Biomass Roofing Skat

The Basics of
Biomas s Roofing
A uthor: N icolas H all
Interm ediate Technology D evelopm ent G roup
A dditional R esearch: Sum ita Sinha
Editing C om m ittee: K arl W ehrle, SK AT
H eini M ller, A proC on
D aniel Schw itter, SK AT
Illustrations: M atthew W hitton
First edition: 1997 by SK AT
Publisher: Sw iss C entre for D evelopm ent C ooperation
in Technology and M anagem ent (SK AT)
C H -9000 St.G allen, Sw itzerland
D istributor: Interm ediate Technology Publications (it),
103-105 Southam pton R ow
London W C 1B 4H H , England
E-m ail: itpubs@ gn.apc.org
Fax: + 44 171 436 2013
ISB N : 3-908001-73-0
CONTENTS
Introduction ...........................................................................................1
G rass thatch .........................................................................................5
Palm thatch ...........................................................................................9
W ood tiles (shingles and shakes) .................................................. 13
R oof sheets w ith organic fibres ...................................................... 18
Treatm ent of biom ass m aterials: preservation ............................... 22
Fire protection ................................................................................... 25
Sources of further inform ation ......................................................... 27
K ey questions .................................................................................... 29
R ecom m endations ............................................................................. 30
B A SIN ................................................................................................. 31
The Basics of Biomass Roofing 1
Fundamental information
This b ooks offers b asic inform ation ab out roofcovering
using plants, or biom ass m aterial. The book focuses par-
ticularly on thatch and w ood tiles, but also covers indus-
trially-produced roofing m aterial that include a significant
proportion of biom ass m aterial.
In this book you w ill find inform ation about the advan-
tages and disadvantages of specific m aterials and tech-
niques, basic inform ation about m aterials, skills, perform -
ance and cost. There are addresses and literature lists
for further inform ation and to obtain m ore detailed tech-
nical inform ation.
A time-honoured technology
H istorically, people in alm ost every part of the w orld have
d ep end ed on local m aterials for b uild ing . A nd for the
m ost exposed elem ent the roof plants w ere usually
the only local resource that could be turned into a dura-
ble and w eathertight covering. The result is a rich herit-
age of roofing technique and architectural technology.
Today, a rudim entary thatch rem ains the only option for
poor rural com m unities in m ost developing countries. In
contrast, m any w ealthy people in Europe choose to live
under a m eticulously m anicured reed thatch or perhaps,
in N . A m erica, a roof of tim ber shingles.
Introduction
Revaluing the vernacular
The vast array of very different w ays to use plants for
roofing reflects the d iversity of need , culture, econom y
and environm ent. Sim ple m ethods use unprocessed dried
leaves tied to a rough roof fram e. Such a thatch m ay only
last a year. O thers rely on careful cultivation of selected
species and highly skilled craftsm anship or com plicated
industrial processes and are as durable as stone, con-
crete or fired clay tiles.
A lthoug h m any trad itional techniq ues are b eing ab an-
doned as resources becom e scarce and as attitudes and
aspirations change, others are still being refined and new
techniq ues are constantly b eing d evelop ed . Increasing
aw areness of the urgent need to ration global consum p-
tion of non-renew able resources is placing greater em -
phasis on renew able m aterials.
In the Philippines the skill of creating a w atertight roof
from split bam boos is in declining dem and. B am boo is
not so plentiful and m any prefer a roof of iron sheets or
M C R tiles. O n the other hand, w ater reed thatch is so
popular in northern Europe that there is a thriving inter-
national m arket for the best reeds and full em ploym ent
for skilled thatchers.
Modern roofing
R e-appraisal of traditional building techniques and devel-
op m ent of new m ethod s to use p lants for roofing is a
p arallel p rocess. P lant fib res, w ood chip s and g rass
stem s as w ell as the organic by-products of m anufactur-
ing industry and food processing are now the raw m ate-
rial for an expanding m arket for organic based roofing
p rod ucts. M eanw hile, chem ists and eng ineers are re- Shingles are an attractive modern roofing material
Reed thatch such as in England lasts more than 60
years
searching m ethods to preserve and fireproof shingles and
thatch to m eet increasing ly string ent p erform ance and
safety standards.
Types of materials
H undreds of plant m aterials are used for roofing. A sim -
ple classification divides them into three m ain types.
Thatch
D ried grasses or leaves, placed up to 300m m thick and
secured to a roof by lashing, w eaving or nailing.
1. R igid stem grasses produce the m ost durable roofs;
up to 70 years in tem perate clim ates or 30 years in
the tropics. B oth aquatic reeds and savannah grasses
up to 1500m m long by 15m m diam eter are suitable.
They need careful cultivation and p rocessing and
highly skilled thatchers to achieve m axim um durabil-
ity.
2. Palm leaves, soft-stem grasses and large tree leaves
rarely last m ore than 10 years and are frequently re-
new ed w ithin 2 years. There are m any different m eth-
ods of processing and laying these m aterials depend-
ing on the characteristics of the m aterial, the type of
b uild ing and its location. C oconut leaves are used
throughout the coastal tropics; various techniques are
com m on producing a covering that can last up to 12
years but usually no m ore than 2 years.
Shingles
W ooden or bam boo tiles that are either saw n or split from
blocks of unseasoned tim ber. H ardw ood species are m ost
durable, but any straight grained w ood can be used.
1. Shingles (saw n tiles) and shakes (split tiles) are up to
600m m long, 400m m w ide and 20m m thick. They are
nailed in ascending layers to m ake a covering 3 tiles
thick. D epending on species, the angle of the roof,
clim ate and w hether treated w ith preservatives. They
should last at least 20 years. O ffcuts from w aste w ood
can be used but m ay not be durable.
2. B am boo culm s, split to half-rounds and laid as Span-
ish tiles are com m only used in regions w here bam boo
grow s. M ost com m only used as tiles, long lengths are
som etim es used and this p rod uces a consid erab le
saving in supporting tim berw ork. C hem ical preserva-
tives can extend the roof life up to 10 years.
Roof sheets and tiles
Industrially produced sheets or tiles, either reinforced w ith
or m ade predom inantly of natural fibres, w ood-chips or
organic w astes.
1. Fibres or plant residues are spun or com pressed to-
gether to m ake a flat sheet w hich is then im pregnated
w ith a b ind er. Various p rocesses are used . S om e
highly m echanised factories produce sheets continu-
ously, others use slow er m ore labour intensive m eth-
ods. The m ost durable sheets can last m ore than 15
years but rigorous quality control is vital. The sheets
need sealing w ith a w aterproof paint unless the binder
is itself w aterproof (e.g. bitum en).
2. C em ent or resin sheets or tiles reinforced w ith straw ,
g rass or fib res to red uce b rittleness and cracking .
D ozens of different plants have been tested; very few
are com m ercially used. Sheets m ay last 30 or m ore
years.
Technique Material Lifespan (years)
Thatch
Pre fabricated thatch panel C oconut leaf cocos nucifera 12 (India)
up to 8 (East A frica)
N ipa palm leaf nipa fruticans up to 10 (Phillipines)
R igid stem thatch W ater R eed phragm ites australis 60+ (N orthern Europe)
R igid stem thatch W heat straw 30 (England)
Soft stem thatch R ice straw 6 (B angladesh)
Shingles
Split w ood tiles - shake W hite cheesew ood alstonia scholaris 30 (Papua N ew G uinea)
Split w ood shake W estern R ed cedar thuja plicata up to 80 (N . A m erica)
Roof sheets
C om pressed corrugated sheets, B agasse (sugar), coir, w ood chips, up to 30 (W orld-w ide)
surface sealed w ith bitum en paint or hem p fibre
Techniques, materials and typical lifespan
Roof types
O rg anic m aterials d ecay in w arm , w et cond itions, so
steeply sloping roofs w hich allow w ater to drain rapidly
are m ost d urab le. This m eans that these m aterials are
best suited to sm all- and m edium -span buildings. Spans
w ider than 5m require long lengths of rafter tim ber and
carefully designed bracing system s.
Roof pitch
In general, the low er the perm eability of the m aterial the
less slope is required. Each m aterial has an appropriate
m inim um angle:
G rass or palm thatch 1:1 (45)
Wood Tiles
n treated singles 1:1.5 (33)
n untreated shingles 1:1 (45)
n shakes 1:1 (45)
Fibre reinforced tiles
n Plain or Spanish tiles 1:1.5 (33)
n R om an type 1:2 (26)
n Fibre reinforced sheets 1:3 (18)
Roof structures
R oof structures for thatch and shingles do not have to be
perfectly level as the m aterial w ill m ould itself to irregu-
larities that m ay occur if pole tim ber or split w ood struc-
tures are used. Thatch w orks w ell on curved or conical
roofs. C hang es of slop e w ithin a roof or com p licated
roofs w hich include valleys or roof w indow s are liable to
cause prem ature decay and leaks.
Weight
W eight: The heaviest thatch, w hen w et, w eighs approxi-
m ately 40kg/m
2
, about the sam e as concrete tiles. O ther
thatch m aterials tend to be lighter so need a less strong
roof structure. W ood tiles vary betw een 20 to 30kg/m
2
.
Ventilation
Ventilation: to allow rap id d rying of the roof covering ,
org anic m aterials should p referab ly b e laid on b attens
nailed to rafters. U nderlay or sarking should not be nec-
essary and w ill hind er ventilation. C lose b oard ing over
rafters should be avoided.
Key questions and answers
Q D o snakes and insects live in grass or w ood roofs?
A M aybe, but m ost m odern houses have a ceiling w hich
w ill stop insects and dust.
Q O rganic m aterials rot. W ont m y roof rot?
A Yes, but if it is done w ell it should last 70 years (in a
tem perate clim ate) or 30 years in the hum id tropics.
H ow does that com pare w ith a corrugated iron roof in
your locality?
Q W ill m y thatched roof burn?
A Yes, but a w ell thatched roof is like a book paper
catches fire easily but books are hard to light. You
m ay not be allow ed to thatch in an urban area, and
regulations m ay m ean that public buildings cannot be
thatched.
Checklist of benefits and problems
Potentials
Biomass material roofs:
n U se local, renew able m aterials.
n A re m ostly labour intensive.
n B lend w ith the environm ent.
n Look very attractive.
n C an be very inexpensive.
n C an last up to 70 years.
n A re good sound and therm al insulation.
n C an easily be repaired.
n D ecay to com post w hen w orn out.
n A re best suited for sm all buildings.
Limits
Plant roofing materials:
n A re com bustible.
n D ecay w hen w et.
n N eed steep roof slopes.
n A re heavier than corrugated iron.
n M ay not be easy to collect rainw ater.
n M ay have current value as fuel or fodder.
n N eed m edium to high skill.
n A re labour intensive to process and use.
n Thatch and shingles are not standard products each
roof w ill vary slightly.
Grass thatch
or 0.8 hectares of w heat. Thus it is apparent that a thriv-
ing thatching industry can offer a valuable m arket for lo-
cal agricultural produce.
In m any countries traditional thatching grasses are be-
com ing m ore and m ore scarce, usually because land has
greater value for other products. H ow ever, w here thatch
has b een p op ularly accep ted , ind ig enous sp ecies of
grass can be m anaged profitably. M odern husbandry m ay
includ e artificial control of w ater levels, in the case of
m arsh reeds, rigorous w eeding, irrigation and selective
application of fertiliser; although recent research in Eu-
rop e show s that excessive use of nitrog enous fertiliser
can p rod uce hig her yield s at the exp ense of q uality.
Straw and reed grow n under this regim e appears to be
prone to rapid decay caused by fungal grow th.
Cultivation, harvesting and processing.
Marsh reed (phragmites australis)
G row s in both tem perate and tropical clim ates. H arvested
after seed has m atured and w hen fine leaves have
started to dry. O ptim um size is 1.8m long, tapering stem
and d iam eter 10m m . S hould p referab ly g row in ab out
0.5m . depth of w ater w hich is drained just before harvest-
ing. To take advantage of the m ost durable part of the
reed stem that w hich grow s under w ater it should be
cut as close to the ground as possible.
The stem s, w ith the cut ends aligned, are loosely tied in
sm all b und les and com b ed to rem ove d eb ris and fine
leaves. The reed is then retied , w ith tw o b ind ing s for
each bundle so that the stem s rem ain parallel to each
other w hilst the m aterial is being handled betw een stor-
age and the building site. M ost thatchers prefer bundles
of approxim ately 20cm diam eter. D ry, w ell ventilated stor-
age is essential.
H und red s of sp ecies of g rass are used extensively for
roofing throughout the w orld. A lthough the superficial ap-
pearance of grass thatched roofs differs according to the
skill of the thatcher and local building traditions, there are
only tw o fundam entally different m ethods of thatching w ith
grass. The first uses grasses w hich have stiff, cylindrical
stem s. In the hands of a skilled thatcher the resulting roof
m ay last up to 70 years. The second uses grass leaves
w hich are flat and p liab le; this soft-stem thatch rarely
lasts m ore than 15 years.
Thatch is suitable for m ost clim atic conditions as it offers
excellent insulation against heat and cold. Its m ain dis-
advantage is that it is com bustible and fire spreads eas-
ily betw een closely spaced thatched buildings. For this
reason m ost urban building law s forbid thatch in tow ns.
H ow ever, a num b er of sim p le fire-retard ant techniq ues
can be em ployed, so thatch is often the m ost econom ic
roofing in rural areas.
N onetheless, thatch is declining in popularity alm ost eve-
ryw here. This is because traditional styles of thatching,
w hich w ere appropriate in self-contained rural econom ies
cannot now com p ete w ith p op ular ind ustrial p rod ucts,
particularly iron sheets.
Basic techniques for processing and
use
Materials
The choice of m aterial and therefore the thatching tech-
nique adopted prim arily depends on w hich species are
locally available in sufficient quantity. Exotic grasses are
rarely econom ic as thatch is b ulky and exp ensive to
transport, although the increasing popularity of thatch in
northern Europe has created a thriving international m ar-
ket for reed in recent decades.
For a roof of a m ed ium sized house (ap p roxim ately
150m
2
. floor area) the m ost durable type of thatch uses
up to 3 tonnes of grass. This is the annual product of
about 1.5 hectares of intensively m anaged m arsh reed (a
roof of w hich m ay last 60 years in a tem perate clim ate),
Harvesting water reed off Danish marshes
Savannah grasses and cereal straw.
M any species are used. The optim um characteristics are
the sam e as for m arsh reed , b ut cereal straw rarely
grow s m uch taller than one m eter.
W heat p rod uces the m ost long lasting thatch, b ut the
cultivation reg im e has to p rod uce strong stem s rather
than high seed yield. The best straw com es from w inter
sow n w heat. Tim ing the harvest is critical to ensure dry
straw w ith m inim al loss of saleable seed. M odern com -
bine harvesters cannot be used as they break the straw ,
but special m achinery has been developed to cut, bun-
dle and com b the straw w hilst separating and bagging
the seed.
Labour intense harvesting of savannah grasses and straw
m ay be feasible but the labour input can be significantly
reduced by m achinery. R eciprocating blade rice harvest-
ers that are w idely available in developing countries can
easily be adapted for grass harvesting. A s w ith reed, the
grass m ust be cut w hen dry, bundled w ith the cut ends
aligned and double tied after com bing so that the stem s
stay p arallel. P rocessing is d usty w ork so face m asks
should be w orn to prevent lung com plaints.
Soft stem grasses
The sam e cultivation and harvest p rincip les ap p ly for
grasses w ith flat-bladed flexible leaves rather than cylin-
drical stem s. Particular care is needed w hen cleaning this
type of grass; it often contains a high proportion of very
short g rass w hich w ill red uce the roof life unless it is
rem oved.
Roof structure
A lm ost any shape of roof of suitable pitch (at least 45)
can b e thatched . S im p le structures w ithout p rojecting
chim neys or changes of pitch w ill last best.
The structure should b e cap ab le of sup p orting up to
40kg. per square m eter, w hich is the w eight of the heavi-
est m aterial m arsh reed. Tim bering, w ith saw n, split or
round tim b er, is com p leted w ith horizontal b attens se-
cured to rafters at approxim ately 30cm centres. It is es-
sential that a tilting b oard w hich is 35m m thicker than
subsequent battens is fixed along the eaves and gables.
This forces the first layer of thatch into tension and leads
to the rest of the thatch being m ore tightly com pacted
than it w ould otherw ise be.
Thatching work
Thatching req uires skill, and exp erience; a trad itional
apprenticeship lasts five years in England. A lternatively,
several m onths of intensive tuition follow ed b y exp ert
supervision generally produces a com petent thatcher. A s
w ith all roofing w ork, patience and m eticulous attention to
detail is invariably repaid w ith m inim al m aintenance and
optim um durability.
Thatch decays as the surface rots. The key indicator of
stiff stem grass thatch is an evenly thick coat laid con-
sistently com pactly over the entire roof surface. The ob-
jective is to have the m inim um length of each stem ex-
posed on the surface w ith the horizontal fixing for each
Mechanised combing of thatching grass in Zimbabwe
Stiff-stem grass thatch. Fixing options: 1. Fixing the
thatch with stitching; 2. Twisted wire ties; 3. Steel or
wood rod or sway; 4. Hooked thatching nails.
1
2
3
4
20cm thick layer secured as deeply as possible w ithin
coat of thatch. If the fixing is too close to the surface the
thatch w ill be so com pact that it cannot dry out quickly,
and it w ill becom e exposed on the surface w ithin a few
years. If it is too deep shorter stem s m ay not be secured
and excessive w ater penetration w ill lead to m ore rapid
decay. O n a 30cm thick coat of thatch laid at 50 each
fixing should be 15cm deep, m easured at right angles to
the surface. A rule-of-thum b m easure of com pactness is
the thatcher should b e ab le to m anually com p ress the
new thatch to about 90% of its full thickness.
The ridge of both soft and stiff stem grass thatch is par-
ticularly vulnerable. If it is m ade of grass the fixings w ill
have to be exposed on the surface; it w ill generally have
to be replaced every 10 years. H ow ever, m any other m a-
terials can be used for ridging, such as iron sheets, clay
tiles or ferro-cem ent. The principle is to ensure that the
fixings of the upperm ost layer of thatch are covered and
protected so that w ater cannot penetrate into the body of
the thatch.
Cost and economy
E conom y is a trad e-off b etw een thickness of thatch,
w hich affects durability, and the cost of thatching w ork
w hich w ill hardly vary w hatever the thickness. O n aver-
ag e, op tim um d urab ility is achieved w ith a 30cm thick
coat of thatch laid on a 50 slope.
A skilled thatcher, w orking w ith one assistant should be
able to com plete the roof of a m edium sized house in 10
days. U sing 3 tonnes of m arsh reed and a ferro-cem ent
rid g e (w hich req uires no m aintenance) the roof should
last 70 years in a tem perate clim ate or 35 years in the
tropics. B y m ost peoples definition, this is a perm anent
roof.
The opportunity cost of thatch depends on how long it
lasts com pared to a sim ilarly priced roof of an alterna-
tive m aterial. In northern Europe the price of reed thatch
is com parable, over its life, to a roof of natural slate, and
about 30% m ore expensive than a concrete tile roof. The
tim e taken to thatch w ith straw is sim ilar to w orking w ith
reed, so the cost difference w ill depend on the relative
m aterial prices w eighted by the low er durability of straw .
Fire prevention
Thatch is com b ustib le, p articularly d uring d ry w eather.
H ig h q uality thatching is the first line of d efence as a
com pactly thatched roof is m uch less prone to catching
fire than a loose and ragged coat of grass. Preventive
m easures should aim to reduce the risk from the m ost
likely sources of fire. These are m ainly d ealt w ith in a
later chapter; in addition several m ethods are particularly
recom m ended w ith thatch.
If a fire does start it is w ise to have facilities at hand to
deal w ith it. A hosepipe connected to a tap w ith sufficient
pressure to reach the roof is one m ethod. In particularly
d ry clim ates it m ay be w orth fitting a perforated m etal
pipe along the ridge; w henever there is a threat of fire
the roof can be drenched. A sim ple precaution is to have
a long handled rake stored near the house; if fire does
start it m ay be possible to pull off som e of the thatch to
create a fire break.
Mechanised combing of thatching grass in Zimbabwe
Cross section through stiff-stem grass roof
C em ent/w ire
m esh ridge cap
Fixings m ust be all the sam e
depth w ithin the thatch
Tilting Fillet forces the first
layer into tension
Fires often start inside the house. The roof m ay be pro-
tected by having an incom bustible ceiling fixed to the un-
derside of the rafters.
C hem ical fire retardants provide only tem porary protection
as they are w ater soluble. Treatm ent m ay be required for
public buildings that are thatched, but it w ould add at
least 30% to the thatching cost and w ould have to be
red one every few years, so it is rarely econom ic for
houses. R ecent research suggests that som e retardants
m ay dam age the roof by encouraging m ould grow th.
Further Information
G root C .; The Progress of Decay and Weathering in
Thatched Roofs in Vegetable Plants and Their Fibres
in Building; R ILEM /C IB , Paris, 1986
H all N .L.; Thatching: A Handbook; Interm ediate Technol-
ogy Publications, London, 1988.
Sw allen J.R .; Grasses Their use in Building; U .S. D ept.
of H ousing and U rban D evelopm ent, 1972 Leaflet no. 1,
W ashington 1955.
W est R .; Thatch; D avid & C harles, N ew ton A bbott, U K ,
1987.
Potentials
n U ses a w ide range of indigenous renew able m aterials
w ith zero artificial energy cost.
n M aterial production offers com m ercial farm ing oppor-
tunity.
n Labour intensive w ork w ith em ploym ent potential.
n H igh quality thatch is w eatherproof, durable and at-
tractive.
n Thatch has excellent insulation value.
n A t the end of roof life w aste m aterial is easily recy-
cled as com post.
n Innate shortcom ings can be am eliorated. A fire resist-
ant ceiling isolates the thatch from fire and the occu-
pants from insect or rodent pests that m ay infest the
roof.
Limits
n Thatch is com bustible, and inordinately expensive to
m ake com pletely fire proof w ith chem icals. Insurance
m ay not be available or the prem ium s m ay be very
costly.
n It m ay harbour insects and rodents.
n Thatching is highly skilled labour intensive w ork, and
m ay thus be expensive. Saving labour costs through
p oor or hasty w orkm anship is a false econom y, as
w ith all roofing.
n S p ecialised training is need ed to introd uce new
thatching skills.
n Suitable m aterials for good quality stiff-stem w ork m ay
be very difficult to obtain unless there is already an
established thatching industry.
n Trad itional thatch is often held in low reg ard as it
rarely m eets m od ern d ay housing need s. C hang ing
peoples attitudes m ay be harder than introducing a
new technique of thatching.
Checklist of benefits and problems for grass thatch
Palm thatch
Palm leaves are w idely used because they are so plenti-
ful and b ecause they are innately suitab le for roofing .
They are sim p le to p rocess and easy to fix to a roof
structure. H ow ever, even the m ost durable palm thatch-
ing w ill rarely last m ore than 7 years, w hilst traditional
techniques often need annual repair. They are excellent
for tem porary structures, but for housing, people tend to
change to corrugated iron or other m aterials as soon as
they can afford it.
The leaves are used for roofing either in their natural
form , as they are cut from the tree, or alternatively, the
leaf b lad es are m ad e up into m ats. There are several
w ays of m aking these m ats. In East A frica the m ats are
called m akuti. In m any Far East countries they are know n
as atap.
use
Materials
P alm leaves m ust b e m ature and d ry b efore they are
used for thatch. Each species has its ow n grow th cycle
w hich m ay vary according to soil conditions and clim ate,
b ut w ith m ost, the leaves take a year to m ature. For
thatching purposes leaves are classified by the w ay that
the leaf blades are attached to the stem . There are tw o
types.
C oconut (cocos nucifera) leaves are the m ost w id ely
availab le thatching m aterial in the hum id trop ics. H un-
dreds of m illions of people rely on them . A n average tree
produces up to 40 leaves every year. The leaf com prises
up to 200 leaf blades w hich grow , at an angle, to the leaf
stem .
Feather shaped leaves have leaf blades w hich hang, usu-
ally at an angle, on both sides of a straight stem . Fan-
shaped leaves have blades that radiate from a w oody,
fib rous core. D oum p alm , w hich is often used in d rier
parts of A frica has fan shaped leaves.
M any other p alm s p rod uce fan shap ed leaves. N ip a,
w hich grow s in m arshy land is prim arily cultivated for its
leaves w hich are m ostly used for thatch. They last better
than coconut leaves, but cant com pete w ith sheet or tile
roofing for m odern housing.
Processing
There are tw o w ays of preparing feather type leaves to
m ake thatch m ats.
In the first m ethod the leaf blades are stripped from the
stem and then stitched to a thin w ood batten. This bat-
ten m ay be m ade from the palm leaf rib, or perhaps from
split bam boo. The principle for m aking the m ost durable
m ats is to m ake sure that the leaf blades are squeezed
tightly and neatly together as they are stitched onto the
b atten. The stand ard m at of 600m m leng th should b e
m ade of about 200 leaf blades. In East A frica this tech-
niq ue is called m akuti. In Far E ast countries a sim ilar
technique know as atap is used.
The second m ethod is to split the stem in tw o so the leaf
blades hang from one side. The tw o pieces are laid back
to back and the leaf blades w oven together to form a
m at. This techniq ue, w hich is com m only p ractised in
south India, is not as durable as the first as the rapid
discharge of rainw ater is im peded by the w eaving pat-
tern. B ut it is quicker to m ake the w oven m ats and, as
they are longer than the other type, thatching w ork can
be done faster.
Fan-shaped leaves generally need no preparation other
than d rying and flattening . They are tied , nailed or
w edged into place on a roof w ith the leaf blades facing
dow nw ards.
Nipa palm thatch in the Philippines
Roof structures
A steep pitch of at least 45 is essential. The structure,
w hich m ay m ost econom ically b e m ad e w ith tim b er or
b am b oo p oles rather than saw n tim b er, need s to b e
strong enough to support up to 20kg/m
2
of thatch. H ori-
zontal battens are not needed for feather-type m ats; the
rafters need to be set about 500m m apart for m ats that
are 600m m long. A s w ith all roofing, it is advisable to fix
a b atten of ap p roxim ately 60m m thickness along the
length of the eave. This provides essential support for the
first layer of thatch. A bam boo pole of this diam eter w ill
serve the sam e purpose.
For fan-type leaves horizontal battens are needed, usu-
ally at 150m m centres.
Roofing work
The process of laying feather type m ats resem bles tiling.
M ats are tied to the rafters in overlapping layers starting
at the eave. The thickness of the coat, and therefore the
durability of the roof depends on the size of the overlap.
There should b e a m axim um of 100m m b etw een the
m ats; if sufficient m aterial is available this gap should be
reduced to 60m m .
It is som etim es suggested that palm thatch requires side
lap as w ell as vertical overlap, but this should be unnec-
essary w ith w ell m ade m ats. In fact, this m ay be a posi-
tive disadvantage as the extra thickness created by each
side-lap creates ridges in the surface w hich w ill lead to
the form ation of gulleys and m ore rapid decay.
W oven coconut palm m ats are generally laid double thick,
layer by layer, to achieve acceptable durability. W hen the
upper layer decays, usually w ithin tw o years, the roof is
rethatched. The decayed upper layer is discarded and
the low er layer then form s the new upper layer.
H ip and gable edges and the ridges of palm thatched
roofs are particularly vulnerable to w ind and rain dam age.
H ip edges can best be protected w ith a m etal cap. G a-
Makuti type palm thatch mat the complete mat is
600mm long x 500mm wide.
Woven coconut palm thatch mat
Inside view of fan-shaped palm thatch
Inside view of coconut palm thatch, in the Philippines
bles should either be strengthened w ith additional lash-
ing, or preferably set w ithin parapet gables w ith a suit-
able flashing. The ridge cap is vital to ensure that rain
doesnt penetrate into the body of the thatch. The sim -
plest technique is a m etal sheet saddle, but any w ater-
tight m aterial, such as ferro-cem ent should be effective,
provided it is w ell secured.
Layering of woven palm thatch. Closer spacing
produces a longer lasting thatch
Peru palm thatch
in Indonesia this type of palm thatch is up to 200mm
thick
Cost and economy
The follow ing data applies for m akuti type palm thatch-
ing. W ith w oven palm m ats and fan shaped palm leaves
quantities w ill be sim ilar, but durability w ill also be con-
siderably less.
Materials
For a feather-type palm roof w ith a slope of 50 and ver-
tical lap betw een the m ats of 60m m , 1m
2
of roof surface
w ould use 25 pieces of 600m m -long m ats. A n average
sized house w ould use approx. 2,500 m ats, plus string
or fibre for tying and suitable m aterial for ridging.
Labour
P rep aration of m ats. This w ork is trad itionally d one b y
w om en as a cottage industryso the production rate is
very variable, up to 40 m ats per day.
Roofing work
A skilled thatcher, w ith one assistant w ould expect to lay
up to 500 m ats per day. Seven w orking days, including
ridging and tidying the site is sufficient for an average
sized house.
Durability
A steep roof w ith a thick thatch is m ore durable than a
thin, shallow pitched roof. The higher cost of a steeper,
thicker roof is m ore than offset by the increased life, but
choice is alw ays a trade-off betw een cost and perform -
ance. The m axim um econom ic life of a palm thatch, us-
ing the best available m aterials and a skilled thatcher is
10 years.
Further Information
Trelaun B .; Tuiles de Bois USA and Canada; G R E T,
Paris, 1984.
Pow ter A .; Papua New Guinea Shingle and Shake
Manual; Forest Products R esearch C entre, PN G , 1976
Potentials
n Palm leaves are w idely available and usually inexpen-
sive, especially in the hum id tropics.
n H arvesting, processing and thatching w ork is labour
intensive.
n Skills are w idely know n w here palm leaves are avail-
able, and are easily learnt.
n R epair and m aintenance is straightforw ard.
n Palm thatch is light in w eight, so roof tim bering need
not be very expensive.
n Their therm al insulation value is hig h, so p alm leaf
roofs are com fortable in w arm clim ates.
n This type of roof looks attractive, it blends w ell w ith
the natural environm ent and, being a renew able m a-
terial, is ecologically sound.
n Lightw eight roofing is less dangerous in earthquake
zones than m onolithic, heavy roofing.
n Though easily dam aged in high w inds, they are easy
to repair or replace.
Limits
n Thatch is com bustible, and inordinately expensive to
m ake com pletely fire proof w ith chem icals. Insurance
m ay not be available or the prem ium s m ay be very
costly.
n C om b ustib ility and lim ited life sp an restricts use to
building ow ners w ho have ready access to labour and
m aterials.
n H arvesting and processing has not been m echanised,
so inexpensive labour is essential.
n The ed g es hip s, g ab les and rid g es of p alm
thatched roofs are very vulnerable to w ind dam age,
unless protected by a m etal sheet capping.
n Traditional m ethods are often very short lived so peo-
ple m ay be reluctant to invest in m ore expensive palm
thatch.
n Traditional palm thatch is associated w ith tem porary
structures and p revious g enerations, thus not p er-
ceived to be m odern.
n C om b ustib ility m eans that urb an use is not recom -
m ended. A nd in regions prone to civil conflict this is
a m ajor draw back.
n R elatively low initial cost m ay b e a false econom y
com pared to m ore durable and less com bustible cov-
erings.
Wood tiles
(shingles and shakes)
Shingles and shakes are w ood tiles w hich are either split
or saw n from blocks of unseasoned tim ber and laid in
overlapping layers on a sloping roof. M any different tim -
ber species are suitable and they can be m ade either
w ith sim p le hand tools or in sop histicated m echanised
factories. The resulting roof can last 70 or m ore years,
d ep end ing on sp ecies, p reservative treatm ent and on
exposure conditions.
B am boo can also be split to m ake roof tiles.
S p lit w ood shakes have a very long history. In E urop e
oak shakes w ere used for m ed ieval b uild ing , in N orth
A m erica records show that cedar shakes w ere used by
the first old w orld settlers. In C anada untreated w estern
red cedar shake roofs have been know n to last over a
100 years. Tod ay w ood tiles are used throug hout the
w orld. The econom y offered by m odern tim ber process-
ing and p reserving m ethod s m eans that saw n shing les
are now m ore w idely used than split shakes.
Basic techniques processing and use
Materials
Straight grained tim ber, preferably from a m ature hard -
w ood tree m akes the b est w ood tiles. R ed ced ar and
oak, traditionally used in Europe and A m erica, are very
durable but m any other species are suitable. C hoice de-
pends prim arily on w hat is locally available. Softer w oods
should be treated w ith preservatives.
For econom y and less w aste the tree should be m inim um
400m m diam eter and w ithout branches for first 5m . W ood
tiles should be m ade w hen the tim ber is freshly cut, be-
fore it dries.
Processing
Tree trunks are saw n into logs at least 450m m long.
Shakes are split using a froe and w edges. The process
of splitting leaves a slightly rough surface w hich gives
shake roofs a distinctive and aesthetically attractive ap-
pearance. The w ork is labour intensive a positive ad-
vantage w herever unem ploym ent rates are high.
S hing les are cut using a saw . S aw ing cuts across the
natural fibres of the tim ber, so w ater penetrates shingles
m ore readily than shakes.
Wood tiles are split to make shakes
Shingles are sawn wood tiles
Shakes are split from
blocks of timber
Shake makers tools the
wedge shape of the froe is
important as it splits the
wood whilst the handle
provides leverage
Wedge Froe
400m m
7
0
0
m
m
7
0
m
m
70m m
7m m
B oth shakes and shingles are w edge shaped slightly
thicker at one end.
M any saw m ills have equipm ent that can produce sm all
saw n b oard s from off-cuts w hich m ay otherw ise b e
w asted. This m ay be a low cost source as shingles. For
exam p le, in M yanm ar (B urm a) p lyw ood off-cuts sealed
w ith old eng ine oil are the cheap est roofing m aterial.
They last about 6 years. A band-saw or a veneer lathe
can be used.
A purpose m ade circular blade shingle saw set w ithin a
flat-bed steel fram e is m ost productive. This is not w orth
the investm ent unless a sub stantial m arket can b e
served. A n efficient operation w ill require a sm all factory
able to m anage handling, processing, preservative treat-
m ent, storage and transport of raw m aterials and prod-
ucts.
If preservative treatm ent is desirable this is done by dip-
ping or by pressure or vacuum im pregnation (see page
23 for details).
Dimensions of wood tiles
M inim um : 150m m w ide 450m m long 10m m thick
M axim um : 250m m w ide 600m m long 25m m thick
Quantity required for roofing
The num b er of tiles need ed varies w ith sp ecies, roof
slope and the exposure (the am ount of each of tile ex-
posed to the elem ents on the roof surface). O n average
33 shing les are need ed for each sq uare m eter of roof
area. These w ill w eigh betw een 30 and 40kg, depending
on sp ecies. A m ed ium size house (150m
2
floor area)
w ould use about 3,300 tiles.
Roof structures
Shingles and shakes m ust be laid on a roof w ith a m ini-
m um slop e of 30, p referab ly 45 for b etter d urab ility.
B elow 30 rainw ater w ill not discharge rapidly so tiles w ill
be liable to rapid decay.
The roof m ust be designed to support w eight of 3040kg/
m
2
R after spacing: 600 to 1500m m , B atten size: 75m m
20m m for 1500m m rafter spacing, less for closer rafters.
B atten spacing: 180m m 210m m centres, depending on
roof slope and exposure of shingles.
A general principle is that the roof design, as for thatch,
should p referab ly b e sim p le w ithout chang es of slop e.
B ut w ood tiles are a flexible covering so w ill accom m o-
date irregular shaped and curved roofs.
Fire risk m eans that untreated tiles should not be used
on public buildings. A nd building law s m ay prohibit their
use in urban areas.
A modern wood shingle roof in Germany
A wood tile roof showing key features of best
practice
Roofing work
Tiles are laid in ascending layers starting w ith a double
thick layer at eaves and verges. Each tile is secured to
battens w ith tw o non-rusting nails (copper, alum inium or
g alvanized steel) half w ay up each tile. W ork is com -
pleted layer by layer to the ridge, overlapping to cover
nailing and to create desired exposure of tile on the sur-
face (see table). A void vertical joint overlaps and allow
5m m gap betw een each tile for expansion and m ovem ent.
A t the ridge, hips and valleys, provide protective under-
lay of tar paper or thin sheet m etal. The ridge m ay be
m ade of tiles, or a m etal capping w ide enough to cover
the nailed fixing of the upperm ost layer of tiles on each
side of the roof.
Performance
D urability depends on species, roof angle, length of tile
exposed and clim ate. U p to 70 years in tem perate zone
on 45% roof slope, 30 years in hum id tropics.
Cost
Varies w ith labour rate and cost of m aterial. A team of
tw o skilled tilers can lay up to 20m
2
per day. In Europe,
finished roof price per m
2
. is com parable w ith a clay tile
roof, but m ore expensive than corrugated iron.
Maintenance
A steeply pitched roof should require less m aintenance
than a flatter one; rainw ater w ill run off quickly as decay
should b e slow er. W henever necessary, m oss, fallen
leaves and fung i should b e rem oved from the roof b y
brushing, but avoid clim bing on an old roof.
A copper strip or thin cable, fixed along the ridge should
im prove durability. C opper sulphate solution created by
rain reacting w ith the copper acts as an effective fungi-
cide/herbicide.
If a leak occurs this m ay happen if a tile splits or is
dam aged, a tar paper tileshould be inserted betw een
shingles.
Bamboo tiles and planks
W here b am b oo is p lentiful and know led g e of b am b oo
building exists, tiles or long planks can be used for very
low -cost roof covering.
Flat tiles are m ade from 300m m long lengths of bam boo.
The culm should have a m inim um d iam eter of 130m m .
The tiles are m ade by hand by scoring grooves around
the circum ference of a bam boo culm w ith a sharp chisel
and then flattening the culm w ith a m allet. The inner part
of the culm internode diaphragm acts as a tile nib w hich
can be used to hang the tile from battens. B attens m ay
also be m ade from lengths of split bam boo. A tile roof
m ad e w ith flattened sections of b am b oo is laid in the
sam e w ay as any other flat tile or shingle roof.
A n alternative w ay of using bam boo for tiling is to split
b am b oo culm s into tw o eq ual half-cylind er sections.
These are then laid on sp lit-b am b oo b attens like inter-
locking Spanish tiles to create a roof 3 layers thick and
w eighing about 25kg/m
2
.
B am boo planks are m ade by splitting lengths of bam boo
into tw o sections. The length m ay be as long at the roofs
rid g e to eave leng th. The half-round sections interlock
and overlap each other, like Spanish tiles. B am boo plank
roofing w ill b e lig hter and m ore d urab le than b am b oo
tiles.
The durability of these tiles and planks is low as bam -
boo rots quickly w hen w et, but m ay reach a m axim um of
Inside view of a split bamboo tile roof
Red cedar shingles
ten years in a dry clim ate on a steeply angled roof. Pre-
servative treatm ent by dipping in chem icals w ill increase
the cost but ensure a m inim um life even in a w arm hu-
m id clim ate to at least 7 years. B am boo roofs, in com -
m on w ith other biom ass roofing m aterials, are very com -
bustible.
Further Information:
Pow ter A .; Papua New Guinea Shingle and Shake
Manual; Forest Products R esearch C entre, Port M oresby,
PN G , 1976.
Trelaun B .; Tuiles de Bois USA and Canada; G R E T,
Paris, 1984.
Janssen J.; Building with Bamboo; IT Publications, Lon-
don, 1995
Shake roof and timber-clad walls
Optimum exposure for different shingle
and shakes sizes on different roof
slopes
Shingles
Tile length 1:4 slope 1:3 slope
400m m 90m m 130m m
450m m 105m m 135m m
650m m 140m m 185m m
Shakes
Tile length 1:4 slope >1:3 slope
450m m 185m m 185m m
600m m 250m m 250m m
Limits
Shingles
n m ust use straig ht g rained hard w ood sp ecies w hich
split easily.
n p rod uced m anually so outp ut rates are low er than
saw n shakes.
n are d im ensionally stab le b ecause they are sp lit
radially leaving natural grain intact.
n each shingle is slightly different size and appearance
roofing w ork m ay take longer but the finished roof
m ay be m ore attractive than shakes.
n shing les are thicker than shakes so roof structure
m ust be stronger.
Potentials
Shingles (sawn wood tiles)
n C an use any species, both softw ood and hardw ood,
but avoid knotty or tw isted tim ber.
n M echanisation gives possibility for high output.
n Standardised product m ay be less pleasing aestheti-
cally than shakes.
n M ust b e treated w ith p reservatives, p referab ly b y
pressure im pregnation but this prevents w ater col-
lection from the roof.
n Shingles are thinnner than shakes, so roof structure
m ay be lighter.
Shakes (split wood tiles)
n N eed not b e treated w ith p reservatives rainw ater
can be collected.
n N eeds sim ple hand tools to split and trim to size
variable production rate depends on skill and labour
availability.
n C an be produced close to tim ber resource or build-
ing site, avoiding expensive transport.
n Produces less w aste than shingles.
n H ard w ood shakes are naturally m ore d urab le than
shingles.
Shakes
n needs expensive m echanical saw s (band saw or cir-
cular saw ) and rig orous m anag em ent of p rocessing
plant.
n m ore w aste than shingles.
n central processing m ay m ean expensive transport to
building site.
n dim ensionally unstable -tend to w arp, crack and cup
w hen w et d ue to exp osure of saw n tim b er fib res
shakes are often less durable.
n standardised product allow s m ore rapid roofing w ork.
Roof sheets with
organic fibres
Fib re reinforced roof sheets m ad e p rim arily of org anic
m aterials, or reinforced w ith grass stem s, fibres or w ood
chip s offer consid erab le p otential for low -cost roofing .
They are light in w eight, can utilise w aste m aterials and,
in principle, should be an attractive alternative to thatch,
corrugated iron or asbestos cem ent sheets. R esearch in
m any countries has show n that a w ide variety of fibrous
organic m aterials are suitable.
H ow ever, this product has had very lim ited com m ercial
success in the d om estic roofing m arket in d evelop ing
countries. They are m ore evid ent in use for ind ustrial
buildings and em ergency, post-disaster housing. The best
quality sheets can last for up to 15 years, but standard
quality sheets in a tropical clim ate are rarely functional for
m ore than 6 years.
use
There are tw o types of sheet.
The first is a corrugated sheet m ade of fine fibres w hich
are bonded together and w aterproofed w ith asphalt.
The second type are flat sheets w hich use larger fibres,
such as w ood chips. They are bonded w ith cem ent and
then coated w ith a sealer.
Corrugated asphalt roofing sheets
(ARS)
Suitable fibres are obtained from a w ide range of m ateri-
als includ ing b ag asse, sisal, coir, coconut, cotton and
w aste p ap er. They are p ulp ed and w ashed to rem ove
sugars and starches. The w et m ixture is then spun in a
centrifug e. The resulting m at is d ried , trim m ed to the
desired size and then pressed betw een corrugated dies
before being pressure im pregnated or dip coated w ith hot
paving-grade asphalt. Finally the sheet can be painted
w ith asp halt, alum inium or acrylic sealer for further
w eather protection. A sphalt is approxim ately 50% of the
product w eight.
Dimensions
S heets are 6m m to 8m m thick, b etw een 500m m and
900m m w ide and betw een 900 and 1830m m long. M ost
m anufacturers sell a variety of sizes to suit different ap-
plications.
Weight
D epending on the thickness, betw een 3 and 5kg/m
2
.
Uses of ARS sheets
A R S sheets are sim ilar to corrugated iron and asbestos
cem ent sheets and are suitable for all types of building.
They are particularly useful for tem porary structures such
as em ergency housing.
Roof structure
M inim um roof angle is 22. Sheets need supporting on
horizontal battens fixed to rafters at m axim um spacing of
500m m .
Fixing method
Sheets are nailed top and bottom , starting at the bottom
of the roof and overlapping both side and top. Special
shaped ridge pieces are used to protect the apex.
The final coat on asphalt roof sheets (Colombia)
Cost
Varies w ith thickness and size. In Ind ia (1994) sheets
cost approxim ately one-third the price of asbestos-cem ent
sheets and half that of corrugated iron sheets, but low er
durability m eans that A R S m ay be a poor investm ent.
Durability
Varies w ith quality up to a m axim um of 15 years.
The quantity of asphalt and the uniform ity of im pregna-
tion is vital to avoid d eform ation or d e-lam ination of
sheets. R esearch show s considerable variation in quality
and therefore durability betw een m anufacturers in devel-
oping countries suggesting a need for better quality con-
trol.
Fire p roofing chem icals can b e incorp orated d uring
m anufacture, at additional cost. The sheets reach class
B m oderate (U S standard) fire rating w ithout addi-
tional treatm ent.
Production and economics
A R S sheets are m anufactured in m any countries around
the w orld. Production equipm ent varies in output. Typical
lab our intensive p rocessing , using Ind ian eq uip m ent
(source M A S , K erala) w ith 100 em p loyees p rod uces a
m axim um of 1 m illion sheets (2m 1m ) per annum . M a-
chinery (inc. spares and laboratory) costs approxim ately
U S$ 1.1 m illion (1993) and w ould be sited in a 1500m
2
building w ithin a 15,000m
2
factory site w ith 400 to 500
w orkers.
A n A R S factory should be sited near a river, close to raw
m aterials sources and aw ay from residential areas due to
petroleum /asphalt odours. If sheets are to be sun-dried a
large yard and 200 sunny days per year are necessary.
Standards
M any countries have standard specifications for this type
of sheet, but there is no internationally accepted stand-
ard. Indian Standard N o. 12583.1988 is typical; it details:
asp halt content, w ater ab sorp tion, w eig ht b earing
strength, behaviour at high tem perature, and dim ensional
stability in varying conditions.
Particle board
S heets are form ed from w ood chip s, other sm all size
ligno-cellulose chips or fibrous m aterials. A very extensive
rang e of crop resid ues, w ood chip s and ag ricultural
w aste m aterials w ere tested for suitability w ith different
binders during the 1970s in m any countries. The m aterial
is thoroug hly w ashed and then b lend ed w ith a b ind er
before being either hot pressed or extrusion pressed to
form sheets. These m ay be corrugated or flat. The sheets
should be coated w ith a w eather-proof paint for external
use this is usually done in the factory. The price and
durability w ill depend on the type of binder used.
C om m on binders are cem ent, m agnesium oxychloride or
phenol-form aldehyde resin. C em ent bonded sheets con-
tain 62% cem ent, 28% organic fibre w ith optional addi-
tives such as sodium silicate to im prove dim ensional sta-
bility. A w ater-proof coating has to be applied if sheets
are used for roof cladding.
Dimensions
Thickness 4m m to 40m m , for roof cladding. 15m m is
recom m ended. C em ent bonded sheets are produced in
India in tw o sizes 2240 1220m m or 3050 1220m m .
Exact sizes w ill depend on the m anufacturing equipm ent
being used, and sheets can be cut to the desired size
w ith a hand -saw . M ost b oard s are flat, b ut corrug ated
panels can be m ade.
Weight
Varies w ith thickness up to 15kg /m
2
for roofing g rad e
sheets.
Roof structure
Sim ilar requirem ents as for asphalt sheets. M inim um roof
angle is 22, steeper angle w ill be m ore durable. Sheets
need supporting on horizontal battens w hich are nailed to
rafters at m axim um spacing of 500m m .
Resistance to termites and fungi
The fibres are m ineralised w ithin the binder and are thus
not susceptible to insect or fungi attack.
Uses
Suitable for all types of building, but roof m ust be acces-
sible for periodic re-sealing and m aintenance.
Uses
Sheets are nailed or preferably screw ed to the battens.
If flat (rather than corrugated) sheets are used the verti-
cal joints betw een sheets m ust be filled w ith a flexible
sealing com pound, and screw heads m ust also be sim i-
larly protected.
Durability
D epends on the roof slope, the quality of the w aterproof
coating and on clim atic exposure. 10 years is m axim um
exp ected life for a reg ularly m aintained roof on a 35
slope in tropical conditions.
Cost
C om m ercial p rod ucts in Ind ia, p er m
2
of roofing , cost
ap p roxim ately the sam e as asp halt corrug ated sheets.
Prices vary according to the cost of the binder, price of
the organic m aterial and the scale of technology.
Production and economics
Equipm ent is available from a num ber of m anufacturers
to suit w idely varying production conditions. The largest
scale m echanised factories op erating on a continuous
basis w ith a m inim um of m anual handling m ay produce
up to 800,000 roof sheets (2m 1m ) p er year. The
equipm ent cost w ould be at least U S$2 m illion (1992), ex-
cluding land, building and staff costs. The sm allest-scale
plant, such as that developed by the N atural R esources
Institute (N R I) in the U K , has an output of about 250,000
sheets per year output.
Further information:
B ryant B .S.; Corrugated Roofing Panels from Agricul-
tural Residues; A p p rop riate Technolog y. Vol. 4 N o. 4,
1978, London.
Composite Roofing and Panelling Materials from Wood
waste and Agricultural Fibrous Residues for Low-cost
Housing; C onstruction Ind ustry A uthority of the P hilip -
pines, M anila, 1986.
Flynn G .; An Industrial Profile of Fibreboard Panel
Processing; Tropical Products Institute, London, 1980.
Indian B ureau of Standards, D elhi.
LightR oofings Ltd. H ardiyan Sing R oad, K arol B agh, N ew
D elhi 110 0056.
N C L Ind ustries, B 87 D efence C olony, N ew D elhi
110024.
M echanical A ssem b ly S ystem s, M ayithara M arket, P O
A llep p y D istrict, K erala 688539, Ind ia. (for A R S eq uip -
m ent)
N atural R esources Institute, C entral A ve., C hatham , M E4
4TB , U K (for particle board inform ation.)
Asphalt impregnated sheets tend to warp and
de-laminate in tropical conditions
Checklist of benefits and problems for roof sheets with organic fibres
Potentials
n Lig ht w eig ht easy to transp ort and req uires lig ht
roof structure.
n H igh strength/stiffness to w eight ratio.
n Suits all type of buildings, especially low -cost hous-
ing and tem porary buildings.
n C an be m ade fire-proof so m ay be used in urban ar-
eas.
n U tilises org anic m aterials that m ay otherw ise b e
w asted eg w ood chips, bagasse, coir.
n R oofs can b e used to collect w ater if w eatherp roof
coating is non-toxic.
n Fairly low skill needed to fix the sheets.
n Low m aintenance.
n C an be m ade in either sm all or very large factories.
n Low cost com p ared to other m etal or asb estos ce-
m ent sheets.
n A sphalt im pregnated sheets are naturally m ore w eath-
erp roof and d im ensionally stab le than flat p article
board.
Limits
n Low durability.
n M ust be m anufactured in centralised factories requir-
ing high level of m anagem ent skill and quality control.
n B ind er, fire-retard ants and w ater-proof coating s m ay
have to be im ported and m ay be expensive.
n Low custom er/house-ow ner ap p eal b ecause of p oor
durability, variable quality and usually unattractive col-
our.
Treatment of
biomass materials:
preservation
A ll organic m aterials decom pose w hen exposed to m ois-
ture and heat. M axim um durability is achieved by select-
ing the best m aterials, harvesting at the right tim e and
by processing and using them according to best prac-
tice principles described in previous chapters. Service life
can also be im proved by preservative treatm ent.
Som e species are m ore durable than others, and som e
parts of particular species, for exam ple the sapw ood of
tim ber used for shingles, should be discarded. R esearch
into conventional practice suggests that it is very unlikely,
w ith the single exception of copper sulphate herbicides,
that chem ical p reservation of g rass or p alm thatch is
econom ic treatm ents are either ineffective or excessively
costly. In contrast, chem ical treatm ent of w ood or bam -
boo tiles is generally viable.
Non-chemical preservation
B efore deciding to use chem icals it is advisable to con-
sid er other m ethod s that m ay b e eq ually effective,
cheaper and less dangerous. W herever organic m aterials
have been traditionally used for roofing it is very likely
that people w ill have devised non-chem ical preservative
techniques.
For exam ple, in the Philippines it is com m on know ledge
that bam boo w hich is to be used for roof tiles w ill better
resist w ood borer infestation and general decay if it has
been soaked for a day in sea w ater. They also know that
bam boo w ill be less likely to split if it has been harvested
w hen the culm s are fully m ature. S im ilarly, farm ers in
E ng land know that it is essential to allow new ly cut
thatching straw to dry thoroughly before it is stored ready
for sale. Local advice is alw ays recom m ended.
Chemical preservation
Preservatives im prove durability by m inim ising or prevent-
ing m icrobial or fungal action, attack by insects and by
m aking a m aterial less prone to w ater penetration. The
m ost effective treatm ents can be expected to double the
natural life of a m aterial. H ow ever, m any chem icals are
w ater solub le or are leached out b y m oisture chang es
and thus becom e ineffective w ithin a few years.
Safety precautions
W orking w ith chem ically treated m aterials poses a hazard
to the roofing contractor. S p ecial p recautions m ust b e
taken to ensure that hand s are w ashed b efore eating ,
and care m ust be taken to avoid inhaling toxic dust if
m echanical saw s are used to trim treated shingles.
There are hund red s of d ifferent com m ercially availab le
chem icals and m ixtures of chem icals. A s they are sold
under a variety of trade nam es it is im portant to check
the p recise com p osition of a p articular p rod uct b efore
specifying its use. C hem ical use is controlled by legisla-
tion that differs from country to country, so advice m ust
Danger symbols must commonly encountered in
construction
Explosive H ighly flam m able
Toxic C orrosive
H arm ful or Irritant O xidising
be sought from governm ent authorities. M anufacturers in-
structions m ust alw ays be follow ed as m any chem icals
are very toxic and environm entally dam aging.
R esearch on non-p oisonous p reservatives is continuing
w orld-w ide, and new reports of the toxicity of chem icals
previously considered safe are constantly em erging. Pro-
vided that m anufacturers instructions are used, it seem s
safe to use chem icals b ased on b orax, sod a, p otash,
w ood tar (creosote), beesw ax and linseed oil. B ut cau-
tion is still required as toxic solvents are som etim es used
to m ake relatively innocuous chem icals easier to apply.
A bsolutely to be avoided are treatm ents containing D D T
(dichlor-diphenyl-trichlorethane), PC P (pentachloraphenol),
Lind ane (g am m a-hexachloro-cyclohexane) and arsenic.
Even very sm all quantities are lethal for people and ani-
m als, and they can cause long-term environm ental dam -
age. These chem icals are banned in m any countries but
are still availab le in som e d evelop ing countries just
because they are on sale does not m ean they are safe.
Guidelines for safe use
Safety depends on controlled storage, appropriate w ork-
ing conditions, protective m easures, personal hygiene and
careful disposal of w aste, as w ell as training and experi-
ence. People w orking w ith chem icals m ust be aw are of
any risk they are taking and m ust be provided w ith every
facility to prevent accidents.
Storage: m aintain m inim um possible stock levels in se-
cure, w ell ventilated room s under the control of a trained
storem an.
Working conditions: insist on training , suitab le eq uip -
m ent, good ventilation, no naked lights and no sm oking,
eating or drinking w hen using toxic chem icals.
Protective measures: keep all chem icals off the skin and
particularly out of the eyes. G oggles m ust be provided
as w ell as barrier cream s, gloves or protective clothing
to suit the degree of risk.
Hygiene: have facilities available to w ash exposed skin in
clean running w ater.
Disposal of waste: follow local regulations and m anufac-
turers directions.
WARNING: roofs that are treated with chemical pre-
servatives must not be used to collect rainwater for
drinking or irrigating food crops.
Preservative methods
There are three basic categories of chem ical preservative
treatm ent and several different m ethods of using them .
S urface treatm ents, ap p lied b y b rushing , d ip p ing or
sp raying d uring p rocessing and som etim es re-ap p lied
periodically to extend the roof life.
These are relatively sim ple, use inexpensive equipm ent
and can be done on-site.
B ut they are the least effective as only the outer surface
is coated and m ost chem icals w ill be w ashed off by rain-
w ater. O n-site treatm ent is also inadvisable as there is a
greater chance of spillage and m anual m ethods are m ore
likely to expose w orkers to toxic chem icals.
Thus in m ost cases surface treatm ent is not recom -
m ended.
P enetrating treatm ents w hich are ap p lied b y soaking ,
som etim es assisted by vacuum , pressure or heat.
The sim plest m ethod is to soak tim ber or bam boo in an
op en tank. The m aterial m ust b e totally covered and
Boucherie method of treating bamboo
soaked for several days to achieve effective penetration.
It m ust be dried before it can be used. It is not econom ic
to soak thatch due to the quantity of m aterial involved.
The advantage of open tank soaking is its sim plicity and
inexp ensive eq uip m ent. S m all b atches of m aterial, for
exam ple for one roof, can be treated econom ically. H ow -
ever, this is offset by the dangers associated w ith open
tanks of chem icals.
M any different techniques have been devised to increase
the penetration rate and m ake the process safer. Im preg-
nation in sealed vessels either under negative pressure
(vacuum ) or positive pressure is m ore effective than soak-
ing. Sim ilarly, increased penetration m ay be achieved by
heating the chem icals. A ll of these p rocesses req uire
specialised equipm ent and careful m anagem ent; if these
facilities exist locally roofing contractors should use them
in preference to other preservative m ethods.
Sap displacem ent, w here preservatives are draw n into the
m aterial by capillary action.
D isplacem ent m ethods are only useful for treating bam -
boo tim ber for shingles and shakes is best treated by
penetration m ethods. Tw o techniques can be used; both
m ust be done w ith freshly cut bam boo.
B utt treatm ent is w here b am b oo culm s are stood in a
drum of preservative. The leaves act as a pum p; as sap
evaporates it is replaced by the chem icals. The process
m ay take several w eeks.
The B oucherie M ethod uses gravity pressure or a pum p
to force p reservative into the b am b oo. It can only b e
used w ith freshly cut b am b oo so treatm ent should b e
started on the day that the bam boos are harvested.
Conclusion
C hem ical treatm ent is generally econom ic for w ood tiles.
The safest and m ost effective m ethods require expensive
industrial equipm ent. B am boo can be treated, but there
is no clear evid ence that existing p rocesses are eco-
nom ic. D espite m any experim ents and extensive research
there is no conclusive evidence that thatch can be eco-
nom ically treated w ith p reservatives. B est p ractices in
cultivation, m aterials selection, harvesting and processing
and finally in application are of prim ary im portance be-
fore chem ical treatm ent is even considered.
Further information:
B erry R .W .; Timber in Tropical Building; O verseas B uild-
ing N ote 199, B uilding R esearch Establishm ent, England,
1993.
A Guide to the Safe Use of Chemicals in Construction;
C onstruction Industry R esearch and Inform ation A ssocia-
tion. London, 1981.
Janssen J.; Building with Bamboo; Interm ediate Technol-
ogy Publications, London, 1995.
Pressure impregnation of bamboo using borax in Costa Rica
Fire protection
Fire is a serious disadvantage w ith all roofs covered w ith
organic m aterials. A part from sandw iching the roof cov-
ering betw een tw o incom bustible layers there is no w ay
of m aking them com p letely fire p roof. Thus thatch and
shing les are rarely p erm itted for closely sp aced urb an
buildings and organic based sheet m aterials m ust con-
form to flam e penetration and flam e spread standards.
H ow ever, various techniques have been proven to be ef-
fective against the m ost likely sources of roof fires.
Building design
Electrical w iring should carried out by trained contractors.
It m ust alw ays be properly insulated and earthed. Particu-
lar care m ust be taken if cables pass through roof voids
and attics w hich are rarely visited as rodents and insects
m ay d am ag e insulation, so m etal or reinforced p lastic
conduit should be used.
C him ney d esig n m ust isolate hot flue d ischarg es and
m ust release them at least one m etre above the highest
point of the roof. C him neys should preferably be built of
m asonry and roof tim b ers should not b e b uilt into the
chim ney.
C ooking arrangem ents m ust m inim ise the chance of ac-
cidental fire.
B uildings should be protected w ith lightning conductors.
A n outside tap perm anently fitted w ith a long hose-pipe
is advisable.
These are com m on-sense precautions w hich also have to
be com plem ented by fire-conscious household activity.
It is also im portant to realise that skilled w orkm anship is
likely to produce a roof covering that is less fire prone.
This is p articularly evid ent in the case of thatch; p oor
w orkm anship is likely to p rod uce a loosely laid thatch
w hich is m ore com bustible than a densely com pact layer
of thatch.
In addition, there are several techniques of m inim ising the
com bustibility of the roof m aterial and for reducing the
likelihood that a fire w ill take hold in an organic roof.
Surface coating
Various m ethod s have b een d evised to cover thatched
roofs w ith an incom b ustib le coating . In Ind ia this w as
done w ith a cem ent/sand slurry, or a bitum en-stabilised
earth plaster. B ut these add to the cost of the roof, in-
crease its w eight and com pletely hide the original roof.
Their m ajor draw back is that they crack, thus letting in
w ater w hich causes m ore rapid decay of the thatch.
Chemical treatment
M ost fire retardant chem icals are w ater soluble; insoluble
ones are m uch m ore exp ensive. B oth typ es are rarely
used b ecause they are uneconom ic. S trictly sp eaking ,
m ost chem icals act as flam e retardants (reducing the in-
tensity of fire) rather than fire proofing agents.
D ipping is the best w ay of treating roof m aterials, be they
thatch or shingles. B ut these are w ashed off the surface
w ithin a year and hum idity changes can leach the chem i-
cals out of the m aterial.
B orax and boric acid, diluted in w ater, are the least ex-
pensive, safest and m ost w idely used chem icals. W hen
a fire starts on a m aterial treated w ith these substances
they fuse to form a vitreous layer over the com bustible
surface and so cut off the supply of oxygen for com bus-
Fire-protection for external fire-hazards
Perforated
ridge pipe
Lightning
conductor
Perm anent
w ater supply
tion. H ow ever the soluble salts are leached out of the dry
m aterial w ithin the roof coating by changes in am bient
hum idity.
Treatm ent cost depends on a num ber of factors, but can
be expected to add up to 50% to the cost of the roof
covering.
Incombustible underlay
Fire needs a continuing oxygen supply. Partial reduction
of com bustibility is achieved by fixing a fire proof lining
(either m etal foil sheet or gypsum /cem ent boards) under
the roof, nailed to the rafters. The effect is to isolate the
roof from the interior of the building. It is im portant to
ensure that the thatch or tile covering is still ventilated so
that a dam p roof can dry rapidly. This type of underlay
is ob lig atory for thatch in several E urop ean countries
w here fire risk is predom inantly from inside a building.
Sparge pipes
Perforated m etal pipes fixed to the top of each side of a
roof and connected to a w ater supply controlled by a tap
at ground level extinguish roof fires very effectively and
can be used to dam p a roof w hen there is a threat of
fire. They are obligatory in parts of Southern A frica. B ut
they require w ater pressure capable of delivering over 2
litres of w ater per m
2
of roof area per m inute m ore than
the average dom estic supply rate so special arrange-
m ents have to be m ade.
Conclusion
Fire retardant treatm ent is desirable for organic roof cov-
erings. A s chem ical treatm ents are likely to be very ex-
pensive, the best approach is fire conscious design of
these buildings com bined w ith com m on sense, especially
w hen there is an increased risk of a fire.
In com m unities w hich have m any houses roofed w ith
com bustible m aterials it is prudent to have a local fire-
fighting service and em ergency plans should fire break
out.
Further Information:
Elkins G .H .J.; The reduction of the Fire Hazard of
Thatched Roofs; Fire research N ote no. 525, Fire R e-
search Stn. B oreham w ood, U K , 1961
The Prevention of Fires in Thatched Roofs; C SIR N ote
no. X/B O U 2-5, N ational B uilding R esearch Institute, South
A frica, 1971.
Fire resistance Applications of Boric Acid and its
Salts; 1945. From B orax H oldings Ltd, B orax H se, C ar-
lisle St, London SW 1.
Sources of further
information
Inform ation about biom ass roofing m aterials is available
from m any different sources. Traditional building m ethods,
such as thatch and w ood roof tiles are w ell docum ented
in architectural and anthropological literature though cov-
erage tends to concentrate on aesthetic or ethnographic
aspects rather than the practicalities of roofing. It is not
so easy to find published inform ation about the current
availability of organic m aterials for building; the literature
focuses m ore on agriculture and agro-forestry.
In the past thirty years there has been considerable re-
search into w ays of im proving the perform ance of tradi-
tional building techniques. Som e of this research has re-
sulted in sig nificant im p rovem ents w hich have sub se-
quently been adopted by the local construction industry.
They are m entioned in the relevant chap ters. H ow ever,
new com ers to this topic should resist attem pting to repli-
cate proposals m ade in research papers unless they are
certain that these techniques have stood the test of tim e.
In p articular, b e w ary of fire-p roofing and p reservative
techniques for thatch; the evidence suggests that these
are rarely econom ic and in som e cases m ay be positively
harm ful. If in doubt, alw ays seek advice from local ex-
perts in the building industry, universities, N G O s or gov-
ernm ent research institutes.
Where to look for information
H aving d ecid ed that a p articular techniq ue or m aterial
justifies further investig ation, start w ith the d ocum ents
m entioned in the Further Inform ation section of the rel-
evant chapter. If local libraries are unable to obtain these,
the B A SIN R oofing A dvisory Service w ill help. Inform ation
about B A SIN is given at the end of this book.
The richest prim ary source of inform ation is alm ost alw ays
local builders, building m aterials m erchants and agro-for-
estry specialists. They w ill know w hich m aterials and tech-
niques are traditionally used and should be able to give
com m on-sense advice about any proposals for introduc-
ing new m ethods to existing m arkets.
M any national and international research institutes have
locally relevant research and dissem ination program m es
about building. M ost produce regularly updated bibliog-
raphies w hich cover organic m aterials and their construc-
tion uses. M any run an enquiry service and m ost have a
range of publications. O f particular note are:
n C entral B uilding R esearch Inst. R oorkee, 247 672, U P,
India
n N ational B uild ing R esearch Inst. P O B ox 395, 001,
Pretoria, South A frica.
n Lund C entre for H abitat Studies, Lund U niversity PO
B ox 118, S-221 00, Lund, Sw eden
n B A SIN advisory service. SK AT has special expertise
on roofing.
Literature about Roofing
Bibliographies
n Links Between Population, Settlements and the En-
vironment: A Literature Review; Jill W ells, et al.
School of C onstruction Econom ics and M anagem ent,
South B ank U niversity, London, 1994
A n excellent and up-to-date review of literature on or-
ganic building m aterials w hich highlights evidence of
declining availability in recent years. It draw s on the
experience of w ork in m any countries aim ed at pre-
serving existing sup p lies and /or introd ucing exotic
species for construction use. It includes a com prehen-
sive reference list.
n Roofs in the Warm Humid Tropics of South East
Asia; G . Landaeta and S. Larsson. Lund C om m ittee
on H abitat and D evelopm ent Studies, Sw eden, 1987.
This report concentrates on SE A sia, but m uch of the
inform ation is relevant to other tropical regions. It in-
cludes a thorough bibliography on key sources (up to
1987) about roofing around the w orld.
n Bibliography on Local Building Materials, Plant and
Equipment; U nited N ations C entre for H um an Settle-
m ents, N airobi, K enya.
General Publications
P ractical inform ation ab out each roofing techniq ue is
m entioned in each chapter. In addition, there are three
publications w hich offer a thorough overview of building
and roofing w ith locally m anufactured or locally sourced
m aterials.
n Appropriate Building Materials; R . Stulz and K .
M ukerji. SK AT Publications (Sw itzerland) and IT Publi-
cations (U K ), 1993
n Building Materials in Developing Countries; R .J.S.
Spence and D .J. C ook. John W iley & Sons, C hiches-
ter. U K , 1983
n Global Review of Traditional Roof Construction and
General Discussion of Roof Types and Design
Guidelines; Papers by K . M ukerji to the U N ID O C on-
ference on A lternative R oofing M aterials and Their
C onstruction Technologies. B eijing, 1988.
Key questions
If you are interested in roofing w ith organic m aterials you
should be aw are of the im plications. C onsider:
n acceptability of design and aesthetic aspects
n roofing m aterials
n roofing skills
n costs, m anagem ent and investm ent
Ten key questions
1. Is there a dem and for an alternative roofing solution
or for an im provem ent in traditional techniques?
2. D o you think people w ould accept buildings w ith an
biom ass m aterial roof?
3. A re suitable m aterials available locally or can they
be produced?
4. W ill the fire hazard characteristic of biom ass roofing
be a serious problem ?
5. A re you aw are that all types of roofing need periodic
m aintenance?
6. D o you realise that a new roof covering m ay require
other changes to the building structure?
7. Is your region prone to specific problem s related to
biom ass roofing, such as bush fires?
8. A re you prepared to m ake an investm ent in equip-
m ent and the necessary prelim inary surveys?
9. A re you prepared to pay particular attention to train-
ing?
10. D o you know w here you can find technical and train-
ing support?
Recommendations
N ew investm ent m ust alw ays be preceded by a feasibil-
ity study. H aving review ed relevant literature and taken
local ad vice, a feasib ility stud y ab out org anic roofing
should aim to give clear answ ers to the follow ing topics.
A step-by-step approach is recom m ended.
Market and economy
Is the building m arket able to accom m odate a new or re-
introduced roofing m ethod?
A nsw ers w ill depend on thorough m arket analysis includ-
ing , in p articular, the local b uild ing reg ulations. A key
question is the m arket situation. Is it already dom inated
by com parable m aterials, such as corrugated iron or con-
crete tiles? A survey should be designed to interpret the
attitud es of b uild ers and house ow ners. Is there local
resistance to re-introd ucing or m od ifying trad itional
b iom ass roofing techniq ues, and w hat can b e d one to
change these ideas?
Technical aspects. Materials and
equipment
A re the necessary m aterials available in sufficient quan-
tity, or is it feasible to grow them or im port them ?
It m ay be that agricultural surpluses or by-products are
inexpensive, but it is rare that the price w ill stay low once
the supplier realises that they are the basis for a new
ind ustry. Feasib ility calculations m ust assum e that the
m aterials supplier w ill alw ays aim to m axim ise profit.
Som e techniques m ay require im port of m aterials, such
as p reservatives (for w ood tiles), resins or asp halt (for
roof sheets). In m any countries the governm ent m ay re-
strict foreig n exchang e allocations for exp orters or for
g ood s d eem ed to b e of strateg ic im p ortance. R oofing
contractors are unlikely to get priority in tim es of scarcity.
Is equipm ent, and spare parts available?
A lthough roofing is labour intensive w ork, especially w ith
biom ass m aterials, processing alw ays requires som e capi-
tal equipm ent. Engineering skills m ay be needed to adapt
harvesting eq uip m ent (for exam p le, cereal harvesting
equipm ent suitable for rice or w heat w ill alm ost certainly
have to be adapted for cutting thatching grasses). M anu-
facturing equipm ent for asphalt roof sheets is available
from m any different suppliers, but few w ill have it avail-
able off-the-shelf. Investm ent for this technology m ust be
guided by very thorough research of both the m anufac-
turing and m arketing variables.
Skills and know-how
A re necessary skills available?
R oofing w ith biom ass m aterials holds significant appeal
for its em p loym ent g enerating op p ortunities. H ow ever,
b oth the m aterials p rod uction and sub seq uent roofing
w ork is often physically dem anding and m onotonous. If it
is proposed to try to upgrade traditional techniques, of
thatching for exam ple, to m eet new housing expectations,
this m ay require foreign trainers and possibly a period of
sub sid y b efore the new techniq ue is integ rated in the
local construction industry.
B usiness m anagem ent skills are as im portant as techni-
cal skills because new or adapted technologies m ust be
com m ercially viable.
Further Steps
A nsw ering the ten key q uestions w ill req uire research
w hich w ill cover m any issues: socio-cultural, econom ic,
technical, clim atic and geographical, institutional and en-
trepreneurial, and the availability of skills and know -how .
This inform ation form s the basis for a feasibility study for:
n developing a strategy for upgrading existing m ethods
of roofing w ith biom ass m aterials or, alternatively,
n developing a program m e to introduce biom ass roofing
technology into a new region.
B uilding m aterials and construction technologies
that are appropriate for developing countries, par-
ticularly in the low -incom e sector, are being de-
veloped, applied and docum ented in m any parts
of the w orld. This is an im portant prerequisite for
providing safe, decent and affordable buildings
for an ever-grow ing population.
B ut such new developm ents can do little to im -
prove the building situation, as long as the infor-
m ation does not reach potential builders. The
types and sources of inform ation on standard and
innovative building technologies are num erous
and very diverse, m aking access to them diffi-
cult.
Thus, in order to rem edy this draw back, Shelter
Forum , G ATE, ITD G , SK AT, C R ATerre are cooper-
ating in the B uilding A dvisory Service and Infor-
m ation N etw ork, w hich covers five principal sub-
ject areas and coordinates the docum entation,
evaluation and dissem ination of inform ation.
A ll five groups have a coordinated database from
w hich is available on D ocum ents, Technologies,
Equipm ent, Institutions, C onsultants as w ell as
on Projects and Program s. In addition, printed
m aterial or individual advice on certain special
sub jects is p rovid ed on req uest. R esearch
projects, training program s and other field w ork
can be im plem ented in cooperation w ith local or-
ganizations, if a distinct need can be identified
and the circum stances perm it.
B A SIN is a service available to all institutions and
individuals concerned w ith housing, building and
planning in developing countries, but can only
function efficiently if there is a regular feedback.
Therefore, any publications, inform ation, personal
experiences, etc. that can be m ade available to
B A SIN are alw ays w elcom e and w ill help B A SIN
to help others.
G ATE (G erm an A ppropriate Technology Exchange) a program m e of the D eutsche
G esellschaft fr Technische Zusam m enarbeit (G TZ) G m bH , acts as a centre for
the dissem ination and prom otion of appropriate technologies for developing
countries.
The Interm ediate Technology D evelopm ent G roup (ITD G ) is an independent B ritish
charity, founded by D r. E.F. Schum acher, author of Sm all is B eautiful, to help
increase the incom e-generating and em ploym ent opportunities of sm all-scale
industrial activities in developing countries.
SK AT (Sw iss C entre for D evelopm ent C ooperation in Technology and M anage-
m ent) is a docum entation centre and consultancy group w hich is engaged in
prom oting appropriate technologies in the Third W orld.
C R ATerre, the International C entre for Earth C onstruction, is a specialised unit of
the school of A rchitecture of G renoble, dedicated to the prom otion of earth as a
building m aterial.
B
A
S
I
N
UILDING
DVISORY
ERVICEAND
NFORMATION
ETWORK
A dvisory Service provided by W A S/B A SIN
G ATE-G TZ
P.O .B ox 5180
D -65 726 Eschborn
Federal R epublic of G erm any
Phone: + 49 - 6196 - 79 3190
Fax: + 49 - 6196 - 79 7352
e-m ail: hannah.schreckenbach@ G TZ.D E
C A S/B A SIN
ITD G
M yson H ouse
R ailw ay Terrace
R ugby C V21 3H T
U nited K ingdom
Phone: + 44 - 1788 - 560631
Fax: + 44 - 1788 - 540270
e-m ail: itdg@ gn.apc.org
A dvisory Service provided by
R A S/B A SIN
SK AT
Vadianstrasse 42
C H -9000 St.G allen
Sw itzerland
Phone: + 41 - 71 - 228 54 54
Fax: + 41 - 71 - 228 54 55
e-m ail: 100270.2647@ C O M PU SERVE.C O M
EA S/B A SIN
C R ATerre - EA G
M aison Levrat, Parc Fallavier
B P 53
F - 38092 Villefontaine C edex
France
Phone: + 33 (0) 474 95 43 91
Fax: + 33 (0) 474 95 64 21
e-m ail: craterre-eag.villefontaine
@ grenoble.archi.fr
Shelter Forum (SF) is a coalition of non-governm ental organizations, w hich deal
w ith issues on affordable shelter in K enya. The m ain goal of SF is to enhance
access to affordable shelter for all, particularly the poorest, am ong w hom the
m ost vulnerable are w om en and children, through advocacy, extension and
netw orking.
A dvisory Service provided by SA S/B A SIN
Shelter Forum
P.O .B ox 39493
22 C hirom o A ccess R oad
O ff R iverside D rive
N airobi, K enya
Phone: + 254 - 2 - 442108
Fax: + 254 - 2 - 445166
e-m ail: it.kenya@ com m sol.sprint.com

Biomass Roofing Skat

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