use absolute position encoders.
A*solute "osition 'ncoder
A*solute "osition 'ncoders are more comple$ than "uadrature encoders. hey provide a uni"ue output code for every
single position of rotation indicating both position and direction. heir coded disk consists of multiple concentric "tracks" of
light and dark segments. 1ach track is independent with its own photo detector to simultaneously read a uni"ue coded
position value for each angle of movement. he number of tracks on the disk corresponds to the binary "bit"/resolution of
the encoder so a 8;/bit absolute encoder would have 8; tracks and the same coded value only appears once per
revolution.
-$*it Binary Coded Disc
One main advantage of an absolute encoder is its non/volatile memory which retains the e$act position of the encoder
without the need to return to a "home" position if the power fails. )ost rotary encoders are defined as "single/turn" devices,
but absolute multi/turn devices are available, which obtain feedback over several revolutions by adding e$tra code disks.
ypical application of absolute position encoders are in computer hard drives and !#/#6# drives were the absolute position
of the drives read/write heads are monitored or in printers/plotters to accurately position the printing heads over the paper.
*n this tutorial about "osition Sensors, we have looked at several e$amples of sensors that can be used to measure the
position or presence of obDects. *n the ne$t tutorial we will look at sensors that are used to measure temperature such as
thermistors, thermostats and thermocouples.
Temperature Sensors
he most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which detect Temperature or heat. hese types of temperature
sensors vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which control a domestic hot water system to highly sensitive
semiconductor types that can control comple$ process control plants. Ae remember from our school science classes that
the movement of molecules and atoms produces heat &kinetic energy' and the more movement, the more heat is
generated. Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is generated by an obDect or
system, and can "sense" or detect any physical change to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.
here are many different types of Temperature Sensors available and all have different characteristics depending upon
their actual application. emperature sensors consist of two basic physical typesE
!ontact ypes / hese types of temperature sensor are re"uired to be in physical contact with the obDect being
sensed and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature. hey can be used to detect solids, li"uids or gases over a
wide range of temperatures.

Non/contact ypes / hese types of temperature sensor use convection and radiation to monitor changes in
temperature. hey can be used to detect li"uids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the
bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an obDect in the form of infra/red radiation
&the sun'.
he two basic types of contact or even non/contact temperature sensors can also be sub/divided into the following three
groups of sensors, Electro-mechanical, Resistive and Electronic and all three types are discussed below.
The Thermostat
he Thermostat is a contact type electro/mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of two different
metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi$metallic strip. he different
linear e$pansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the strip is subDected to
heat. he bi/metallic strip is used as a switch in the thermostat and are used e$tensively to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling systems.
The Bi$metallic Thermostat
he thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. Ahen it is cold the contacts are
closed and current passes through the thermostat. Ahen it gets hot, one metal e$pands more than the other and the
bonded bi/metallic strip bends up &or down' opening the contacts preventing the current from flowing.
On/Off Thermostat
here are two main types of bi/metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when subDected to temperature changes,
"snap/action" types that produce an instantaneous "ON/OFF" or "OFF/ON" type action on the electrical contacts and the
slower "creep/action" types that gradually change their position as the temperature changes. Snap/action thermostats are
commonly used in homes for controlling the temperature of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and on walls to control
the domestic heating system.
!reeper types generally consist of a bi/metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils/up as the temperature changes.
4enerally, creeper type bi/metallic strips are more sensitive to temperature changes than the standard snap ON/OFF types
as the strip is longer and thinner making them ideal for use in temperature gauges and dials etc.
One main disadvantage of the standard snap/action type thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they have
a large hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts open until when they close for e$ample, set to ;9
o
! but may not
open until ;;
o
! or close again until 8=
o
!. So the range of temperature swing can be "uite high. !ommercially available bi/
metallic thermostats for home use do have temperature adDustment screws that allow for a desired set/point and even its
hysteresis level to be pre/set and are available over a wide operating range.
The Thermistor
he Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the words31-)/ally sensitive
res/*SO-. + thermistor is a type of resistor which changes its physical resistance with changes in temperature.
Thermistor
hermistors are generally made from ceramic type semiconductor materials such as o$ides of nickel, manganese or cobalt
coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. )ost types of thermistor2s have a Negative Temperature Coeicient of
resistance or !NTC", that is their resistance value goes #OAN with an increase in the temperature but some with a #ositive
Temperature Coeicient$ !#TC", their resistance value goes <. with an increase in temperature are also available. heir
main advantage is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and repeatability.
hermistors are made of a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal o$ide technology such as manganese, cobalt
and nickel, etc. he semiconductor material is generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically
sealed to give a relatively fast response to any changes in temperature. hey are rated by their resistive value at room
temperature &usually at ;?
o
!', their time constant &the time to react to the temperature change' and their power rating with
respect to the current flowing through them. ,ike resistors, thermistors are available with resistance values at room
temperature from 892s of )I down to Dust a few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those types with values in the kilo/ohms
are generally used.
hermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to produce a measurable
voltage output. hen thermistors are generally connected in series with a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider
network and the choice of resistor gives a voltage output at some pre/determined temperature point or value for e$ampleE
'(ample No.
he following thermistor has a resistance value of 89JI at ;?
o
! and a resistance value of 899I at 899
o
!. !alculate the
voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage &6out' for both temperatures when connected in series with
a 8kI resistor across a 8;v power supply.
+t /0
o
C
+t .11
o
C
by changing the fi$ed resistor value of -; &in our e$ample 8kI' to a potentiometer or preset, a voltage output can be
obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for e$ample, ?v output at B9
o
! and by varying the potentiometer a
particular output voltage level can be obtained over a wider temperature range.
*t needs to be noted however, that thermistor2s are non/linear devices and their standard resistance values at room
temperature is different between different thermistor2s, which is due mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made
from. he Thermistor, have an e$ponential change with temperature and therefore have a %eta temperature constant & K '
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point. 3owever, when used with a series resistor
such as in a voltage divider network or Ahetstone %ridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage
applied to the divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. hen, the output voltage across the resistor becomes linear
with temperature.
%esistive Temperature Detectors 2%TD3&
+nother type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the %esistance Temperature Detector or%TD. -#2s are
precision temperature sensors made from high/purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a
coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. +lso available are
thin/film -#2s. hese devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.
%TD
-esistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients &.!' but unlike the thermistor their output is
e$tremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature. 3owever, they have poor sensitivity, that is a
change in temperature only produces a very small output change for e$ample, 8I/
o
!. he more common types of -#2s are
made from platinum and are called"latinum %esistance Thermometer or "%T2s with the most commonly available of them
all the .t899 sensor, which has a standard resistance value of 899I at 9
o
!. 3owever, .latinum is e$pensive and one of the
main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.
,ike the thermistor, -#2s are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through the temperature sensor it
is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with temperature. + typical -# has a base resistance of about
899I at 9
o
!, increasing to about 8:9I at 899
o
! with an operating temperature range of between /;99 to LB99
o
!.
%ecause the -# is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor the resulting voltage. 3owever,
any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as the current flows through it, *
;
-, &Ohms La!' causes
an error in the readings. o avoid this, the -# is usually connected into a Ahetstone %ridge network which has additional
connecting wires for lead/compensation and/or connection to a constant current source.
The Thermocouple
he Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensing devices due to its simplicity, ease
of use and their speed of response to changes in temperature, due mainly to their small si7e. hermocouples also have the
widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below /;99
o
! to well over ;999
o
!.
hermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two Dunctions of dissimilar metals, such as copper and
constantan that are welded or crimped together. One Dunction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference &!old'
Dunction, while the other the measuring &3ot' Dunction. Ahen the two Dunctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is
developed across the Dunction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as shown below.
Thermocouple Construction
he principle of operation is that the Dunction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan, produces a
"thermo/electric" effect that produces a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts &m6' between them. he voltage
difference between the two Dunctions is called the "Seebeck effect" as a temperature gradient is generated along the
conducting wires producing an emf. hen the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.
*f both the Dunctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two Dunctions is 7ero in other words, no
voltage output as 68 H 6;. 3owever, when the Dunctions are connected within a circuit and are both at different temperatures
a voltage output will be detected relative to the difference in temperature between the two Dunctions, 68 / 6;. his difference
in voltage will increase with temperature until the Dunctions peak voltage level is reached and this is determined by the
characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.
hermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling e$treme temperatures of between /;99
o
! to over
L;999
o
! to be measured. Aith such a large choice of materials and temperature range, internationally recognised
standards have been developed complete with thermocouple colour codes to allow the user to choose the correct
thermocouple sensor for a particular application. he %ritish colour code for standard thermocouples is given below.
Thermocouple Sensor Colour Codes
Extension and Compensating Leads
!ode
ype
!onductors &L//' Sensitivity
%ritish
%S 8=:CE8>?;
'
Nickel !hromium /
!onstantan
/;99 to >99
o
!
4 *ron / !onstantan 9 to M?9
o
!
5
Nickel !hromium /
Nickel +luminium
/;99 to 8;?9
o
!
N Nicrosil / Nisil 9 to 8;?9
o
!
T !opper / !onstantan /;99 to C?9
o
!
,
!opper / !opper Nickel
!ompensating for
"S" and "-"
9 to 8:?9
o
!
he three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature measurement are %ron-
Constantan &ype 5', Copper-Constantan &ype ', and Nic&el-Chromium &ype J'. he output voltage from a thermocouple
is very small, only a few millivolts &m6' for a 89
o
! change in temperature difference and because of this small voltage output
some form of amplification is generally re"uired.
Thermocouple Amplification
he type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an Operational Amplifier needs to be carefully selected, because
good drift stability is re"uired to prevent recalibration of the thermocouple at fre"uent intervals. his makes the chopper and
instrumentation type of amplifier preferable for most temperature sensing applications.
Other types of Temperature Sensor not mentioned here include, Semiconductor 5unction Sensors, *nfra/red and hermal
-adiation Sensors, )edical type hermometers, *ndicators and !olour !hanging *nks or #yes.
*n this tutorial about Temperature Sensors, we have looked at several e$amples of sensors that can be used to measure
changes in temperature. *n the ne$t tutorial we will look at sensors that are used to measure light "uantity, such as
.hotodiodes, .hototransistors, .hotovoltaic !ells and the ,ight #ependant -esistor.
Light Sensors
+ Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that e$ists in a
very narrow range of fre"uencies basically called "light", and which ranges in fre"uency from "*nfrared" to "6isible" up to
"<ltraviolet" light spectrum. he light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light energy" whether visible or in the
infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. ,ight sensors are more commonly known as ".hotoelectric
#evices" or ".hoto Sensors" becuse the convert light energy &photons' into electricity &electrons'.
.hotoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which generate electricity when illuminated, such
as #hoto-voltaics or #hoto-emissives etc, and those which change their electrical properties in some way such as #hoto-
resistors or #hoto-conductors. his leads to the following classification of devices.
.hoto/emissive !ells / hese are photodevices which release free electrons from a light sensitive material
such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. he amount of energy the photons have depends on the
fre"uency of the light and the higher the fre"uency, the more energy the photons have converting light energy into electrical
energy.

.hoto/conductive !ells / hese photodevices vary their electrical resistance when subDected to light.
.hotoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material which controls the current flow through it. hus, more
light increase the current for a given applied voltage. he most common photoconductive material is !admium Sulphide
used in ,#- photocells.

.hoto/voltaic !ells / hese photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the radiant light energy received and
is similar in effect to photoconductivity. ,ight energy falls on to two semiconductor materials sandwiched together creating a
voltage of appro$imately 9.?6. he most common photovoltaic material is Selenium used in solar cells.

.hoto/Dunction #evices / hese photodevices are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the photodiode
or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons and holes across their .N/Dunction. .hotoDunction devices
are specifically designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral response tuned to the wavelength
of incident light.
The "hotoconductive Cell
+ "hotoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its physical properties when subDected to
light energy. he most common type of photoconductive device is the #hotoresistorwhich changes its electrical resistance in
response to changes in the light intensity. .hotoresistors areSemiconductor devices that use light energy to control the
flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through them. he commonly used #hotoconductive Cell is called the Light
Dependant %esistoror LD%.
The Light Dependant %esistor
LD%
+s its name implies, the Light Dependant %esistor &,#-' is made from a piece of e$posed semiconductor material such
as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred
Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole/electron pairs in the material. he net effect is an improvement in its
conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an increase in illumination. +lso, photoresistive cells have a long response
time re"uiring many seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.
)aterials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide &.bS', lead selenide &.bSe', indium antimonide &*nSb'
which detect light in the infra/red range with the most commonly used of all photoresistive light sensors being Cadmium
Sulphide &!ds'. !admium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its spectral response
curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source. ypically
then, it has a peak sensitivity wavelength &Np' of about ?B9nm to B99nm in the visible spectral range.
The Light Dependant %esistor Cell
he most commonly used photoresistive light sensors is the O%"./ !admium Sulphide photoconductive cell. his light
depedant resistor has a spectral response of about B89nm in the yellow to orange region of light. he resistance of the cell
when unilluminated &dark resistance' is very high at about 89)I2s which falls to about 899I2s when fully illuminated &lit
resistance'. o increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a 7ig7ag pattern
across the ceramic substrate. he !dS photocell is a very low cost device often used in auto dimming, darkness or twilight
detection for turning the street lights "ON" and "OFF", and for photographic e$posure meter type applications.
One simple use of a ,ight #ependant -esistor, is as a light sensitive switch as shown below.
LD% S!itch
his basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. + potential divider circuit is formed between the
photoresistor, ,#- and the resistor -8. Ahen no light is present ie in darkness, the resistance of the ,#- is very high in
the )egaohms range so 7ero base bias is applied to the transistor -8 and the relay is de/energised or "OFF".
+s the light level increases the resistance of the,#- starts to decrease causing the base bias voltage at 68 to rise. +t
some point determined by the potential divider network formed with resistor -8, the base bias voltage is high enough to turn
the transistor -8 "ON" and thus activate the relay which inturn is used to control some e$ternal circuitry. +s the light level
falls back to darkness again the resistance of the ,#- increases causing the base voltage of the transistor to decrease,
turning the transistor and relay "OFF" at a fi$ed light level determined again by the potential divider network.
%y replacing the fi$ed resistor -8 with a potentiometer 6-8, the point at which the relay turns "ON" or "OFF" can be pre/set
to a particular light level. his type of simple circuit shown above has a fairly low sensitivity and its switching point may not
be consistent due to variations in either temperature or the supply voltage. + more sensitive precision light activated circuit
can be easily made by incorporating the ,#- into a "Aheatstone %ridge" arrangement and replacing the transistor with
an Operational Amplifier as shown.
Light Level Sensing Circuit
*n this basic circuit the light dependant resistor, ,#-8 and the potentiometer 6-8 form one arm of a simple Aheatstone
bridge network and the two fi$ed resistors -8 and -; forming the other arm. %oth sides of the bridge form potential divider
networks whose outputs 68 and 6; are both connected to the inverting and non/inverting voltage inputs respectively of the
operational amplifier. he configuration of the operational amplifier is as a Differential Amplifier also known as a voltage
comparator with its output signal being the difference between the two input signals or voltages, 6; / 68. he feedback
resistor -f can be chosen to give a suitable amplifier voltage gain if re"uired.
he resistor combination -8 and -; form a fi$ed reference voltage input 6;, set by the ratio of the two resistors and
the ,#- / 6-8 combination a variable voltage input 68. +s with the previous circuit the output from the operational
amplifier is used to control a relay, which is protected by a free wheel diode,#8. Ahen the light level sensed by the ,#- and
its output voltage falls below the reference voltage at 6;the output from the op/amp changes activating the relay and
switching the connected load. ,ikewise as the light level increases the output will switch back turning "OFF" the relay.
he operation of this type of circuit can also be reversed to switch the relay "ON" when the light level e$ceeds the reference
voltage level and vice versa by reversing the positions of the light sensor ,#- and the potentiometer 6-8. he
potentiometer can be used to "pre/set" the switching point of the differential amplifier to any particular light level making it
ideal as a light sensor circuit.
"hoto6unction Devices
"hoto6unction Devices are basically "N$4unction light sensors or detectors made from silicon semiconductor .N/
Dunctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both visible light and infrared light levels. .hoto/Dunction devices
are specifically made for sensing light and this class of photoelectric light sensors include the #hotodiode and
the #hototransistor.
The "hotodiode&
"hoto$diode
he construction of the "hotodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional .N/Dunction diode e$cept that the diodes
outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the .N Dunction for increased sensitivity. he
Dunction will respond to light particularly longer wavelengths such as red and infrared rather than visible light.
his characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or glass bead bodies such as the 8N:8:= signal
diode. L'D+s can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit and detect light from their Dunction. +ll .N/Dunctions
are light sensitive and can be used in a photo/conductive unbiased voltage mode with the .N/Dunction of the photodiode
always "-everse %iased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can flow.
he current/voltage characteristic &*/6 !urves' of a photodiode with no light on its Dunction &dark mode' is very similar to a
normal signal or rectifying diode. Ahen the photodiode is forward biased, there is an e$ponential increase in the current, the
same as for a normal diode. Ahen a reverse bias is applied, a small reverse saturation current appears which causes an
increase of the depletion region, which is the sensitive part of the Dunction. .hotodiodes can also be connected in a current
mode using a fi$ed bias voltage across the Dunction. he current mode is very linear over a wide range.
"hoto$diode Construction and Characteristics
Ahen used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current &9 lu$' is about 89u+ for geranium and 8u+ for silicon type diodes.
Ahen light falls upon the Dunction more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current increases. his leakage
current increases as the illumination of the Dunction increases. hus, the photodiodes current is directly proportional to light
intensity falling onto the .N/Dunction. One main advantage of photodiodes when used as light sensors is their fast response
to changes in the light levels, but one disadvantage of this type of photodevice is the relatively small current flow even when
fully lit.
he following circuit shows a photo/current/to/voltage convertor circuit using an operational amplifier as the amplifying
device. he output voltage &6out' is given as 6out H *p O -f and which is proportional to the light intensity characteristics of
the photodiode. his type of circuit also utili7es the characteristics of an operational amplifier with two input terminals at
about 7ero voltage to operate the photodiode without bias. his 7ero/bias op/amp configuration gives a high impedance
loading to the photodiode resulting in less influence by dark current and a wider linear range of the photocurrent relative to
the radiant light intensity. !apacitor !f is used to prevent oscillation or gain peaking and to set the output bandwidth
&8/;P-!'.
"hoto$diode Amplifier Circuit
"hotodiodes are very versatile light sensors that can turn its current flow both "ON" and "OFF" in nanoseconds and are
commonly used in cameras, light meters, !# and #6#/-O) drives, 6 remote controls, scanners, fa$ machines and
copiers etc, and when integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser scanning and positioning systems
etc.
The "hototransistor
"hoto$transistor
+n alternative photo/Dunction device to the photodiode is the "hototransistor which is basically a photodiode with
amplification. he .hototransistor light sensor has its collector/base .N/Dunction reverse biased e$posing it to the radiant
light source. .hototransistors operate the same as the photodiode e$cept that they can provide current gain and are much
more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are ?9 to 899 times greater than that of the standard photodiode and any
normal transistor can be easily converted into a phototransistor light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the
collector and base.
.hototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar N"N Transistor with its large base region electrically unconnected, although
some phototransistors allow a base connection to control the sensitivity, and which uses photons of light to generate a base
current which inturn causes a collector to emitter current to flow. )ost phototransistors are N.N types whose outer casing is
either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base Dunction for increased sensitivity.
"hoto$transistor Construction and Characteristics
*n the N.N transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that the base/collector Dunction is
reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the Dunction normal leakage or dark current flows which is very small. Ahen light
falls on the base more electron/hole pairs are formed in this region and the current produced by this action is amplified by
the transistor. he sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the #! current gain of the transistor. herefore, the overall
sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be controlled by connecting a resistance between the base and the
emitter but for very high sensitivity optocoupler type applications, #arlington phototransistors are generally used.
"hoto$darlington
"hotodarlington transistors use a second bipolar N.N transistor to provide additional amplification or when higher
sensitivity of a photodetector is re"uired due to low light levels or selective sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of
an ordinary N.N phototransistor.
.hoto darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is coupled to the base of a larger bipolar
N.N transistor. %ecause a darlington transistor configuration gives a current gain e"ual to a product of the current gains of
two individual transistors, a photodarlington device produces a very sensitive detector.
ypical applications of "hototransistors light sensors are in opto/isolators, slotted opto switches, light beam sensors, fibre
optics and 6 type remote controls, etc. *nfrared filters are sometimes re"uired when detecting visible light.
+nother type of photoDunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is the "hoto$thyristor. his is a light activated
thyristor or Silicon Controlled %ectifier, SC% that can be used as a light activated switch in +! applications. 3owever their
sensitivity is usually very low compared to photodiodes or phototransistors, as to increase their sensitivity to light they are
made thinner around the gate Dunction which inturn limits the amount of current that they can switch. hen for higher current
+! applications they are used as pilot devices in opto/couplers to switch larger more conventional thyristors.
"hotovoltaic Cells&
he most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. Solar cells convert light energy directly into #!
electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current to a resistive load such as a light, battery or motor. hen photovoltaic
cells are similar to a battery because they supply #! power. <nlike the other photo devices above which use light intensity
even from a torch to operate, photvoltaic cells work best using the suns radiant energy. Solar cells are used in many
different types of applications to offer an alternative power source from conventional batteries, such as in calculators,
satellites and now in homes offering a form of renewable power.
"hotovoltaic Cell
"hotovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon .N Dunctions, the same as photodiodes with a very large light
sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias. hey have the same characteristics as a very large photodiode when
in the dark. Ahen illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the .N Dunction and an individual solar cell
can generate an open circuit voltage of about 9.?=v &?=9m6'. Solar cells have a ".ositive" and a "Negative" side Dust like a
battery.
*ndividual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which increases the output voltage or
connected together in parallel to increase the available current. !ommercially available solar panels are rated in Aatts,
which is the product of the output voltage and current &6olts times +mps' when fully lit.
Characteristics of a typical "hotovoltaic Solar Cell&
he amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the si7e of the celland its efficiency which
is generally very low at around 8? to ;9@. o increase the overall efficiency of the cell commercially available solar cells use
polycrystalline silicon or amorphous silicon, which have no crystalline structure, and can generate currents of between ;9 to
:9m+ per cm
;
. Other materials used include 4allium +rsenide, !opper *ndium #iselenide and !admium elluride. hese
different materials each have a different spectrum band response, and so can be "tuned" to produce an output voltage at
different wavelengths of light.
*n this tutorial about Light Sensors, we have looked at several e$amples of sensors those with and those without .N/
Dunctions that can be used to measure the intensity of light. *n the ne$t tutorial we will look at output devices
called Actuators. +ctuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical "uantity such as movement, force, or
sound. One such commonly used output device is the %elay.
'lectrical %elays
hus far we have seen a selection of %nput devices that can be used to detect or "sense" a variety of physical variables and
signals and are therefore called Sensors. %ut there are also a variety of devices which are classed as 'utput devices used
to control or operate some e$ternal physical process. hese output devices are commonly called Actuators.
+ctuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical "uantity such as movement, force, sound etc. +n
actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical "uantity into another and is usually activated or
operated by a low voltage command signal. +ctuators can be classed as either binary or continuous devices based upon the
number of stable states their output has. For e$ample, a relay is a binary actuator as it has two stable states, either latched
and unlatched while a motor is a continuous actuator because it can rotate through a full CB9
o
motion. he most common
types of actuators or output devices are 'lectrical %elays, Lights, 7otors and Loudspea8ers and in this tutorial we will
look at electrical relays, also called electromechanical relays and solid state relays or SS-2s.
The 'lectromechanical %elay
he term %elay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection between two or more points in response
to the application of a control signal. he most common and widely used type of electrical relay is the electromechanical
relay or 1)-.
'lectrical %elay
he most fundamental control of any e"uipment is the ability to turn it "ON" and "OFF". he easiest way to do this is using
switches to interrupt the electrical supply. +lthough switches can be used to control something, they have their
disadvantages. he biggest one is that they have to be manually &physically' turned "ON" or "OFF". +lso, they are relatively
large, slow and only switch small electrical currents.
'lectrical %elays however, are basically electrically operated switches that come in many shapes, si7es and power ratings
suitable for all types of applications with the larger power relays being called "contactors". *n this tutorial about electrical
relays we are Dust concerned with the fundamental operating principles of "light duty" electromechanical relays. Such relays
are used in general electrical and electronic control or switching circuits either mounted directly onto .!% boards or
connected free standing and in which the load currents are normally fractions of an ampere up to ;9L amperes.
+s their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert a magnetic flu$ generated by the
application of a low voltage electrical control signal either +! or #! across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical
force which operates the electrical contacts within the relay. he most common form of electromechanical relay consist of an
energi7ing coil called the "primary circuit" wound around a permeable iron core. *t has both a fi$ed portion called the yoke,
and a moveable spring loaded part called the armature, that completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap
between the fi$ed electrical coil and the moveable armature. his armature is hinged or pivoted and is free to move within
the generated magnetic field closing the electrical contacts that are attached to it. !onnected between the yoke and
armature is normally a spring &or springs' for the return stroke to "reset" the contacts back to their initial rest position when
the relay coil is in the "de/energi7ed" condition, ie. turned "OFF".
'lectromechanical %elay Construction
*n our simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. -elays may be "Normally Open", or
"Normally !losed". One pair of contacts are classed as Normally Open9 2NO3 or make contacts and another set which are
classed as Normally Closed9 2NC3 or break contacts. *n the normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the
field current is "ON" and the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil. *n the normally closed position, the
contacts are permanently closed when the field current is "OFF" as the switch contacts return to their normal position. hese
terms Normally 'pen$ Normally Closed or (a&e and Brea& Contacts refer to the state of the electrical contacts when the
relay coil is "de/energi7ed", i.e, no supply voltage connected to the inductive coil. +n e$ample of this arrangement is given
below.
he relays contacts are electrically conductive pieces of metal which touch together completing a circuit and allow the circuit
current to flow, Dust like a switch. Ahen the contacts are open the resistance between the contacts is very high in the )ega/
Ohms, producing an open circuit condition and no circuit current flows.
Ahen the contacts are closed the contact resistance should be 7ero, a short circuit, but this is not always the case. +ll relay
contacts have a certain amount of "contact resistance" when they are closed and this is called the "On/-esistance", similar
to F12s. Aith a new relay and contacts this ON/resistance will be very small, generally less than 9.;I2s because the tips
are new and clean.
For e$ample. *f the contacts are passing a load current of say 89+, then the voltage drop across the contacts using Ohms
La! is 9.; $ 89 H ; volts, which if the supply voltage is say 8; volts then the load voltage will be only 89 volts &8; / ;'. +s
the contact tips begin to wear, and if they are not properly protected from high inductive or capacitive loads, they will start to
show signs of arcing damage as the circuit current still wants to flow as the contacts begin to open when the relay coil is de/
energi7ed. his arcing or sparking will cause the contact resistance of the tips to increase further as the contact tips become
damaged. *f allowed to continue the contact tips may become so burnt and damaged to the point were they are physically
closed but do not pass any or very little current.
*f this arcing damage becomes to severe the contacts will eventually "weld" together producing a short circuit condition and
possible damage to the circuit they are controlling. *f now the contact resistance has increased due to arcing to say 8I2s the
volt drop across the contacts for the same load current increases to 8 $ 89 H 89 volts dc. his high voltage drop across the
contacts may be unacceptable for the load circuit especially if operating at 8; or even ;: volts, then the faulty relay will have
to be replaced.
o reduce the effects of contact arcing and high "On/resistances", modern contact tips are made of, or coated with, a variety
of silver based alloys to e$tend their life span as given in the following table.
!ontact ip
)aterial
!haracteristics
+g
&fine silver'
1lectrical and thermal conductivity are the highest of all metals, e$hibits low contact
resistance, is ine$pensive and widely used.
!ontacts tarnish through sulphur influence.
+g!u "3ard silver", better wear resistance and less tendency to weld, but slightly higher
&silver copper' contact resistance.
+g!dO
&silver cadmium o$ide'
6ery little tendency to weld, good wear resistance and arc e$tinguishing properties.
+gA
&silver tungsten'
3ardness and melting point are high, arc resistance is e$cellent.
Not a precious metal.
3igh contact pressure is re"uired.
!ontact resistance is relatively high, and resistance to corrosion is poor.
+gNi
&silver nickel'
1"uals the electrical conductivity of silver, e$cellent arc resistance.
+g.d
&silver palladium'
,ow contact wear, greater hardness.
1$pensive.
platinum, gold and
silver alloys
1$cellent corrosion resistance, used mainly for low/current circuits.
-elay manufacturers data sheets give ma$imum contact ratings for resistive #! loads only and this rating is greatly reduced
for either +! loads or highly inductive or capacitive loads. *n order to achieve long life and high reliability when switching +!
currents with inductive or capacitive loads some form of arc suppression or filtering is re"uired across the relay contacts.
his is achieved by connecting an -! Snubber network in parallel with the contacts. he voltage peak, which occurs at the
instant the contacts open, will be safely short circuited by the -! network, thus suppressing any arc generated at the
contact tips. For e$ample.
%elay Snu**er Circuit

%elay Contact Types&
+s well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, &NO' and Normally !losed, &N!' used to describe how the relays
contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can also be classed by their actions. 1lectrical relays can be made up
of one or more individual switch contacts with each "contact" being referred to as a "pole". 1ach one of these contacts or
poles can be connected or "thro)n" together by energi7ing the relays coil and this gives rise to the description of the contact
types as beingE
S.S / Single .ole Single hrow
S.# / Single .ole #ouble hrow
#.S / #ouble .ole Single hrow
#.# / #ouble .ole #ouble hrow
with the action of the contacts being described as "7a8e" &7' or "Brea8" &B'. hen a simple relay with one set of contacts
as shown above can have a contact description ofE
"Single .ole #ouble hrow / &%reak before )ake'", or S.# / &%/)'.
1$amples of Dust some of the more common contact types for relays in circuit or schematic diagrams is given below but
there are many more possible configurations.
%elay Contact Configurations
One final point to remember, it is not advisable to connect relay contacts in parallel to handle higher load currents. For
e$ample, never attempt to supply a 89+ load with two relays in parallel that have ?+ contact ratings each as the relay
contacts never close or open at e$actly the same instant of time, so one relay contact is always overloaded. Ahile relays
can be used to allow low power or computer type circuits to switch a relatively high currents or voltages both "ON" or "OFF".
Never mi$ different load voltages through adDacent contacts within the same relay such as for e$ample, high voltage +!
&;:9v' and low voltage #! &8;v', always use sperate relays.
One of the more important parts of any relay is the coil. his converts electrical current into an electromagnetic flu$ which is
used to operate the relays contacts. he main problem with relay coils is that they are "highly inductive loads" as they are
made from coils of wire. +ny coil of wire has an impedance value made up of resistance &-' and inductance &,' in series
&%L Series Circuit'.
+s the current flows through the coil a self induced magnetic field is generated around it. Ahen the current in the coil is
turned "OFF", a large back emf &electromotive force' voltage is produced as the magnetic flu$ collapses within the coil
&transformer theory'. his induced reverse voltage value may be very high in comparison to the switching voltage, and may
damage any semiconductor device such as a transistor, F1 or microcontroller used to operate the relay coil.
One way of preventing damage to the transistor or any switching semiconductor device, is to connect a reverse biased
diode across the relay coil. Ahen the current flowing through the coil is switched "OFF", an induced back emf is generated
as the magnetic flu$ collapses in the coil. his reverse voltage forward biases the diode which conducts and dissipates the
stored energy preventing any damage to the semiconductor transistor.
Ahen used in this type of application the diode is generally known as a ly!heel Diode. Other types of inductive loads
which re"uire a flywheel diode for protection are solenoids, motors and inductive coils.
+s well as using flywheel #iodes for protection of semiconductor components, other devices used for protection include %C
Snu**er Net!or8s, 7etal O(ide )aristors or 7O) and :ener Diodes.
The Solid State %elay&
Ahile the electromechanical relay &1)-' allows the switching of a load circuit controlled by a low power, electrically
isolated input signal, one of the main disadvantages of an electromechanical relay is that it is a "mechanical device", that is
it has moving parts so their switching speed &response time' due to physically movement of the metal contacts using a
magnetic field is slow. Over a period of time these moving parts will wear out and fail, or that the contact resistance through
the constant arcing and erosion may make the relay unusable and shortens its life. +lso, they are electrically noisy with the
contacts suffering from contact bounce which may affect any electronic circuits to which they are connected.
o overcome these disadvantages of the electrical relay, another type of relay called a Solid State %elayor &SS%' for short
was developed which is a solid state contactless, pure electronic relay. *t has no moving parts with the contacts being
replaced by transistors, thyristors or triacs. he electrical separation between the input control signal and the output load
voltage is accomplished with the aid of an opto/coupler type Light Sensor.
he Solid State %elay provides a high degree of reliability, long life and reduced electromagnetic interference &1)*', &no
arcing contacts or magnetic fields', together with a much faster almost instant response time, as compared to the
conventional electromechanical relay. +lso the input control power re"uirements of the solid state relay are generally low
enough to make them compatible with most *! logic families without the need for additional buffers, drivers or amplifiers.
3owever, being a semiconductor device they must be mounted onto suitable heatsinks to prevent the output switching
semiconductor device from over heating.
Solid State %elay
he +! type Solid State -elay turns "ON" at the 7ero crossing point of the +! sinusoidal waveform, prevents high inrush
currents when switching inductive or capacitive loads while the inherent turn "OFF" feature of thyristors and triacs provides
an improvement over the arcing contacts of the electromechanical relays. ,ike 1)-2s an -! &-esistor/!apacitor' snubber
network is generally re"uired across the output terminals of the SS- to protect the semiconductor output switching device
from noise and voltage transient spikes when used to switch highly inductive or capacitive loads and in most modern SS-2s
this -! snubber network is built as standard into the relay itself. Non/7ero detection switching &instant "ON"' type SS-2s are
also available for phase controlled applications such as the dimming or fading of lights at concerts, shows, disco lighting etc,
or for motor speed control type applications.
+s the output switching device of a solid state relay is a semiconductor device &ransistor for #! switching applications, or a
riac/hyristor combination for +! switching', the voltage drop across the output terminals of an SS- when "ON" is much
higher than that of the electromechanical relay, typically 8.? / ;.9 volts. *f switching large currents for long periods of time an
additional heat sink will be re"uired.
Input/Output Interface 7odules&
Input/Output Interface 7odules, &*/O )odules' are another type of solid state relay designed specifically to interface
computers, micro/controller or .*!2s to "real world" loads and switches. here are four basic types of */O modules available,
+! or #! *nput voltage to , or !)OS logic level output, and , or !)OS logic input to an +! or #! Output voltage with
each module containing all the necessary circuitry to provide a complete interface and isolation within one small device.
hey are available as individual solid state modules or integrated into :, = or 8B channel devices.
7odular Input/Output Interface System&
he main disadvantages of solid state relays &SS-2s' compared to that of an electromechanical relay &1)-' are higher
costs, only single pole single throw &S.S' types available, "OFF"/state leakage currents flow through the switching device,
high "ON"/state voltage drop and power dissipation resulting in additional heat sinking re"uirements. +lso they can not
switch very small load currents or high fre"uency signals such as audio or video signals although Solid State
S!itches are available for this type of application.
*n this tutorial about 'lectrical %elays, we have looked at both the electromechanical relay and the solid state relay which
can be used as an output device &actuator' to control a physical process. *n the ne$t tutorial we will continue our look at
output devices called Actuators and especially one that converts a small electrical signal into a corresponding physical
movement using electromagnetism.
The Linear Solenoid
+nother type of electromagnetic actuator that converts an electrical signal into a magnetic field is called aSolenoid. he
linear solenoid works on the same basic principal as the electromechanical relay &1)-' seen in the previous tutorial and like
relays, they can also be controlled by transistors or )OSF1. +Linear Solenoid is an electromagnetic device that converts
electrical energy into a mechanical pushing or pulling force or motion.
Linear Solenoid
Solenoids basically consist of an electrical coil wound around a cylindrical tube with a ferro/magnetic actuator or "plunger"
that is free to move or slide "*N" and "O<" of the coils body.Solenoids are available in a variety of formats with the more
common types being the linear solenoid also known as the linear electromechanical actuator &,1)+' and the rotary
solenoid with both types being available as either a holding &continuously energised' or a latching type &ON/OFF pulse' with
the latching types being used in either energised or power/off applications. ,inear solenoids can also be designed for
proportional motion control were the plunger position is proportional to the power input.
Ahen electrical current flows through a conductor it generates a magnetic field, and the direction of this magnetic field with
regards to its North and South .oles is determined by the direction of the current flow within the wire. his coil of wire
becomes an "'lectromagnet" with its own north and south poles e$actly the same as that for a permanent type magnet.
he strength of this magnetic field can be increased or decreased by either controlling the amount of current flowing through
the coil or by changing the number of turns or loops that the coil has. +n e$ample of an "1lectromagnet" is given below.
7agnetic ield produced *y a Coil
Ahen an electrical current is passed through the coils windings, it behaves like an electromagnet and the plunger, which is
located inside the coil, is attracted towards the centre of the coil by the magnetic flu$ setup within the coils body, which
inturn compresses a small spring attached to one end of the plunger. he force and speed of the plungers movement is
determined by the strength of the magnetic flu$ generated within the coil. Ahen the supply current is turned "OFF" &de/
energised' the electromagnetic field generated previously by the coil collapses and the energy stored in the compressed
spring forces the plunger back out to its original rest position. his back and forth movement of the plunger is known as the
solenoids "Stroke", in other words the ma$imum distance the plunger can travel in either an "*N" or an "O<" direction, for
e$ample, 9 / C9mm.
Linear Solenoids
his type of solenoid is generally called a Linear Solenoid due to the linear directional movement of the plunger. ,inear
solenoids are available in two basic configurations called a ".ull/type" as it pulls the connected load towards itself when
energised, and the ".ush/type" that act in the opposite direction pushing it away from itself when energised. %oth push and
pull types are generally constructed the same with the difference being in the location of the return spring and design of the
plunger.
"ull$type Linear Solenoid Construction
,inear solenoids are useful in many applications that re"uire an open or closed &in or out' type motion such as electronically
activated door locks, pneumatic or hydraulic control valves, robotics, automotive engine management, irrigation valves to
water the garden and even the "#ing/#ong" door bell has one. hey are available as open frame, closed frame or sealed
tubular types.
%otary Solenoids
)ost electromagnetic solenoids are linear devices producing a linear back and forth force or motion. 3owever, rotational
solenoids are also available which produce an angular or rotary motion from a neutral position in either clockwise, anti/
clockwise or in both directions &bi/directional'.
%otary Solenoid
-otary solenoids can be used to replace small #! motors or stepper motors were the angular movement is very small with
the angle of rotation being the angle moved from the start to the end position. !ommonly available rotary solenoids have
movements of ;?, C?, :?, B9 and >9
o
as well as multiple movements to and from a certain angle such as a ;/position self
restoring or return to 7ero rotation, for e$ample 9/to/>9/to/9
o
, C/position self restoring, for e$ample 9
o
to L:?
o
or 9
o
to /:?
o
as
well as ;/position latching.
-otary solenoids produce a rotational movement when either energised, de/energised, or a change in the polarity of an
electromagnetic field alters the position of a permanent magnet rotor. heir construction consists of an electrical coil wound
around a steel frame with a magnetic disk connected to an output shaft positioned above the coil. Ahen the coil is energised
the electromagnetic field generates multiple north and south poles which repel the adDacent permanent magnetic poles of
the disk causing it to rotate at an angle determined by the mechanical construction of the rotary solenoid.
-otary solenoids are used in vending or gaming machines, valve control, camera shutter with special high speed, low power
or variable positioning solenoids with high force or tor"ue are available such as those used in dot matri$ printers,
typewriters, automatic machines or automotive applications etc.
Solenoid S!itching
4enerally solenoids either linear or rotary operate with the application of a #! voltage, but they can also be used with +!
sinusoidal voltages by using full wave bridge rectifiers to rectify the supply which then can be used to switch the #!
solenoid. Small #! type solenoids can be easily controlled usingTransistor or 7OS'T switches and are ideal for use in
robotic applications, but again as we saw with relays, solenoids are "inductive" devices so some form of electrical protection
is re"uired across the solenoid coil to prevent high back emf voltages from damaging the semiconductor switching device.
*n this case the standard "Flywheel #iode" is used.
S!itching Solenoids using a Transistor
%educing 'nergy Consumption
One of the main disadvantages of solenoids and especially the linear solenoid is that they are "inductive devices" which
convert some of the electrical current into "31+", in other words they get hotQ, and the longer the time that the power is
applied to a solenoid coil, the hotter the coil will become. +lso as the coil heats up, its electrical resistance also changes
allowing more current to flow. Aith a continuous voltage input applied to the coil, the solenoids coil does not have the
opportunity to cool down because the input power is always on. *n order to reduce this self generated heating effect it is
necessary to reduce either the amount of time the coil is energised or reduce the amount of current flowing through it.
One method of consuming less current is to apply a suitable high enough voltage to the solenoid coil so as to provide the
necessary electromagnetic field to operate and seat the plunger but then once activated to reduce the coils supply voltage
to a level sufficient to maintain the plunger in its seated or latched position. One way of achieving this is to connect a
suitable "holding" resistor in series with the solenoids coil, for e$ampleE
%educing Solenoid 'nergy Consumption
3ere, the switch contacts are closed shorting out the resistance and passing full current to the coil windings. Once
energised the contacts which are mechanically connected to the solenoids plunger action open connecting the holding
resistor in series with the solenoids coil. <sing this method, the solenoid can be connected to its voltage supply indefinitely
&continuous duty cycle' as the power consumed by the coil and the heat generated is greatly reduced, which can be up to
=? to >9@ using a suitable power resistor. 3owever, the power consumed by the resistor will also generate a certain amount
of heat, *
;
- &Ohm2s ,aw' and this also needs to be taken into account.
Duty Cycle
+nother more practical way of reducing the heat generated by the solenoids coil is to use an "intermittent duty cycle". +n
intermittent duty cycle means that the coil is repeatedly switched "ON" and "OFF" at a suitable fre"uency so as to activate
the plunger mechanism but not allow it to de/energise during the OFF period of the waveform. *ntermittent duty cycle
switching is a very effective way to reduce the total power consumed by the coil.
he #uty !ycle &@1#' of a solenoid is the portion of the "ON" time that a solenoid is energised and is the ratio of the "ON"
time to the total "ON" and "OFF" time for one complete cycle of operation. *n other words, the cycle time e"uals the
switched/ON time plus the switched/OFF time. #uty cycle is e$pressed as a percentage, for e$ampleE
hen if a solenoid is switched "ON" or energised for C9 seconds and then switched "OFF" for >9 seconds before being re/
energised again, one complete cycle, the total "ON/OFF" cycle time would be 8;9 seconds, &C9L>9' so the solenoids duty
cycle would be calculated as C9/8;9 secs or ;?@. his means that you can determine the solenoids ma$imum switch/ON
time if you know the values of duty cycle and switch/OFF time. For e$ample, the switch/OFF time e"uals 8? secs, duty cycle
e"uals :9@, therefore switch/ON time e"uals 89 secs. + solenoid with a rated #uty !ycle of 899@ means that it has a
continuous voltage rating and can therefore be left "ON" or continuously energised without overheating or damage.
*n this tutorial about solenoids, we have looked at both the Linear Solenoid and the %otary Solenoid as an
electromechanical actuator that can be used as an output device to control a physical process. *n the ne$t tutorial we will
continue our look at output devices called Actuators, and one that converts a electrical signal into a corresponding
rotational movement again using electromagnetism. he type of output device we will look at in the ne$t tutorial is the DC
7otor.
'lectrical 7otors
1lectrical 7otors are continuous actuators that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of a continuous
angular rotation that can be used to rotate pumps, fans, compressors, wheels, etc. +s well as rotary motors, linear motors
are also available. here are basically three types of conventional electrical motor availableE +! type )otors, #! type
)otors and Stepper )otors.
DC 7otor
AC 7otors are generally used in high power single or multi/phase industrial applications were a constant rotational tor"ue
and speed is re"uired to control large loads. *n this tutorial on motors we will look only at simple light duty DC
7otors and Stepper 7otors which are used in many electronics, positional control, microprocessor, .*! and robotic
circuits.
The DC 7otor
he DC 7otor or Direct Current 7otor to give it its full title, is the most commonly used actuator for producing continuous
movement and whose speed of rotation can easily be controlled, making them ideal for use in applications were speed
control, servo type control, and/or positioning is re"uired. + #! motor consists of two parts, a "Stator" which is the stationary
part and a "-otor" which is the rotating part. he result is that there are basically three types of #! )otor available.
%rushed )otor / his type of motor produces a magnetic field in a wound rotor &the part that rotates' by passing
an electrical current through a commutator and carbon brush assembly, hence the term "%rushed". he stators &the
stationary part' magnetic field is produced by using either a wound stator field winding or by permanent magnets. 4enerally
brushed #! motors are cheap, small and easily controlled.

%rushless )otor / his type of motor produce a magnetic field in the rotor by using permanent magnets
attached to it and commutation is achieved electronically. hey are generally smaller but more e$pensive than conventional
brushed type #! motors because they use "3all effect" switches in the stator to produce the re"uired stator field rotational
se"uence but they have better tor"ue/speed characteristics, are more efficient and have a longer operating life than
e"uivalent brushed types.

Servo )otor / his type of motor is basically a brushed #! motor with some form of positional feedback control
connected to the rotor shaft. hey are connected to and controlled by a .A) type controller and are mainly used in
positional control systems and radio controlled models.
Normal #! motors have almost linear characteristics with their speed of rotation being determined by the applied #!
voltage and their output tor"ue being determined by the current flowing through the motor windings. he speed of rotation of
any #! motor can be varied from a few revolutions per minute &rpm' to many thousands of revolutions per minute making
them suitable for electronic, automotive or robotic applications. %y connecting them to gearbo$es or gear/trains their output
speed can be decreased while at the same time increasing the tor"ue output of the motor at a high speed.
The ;Brushed; DC 7otor
+ conventional brushed #! )otor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor called the Stator and the
inner part which rotates producing the movement called the %otor or ;Armature; for #! machines.
he motors wound stator is an electromagnet which consists of electrical coils connected together in a circular configuration
to produce a North/pole then a South/pole then a North/pole etc, type stationary magnetic field system &as opposed to +!
machines whose stator field continually rotates with the applied fre"uency' with the current flowing within these field coils
being known as the motor field current. he stators electromagnetic coils can be connected in series, parallel or both
together &compound' with the armature. + series wound #! motor has the stator field windings connected in series with the
armature while a shunt wound #! motor has the stator field windings connected in parallel with the armature as shown.
Series and Shunt Connected DC 7otor
he rotor or armature of a #! machine consists of current carrying conductors connected together at one end to electrically
isolated copper segments called the commutator. he commutator allows an electrical connection to be made via carbon
brushes &hence the name "%rushed" motor' to an e$ternal power supply as the armature rotates. he magnetic field setup
by the rotor tries to align itself with the stationary stator field causing the rotor to rotate on its a$is, but can not align itself due
to commutation delays. he rotational speed of the motor is dependent on the strength of the rotors magnetic field and the
more voltage that is applied to the motor the faster the rotor will rotate. %y varying this applied #! voltage the rotational
speed of the motor can also be varied.
Conventional 2Brushed3 DC 7otor
.ermanent magnet &.)#!' brushed motors are generally much smaller and cheaper than their e"uivalent wound stator
type #! motor cousins as they have no field winding. *n permanent magnet #! &.)#!' motors these field coils are
replaced with strong rare earth &i.e. Samarium !obolt, or Neodymium *ron %oron' type magnets which have very high
magnetic energy fields. his gives them a much better linear speed/tor"ue characteristic than the e"uivalent wound motors
because of the permanent and sometimes very strong magnetic field, making them more suitable for use in models, robotics
and servos.
+lthough #! brushed motors are very efficient and cheap, problems associated with the brushed #! motor is that sparking
occurs under heavy load conditions between the two surfaces of the commutator and carbon brushes resulting in self
generating heat, short life span and electrical noise due to sparking, which can damage any semiconductor switching device
such as a )OSF1 or transistor. o overcome these disadvantages, Brushless DC 7otors were developed.
The ;Brushless; DC 7otor
he brushless #! motor &%#!)' is very similar to a permanent magnet #! motor, but does not have any brushes to
replace or wear out due to commutator sparking. herefore, little heat is generated in the rotor increasing the motors life.
he design of the brushless motor eliminates the need for brushes by using a more comple$ drive circuit were the rotor
magnetic field is a permanent magnet which is always in synchronisation with the stator field allows for a more precise
speed and tor"ue control. hen the construction of a brushless #! motor is very similar to the +! motor making it a true
synchronous motor but one disadvantage is that it is more e$pensive than an e"uivalent "brushed" motor design.
he control of the brushless #! motors is very different from the normal brushed #! motor, in that it this type of motor
incorporates some means to detect the rotors angular position &or magnetic poles' re"uired to produce the feedback signals
re"uired to control the semiconductor switching devices. he most common position/pole sensor is the 3all element, but
some motors use optical sensors. <sing the 3all sensors signals, the polarity of the electromagnets is switched by the motor
control drive circuitry. hen the motor can be easily synchroni7ed to a digital clock signal, providing precise speed control.
%rushless #! motors can be constructed to have, an e$ternal permanent magnet rotor and an internal electromagnet stator
or an internal permanent magnet rotor and an e$ternal electromagnet stator.
+dvantages of the Brushless DC 7otor compared to its "brushed" cousin is higher efficiencies, high reliability, low electrical
noise, good speed control and more importantly, no brushes or commutator to wear out producing a much higher speed.
3owever their disadvantage is that they are more e$pensive and more complicated to control.
The DC Servo 7otor
DC Servo motors are used in closed loop type applications were the position of the output motor shaft is fed back to the
motor control circuit. ypical positional "Feedback" devices include -esolvers, 1ncoders and .otentiometers as used in
radio control models such as airplanes and boats etc. + servo motor generally includes a built/in gearbo$ for speed
reduction and is capable of delivering high tor"ues directly. he output shaft of a servo motor does not rotate freely as do
the shafts of #! motors because of the gearbo$ and feedback devices attached.
DC Servo 7otor Bloc8 Diagram
+ servo motor consists of a #! motor, reduction gearbo$, positional feedback device and some form of error correction. he
speed or position is controlled in relation to a positional input signal or reference signal applied to the device.
%C Servo 7otor
he error detection amplifier looks at this input signal and compares it with the feedback signal from the motors output shaft
and determines if the motor output shaft is in an error condition and, if so, the controller makes appropriate corrections
either speeding up the motor or slowing it down. his response to the positional feedback device means that the servo
motor operates within a "!losed ,oop System".
+s well as large industrial applications, servo motors are also used in small remote control models and robotics, with most
servo motors being able to rotate up to about 8=9 degrees in both directions making them ideal for accurate angular
positioning. 3owever, these -! type servos are unable to continually rotate at high speed like conventional #! motors
unless specially modified. + servo motor consist of several devices in one package, the motor, gearbo$, feedback device
and error correction for controlling position, direction or speed. hey are controlled using Dust three
wires, #o)er, *round and +ignal Control.
DC 7otor S!itching and Control
Small #! motors can be switched "On" or "Off" by means of switches, relays, transistors or mosfet circuits with the simplest
form of motor control being ",inear" control. his type of circuit uses a bipolarTransistor as a S!itch &+ #arlington
transistor may also be used were a higher current rating is re"uired' to control the motor from a single power supply. %y
varying the amount of base current flowing into the transistor the speed of the motor can be controlled for e$ample, if the
transistor is turned on "half way", then only half of the supply voltage goes to the motor. *f the transistor is turned "fully ON"
&saturated', then all of the supply voltage goes to the motor and it rotates faster. hen for this linear type of control, power is
delivered constantly to the motor as shown below.
,nipolar Transistor S!itch
he simple switching circuit on the left, shows the connections for a ,ni$directional&one direction only' motor control circuit.
+ continuous logic "8" or logic "9" is applied to the input of the circuit to turn the motor "ON" &saturation' or "OFF" &cut/off'
respectively, with the flywheel diode connected across the motor terminals to protect the switching transistor or )OSF1
from any back emf generated by the motor when the transistor turns the supply "OFF".
+s well as the basic "ON/OFF" control the same circuit can also be used to control the motors rotational speed. %y
repeatedly switching the motor current "ON" and "OFF" at a high enough fre"uency, the speed of the motor can be varied
between stand still &9 rpm' and full speed &899@'. his is achieved by varying the proportion of "ON" time &tON' to the "OFF"
time &tOFF' and this can be achieved using a process known as "ulse <idth 7odulation.
"ulse <idth Speed Control
he rotational speed of a #! motor is directly proportional to the mean &average' value of its supply voltage and the higher
this value, up to ma$imum allowed motor volts, the faster the motor will rotate. *n other words more voltage more speed. %y
varying the ratio between the "ON" &tON' time and the "OFF" &tOFF' time durations, called the "#uty -atio", ")ark/Space -atio"
or "#uty !ycle", the average value of the motor voltage and hence its rotational speed can be varied. For simple unipolar
drives the duty ratio K is given asE
and the mean #! output voltage fed to the motor is given asE 6mean H K $ 6supply. hen by varying the width of pulse a,
the motor voltage and hence the power applied to the motor can be controlled and this type of control is called "ulse <idth
7odulation or "<7.
+nother way of controlling the rotational speed of the motor is to vary the fre"uency &and hence the time period of the
controlling voltage' while the "ON" and "OFF" duty ratio times are kept constant. his type of control is called "ulse
re=uency 7odulation or "7. Aith pulse fre"uency modulation, the motor voltage is controlled by applying pulses of
variable fre"uency for e$ample, at a low fre"uency or with very few pulses the average voltage applied to the motor is low,
and therefore the motor speed is slow. +t a higher fre"uency or with many pulses, the average motor terminal voltage is
increased and the motor speed will also increase.
hen, Transistors can be used to control the amount of power applied to a #! motor with the mode of operation being
either ",inear" &varying motor voltage', ".ulse Aidth )odulation" &varying the width of the pulse' or ".ulse Fre"uency
)odulation" &varying the fre"uency of the pulse'.
#$*ridge 7otor Control
Ahile controlling the speed of a #! motor with a single transistor has many advantages it also has one main disadvantage,
the direction of rotation is always the same, its a "<ni/directional" circuit. *n many applications we need to operate the motor
in both directions forward and back. One very good way of achieving this is to connect the motor into a Transistor #$
*ridge circuit arrangement and this type of circuit will give us "%i/directional" #! motor control as shown below.
Basic Bi$directional #$*ridge Circuit
he #$*ridge circuit above, is so named because the basic configuration of the four switches, either electro/mechanical
relays or transistors resembles that of the letter "3" with the motor positioned on the centre bar. he Transistor or
)OSF1 3/bridge is probably one of the most commonly used type of bi/directional #! motor control circuits which uses
"complementary transistor pairs" both N.N and .N. in each branch with the transistors being switched together in pairs to
control the motor. !ontrol input +operates the motor in one direction ie, Forward rotation and input % operates the motor in
the other direction ie, -everse rotation. hen by switching the transistors "ON" or "OFF" in their "diagonal pairs" results in
directional control of the motor.
For e$ample, when transistor -8 is "ON" and transistor -; is "OFF", point + is connected to the supply voltage &L6cc'
and if transistor -C is "OFF" and transistor -: is "ON" point % is connected to 9 volts &4N#'. hen the motor will rotate
in one direction corresponding to motor terminal + being positive and motor terminal % being negative. *f the switching
states are reversed so that -8 is "OFF", -; is "ON", -C is "ON" and -: is "OFF", the motor current will now flow in
the opposite direction causing the motor to rotate in the opposite direction.
hen, by applying opposite logic levels "8" or "9" to the inputs + and % the motors rotational direction can be controlled as
follows.
#$*ridge Truth Ta*le
*nput + *nput % )otor Function
-8 and -: -; and -C
9 9 )otor Stopped &OFF'
8 9 )otor -otates Forward
9 8 )otor -otates -everse
8 8 NO +,,OA1#
*t is important that no other combination of inputs are allowed as this may cause the power supply to be shorted out, ie both
transistors, -8 and -; switched "ON" at the same time, &fuse H bangQ'.
+s with uni/directional #! motor control as seen above, the rotational speed of the motor can also be controlled using .ulse
Aidth )odulation or .A). hen by combining 3/bridge switching with .A) control, both the direction and the speed of the
motor can be accurately controlled. !ommercial off the shelf decoder *!2s such as the SNM?::89 (uad 3alf 3/%ridge *! or
the ,;>=N which has ; 3/%ridges are available with all the necessary control and safety logic built in are specially designed
for 3/bridge bi/directional motor control circuits.
The Stepper 7otor
,ike the #! motor above, Stepper 7otors are also electromechanical actuators that convert a pulsed digital input signal
into a discrete &incremental' mechanical movement are used widely in industrial control applications. + stepper motor is a
type of synchronous brushless motor in that it does not have an armature with a commutator and carbon brushes but has a
rotor made up of many, some types have hundreds of permanent magnetic teeth and a stator with individual windings.
Stepper 7otor
+s it name implies, a stepper motor does not rotate in a continuous fashion like a conventional #! motor but moves in
discrete "Steps" or "*ncrements", with the angle of each rotational movement or step dependant upon the number of stator
poles and rotor teeth the stepper motor has. %ecause of their discrete step operation, stepper motors can easily be rotated a
finite fraction of a rotation, 8.=, C.B, M.? degrees etc. For e$ample, assume a stepper motor completes one full revolution in
899 steps. hen the step angle for the motor is given as CB9 degrees/899 steps H C.B degrees per step. his is commonly
known as the motors Step Angle.
here are three basic types of stepper motor, )aria*le %eluctance,"ermanent 7agnet and #y*rid &a sort of combination
of both'. +Stepper 7otor is particularly well suited to applications that re"uire accurate positioning and repeatability with a
fast response to starting, stopping, reversing and speed control and another key feature of the stepper motor, is its ability to
hold the load steady once the re"uire position is achieved.
4enerally, stepper motors have an internal rotor with a large number of permanent magnet "teeth" with a number of
electromagnet "teeth" mounted on to the stator. he stators electromagnets are polari7ed and depolari7ed se"uentially,
causing the rotor to rotate one "step" at a time. )odern multi/pole, multi/teeth stepper motors are capable of accuracies of
less than 9.> degs per step &:99 .ulses per -evolution' and are mainly used for highly accurate positioning systems like
those used for magnetic/heads in floppy/hard disc drives, printers/plotters or robotic applications. he most commonly used
stepper motor being the ;99 step per revolution stepper motor. *t has a ?9 teeth rotor, :/phase stator and a step angle of 8.=
degrees &CB9 degs/&?9$:''.
Stepper 7otor Construction and Control
*n our simple e$ample of a variable reluctance stepper motor above, the motor consists of a central rotor surrounded by four
electromagnetic field coils labelled +, %, ! and #. +ll the coils with the same letter are connected together so that
energising, say coils marked + will cause the magnetic rotor to align itself with that set of coils. %y applying power to each
set of coils in turn the rotor can be made to rotate or "step" from one position to the ne$t by an angle determined by its step
angle construction, and by energising the coils in se"uence the rotor will produce a rotary motion.
he stepper motor driver controls both the step angle and speed of the motor by energising the field coils in a set se"uence
for e$ample, "+#!%, +#!%, +#!%, +..." etc, the rotor will rotate in one direction &forward' and by reversing the pulse
se"uence to "+%!#, +%!#, +%!#, +..." etc, the rotor will rotate in the opposite direction &reverse'. So in our simple
e$ample above, the stepper motor has four coils, making it a :/phase motor, with the number of poles on the stator being
eight &; $ :' which are spaced at :? degree intervals. he number of teeth on the rotor is si$ which are spaced B9 degrees
apart. hen there are ;: &B teeth $ : coils' possible positions or "steps" for the rotor to complete one full revolution.
herefore, the step angle above is given asE CB9
o
/;: H 8?
o
.
Obviously, the more rotor teeth and or stator coils would result in more control and a finer step angle. +lso by connecting the
electrical coils of the motor in different configurations, Full, 3alf and micro/step angles are possible. 3owever, to achieve
micro/stepping, the stepper motor must be driven by a &"uasi' sinusoidal current that is e$pensive to implement.
*t is also possible to control the speed of rotation of a stepper motor by altering the time delay between the digital pulses
applied to the coils &the fre"uency', the longer the delay the slower the speed for one complete revolution. %y applying a
fi$ed number of pulses to the motor, the motor shaft will rotate through a given angle and so there would be no need for any
form of additional feedback because by counting the number of pulses given to the motor the final position of the rotor will
be e$actly known. his response to a set number of digital input pulses allows the stepper motor to operate in an "Open
,oop System" making it both easier and cheaper to control.
For e$ample, assume our stepper motor above has a step angle of C.B degs per step. o rotate the motor through an angle
of say ;8B degrees and then stop would only re"uire ;8B degrees/&C.B degs/step' H =9 pulses applied to the stator
coils.
Stepper motor controller *!2s are available such as the S++89;M which have all the necessary counter and code conversion
built/in, and automatically drives the : fully controlled bridge outputs to the motor in the correct se"uence. he direction of
rotation can also be selected along with single step mode or continuous &stepless' rotation in the selected direction, but this
puts some burden on the controller. Ahen using an =/bit digital controller, ;?B microsteps per step are also possible
SAA.1/> Stepper 7otor Control Chip
*n this tutorial we have looked at the brushed and brushless DC 7otor, the DC Servo 7otor and theStepper 7otor as an
electromechanical actuator that can be used as an output device for position or speed control. *n the ne$t tutorial we will
continue our look at output devices called Actuators, and one that converts a electrical signal into sound waves again using
electromagnetism. he type of output device we will look at in the ne$t tutorial is the Loudspea8er.
The Sound Transducer
Sound is the general name given to "acoustic waves" that have fre"uencies ranging from Dust 837 up to many tens of
thousands of 3ert7 with the upper limit of human hearing being around the ;9 k37, &;9,99937' range. Sound is basically
made up from mechanical vibrations produced by a Sound Transducer to generate the acoustic waves and for sound to be
"heard" it re"uires a medium for transmission either through the air, a li"uid, or a solid. +lso, sound need not be a
continuous fre"uency sound wave such as a single tone or a musical note, but may be an acoustic wave made from a
mechanical vibration, noise or even a single pulse of sound such as a "bang".
"ie?o Sound Transducer
Sound Transducers include both sensors, that convert sound into and electrical signal such as a microphone, and
actuators that convert the electrical signals back into sound such as a loudspeaker. Ae tend to think of sound as only
e$isting in the range of fre"uencies detectable by the human ear, from ;937 up to ;9k37 &a typical loudspeaker fre"uency
response' but sound transducers can both detect and transmit sound from very low fre"uencies called inra-sound up to
very high fre"uencies called ultrasound. %ut in order for a sound transducer to either detect or produce "sound" we first
need to understand what sound isR.
Sound is basically a waveform that is produced by some form of a mechanical vibration such as a tuning fork, and which
has a "fre"uency" determined by the origin of the sound for e$ample, a bass drum has a low fre"uency sound while a
cymbal has a higher fre"uency sound. + sound waveform has the same characteristics as that of an electrical waveform
which are <avelength &N', re=uency &S' and )elocity&m/s'. %oth the sounds fre"uency and wave shape are determined
by the origin or vibration that originally produced the sound but the velocity is dependent upon the medium of transmission
&air, water etc.' that carries the sound wave. he relationship between wavelength, velocity and fre"uency is given below asE
Sound <ave %elationship
AhereE

Aavelength is the time period of one complete cycle in Seconds.

Fre"uency is the number of wavelengths per second in 3ert7.


6elocity is the speed of sound through a transmission medium in m/s
/8
.
The 7icrophone Transducer
he 7icrophone is a sound transducer that can be classed as a "sound sensor" that produces an electrical analogue
output signal which is proportional to the "acoustic" sound wave acting upon its fle$ible diaphragm. his signal is an
"electrical image" representing the characteristics of the acoustic waveform. 4enerally, the output signal from a microphone
is an analogue signal either in the form of a voltage or current which is proportional to the actual sound wave.
he most common types of microphones available as sound transducers are Dynamic, Electret Condenser, Ri,,on and the
newer #ie-o-electric Crystal types. ypical applications for microphones as a sound transducer include audio recording,
reproduction, broadcasting as well as telephones, television, digital computer recording and body scanners, where
ultrasound is used in medical applications. +n e$ample of a simple "#ynamic" microphone is shown below.
Dynamic 7oving$coil 7icrophone Sound Transducer
he construction of a dynamic microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker, but in reverse. *t is a moving coil type
microphone which has a very small coil of thin wire suspended within the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. +s the
sound wave hits the fle$ible diaphragm, the diaphragm moves back and forth in response to the sound pressure acting upon
it, and the attached coil of wire also moves within the magnetic field of the magnet. he resultant output voltage signal from
the coil is proportional to the pressure of the sound wave acting upon the diaphragm so the louder or stronger the sound
wave the larger the output signal will be, making this type of microphone design pressure sensitive.
+s the coil of wire is usually very small the range of movement of the coil and attached diaphragm is also very small
producing a very linear output signal which is >9
o
out of phase to the sound signal. +lso, because the coil is a low
impedance inductor, the output voltage signal is also very low so some form of "pre/amplification" of the signal is re"uired.
+s the construction of this type of microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker, it is also possible to use an actual
loudspeaker as a microphone. Obviously, the average "uality of a loudspeaker will not be as good as that for a studio type
recording microphone but the fre"uency response of a reasonable speaker is actually better than that of a cheap "freebie"
microphone. +lso the coils impedance of a typical loudspeaker is different at between = to 8BI. !ommon applications where
speakers are generally used as microphones are in intercoms and walki/talkie2s.
The Loudspea8er Transducer
Sound can also be used as an output device to produce an alert noise or act as an alarm, and loudspeakers, bu77ers, horns
and sounders are all types of sound transducer that can be used for this purpose with the most commonly used audible type
actuator being the "Loudspea8er".
Loudspea8er Transducer
,oudspeakers are also sound transducers that are classed as "sound actuators" and are the e$act opposite of microphones.
heir Dob is to convert comple$ electrical analogue signals into sound waves being as close to the original input signal as
possible. ,oudspeakers are available in all shapes, si7es and fre"uency ranges with the more common types being moving
coil, electrostatic, isodynamic and pie7o/electric. )oving coil type loudspeakers are by far the most commonly used speaker
in electronic circuits and kits, and it is this type of sound transducer we will e$amine below.
he principle of operation of the 7oving Coil Loudspea8er is the e$act opposite to that of the "#ynamic )icrophone" we
look at above. + coil of fine wire, called the "speech or voice coil", is suspended within a very strong magnetic field, and is
attached to a paper or )ylar cone, called a "diaphragm" which itself is suspended at its edges to a metal frame or chassis.
hen unlike the microphone which is pressure sensitive, this type of sound transducer is a pressure generating device.
7oving Coil Loudspea8er
Ahen an analogue signal passes through the voice coil of the speaker, an electro/magnetic field is produced and whose
strength is determined by the current flowing through the "voice" coil, which inturn is determined by the volume control
setting of the driving amplifier. he electro/magnetic force produced by this field opposes the main permanent magnetic field
around it and tries to push the coil in one direction or the other depending upon the interaction between the north and south
poles. +s the voice coil is permanently attached to the cone/diaphragm this also moves in tandem and its movement causes
a disturbance in the air around it thus producing a sound or note. *f the input signal is a continuous sine wave then the cone
will move in and out acting like a piston pushing and pulling the air as it moves and a continuous single tone will be heard
representing the fre"uency of the signal. he strength and therefore its velocity, by which the cone moves and pushes the
surrounding air produces the loudness of the sound.
+s the speech or voice coil is essentially a coil of wire it has, like an inductor an impedance value. his value for most
loudspeakers is between : and 8BI2s and is called the "nominal impedance" value of the speaker measured at 937, or #!
*t is important to always match the output impedance of the amplifier with the nominal impedance of the speaker to obtain
ma$imum power transfer between the amplifier and speaker with most amplifier/speaker combinations having and efficiency
rating as low as 8 or ;@. +lthough disputed by some, the selection of good speaker cable is also an important factor in the
efficiency of the speaker, as the internal capacitance and magnetic flu$ characteristics of the cable change with the signal
fre"uency, thereby causing both fre"uency and phase distortion attenuating the input signal. +lso, with high power amplifiers
large currents are flowing through these cables so small thin bell wire type cables can overheat during long periods of use.
he human ear can generally hear sounds from between ;937 to ;9k37, and the fre"uency response of modern
loudspeakers called general purpose speakers are tailored to operate within this fre"uency range as well as headphones,
earphones and other types of commercially available headsets used as sound transducers. 3owever, for high
performance 3igh Fidelity &3i/Fi' type audio systems, the fre"uency response of the sound is split up into different smaller
sub/fre"uencies thereby improving both the loudspeakers efficiency and overall sound "uality as followsE
#escriptive <nit Fre"uency -ange
Sub/Aoofer 8937 to 89937
%ass ;937 to Ck37
)id/-ange 8k37 to 89k37
weeter Ck37 to C9k37
*n multi speaker enclosures with the woofer, tweeter and mid/range speakers together within a single enclosure, a passive
or active "crossover" network is used to ensure that the audio signal is accurately split and reproduced by all the different
sub/speakers. his crossover network consists of -esistors,*nductors, !apacitors, -,! type passive filters or op/amp
active filters whose crossover or cut/off fre"uency point is finely tuned to that of the individual loudspeakers characteristics
and an e$ample of a multi/speaker "3i/fi" type design is given below.
7ulti$spea8er 2#i$i3 Design
Summary of Transducers
Input Devices or Sensors
Sensors are "*nput" devices which convert one type of energy or "uantity into an electrical analog signal.
he most common forms of sensors are those that detect .osition, emperature, ,ight, .ressure and 6elocity.
he simplest of all input devices is the switch or pushbutton.
Some sensors called "Self/generating" sensors generate output voltages or currents relative to the "uantity being
measured, such as thermocouples and photo/voltaic solar cells and their output bandwidth e"uals that of the "uantity
being measured.
Some sensors called ")odulating" sensors change their physical properties, such as inductance or resistance
relative to the "uantity being measured such as inductive sensors, ,#-2s and potentiometers and need to be biased to
provide an output voltage or current.
Not all sensors produce a straight linear output and lineari7ation circuitry may be re"uired.
Signal conditioning may also be re"uired to provide compatibility between the sensors low output signal and the
detection or amplification circuitry.
Some form of amplification is generally re"uired in order to produce a suitable electrical signal which is capable of
being measured.
*nstrumentation type Operational +mplifiers are ideal for signal processing and conditioning of a sensors output
signal.
Output Devices or Actuators
"Output" devices are commonly called Actuators and the simplest of all actuators is the lamp.
-elays provide good separation of the low voltage electronic control signals and the high power load circuits.
-elays provide separation of #! and +! circuits &i.e. switching an +! current path via a #! control signal or vice
versa'.
Solid state relays have fast response, long life, no moving parts with no contact arcing or bounce but re"uire
heatsinking.
Solenoids are electromagnetic devices that are used mainly to open or close pneumatic valves, security doors
and robot type applications. hey are inductive loads so a flywheel diode is re"uired.
.ermanent magnet #! motors are cheaper and smaller than e"uivalent wound motors as they have no field
winding.
ransistor switches can be used as simple ON/OFF unipolar controllers and pulse width speed control is obtained
by varying the duty cycle of the control signal.
%i/directional motor control can be achieved by connecting the motor inside a transistor 3/bridge.
Stepper motors can be controlled directly using transistor switching techni"ues.
he speed and position of a stepper motor can be accurately controlled using pulses so can operate in an Open/
loop mode.
)icrophones are input sound transducers that can detect acoustic waves either in the *nfra sound, +udible sound
or <ltrasound range generated by a mechanical vibration.
,oudspeakers, bu77ers, horns and sounders are output devices and are used to produce an output sound, note or
alarm.