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(2)
R
S
is not under the control and responsibility oI the user.
Hence:
n
Line
g
n
Line
s
I
J
R
I
J
R
50
(3)
II (3) is not IulIilled, the ground-Iault will not be cleared
and the grounding system becomes de Iacto an IT, without
having the saIety requirements characteristic oI this system,
as detailed in the next section.
The technical issue expressed by (3) Ior TT systems has
been recently acknowledged by |6|, which establishes that R
S
must be less than 170 O; this value guarantees the correct
operation oI RCDs with residual rating up to 1 A. II low-
voltage electrical utilities cannot comply with this
requirement, the TT system is unsaIe.
IV. IT EARTHING SYSTEM
The IT system, as provided Irom a public low-voltage
supply system, is only in use in Norway, Albania and Peru.
The IT system can also be provided Irom supply systems
other than public, in Iacilities where the continuity oI the
service is crucial (e.g. hospitals, pharmaceutical plants, etc.).
In IT systems, the neutral point oI the source oI energy
is ungrounded, or Ior protection against overvoltages, is
connected to earth through a spark gap
1
, also reIerred to as a
disneuter; equipment can be earthed singularly, in groups or
collectively |7| (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 IT earthing oI single-phase system
Thus, in the event oI a Iirst ground-Iault the current is
low, and the disconnection oI the supply is not imperative iI
the prospective touch voltage does not exceed 50 V in ac
systems.
1
A spark gap consists oI two conducting electrodes separated by a
gap, usually Iilled with a gas, such as air, designed to allow an electric spark
to pass between the conductors. When the voltage diIIerence between the
conductors exceeds the gap's breakdown capacity, a spark Iorms, and the gas
ionizes and drastically reduces its electrical resistance.
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In public IT systems, the utility generally delivers the PE
to low-voltage dwelling units in urban areas, where it is
connected to a local earthing electrode that the user must
make available. Outside the city centers and in rural areas,
the PE is generally not distributed and user`s equipment is
solely grounded trough their local earthing electrode.
II the PE is distributed to users, two dwelling units, each
one aIIected by a one single-pole earth Iault, would cause a
current high enough to trip the overcurrent protective devices
in at least one oI the units; the system would in Iact become a
TN. However, without the distributed PE, the Iault current is
limited by the resistance to earth oI the ground electrodes oI
the units, which would likely cause a Iault current not high
enough to allow overcurrent devices to operate.
II the proper maintenance oI the spark gaps, to prevent
their short circuiting to ground, cannot be guaranteed, the IT
system becomes problematic. It could, in Iact, turn either into
a TN or a TT system, without necessarily having the
particular saIety requirements oI these earthing types, with
great risk oI electric shock Ior consumers. Utilities are
thereIore mandated to accordingly protect users against
indirect contact by implementing alternative solutions such
as changing earthing type |8|.
V. FAULT-LOOP IMPEDANCE CALCULATION FOR
EARTHING TYPE CONVERSIONS
Single-phase transIormers, as separate derived systems,
may allow conversions between earthing types.
In this section, loop-impedance calculations across
single-phase transIormers are discussed. The cases examined
are based on the Iollowing assumptions:
1) R
g
the sum oI the resistance oI the local earth electrode
and oI the resistance oI the protective conductor;
2) PE indicates the actual protective conductor oI the main
cable, but also any additional PE, as well as metal
layers oI cables (e.g. armors, sheaths) connected in
parallel to return ground-Iault currents;
3) L
P
and L
S
respectively indicate primary and secondary
line conductors, and there could be multiple set oI
cables in parallel; their corresponding impedance is
Z
LP
and Z
LS
;
4) Z
t
is the impedance and k is the ratio oI single-phase
transIormers.
A. TN-C to TN-S/TN-C-S
Figure 5 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-C
earthing system into a TN-S earthing system.
Fig. 5 TN-C to TN-S
The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
PEN
)/k
2
Z
LS
Z
PE
(4)
C. TN-C to TT
Figure 6 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-C
earthing system into a TT earthing system.
Fig. 6 TN-C to TT
The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
PEN
)/k
2
Z
LS
R
g
R
s
. (5)
D. TN-S to TN-C/TN-C-S
Figure 7 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-S
earthing system into a TN-C/TN-C-S earthing system.
Fig. 7 TN-S to TN-C
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The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
N
)/k
2
Z
LS
Z
PEN
(6)
where Z
N
is the primary neutral conductor impedance.
E. TN-S to TT
Figure 8 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TN-S/TN-
C-S earthing system into a TT earthing system.
Fig. 8 TN-S to TT
The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
NP
)/k
2
Z
LS
R
g
R
s
(7)
where Z
NP
is the primary neutral conductor impedance.
F. TT to TN-S
Figure 9 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TT
earthing system into a TN-S earthing system.
Fig. 9 TT to TN-S
The Iault-loop impedance at the occurrence oI the 2
nd
Iault is given by:
Z
loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
NP
)/k
2
Z
LS
Z
PE
(8)
where Z
PE
is the impedance oI the PE at the secondary
side.
G. IT to TN-S
Figure 10 shows the case oI the conversion oI an IT
earthing system into a TN-S earthing system.
Fig. 10 IT to TN-S
The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
LP
Z
t
Z
NP
)/k
2
Z
L1s
Z
PE
(9)
H. TT (TN) to IT (with equipment earthed individuallv or in
groups)
Figure 11 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TT/TN
earthing system into an IT earthing system (with equipment
earthed individually or in groups.
Fig. 11 TT (TN) to IT (individual or groups)
The Iault-loop impedance at the occurrence oI the 2
nd
Iault is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
Lp
Z
t
Z
Np
)/k
2
Z
L1s
2R
g
(10)
Equation (10) is based on the assumption that the second
ground-Iault occurs at a 'virtual piece oI equipment, whose
ground electrode has the same earth-resistance R
g
as the Iirst-
Iaulted equipment`s.
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I. TT (TN) to IT (collectivelv earthed)
Figure 12 shows the case oI the conversion oI a TT/TN
earthing system into an IT earthing system (with equipment
collectively earthed).
Fig. 12 TT to IT (collective)
The Iault-loop impedance is given by:
Z
Loop
(Z
s
Z
Lp
Z
t
Z
Np
)/k
2
Z
L1s
Z
PE
(11)
Equation (11) is based on the assumption that the 2
nd
ground-Iault occurs in the vicinity oI the ungrounded source
(i.e. the single-phase transIormer) and the 1
st
ground-Iault
occurs at the 'electrically Iarthest load within the system
(i.e. by considering both length and cross sectional areas oI
cables).
Protection against electric shock is achieved iI the
calculated Z
loop
is less than the maximum permissible Iault-
loop impedance calculated as per |3|.
VI. EXEMPLARY CALCULATION OF EARTHING TYPE
CONVERSION TN-S SYSTEM TO IT-COLLECTIVE
A simpliIied example oI earthing type conversion TN-S
system to IT-collective in a single-phase system is shown in
Fig. 13.
Fig. 13 A simpliIied single-phase system
A 600/230V, 50 kVA transIormer T-1 is Ied by a
network Feeder and supplies power to a 35 kVA Lump Load.
The earthing type is changed Irom TN-S system to IT-
collective thanks to the transIormer T-1(as shown in Fig. 12).
Cable-1 on the primary side oI T-1 is 500 m long and has a
wire size equal to 240 mm
2
, with a PE oI same size; line
conductor and PE impedances are equal to Z
Lp
/k
2
Z
Np
/k
2
(0.0055j0.0121) on a 230 V base;
Cable-2 is 20 m long and wire size 240 mm
2
, with both
line and protective conductor impedances equal to Z
L1s
Z
PE
0.0018j0.0023 on a 230 V base. TransIormer T-1
impedance as seen Irom the secondary side is Z
t
/k
2
(0.0140
j0.0237) ;
The impedance oI the single-phase network Feeder is
Z
s
/k
2
0.0105 j0.1053 converted to 230 V base.
At the occurrence oI a 2
nd
line-to-ground Iault at the end
oI Cable-2, the IT - collective system evolves into a TN
system (we conservatively assume a 1
st
Iault involving the
other phase at the terminal oI the secondary oI the
transIormer).
The total Iault-loop impedance Z
Loop
is calculated with
(11); In numbers:
Z
Loop
(0.0140 j0.0237) (0.0105 j0.1053) 2 x
(0.0055 j0.0121) 2 x (0.0018 j0.0023) (0.0391
j0.1578). The magnitude oI Z
Loop
is 0.163 .
From |3|, the maximum permissible disconnection time
Ior a TN system with an operating voltage oI 230 V is 0.4 s.
By examining the time-current characteristic oI Fuse-2, we
can determine that 0.4 s corresponds to a current I
a
equal to
66 A. The maximum permissible Iault-loop impedance Z
M
is
given by |3|:
O 1.742
2I
V
Z
a
LL
M
(12)
where V
LL
is the nominal ac voltage between the line
conductors.
As the actual loop impedance Z
Loop
Z
P
, the system is
considered protected against electric shock by |3|.
As above detailed, the primary network impedance on a
230 V base oI the system oI Fig. 13 is: (0.0150 j 0.1053)
2 x (0.0055 j0.0121) (0.026 j0.1295) , with a
magnitude oI 0.132 ; this value corresponds to the 81 oI
the total loop impedance Z
Loop
, thereIore should not be
omitted in the calculation.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
The authors have illustrated the major saIety issues oI
the IEC earthing types and substantiated that utilities, or even
consumers, may be required to convert their earthing types in
order to increase, or restore, the protection against electric
shock. This conversion can be carried out by using single-
phase transIormers. The major parameter Ior the protection
against electric shock is the Iault-loop impedance, which
allows the calculation oI touch voltages. This paper provides
equations and equivalent circuits to detail earthing type
changes across transIormers, as well as an exemplary electric
shock calculation Irom an actual single-phase system.
It has been proved that such calculation must take into
account the impedances oI such transIormers, as well as oI
their upstream networks. From the example, it appears clear,
in Iact, that neglecting these quantities may greatly aIIect the
Iault-loop calculation, by providing a lower impedance
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value. Systems, thereIore, would not be protected against the
risk oI electric shock.
REFERENCES
|1| M. Mitolo, M. Tartaglia, and S. Panetta, "Of International
Terminologv and Wiring Methods Used in the Matter of Bonding and
Earthing of Low-Joltage Power Svstems, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, Vol. 46, No. 3, 2010, pp. 1089-1095.
|2| IEEE Std 142, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Svstems", 2007.
|3| IEC 60364-4-41, "Low-Joltage Electrical Installations - Protection for
Safetv - Protection against Electric Shock", 2005-12.
|4| Italian standard CEI 64-8 'Low-voltage electrical installations, 2012-
11.
|5| BS 7671 Requirements for electrical installations`, 2008-01
|6| Italian Standard CEI 0-21 'Reference technical rules for the
connection of active and passive users to the LJ electrical Utilities:
2012-06.
|7| M. Mitolo, 'Electrical Safetv of Low-Joltage Svstems, Pub. McGraw-
Hill ProIessional, 2009.
|8| NEK 400 'Electrical low voltage installations`, 2010.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank ProI. EiliI H. Hansen
with the Department oI Electrical Power Engineering oI the
Norwegian University oI Science and Technology Ior
providing technical inIormation regarding the Norwegian
electrical distribution system.
BIOGRAPHIES
Haijun Liu (IEEE SM`01) received the
Doctoral Degree in electrical engineering Irom
University oI Wisconsin - Milwaukee. He is
currently a Principal Electrical Engineer and Vice
President oI Operation Technology, Inc., in Irvine,
CA. His Iields oI research include electric power
system modeling, simulation and soItware
development. One oI his current Iocuses is low-
voltage system studies. Dr. Haijun Liu received both his Bachelor and
Master degree in Electrical Engineering Irom Chongqing University, P. R.
China. He was with Thomason Edison Technical Center oI Cooper Power
Systems as a Senior Power Engineer beIore joined Operation Technology,
Inc. He is a registered ProIessional Engineer in CaliIornia, USA.
Massimo Mitolo (IEEE SM `03), educated in
Italy, received the Doctoral Degree in Electrical
Engineering Irom University oI Naples "Federico II".
His Iield oI research is the Analysis and Grounding
oI Power Systems.
He is a registered ProIessional Engineer in Italy
and is currently working as a senior principle
electrical engineer at ETAP/OTI in Irvine, CA. He
has authored over sixty journal papers, as well as the book 'Electrical SaIety
oI Low-voltage Systems. He is the recipient oI the IEEE 2012 Outstanding
Engineer Award, awarded by the Orange County Power
Engineering/Industry Application Society Ior the development oI new
technical concepts Ior the advancement oI the electrical saIety engineering
oI low-voltage systems.
Dr. Mitolo is active within the IEEE IAS Industrial & Commercial
Power Systems Department, where he is currently the Chair oI the Power
Systems Engineering (PSE) Committee, the Chair oI the Power Systems
Analysis Subcommittee and the Chair oI the Grounding Subcommittee. He
also serves as an Associate Editor oI the IEEE Power Systems Engineering
and Energy Systems Committees with ScholarOne Manuscript.
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