Honors Physics Review Notes Fall 2008

Honors Physics Review Notes
Fall 2008
Tom Strong
Science Department
Mt Lebanon High School
tomstrong@gmail.com
The most recent version of this can be found at http://www.tomstrong.org/physics/
Chapter 1 The Science of Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 3 Two-Dimensional Motion and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Chapter 4 Forces and the Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 5 Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 6 Momentum and Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 7 Rotational Motion and the Law of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter 8 Rotational Equilibrium and Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Variables and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Mathematics Review for Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Physics Using Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Midterm Exam Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Semester Exam Equation Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Mixed Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Mixed Review Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
ii
These notes are meant to be a summary of important points covered in the Honors Physics class at Mt. Lebanon High
School. They are not meant to be a replacement for your own notes that you take in class, nor are they a replacement for
your textbook. Much of the material in here is taken from the textbook without specically acknowledging each case, in
particular the organization and overall structure exactly match the 2002 edition of Holt Physics by Serway and Faughn
and many of the expressions of the ideas come from there as well.
The mixed review exercises were taken from the supplementary materials provided with the textbook. They are a
representative sampling of the type of mathematical problems you may see on the nal exam for the course. There will
also be conceptual questions on the exam that may not be covered by the exercises included here. These exercises are
provided to help you to review material that has not been seen in some time, they are not meant to be your only resource
for studying. Exercises are included from chapters 18, 1217, and 1922.
The answers at the end of the review are taken from the textbook, often without verifying that they are correct. Use
them to help you to solve the problems but do not accept them as correct without verifying them yourself.
This is a work in progress and will be changing and expanding over time. I have attempted to verify the correctness
of the information presented here, but the nal responsibility there is yours. Before relying on the information in these
notes please verify it against other sources.
Honors Physics 20082009 Mr. Strong
1
Chapter 1 The Science of Physics
1.1 What is Physics?
Some major areas of Physics:
Mechanics motion and its causes falling objects,
friction, weight
Thermodynamics heat and temperature melting
and freezing processes, engines, refrigerators
Vibrations and Waves specic types of repeating
motions springs, pendulums, sound
Optics light mirrors, lenses, color
Electromagnetism electricity, magnetism, and light
electrical charge, circuitry, magnets
Relativity particles moving at very high speeds par-
ticle accelerators, particle collisions, nuclear energy
Quantum Mechanics behavior of sub-microscopic
particles the atom and its parts
The steps of the Scientic Method
1. Make observations and collect data that lead to a
question
2. Formulate and objectively test hypotheses by experi-
ments (sometimes listed as 2 steps)
3. Interpret results and revise the hypotheses if neces-
sary
4. State conclusions in a form that can be evaluated by
others
1.2 Measurements in Experiments
Measurements
There are 7 basic dimensions in SI (Syst`eme International),
the 3 we will use most often are:
Length meter (m) was 1/10,000,000 of the dis-
tance from the equator to the North Pole now the
distance traveled by light in 3.3 10
9
s
Mass kilogram(kg) was the mass of 0.001 cubic
meters of water, now the mass of a specic platinum-
iridium cylinder
Time second (s) was a fraction of a mean so-
lar day, now 9,162,631,700 times the period of a radio
wave emitted by a Cesium-133 atom
Common SI Prexes
Prex Multiple Abbrev.
nano- 10
9
n deci- 10
1
d
micro- 10
6
kilo- 10
3
k
milli- 10
3
m mega- 10
6
M
centi- 10
2
c giga- 10
9
G
Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy describes how close a measured value is to
the true value of the quantity being measured
Problems with accuracy are due to error. To avoid
error:
Take repeated measurements to be certain that
they are consistent (avoid human error)
Take each measurement in the same way (avoid
method error)
Be sure to use measuring equipment in good
working order (avoid instrument error)
Precision refers to the degree of exactness with which
a measurement is made and stated.
1.325 m is more precise than 1.3 m
lack of precision is usually a result of the limi-
tations of the measuring instrument, not human
error or lack of calibration
You can estimate where divisions would fall be-
tween the marked divisions to increase the pre-
cision of the measurement
1.3 The Language of Physics
There are many symbols that will be used in this class, some
of the more common will be:
Symbol Meaning
x Change in x
x
i
, x
f
Initial, nal values of x
F Sum of all F
Dimensional analysis provides a way of checking to
see if an equation has been set up correctly. If the units re-
sulting from the calculation are not those that are expected
then its very unlikely that the numbers will be correct ei-
ther. Order of magnitude estimates provide a quick
way to evaluate the appropriateness of an answer if the
estimate doesnt match the answer then theres an error
somewhere.
2
Counting Signicant Figures in a Number
Rule Example
All counted numbers have an innite number
of signicant gures
10 items, 3 measurements
All mathematical constants have an innite
number of signicant gures
1/2, , e
All nonzero digits are signicant 42 has two signicant gures; 5.236 has four
Always count zeros between nonzero digits 20.08 has four signicant gures; 0.00100409 has six
Never count leading zeros 042 and 0.042 both have two signicant gures
Only count trailing zeros if the number con-
tains a decimal point
4200 and 420000 both have two signicant gures; 420.
has three; 420.00 has ve
For numbers in scientic notation apply the
above rules to the mantissa (ignore the expo-
nent)
4.2010 10
28
has ve signicant gures
Counting Signicant Figures in a Calculation
Rule Example
When adding or subtracting numbers, nd the number which is known
to the fewest decimal places, then round the result to that decimal
place.
21.398 + 405 2.9 = 423 (3
signicant gures, rounded
to the ones position)
When multiplying or dividing numbers, nd the number with the fewest
signicant gures, then round the result to that many signicant g-
ures.
0.049623 32.0/478.8 =
0.00332 (3 signicant gures)
When raising a number to some power count the numbers signicant
gures, then round the result to that many signicant gures.
5.8
2
= 34 (2 signicant
gures)
Mathematical constants do not inuence the precision of any compu-
tation.
2 4.00 = 25.1 (3 signif-
icant gures)
In order to avoid introducing errors during multi-step calculations, keep
extra signicant gures for intermediate results then round properly
when you reach the nal result.
Rules for Rounding
Rule Example
If the hundredths digit is 0 through 4 drop it and all following digits. 1.334 becomes 1.3
If the hundredths digit is 6 though 9 round the tenths digit up to the
next higher value.
1.374 becomes 1.4
If the hundredths digit is a 5 followed by other non-zero digits then
round the tenths digit up to the next higher value.
1.351 becomes 1.4
If the hundredths digit is a 5 not followed by any non-zero digits then
if the tenths digit is even round down, if it is odd then round up.
1.350 becomes 1.4, 1.250 be-
comes 1.2
(assume that the result was to be rounded to the nearest 0.1, for other precisions adjust accordingly)
3
Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension
2.1 Displacement and Velocity
The displacement of an object is the straight line (vector)
drawn from the objects initial position to its new position.
Displacement is independent of the path taken and is not
necessarily the same as the distance traveled. Mathemati-
cally, displacement is:
x = x
f
x
i
The average velocity, equal to the constant velocity
necessary to cover the given displacement in a certain time
interval, is the displacement divided by the time interval
during which the displacement occurred, measured in
m
s
v
avg
=
x
t
=
x
f
x
i
t
f
t
i
The instantaneous velocity of an object is equivalent
to the slope of a tangent line to a graph of x vs. t at the
time of interest.
The area under a graph of instantaneous velocity vs.
time (v vs. t) is the displacement of the object during that
time interval.
2.2 Acceleration
The average acceleration of an object is the rate of
change of its velocity, measured in
m
s
2
. Mathematically, it
is:
a
avg
=
v
t
=
v
f
v
i
t
f
t
i
Like velocity, acceleration has both magnitude and di-
rection. The speed of an object can increase or decrease
with either positive or negative acceleration, depending on
the direction of the velocity negative acceleration does
not always mean decrease in speed.
The instantaneous acceleration of an object is equiv-
alent to the slope of a tangent line to the v vs. t graph at
the time of interest, while the area under a graph of instan-
taneous acceleration vs. time (a vs. t) is the velocity of
the object. In this class acceleration will almost always be
constant in any problem.
Displacement and velocity with constant uniform accel-
eration can be expressed mathematically as any of:
v
f
= v
i
+at
x = v
i
t +
1
2
at
2
x =
1
2
(v
i
+v
f
)t
v
2
f
= v
2
i
+2ax
2.3 Falling Objects
In the absence of air resistance all objects dropped near the
surface of a planet fall with eectively the same constant
acceleration called free fall. That acceleration is always
directed downward, so in the customary frame of reference
it is negative, so:
a
g
= g = 9.81
m
s
2
4
Chapter 3 Two-Dimensional Motion and Vectors
3.1 Introduction to Vectors
Vectors can be added graphically.
Vectors can be added in any order:
V
1
+

V
2
=

V
2
+

V
1
To subtract a vector you add its opposite:
V
1
V
2
=

V
1
+(
V
2
)
Multiplying a vector by a scalar results in a vector in
same direction as the original vector with a magnitude equal
to the original magnitude multiplied by the scalar.
3.2 Vector Operations
To add two perpendicular vectors use the Pythagorean The-
orem to nd the resultant magnitude and the inverse of the
tangent function to nd the direction: V
r
=
_
V
2
x
+V
2
y
and
the direction of V
r
,
r
, is tan
1
Vy
Vx
Just as 2 perpendicular vectors can be added, any vector
can be broken into two perpendicular component vectors:
V =

V
x
+

V
y
where

V
x
= V cos and

V
y
= V sin ;
Two vectors with the same direction can be added by
adding their magnitudes, the resultant vector will have the
same direction as the vectors that were added.
Any two (or more) vectors can be added by rst decom-
posing them into component vectors, adding all of the x and
y components together, and then adding the two remaining
perpendicular vectors as described above.
3.3 Projectile Motion
The equations of motion introduced in chapter 2 are ac-
tually vector equations. Once the new symbol for displace-
ment,

d = x+y has been introduced the most common
ones can be rewritten as
d = v
i
t +
1
2
at
2
v
f
= v
i
+at
Since motion in each direction is independent of motion in
the other, objects moving in two dimensions are easier to
analyze if each dimension is considered separately.
d
x
= v
xi
t +
1
2
a
x
t
2
d
y
= v
yi
t +
1
2
a
y
t
2
In the specic case of projectile motion there is no
acceleration in the horizontal () direction (a
x
= 0) and
the acceleration in the vertical ( ) direction is constant
(a
y
=a
g
= g = 9.81
m
s
2
). While v
y
will change over time,
v
x
remains constant. Neglecting air resistance, the path fol-
lowed by an object in projectile motion is a parabola. The
following equations use these simplications to describe the
motion of a projectile launched with speed v
i
and direction
up from horizontal:
v
x
= v
i
cos = constant
v
yi
= v
i
sin
d
x
= v
i
cos t
d
y
= v
i
sint +
1
2
gt
2
To solve a projectile motion problem use one part of the
problem to nd t, then once you know t you can use
that to solve the rest of the problem. In almost every case
this will involve using the vertical part of the problem to
nd t which will then let you solve the horizontal part
but there may be some problems where the opposite ap-
proach will be necessary. For the special case of a projectile
launched on a level surface the range can be found with
d
x
=
v
2
sin2
a
g
5
Chapter 4 Forces and the Laws of Motion
4.1 Changes in Motion
Force causes change in velocity. It can cause a station-
ary object to move or a moving object to stop or otherwise
change its motion.
The unit of force is the newton (N), equivalent to
kgm
s
2
,
which is dened as the amount of force that, when acting
on a 1 kg mass, produces an acceleration of 1
m
s
2
.
Contact forces act between any objects that are in
physical contact with each other, while eld forces act
over a distance.
A force diagram is a diagram showing all of the forces
acting on the objects in a system.
A free-body diagram is a diagram showing all of the
forces acting on a single object isolated from its surround-
ings.
4.2 Newtons First Law
Newtons rst law states that
An object at rest remains at rest, and an ob-
ject in motion continues in motion with constant
velocity (that is, constant speed in a straight
line) unless the object experiences a net exter-
nal force.
This tendency of an object to not accelerate is called
inertia. Another way of stating the rst law is that if the
net external force on an object is zero, then the acceleration
of that object is also zero. Mathematically this is
F = 0 a = 0
An object experiencing no net external force is said to
be in equilibrium, if it is also at rest then it is in static
equilibrium
4.3 Newtons Second and Third Laws
Newtons second law states that
The acceleration of an object is directly pro-
portional to the net external force acting on the
object and inversely proportional to the objects
mass.
Mathematically this can be stated as:
F = ma
Which in the case of no net external force (
F = 0) also
illustrates the rst law:
F = 0 ma = 0 a = 0
Newtons third law states that
If two objects interact, the magnitude of the
force exerted on object 1 by object 2 is equal to
the magnitude of the force simultaneously ex-
erted on object 2 by object 1, and these two
forces are opposite in direction.
Mathematically, this can be stated as:
F
1,2
=
F
2,1
The two equal but opposite forces form an action-reaction
pair.
4.4 Everyday Forces
The weight of an object (
F
g
) is the gravitational force ex-
erted on the object by the Earth. Mathematically:
F
g
= mg where g = 9.81
m
s
2
j
The normal force (
F
n
) is the force exerted on an object
by the surface upon which the object rests. This force is
always perpendicular to the surface at the point of contact.
The force of static friction (
F
s
) is the force that op-
poses motion before an object begins to move, it will pre-
vent motion so long as it has a magnitude greater than the
applied force in the direction of motion. The maximum
magnitude of the force of static friction is the product of
the magnitude of the normal force times the coecient
of static friction (
s
) and its direction is opposite the
direction of motion:
s
=
F
s,max
F
n
F
s,max
=
s
F
n
The force of kinetic friction (
F
k
) is the force that op-
poses the motion of an object that is sliding against a sur-
face. The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction is the
product of the magnitude of the normal force times the
coecient of kinetic friction (
k
) and its direction is
opposite the direction of motion:
k
=
F
k
F
n
F
k
=
k
F
n
The force of friction between two solid objects depends
only on the normal force and the coecient of friction, it
is independent of the the surface area in contact between
them.
For an object at rest with a force applied to it the fric-
tional force will vary as the applied force is increased.
6
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
F
app
F
friction
k
F
n
s
F
n
s
F
n
static kinetic
F
s
= F
app
F
k
=
k
F
n
Air resistance (
F
R
) is the force that opposes the mo-
tion of an object though a uid. For small speeds F
R
v
while for large speeds F
R
v
2
. (Exactly what is small or
large depends on things that are outside the scope of this
class.) Air resistance is what will cause falling objects to
eventually reach a terminal speed where F
R
= F
g
.
Solving Friction Problems
When solving friction problems start by drawing a diagram
of the system being sure to include the gravitational force
(F
g
), normal force (F
n
), frictional force (F
k
, F
s
, or F
s,max
)
and any applied force(s).
Determine an appropriate frame of reference, rotating
the x and y coordinate axes if that is convenient for the
problem (such as an object on an inclined plane). Resolve
any vectors not lying along the coordinate axes into com-
ponents.
Use Newtons second law (
F = ma) to nd the rela-

tionship between the acceleration of the object (often zero)
and the applied forces, setting up equations in both the x
and y directions (
F
x
= ma
x
and

F
y
= ma
y
) to solve
for any unknown quantities.
7
Chapter 5 Work and Energy
5.1 Work
A force that causes a displacement of an object does work
(W) on the object. The work is equal to the product of the
distance that the object is displaced times the component of
the force in the direction of the displacement, or if is the
angle between the displacement vector and the (constant)
net applied force vector, then:
W = F
net
d cos
The units of work are Joules (J) which are equivalent
to N m or
kgm
2
s
2
. The sign of the work being done is sig-
nicant, it is possible to do a negative amount of work.
5.2 Energy
Work done to change the speed of an object will accumu-
late as the kinetic energy (KE, or sometimes K) of the
object. Kinetic energy is:
KE =
1
2
mv
2
If work is being done on an object, the work-kinetic
energy theorem shows that:
W
net
= KE
In addition to kinetic energy, there is also potential
energy (PE, or sometimes U) which is the energy stored
in an object because of its position. If the energy is stored
by lifting the object to some height h, then the equation for
gravitational potential energy is:
PE
g
= mgh
Potential energy can also be stored in a compressed
or stretched spring, if x is the distance that a spring is
stretched from its rest position and k is the spring con-
stant measuring the stiness of the spring (in newtons per
meter) then the elastic potential energy that is stored
is:
PE
elastic
=
1
2
kx
2
The units for all types of energy are the same as those
for work, Joules.
5.3 Conservation of Energy
The sum an objects kinetic energy and potential energy is
the objects mechanical energy (ME). In the absence of
friction, the total mechanical energy of a system will remain
the same. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
ME
i
= ME
f
In the case of a single object in motion, this becomes:
1
2
mv
2
i
+mgh
i
=
1
2
mv
2
f
+mgh
f
5.4 Power
The rate at which energy is transferred is called power (P).
The mathematical expression for power is:
P =
W
t
=
Fd
t
= F
d
t
= Fv
The units for power are Watts (W) which are equivalent
to
J
s
or
kgm
2
s
3
8
Chapter 6 Momentum and Collisions
6.1 Momentum and Impulse
Momentum is a vector quantity described by the product
of an objects mass times its velocity:
p = mv
If an objects momentum is known its kinetic energy can
be found as follows:
KE =
p
2
2m
The change in the momentum of an object is equal to
the impulse delivered to the object. The impulse is equal
to the constant net external force acting on the object times
the time over which the force acts:
p =

Ft
Any force acting on on object will cause an impulse,
including frictional and gravitational forces.
In one dimension the slope of a graph of the momen-
tum of an object vs. time is the net external force acting
on the object. The area under a graph of the net external
force acting on an object vs. time is the total change in
momentum of that object.
Momentum and impulse are measured in
kgm
s
there
is no special name for that unit.
6.2 Conservation of Momentum
Momemtum is always conserved in any closed system:
p
i
= p
f
For two objects, this becomes:
m
1
v
1i
+m
2
v
2i
= m
1
v
1f
+m
2
v
2f
Any time two objects interact, the change in momen-
tum of one object is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the change in momentum of the other object:
p
1
= p
2
6.3 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
There are three types of collisions:
Elastic momentum and kinetic energy are con-
served. Both objects return to their original shape
and move away separately. Generally:
p
i
= p
f
KE
i
= KE
f
For two objects:
m
1
v
1i
+m
2
v
2i
= m
1
v
1f
+m
2
v
2f
1
2
m
1
v
2
1i
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2i
=
1
2
m
1
v
2
1f
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2f
Inelastic momentum is conserved, kinetic energy
is lost. One or more of the objects is deformed in the
collision. Generally:
p
i
= p
f
KE
i
> KE
f
For two objects:
m
1
v
1i
+m
2
v
2i
= m
1
v
1f
+m
2
v
2f
1
2
m
1
v
2
1i
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2i
>
1
2
m
1
v
2
1f
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2f
Perfectly inelastic momentum is conserved, ki-
netic energy is lost. One or more objects may be
deformed and the objects stick together after the col-
lision. Generally:
p
i
= p
f
KE
i
> KE
f
For two objects:
m
1
v
1i
+m
2
v
2i
= (m
1
+m
2
)v
f
1
2
m
1
v
2
1i
+
1
2
m
2
v
2
2i
>
1
2
(m
1
+m
2
)v
2
f
True elastic or perfectly inelastic collisions are very rare
in the real world. If we ignore friction and other small en-
ergy losses many collisions may be modeled by them.
Newtons Laws in terms of Momentum
1. Inertia:
F = 0 p = constant
2.

F = ma:
p =

Ft
3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction:
p
1
= p
2
9
Chapter 7 Rotational Motion and the Law of Gravity
7.1 Measuring Ratational Motion
For an object moving in a circle with radius r through an
arc length of s, the angle (in radians) swept by the object
is:
=
s
r
The conversion between radians and degrees is:
(rad) =

180
o
(deg)
The angular displacement () through which an
object moves from
i
to
f
is, in rad:
=
f

i
=
s
f
s
i
r
=
s
r
The average angular speed () of an object is, in
rad
s
,
the ratio between the angular displacement and the time
interval required for that displacement:
avg
=

f

i
t
=

t
The average angular acceleration () is, in
rad
s
2
:
avg
=

f

i
t
=

t
For each quantity or relationship in linear motion there
is a corresponding quantity or relationship in angular mo-
tion:
Linear Angular
x
v
a
v
f
= v
i
+at
f
=
i
+t
x = v
i
t +
1
2
at
2
=
i
t +
1
2
t
2
v
2
f
= v
2
i
+2ax
2
f
=
2
i
+2
x =
1
2
(v
i
+v
f
)t =
1
2
(
i
+
f
)t
7.2 Tangential and Centripetal Acceleration
In addition to the angular speed of an object moving with
circular motion it is also possible to measure the objects
tangential speed (v
t
) or instantaneous linear speed which
is measured in
m
s
as follows:
v
t
= r
An objects tangential acceleration (a
t
) can also be
measured, in
m
s
2
, as follows:
a
t
= r
The centripetal acceleration (a
c
) of an object is di-
rected toward the center of the objects rotation and has
the following magnitude:
a
c
=
v
2
t
r
= r
2
7.3 Causes of Circular Motion
The centripetal force (F
c
) causing a centripetal accel-
eration is also directed toward the center of the objects
rotation, and has the following magnitude:
F
c
= ma
c
=
mv
2
t
r
= mr
2
The centripetal force keeping planets in orbit is a grav-
itational force (F
g
) and it is found with Newtons Univer-
sal Law of Gravitation:
F
g
= G
m
1
m
2
r
2
where G is the constant of universal gravitation which
has been determined experimentally to be
G = 6.673 10
11
N m
2
kg
2
An object in a circular orbit around the Earth will sat-
isfy the equation
v =
_
GM
E
r
where M
E
is the mass of the Earth.
10
Chapter 8 Rotational Equilibrium and Dynamics
8.1 Torque
Just as a net external force acting on an object causes linear
acceleration, a net torque () causes angular acceleration.
The torque caused by a force acting on an object is:
= rF sin
where F is the force causing the torque, r is the distance
from the center to the point where the force acts on the
object, and is the angle between the force and a radial
line from the objects center through the point where the
force is acting. Torque is measured in N m.
The convention used by the book is that torque in a
counterclockwise direction is positive and torque in a clock-
wise direction is negative (this corresponds to the right-
hand rule). If more that one force is acting on an object
the torques from each force can be added to nd the net
torque:
net
=
8.2 Rotation and Inertia

The center of mass of an object is the point at which all
the mass of the object can be said to be concentrated. If
the object rotates freely it will rotate about the center of
mass.
The center of gravity of an object is the point through
which a gravitational force acts on the object. For most
objects the center of mass and center of gravity will be the
same point.
The moment of inertia (I) of an object is the objects
resistance to changes in rotational motion about some axis.
Moment of inertia in rotational motion is analogous to mass
in translational motion.
Some moments of inertia for various common shapes are:
Shape I
Point mass at a distance r from the axis mr
2
Solid disk or cylinder of radius r about
the axis
1
2
mr
2
Solid sphere of radius r about its diameter
2
5
mr
2
Thin spherical shell of radius r about its
diameter
2
3
mr
2
Thin hoop of radius r about the axis mr
2
Thin hoop of radius r about the diameter
1
2
mr
2
Thin rod of length l about its center
1
12
ml
2
Thin rod of length l about its end
1
3
ml
2
An object is said to be in rotational equilibriumwhen
there is no net torque acting on the object. If there is also
no net force acting on the object (translational equilib-
rium) then the object is in equilibrium(without any qual-
ifying terms).
Type Equation Meaning
Translational
Equilibrium
F = 0 The net force on the ob-

ject is zero
Rotational Equi-
librium
= 0 The net torque on the

object is zero
8.3 Rotational Dynamics
Newtons second law can be restated for angular motion as:
net
= I
This is parallel to the equation for translational motion
as follows:
Type of Motion Equation
Translational

F = ma
Rotational = I
Just as moment of inertia was analogous to mass, the
angular momentum(L) in rotational motion is analogous
to the momentum of an object in translational motion.
This is parallel to the equation for translational motion
as follows:
Type of Motion Equation
Translational p = mv
Rotational L = I
The angular momemtum of an object is conserved in the
absence of an external force or torque.
Rotating objects have rotational kinetic energy ac-
cording to the following equation:
KE
r
=
1
2
I
2
=
L
2
2I
Just as other types of mechanical energy may be con-
served, rotational kinetic energy is also conserved in the
absence of friction.
8.4 Simple Machines
There are six fundamental types of machines, called sim-
ple machines, with which any other machine can be con-
structed. They are levers, inclined planes, wheels, wedges,
pulleys, and screws.
The main purpose of a machine is to magnify the output
force of the machine compared to the input force, the ratio
of these forces is called the mechanical advantage (MA)
11
of the machine. It is a unitless number according to the
following equation:
MA =
output force
input force
=
F
out
F
in
When frictional forces are accounted for, some of the
output force is lost, causing less work to be done by the
machine than by the original force. The ratio of work done
by the machine to work put in to the machine is called the
eciency (e ) of the machine:
e =
W
out
W
in
If a machine is perfectly ecient (e = 1) then the ideal
mechanical advantage (IMA) can be found by comparing
the input and output distances:
IMA =
d
in
d
out
This leads to another way to nd the eciency of the
machine as well:
e =
MA
IMA
12
Variables and Notation
SI Prexes
Prex Mult. Abb. Prex Mult. Abb.
yocto- 10
24
y yotta- 10
24
Y
zepto- 10
21
z zetta- 10
21
Z
atto- 10
18
a exa- 10
18
E
femto- 10
15
f peta- 10
15
P
pico- 10
12
p tera- 10
12
T
nano- 10
9
n giga- 10
9
G
micro- 10
6
mega- 10
6
M
milli- 10
3
m kilo- 10
3
k
centi- 10
2
c hecto- 10
2
h
deci- 10
1
d deka- 10
1
da
Units
Symbol Unit Quantity Composition
kg kilogram Mass SI base unit
m meter Length SI base unit
s second Time SI base unit
A ampere Electric current SI base unit
cd candela Luminous intensity SI base unit
K kelvin Temperature SI base unit
mol mole Amount SI base unit
ohm Resistance
V
A
or
m
2
kg
s
3
A
2
C coulomb Charge A s
F farad Capacitance
C
V
or
s
4
A
2
m
2
kg
H henry Inductance
Vs
A
or
m
2
kg
A
2
s
2
Hz hertz Frequency s
1
J joule Energy N m or
kgm
2
s
2
N newton Force
kgm
s
2
rad radian Angle
m
m
or 1
T tesla Magnetic eld
N
Am
V volt Electric potential
J
C
or
m
2
kg
s
3
A
W watt Power
J
s
or
kgm
2
s
3
Wb weber Magnetic ux V s or
kgm
s
2
A
Notation
Notation Description
x Vector
x Scalar, or the magnitude of x
|x| The absolute value or magnitude of x
x Change in x
x Sum of all x
x Product of all x
x
i
Initial value of x
x
f
Final value of x
x Unit vector in the direction of x
A B A implies B
A B A is proportional to B
A B A is much larger than B
Greek Alphabet
Name Maj. Min. Name Maj. Min.
Alpha A Nu N
Beta B Xi
Gamma Omicron O o
Delta Pi or
Epsilon E or Rho P or
Zeta Z Sigma or
Eta H Tau T
Theta or Upsilon
Iota I Phi or
Kappa K Chi X
Lambda Psi
Mu M Omega
13
Variables
Variable Description Units
Angular acceleration
rad
s
2
Angular position rad
c
Critical angle
o
(degrees)
i
Incident angle
o
(degrees)
r
Refracted angle
o
(degrees)
Reected angle
o
(degrees)
Angular displacement rad
Torque N m
Angular speed
rad
s
Coecient of friction (unitless)
k
Coecient of kinetic friction (unitless)
s
Coecient of static friction (unitless)
a Acceleration
m
s
2
a
c
Centripetal acceleration
m
s
2
a
g
Gravitational acceleration
m
s
2
a
t
Tangential acceleration
m
s
2
a
x
Acceleration in the x direction
m
s
2
a
y
Acceleration in the y direction
m
s
2
A Area m
2
B Magnetic eld strength T
C Capacitance F
d Displacement m
d sin lever arm m
d
x
or x Displacement in the x direction m
d
y
or y Displacement in the y direction m
E Electric eld strength
N
C
f Focal length m
F Force N
F
c
Centripetal force N
F
electric
Electrical force N
F
g
Gravitational force N
F
k
Kinetic frictional force N
F
magnetic
Magnetic force N
F
n
Normal force N
F
s
Static frictional force N
Ft Impulse N s or
kgm
s
g Gravitational acceleration
m
s
2
Variable Description Units
h Object height m
h
Image height m
I Current A
I Moment of inertia kg m
2
KE or K Kinetic energy J
KE
rot
Rotational kinetic energy J
L Angular Momentum
kgm
2
s
L Self-inductance H
m Mass kg
M Magnication (unitless)
M Mutual inductance H
MA Mechanical Advantage (unitless)
ME Mechanical Energy J
n Index of refraction (unitless)
p Object distance m
p Momentum
kgm
s
P Power W
PE or U Potential Energy J
PE
elastic
Elastic potential energy J
PE
electric
Electrical potential energy J
PE
g
Gravitational potential energy J
q Image distance m
q or Q Charge C
Q Heat, Entropy J
R Radius of curvature m
R Resistance
s Arc length m
t Time s
t Time interval s
v Velocity
m
s
v
t
Tangential speed
m
s
v
x
Velocity in the x direction
m
s
v
y
Velocity in the y direction
m
s
V Electric potential V
V Electric potential dierence V
V Volume m
3
W Work J
x or y Position m
14
Constants
Symbol Name Established Value Value Used
0
Permittivity of a vacuum 8.854 187 817 10
12 C
2
Nm
2
8.85 10
12 C
2
Nm
2
Golden ratio 1.618 033 988 749 894 848 20
Archimedes constant 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 46
g, a
g
Gravitational acceleration constant 9.79171
m
s
2
(varies by location) 9.81
m
s
2
c Speed of light in a vacuum 2.997 924 58 10
8 m
s
(exact) 3.00 10
8 m
s
e Natural logarithmic base 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 36
e
Elementary charge 1.602 177 33 10

19
C 1.60 10
19
C
G Gravitational constant 6.672 59 10
11 Nm
2
kg
2
6.67 10
11 Nm
2
kg
2
k
C
Coulombs constant 8.987 551 788 10
9 Nm
2
C
2
8.99 10
9 Nm
2
C
2
N
A
Avogadros constant 6.022 141 5 10
23
mol
1
Astronomical Data
Symbol Object Mean Radius Mass Mean Orbit Radius Orbital Period
Moon 1.74 10
6
m 7.36 10
22
kg 3.84 10
8
m 2.36 10
6
s
Sun 6.96 10
8
m 1.99 10
30
kg
Mercury 2.43 10
6
m 3.18 10
23
kg 5.79 10
10
m 7.60 10
6
s
Venus 6.06 10
6
m 4.88 10
24
kg 1.08 10
11
m 1.94 10
7
s
Earth 6.37 10
6
m 5.98 10
24
kg 1.496 10
11
m 3.156 10
7
s
Mars 3.37 10
6
m 6.42 10
23
kg 2.28 10
11
m 5.94 10
7
s
Ceres
1
4.71 10
5
m 9.5 10
20
kg 4.14 10
11
m 1.45 10
8
s
Jupiter 6.99 10
7
m 1.90 10
27
kg 7.78 10
11
m 3.74 10
8
s
Saturn 5.85 10
7
m 5.68 10
26
kg 1.43 10
12
m 9.35 10
8
s
Uranus 2.33 10
7
m 8.68 10
25
kg 2.87 10
12
m 2.64 10
9
s
Neptune 2.21 10
7
m 1.03 10
26
kg 4.50 10
12
m 5.22 10
9
s
Pluto
1
1.15 10
6
m 1.31 10
22
kg 5.91 10
12
m 7.82 10
9
s
Eris
21
2.4 10
6
m 1.5 10
22
kg 1.01 10
13
m 1.75 10
10
s
1
Ceres, Pluto, and Eris are classied as Dwarf Planets by the IAU
2
Eris was formerly known as 2003 UB
313
15
Mathematics Review for Physics
This is a summary of the most important parts of math-
ematics as we will use them in a physics class. There are
numerous parts that are completely omitted, others are
greatly abridged. Do not assume that this is a complete
coverage of any of these topics.
Algebra
Fundamental properties of algebra
a +b = b +a Commutative law for ad-
dition
(a +b) +c = a +(b +c) Associative law for addi-
tion
a +0 = 0 +a = a Identity law for addition
a +(a) = (a) +a = 0 Inverse law for addition
ab = ba Commutative law for
multiplication
(ab)c = a(bc) Associative law for mul-
tiplication
(a)(1) = (1)(a) = a Identity law for multipli-
cation
a
1
a
=
1
a
a = 1 Inverse law for multipli-
cation
a(b +c) = ab +ac Distributive law
Exponents
(ab)
n
= a
n
b
n
(a/b)
n
= a
n
/b
n
a
n
a
m
= a
n+m
0
n
= 0
a
n
/a
m
= a
nm
a
0
= 1
(a
n
)
m
= a
(mn)
0
0
= 1 (by denition)
Logarithms
x = a
y
y = log
a
x
log
a
(xy) = log
a
x +log
a
y
log
a
_
x
y
_
= log
a
x log
a
y
log
a
(x
n
) = nlog
a
x
log
a
_
1
x
_
= log
a
x
log
a
x =
log
b
x
log
b
a
= (log
b
x)(log
a
b)
Binomial Expansions
(a +b)
2
= a
2
+2ab +b
2
(a +b)
3
= a
3
+3a
2
b +3ab
2
+b
3
(a +b)
n
=
n
i=0
n!
i!(n i)!
a
i
b
ni
Quadratic formula
For equations of the form ax
2
+bx+c = 0 the solutions are:
x =
b
b
2
4ac
2a
Geometry
Shape Area Volume
Triangle A =
1
2
bh
Rectangle A = lw
Circle A = r
2
Rectangular
prism
A = 2(lw +lh +hw) V = lwh
Sphere A = 4r
2
V =
4
3
r
3
Cylinder A = 2rh +2r
2
V = r
2
h
Cone A = r
r
2
+h
2
+r
2
V =
1
3
r
2
h
Trigonometry
In physics only a small subset of what is covered in a
trigonometry class is likely to be used, in particular sine, co-
sine, and tangent are useful, as are their inverse functions.
As a reminder, the relationships between those functions
and the sides of a right triangle are summarized as follows:
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
opp
adj
hyp
sin =
opp
hyp
cos =
adj
hyp
tan =
opp
adj
=
sin
cos
The inverse functions are only dened over a limited range.
The tan
1
x function will yield a value in the range 90
<
< 90
, sin
1
x will be in 90
90
, and cos
1
x
will yield one in 0
180
. Care must be taken to

ensure that the result given by a calculator is in the correct
quadrant, if it is not then an appropriate correction must
be made.
Degrees 0
o
30
o
45
o
60
o
90
o
120
o
135
o
150
o
180
o
Radians 0

6
2
2
3
3
4
5
6

sin 0
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
cos 1
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
1
2

2
2

3
2
1
tan 0
3
3
1

3
3 1
3
3
0
sin
2
+cos
2
= 1 2 sin cos = sin(2)
16
Trigonometric functions in terms of each other
sin = sin
1 cos
2
tan
1+tan
2
cos =
_
1 sin
2
cos
1
1+tan
2
tan =
sin
1sin
2
1cos
2
cos
tan
csc =
1
sin
1
1cos
2
1+tan
2
tan
sec =
1
1sin
2
1
cos
1 +tan
2
cot =
1sin
2
sin
cos
1cos
2
1
tan
sin =
1
csc
sec
2
1
sec
1
1+cot
2
cos =
csc
2
1
csc
1
sec
cot
1+cot
2
tan =
1
csc
2
1
sec
2
1
1
cot
csc = csc
sec
sec
2
1
1 +cot
2
sec =
csc
csc
2
1
sec
1+cot
2
cot
cot =

csc
2
1
1
sec
2
1
cot
Law of sines, law of cosines, area of a triangle
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
A
B
C
a
b
c
a
2
= b
2
+c
2
2bc cos A
b
2
= a
2
+c
2
2ac cos B
c
2
= a
2
+b
2
2ab cos C
a
sinA
=
b
sinB
=
c
sinC
let s =
1
2
(a +b +c)
Area=
_
s(s a)(s b)(s c)
Area=
1
2
bc sinA =
1
2
ac sinB =
1
2
ab sinC
Vectors
A vector is a quantity with both magnitude and direction,
such as displacement or velocity. Your textbook indicates
a vector in bold-face type as V and in class we have been
using

V . Both notations are equivalent.
A scalar is a quantity with only magnitude. This can
either be a quantity that is directionless such as time or
mass, or it can be the magnitude of a vector quantity such
as speed or distance traveled. Your textbook indicates a
scalar in italic type as V , in class we have not done any-
thing to distinguish a scalar quantity. The magnitude of

V
is written as V or |
V |.
A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1 (a dimen-
sionless constant) pointing in some signicant direction. A
unit vector pointing in the direction of the vector

V is in-
dicated as

V and would commonly be called V -hat. Any
vector can be normalized into a unit vector by dividing it by
its magnitude, giving

V =

V
V
. Three special unit vectors, ,
, and

k are introduced with chapter 3. They point in the
directions of the positive x, y, and z axes, respectively (as
shown below).
`
y +
x
+
z
+
'
_
Z
Z
Z
k
Vectors can be added to other vectors of the same di-
mension (i.e. a velocity vector can be added to another
velocity vector, but not to a force vector). The sum of all
vectors to be added is called the resultant and is equivalent
to all of the vectors combined.
Multiplying Vectors
Any vector can be multiplied by any scalar, this has the
eect of changing the magnitude of the vector but not its
direction (with the exception that multiplying a vector by
a negative scalar will reverse the direction of the vector).
As an example, multiplying a vector

V by several scalars
would give:
_ _
_ _
V 2
V
.5
V 1
V
In addition to scalar multiplication there are also two
ways to multiply vectors by other vectors. They will not be
directly used in class but being familiar with them may help
to understand how some physics equations are derived. The
rst, the dot product of vectors

V
1
and

V
2
, represented as
V
1
V
2
measures the tendency of the two vectors to point in
the same direction. If the angle between the two vectors is
the dot product yields a scalar value as
V
1
V
2
= V
1
V
2
cos
The second method of multiplying two vectors, the
cross product, (represented as

V
1
V
2
) measures the ten-
dency of vectors to be perpendicular to each other. It yields
a third vector perpendicular to the two original vectors with
magnitude
|
V
1
V
2
| = V
1
V
2
sin
The direction of the cross product is perpendicular to the
two vectors being crossed and is found with the right-hand
rule point the ngers of your right hand in the direction
of the rst vector, curl them toward the second vector, and
the cross product will be in the direction of your thumb.
Adding Vectors Graphically
The sum of any number of vectors can be found by drawing
them head-to-tail to scale and in proper orientation then
drawing the resultant vector from the tail of the rst vector
17
to the point of the last one. If the vectors were drawn ac-
curately then the magnitude and direction of the resultant
can be measured with a ruler and protractor. In the ex-
ample below the vectors

V
1
,

V
2
, and

V
3
are added to yield
V
r
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
_
`
`
`
`
`
`*
V
1
V
2

V
3
V
1
,

V
2
,

V
3
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
_
`
`
`
`
`
`*
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
1
+

V
2
+

V
3
`
`
`
`
`
`
V
1
V
2
V
3
_
V
r
V
r
=

V
1
+

V
2
+

V
3
Adding Parallel Vectors
Any number of parallel vectors can be directly added by
adding their magnitudes if one direction is chosen as pos-
itive and vectors in the opposite direction are assigned a
negative magnitude for the purposes of adding them. The
sum of the magnitudes will be the magnitude of the resul-
tant vector in the positive direction, if the sum is negative
then the resultant will point in the negative direction.
Adding Perpendicular Vectors
Perpendicular vectors can be added by drawing them as a
right triangle and then nding the magnitude and direction
of the hypotenuse (the resultant) through trigonometry and
the Pythagorean theorem. If

V
r
=

V
x
+

V
y
and

V
x

V
y
then it works as follows:
V
x
`
V
y
V
x
`
V
y
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
V
r
Since the two vectors to be added and the resultant form

a right triangle with the resultant as the hypotenuse the
Pythagorean theorem applies giving
V
r
= |
V
r
| =
_
V
2
x
+V
2
y
The angle can be found by taking the inverse tangent of
the ratio between the magnitudes of the vertical and hori-
zontal vectors, thus
= tan
1
V
y
V
x
As was mentioned above, care must be taken to ensure that
the angle given by the calculator is in the appropriate quad-
rant for the problem, this can be checked by looking at the
diagram drawn to solve the problem and verifying that the
answer points in the direction expected, if not then make
an appropriate correction.
Resolving a Vector Into Components
Just two perpendicular vectors can be added to nd a
single resultant, any single vector

V can be resolved into
two perpendicular component vectors

V
x
and

V
y
so that
V =

V
x
+

V
y
.

V
x
V
y
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
_
'
As the vector and its components can be drawn as a
right triangle the ratios of the sides can be found with
trigonometry. Since sin =
Vy
V
and cos =
Vx
V
it follows
that V
x
= V cos and V
y
= V sin or in a vector form,
V
x
= V cos and

V
y
= V sin . (This is actually an appli-
cation of the dot product,

V
x
= (
V ) and

V
y
= (
V ) ,
but it is not necessary to know that for this class)
Adding Any Two Vectors Algebraically
Only vectors with the same direction can be directly added,
so if vectors pointing in multiple directions must be added
they must rst be broken down into their components, then
the components are added and resolved into a single resul-
tant vector if in two dimensions

V
r
=

V
1
+

V
2
then
/
/
/
/
/
/
.
.
.
.
.
.
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
V
1
V
2
V
r
V
r
=

V
1
+

V
2
`
>
>
>
>
>
>
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
_
_
'
'
V
1
V
2
V
r
V
1x
V
2x
V
1y
V
2y
V
1
=

V
1x
+

V
1y
V
2
=

V
2x
+

V
2y
V
r
= (
V
1x
+

V
1y
) +(
V
2x
+

V
2y
)
`
>
>
>
>
>
>
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
_ _
'
'
V
1
V
2
V
r
V
1x

V
2x
V
1y
V
2y
V
r
= (
V
1x
+

V
2x
) +(
V
1y
+

V
2y
)
Once the sums of the component vectors in each direc-
tion have been found the resultant can be found from them
just as an other perpendicular vectors may be added. Since
18
from the last gure

V
r
= (
V
1x
+
V
2x
)+(
V
1y
+
V
2y
) and it was
previously established that

V
x
= V cos and

V
y
= V sin
it follows that
V
r
= (V
1
cos
1
+V
2
cos
2
) +(V
1
sin
1
+V
2
sin
2
)
and
V
r
=
_
(V
1x
+V
2x
)
2
+(V
1y
+V
2y
)
2
=
_
(V
1
cos
1
+V
2
cos
2
)
2
+(V
1
sin
1
+V
2
sin
2
)
2
with the direction of the resultant vector

V
r
,
r
, being found
with
r
= tan
1
V
1y
+V
2y
V
1x
+V
2x
= tan
1
V
1
sin
1
+V
2
sin
2
V
1
cos
1
+V
2
cos
2
Adding Any Number of Vectors Algebraically
For a total of n vectors

V
i
being added with magnitudes V
i
and directions
i
the magnitude and direction are:
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
>
>
>
>
>
>

`
`
`
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
r
V
1x

V
2x

V
3x
V
1y
V
2y
V
3y
V
r
=
_
n
i=1
V
i
cos
i
_
+
_
n
i=1
V
i
sin
i
_

V
r
=
_
_
n
i=1
V
i
cos
i
_
2
+
_
n
i=1
V
i
sin
i
_
2
r
= tan
1
n
i=1
V
i
sin
i
n
i=1
V
i
cos
i
(The gure shows only three vectors but this method will
work with any number of them so long as proper care is
taken to ensure that all angles are measured the same way
and that the resultant direction is in the proper quadrant.)
Calculus
Although this course is based on algebra and not calculus,
it is sometimes useful to know some of the properties of
derivatives and integrals. If you have not yet learned cal-
culus it is safe to skip this section.
Derivatives
The derivative of a function f(t) with respect to t is a
function equal to the slope of a graph of f(t) vs. t at every
point, assuming that slope exists. There are several ways
to indicate that derivative, including:
d
dt
f(t)
f
(t)
f(t)
The rst one from that list is unambiguous as to the in-
dependent variable, the others assume that there is only one
variable, or in the case of the third one that the derivative
is taken with respect to time. Some common derivatives
are:
d
dt
t
n
= nt
n1
d
dt
sint = cos t
d
dt
cos t = sint
d
dt
e
t
= e
t
If the function is a compound function then there are a
few useful rules to nd its derivative:
d
dt
cf(t) = c
d
dt
f(t) c constant for all t
d
dt
[f(t) +g(t)] =
d
dt
f(t) +
d
dt
g(t)
d
dt
f(u) =
d
dt
u
d
du
f(u)
Integrals
The integral, or antiderivative of a function f(t) with
respect to t is a function equal to the the area under a
graph of f(t) vs. t at every point plus a constant, assuming
that f(t) is continuous. Integrals can be either indenite or
denite. An indenite integral is indicated as:
_
f(t) dt
while a denite integral would be indicated as
_
b
a
f(t) dt
to show that it is evaluated from t = a to t = b, as in:
_
b
a
f(t) dt =
_
f(t) dt|
t=b
t=a
=
_
f(t) dt|
t=b
_
f(t) dt|
t=a
Some common integrals are:
_
t
n
dt =
t
n+1
n +1
+C n = 1
19
_
t
1
dt = lnt +C
_
sint dt = cos t +C
_
cos t dt = sint +C
_
e
t
dt = e
t
+C
There are rules to reduce integrals of some compound
functions to simpler forms (there is no general rule to reduce
the integral of the product of two functions):
_
cf(t) dt = c
_
f(t) dt c constant for all t
_
[f(t) +g(t)] dt =
_
f(t) dt +
_
g(t) dt
Series Expansions
Some functions are dicult to work with in their normal
forms, but once converted to their series expansion can be
manipulated easily. Some common series expansions are:
sinx = x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!

x
7
7!
+ =
i=0
(1)
i
x
2i+1
(2i +1)!
cos x = 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!

x
6
6!
+ =
i=0
(1)
i
x
2i
(2i)!
e
x
= 1 +x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+
x
4
4!
+ =
i=0
x
i
(i)!
20
Physics Using Calculus
In our treatment of mechanics the majority of the equa-
tions that have been covered in the class have been either
approximations or special cases where the acceleration or
force applied have been held constant. This is required
because the class is based on algebra and to do otherwise
would require the use of calculus.
None of what is presented here is a required part of the
class, it is here to show how to handle cases outside the
usual approximations and simplications. Feel free to skip
this section, none of it will appear as a required part of any
assignment or test in this class.
Notation
Because the letter d is used as a part of the notation of
calculus the variable r is often used to represent the posi-
tion vector of the object being studied. (Other authors use
s for the spatial position or generalize x to two or more
dimensions.) In a vector form that would become r to give
both the magnitude and direction of the position. It is as-
sumed that the position, velocity, acceleration, etc. can be
expressed as a function of time as r(t), v(t), and a(t) but
the dependency on time is usually implied and not shown
explicitly.
Translational Motion
Many situations will require an acceleration that is not con-
stant. Everything learned about translational motion so
far used the simplication that the acceleration remained
constant, with calculus we can let the acceleration be any
function of time.
Since velocity is the slope of a graph of position vs. time
at any point, and acceleration is the slope of velocity vs.
time these can be expressed mathematically as derivatives:
v =
d
dt
r
a =
d
dt
v =
d
2
dt
2
r
The reverse of this relationship is that the displacement
of an object is equal to the area under a velocity vs. time
graph and velocity is equal to the area under an accelera-
tion vs. time graph. Mathematically this can be expressed
as integrals:
v =
_
a dt
r =
_
v dt =
__
a dt
2
Using these relationships we can derive the main equa-
tions of motion that were introduced by starting with the
integral of a constant velocity a(t) =a as
_
t
f
ti
a dt =at +C
The constant of integration, C, can be shown to be the ini-
tial velocity, v
i
, so the entire expression for the nal velocity
becomes
v
f
= v
i
+at
or
v
f
(t) = v
i
+at
Similarly, integrating that expression with respect to time
gives an expression for position:
_
t
f
ti
(v
i
+at) dt = v
i
t +
1
2
at
2
+C
Once again the constant of integration, C, can be shown to
be the initial position, r
i
, yielding an expression for position
vs. time
r
f
(t) = r
i
+v
i
t +
1
2
at
2
While calculus can be used to derive the algebraic forms
of the equations the reverse is not true. Algebra can han-
dle a subset of physics and only at the expense of needing
to remember separate equations for various special cases.
With calculus the few denitions shown above will suce
to predict any linear motion.
Work and Power
The work done on an object is the integral of dot product of
the force applied with the path the object takes, integrated
as a contour integral over the path.
W =
_
C
F dr
The power developed is the time rate of change of the
work done, or the derivative of the work with respect to
time.
P =
d
dt
W
Momentum
Newtons second law of motion changes from the familiar
F = ma to the statement that the force applied to an object

is the time derivative of the objects momentum.
F =
d
dt
p
Similarly, the impulse delivered to an object is the in-
tegral of the force applied in the direction parallel to the
motion with respect to time.
p =
_

F dt
21
Rotational Motion
The equations for rotational motion are very similar to
those for translational motion with appropriate variable
substitutions. First, the angular velocity is the time deriva-
tive of the angular position.
=
d
dt
The angular acceleration is the time derivative of the an-
gular velocity or the second time derivative of the angular
position.
=
d
dt
=
d
2
dt
2
The angular velocity is also the integral of the angular
acceleration with respect to time.
=
_
dt
The angular position is the integral of the angular veloc-
ity with respect to time or the second integral of the angular
acceleration with respect to time.
=
_
dt =
__
dt
2
The torque exerted on an object is the cross product of
the radius vector from the axis of rotation to the point of
action with the force applied.
= r

F
The moment of inertia of any object is the integral of
the square of the distance from the axis of rotation to each
element of the mass over the entire mass of the object.
I =
_
r
2
dm
The torque applied to an object is the time derivative
of the objects angular momentum.
=
d
dt
L
The integral of the torque with respect to time is the
angular momentum of the object.
L =
_
dt
22
Data Analysis
Comparative Measures
Percent Error
When experiments are conducted where there is a calcu-
lated result (or other known value) against which the ob-
served values will be compared the percent error between
the observed and calculated values can be found with
percent error =
observed value accepted value

accepted value
100%
Percent Dierence
When experiments involve a comparison between two ex-
perimentally determined values where neither is regarded
as correct then rather than the percent error the percent
dierence can be calculated. Instead of dividing by the ac-
cepted value the dierence is divided by the mean of the
values being compared. For any two values, a and b, the
percent dierence is
percent dierence =
a b
1
2
(a +b)
100%
Dimensional Analysis and Units on Con-
stants
Consider a mass vibrating on the end of a spring. The equa-
tion relating the mass to the frequency on graph might look
something like
y =
3.658
x
2
1.62
This isnt what were looking for, a rst pass would be to
change the x and y variables into f and m for frequency
and mass, this would then give
m =
3.658
f
2
1.62
This is progress but theres still a long way to go. Mass
is measured in kg and frequency is measured in s
1
, since
these variables represent the entire measurement (includ-
ing the units) and not just the numeric portion they do not
need to be labeled, but the constants in the equation do
need to have the correct units applied.
To nd the units it helps to rst re-write the equation
using just the units, letting some variable such as u (or u
1
,
u
2
, u
3
, etc.) stand for the unknown units. The example
equation would then become
kg =
u
1
(s
1
)
2
+u
2
Since any quantities being added or subtracted must have
the same units the equation can be split into two equations
kg =
u
1
(s
1
)
2
and kg = u
2
The next step is to solve for u
1
and u
2
, in this case u
2
= kg
is immediately obvious, u
1
will take a bit more eort. A
rst simplication yields
kg =
u
1
s
2
then multiplying both sides by s
2
gives
(s
2
)(kg) =
_
u
1
s
2
_
(s
2
)
which nally simplies and solves to
u
1
= kg s
2
Inserting the units into the original equation nally yields
m =
3.658 kg s
2
f
2
1.62 kg
which is the nal equation with all of the units in place.
Checking by choosing a frequency and carrying out the cal-
culations in the equation will show that it is dimensionally
consistent and yields a result in the units for mass (kg) as
expected.
23
Midterm Exam Description
99 Multiple Choice Items (31 problems, 68 questions)
Calculators will not be permitted
Many test items contain numbers, but do not require calculations to solve. Before plugging values into an equation,
look at the possible responses. The correct response may be obvious due to signicant gures, order of magnitude
or simple common sense.
Since all test items are worth one point, you should rst complete the items that you are most sure of and then go
through the exam a second time. You should make sure that you answer every question on the exam.
Exam items are from the following categories:
Chapter 1 The Science of Physics
units of measurement
signicant gures
Chapter 2 Motion in One Dimension
displacement and velocity
acceleration
falling objects
graphs of motion
Chapter 3 Two-Dimensional Motion and Vectors
vectors and vector operations
projectiles
relative motion
Chapter 4 Forces and the Laws of Motion
Newtons 1st Law
Net forces
Newtons 2nd Law
Newtons 3rd Law
Friction
Chapter 5 Work and Energy
work
types of energy
conservation of energy
power
Chapter 6 Momentum and Collisions
momentum and impulse
conservation of momentum
types of collisions
Chapter 7 Rotational Motion and the Law of Gravity
measuring rotational motion
rotational kinematics equations
centripetal force and acceleration
gravitational forces
Chapter 8 will not be included on the rst semester exam.
24
Semester Exam Equation Sheet
This is a slightly reduced copy of the equation sheet that you will receive with the semester exam.
Honors Physics 1st Semester Final
Constants and Equations

Kinematics
Linear
av
d v t =
( )
1
2 i f
d v v t = +
( )
2
1
2 i
d v t a t = +
f i
v v a t = +
2 2
2
f i
v v ad = +
x x
d v t =
( )
2
1
2 y y y
d v t a t = +
sin
y
v v =
cos
x
v v =

Kinematics
Rotational
d
r
=
v
r
=
a
r
=
av
t =
( )
2
1
2 i
t t = +
( )
1
2 i f
t = +
f i
t = +
2 2
f i
2 = +
Dynamics
Linear
F ma =

g
F mg =
cos
g
F F
=
sin
g
F F =

f N
F F =
tan =
spring
F kx =
1 2
2 grav
m m
F G
r
=

Dynamics
Circular
2 r
v
T
=
2 2
2
4
c
v r
a
r T
= =
2 2
2
4
c
v r
F m m
r T
= =
1
T
f
=

Dynamics
Rotational
I =

2
point mass
I mr =

Work, Power, Energy
Linear
cos W Fd =
g
PE mgh =
2 1
2 elastic
PE kx =
2
1
2
KE mv =
0 PE KE W + + =
W
P Fv
t
= =

Work, Power, Energy
Rotational
W =
2
1
2
KE I =
P =

Momentum
Linear
P mv =
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 i f f f
m v m v m v m v + = +
F t m v =

Rotational
L I =

Constants
2 10.
m
s
g =
2
2
11 N m
kg
6.67 10 G

=
8 m
s
3.00 10 c =
2
2
9 N m
C
9.00 10 K

=
Note that some equations may be slightly dierent than the ones we have used in class, the sheet that you receive
will have these forms of the equations, it will be up to you to know how to use them or to know other forms that you
are able to use.
25
M
i
x
e
d
R
e
v
i
e
w
E
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
s
H R W m a t e r i a l c o p y r i g h t e d u n d e r n o t i c e a p p e a r i n g e a r l i e r i n t h i s b o o k .
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
4
T
h
e

S
c
i
e
n
c
e

o
f
P
h
y
s
i
c
s
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
1
1
.
C
o
n
v
e
r
t

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s

t
o

t
h
e

u
n
i
t
s

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
e
d
.
a
.
2
.
5

d
a
y
s

t
o

s
e
c
o
n
d
s
b
.
3
5

k
m

t
o

m
i
l
l
i
m
e
t
e
r
s
c
.
4
3

c
m

t
o

k
i
l
o
m
e
t
e
r
s
d
.
2
2

m
g

t
o

k
i
l
o
g
r
a
m
s
e
.
6
7
1

k
g

t
o

m
i
c
r
o
g
r
a
m
s
f
.
8
.
7
6
1
0
7
m
W

t
o

g
i
g
a
w
a
t
t
s
g
.
1
.
7
5
3
1
0
1
3
s

t
o

p
i
c
o
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
2
.
A
c
c
o
r
d
i
n
g

t
o

t
h
e

r
u
l
e
s

g
i
v
e
n

i
n

C
h
a
p
t
e
r

1

o
f
y
o
u
r

t
e
x
t
b
o
o
k
,
h
o
w

m
a
n
y

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

f
i
g
u
r
e
s

a
r
e

t
h
e
r
e

i
n

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
?
a
.
0
.
0
8
4
5

k
g
b
.
3
7
.
0
0

h
c
.
8

6
3
0

0
0
0
.
0
0
0

m
i
d
.
0
.
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
2
1
7

g
e
.
7
5
0

i
n
.
f
.
0
.
5
0
0
3

s
P
o
w
e
r
P
r
e
f
i
x
A
b
b
r
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
1
0
1
d
e
c
i
-
d
1
0
1
d
e
k
a
-
d
a
1
0
3
k
i
l
o
-
k
1
0
6
m
e
g
a
-
M
1
0
9
g
i
g
a
-
G
1
0
1
2
t
e
r
a
-
T
1
0
1
5
p
e
t
a
-
P
1
0
1
8
e
x
a
-
E
P
o
w
e
r
P
r
e
f
i
x
A
b
b
r
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
1
0
1
8
a
t
t
o
-
a
1
0
1
5
f
e
m
t
o
-
f
1
0
1
2
p
i
c
o
-
p
1
0
9
n
a
n
o
-
n
1
0
6
m
i
c
r
o
-
m
1
0
3
m
i
l
l
i
-
m
1
0
2
c
e
n
t
i
-
c
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

1
5
3
.
W
i
t
h
o
u
t

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
e
s
u
l
t
,
f
i
n
d

t
h
e

n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

f
i
g
u
r
e
s

i
n

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
s

a
n
d

q
u
o
t
i
e
n
t
s
.
a
.
0
.
0
0
5
0
3
2
4
.
0
0
0
9
b
.
0
.
0
0
8
0
7
5
0
1
0
.
0
3
7
c
.
(
3
.
5
2
1
0
1
1
)
(
7
.
8
2
3
1
0
1
1
)
4
.
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e

a
+
b
,
a
b
,
a
b
,
a
n
d
a
b
w
i
t
h

t
h
e

c
o
r
r
e
c
t

n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

f
i
g
u
r
e
s

u
s
i
n
g

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

n
u
m
b
e
r
s
.
a
.
a
=
0
.
0
0
5

0
7
8
;
b
=
1
.
0
0
0
3
a
+
b
=
a
b
=

a
b
=
a
b
=

b
.
a
=
4
.
2
3
1

1
9

1
0
7
;
b
=

3
.
6
5
4

1
0
6
a
+
b
=
a
b
=

a
b
=
a
b
=

5
.
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e

t
h
e

a
r
e
a

o
f
a

c
a
r
p
e
t

6
.
3
5

m

l
o
n
g

a
n
d

2
.
5
0

m

w
i
d
e
.
E
x
p
r
e
s
s

y
o
u
r

a
n
s
w
e
r

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

c
o
r
r
e
c
t

n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

f
i
g
u
r
e
s
.
6
.
T
h
e

t
a
b
l
e

b
e
l
o
w

c
o
n
t
a
i
n
s

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s

o
f
t
h
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

a
n
d

v
o
l
u
m
e

o
f
a
n

a
i
r

b
a
l
l
o
o
n

a
s

i
t

h
e
a
t
s

u
p
.
I
n

t
h
e

g
r
i
d

a
t

r
i
g
h
t
,
s
k
e
t
c
h

a

g
r
a
p
h

t
h
a
t

b
e
s
t

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
s

t
h
e
s
e

d
a
t
a
.
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

V
o
l
u
m
e

(
C
)
(
m
3
)
2
0
.
0
5
0
2
2
7
0
.
0
5
5
3
5
2
0
.
0
5
9
8
7
7
0
.
0
6
4
6
1
0
2
0
.
0
7
0
4
1
2
7
0
.
0
7
4
8
1
5
2
0
.
0
7
9
6
0
2
5
5
0
7
5
1
0
0
1
2
5
1
5
0
1
7
5
0
.
0
8
0
0
0
.
0
7
5
0
0
.
0
7
0
0
0
.
0
6
5
0
0
.
0
6
0
0
0
.
0
5
5
0
0
.
0
5
0
0
V o l u m e ( m
3
)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
1
26
M
o
t
i
o
n

i
n

O
n
e

D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
2
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

2
9
1
.
D
u
r
i
n
g

a

r
e
l
a
y

r
a
c
e

a
l
o
n
g

a

s
t
r
a
i
g
h
t

r
o
a
d
,
t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

r
u
n
n
e
r

o
n

a

t
h
r
e
e
-
p
e
r
s
o
n

t
e
a
m

r
u
n
s

d
1
w
i
t
h

a

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

v
1
.
T
h
e

r
u
n
n
e
r

t
h
e
n

h
a
n
d
s
o
f
f
t
h
e

b
a
t
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

s
e
c
o
n
d

r
u
n
n
e
r
,
w
h
o

r
u
n
s

d
2
w
i
t
h

a

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
v
2
.
T
h
e

b
a
t
o
n

i
s

t
h
e
n

p
a
s
s
e
d

t
o

t
h
e

t
h
i
r
d

r
u
n
n
e
r
,
w
h
o

c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
s

t
h
e

r
a
c
e
b
y

t
r
a
v
e
l
i
n
g

d
3
w
i
t
h

a

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

v
3
.
a
.
I
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f
d
a
n
d
v
,
f
i
n
d

t
h
e

t
i
m
e

i
t

t
a
k
e
s

f
o
r

e
a
c
h

r
u
n
n
e
r

t
o

c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
a

s
e
g
m
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

r
a
c
e
.
3

r
e
n
n
u
R
2

r
e
n
n
u
R
1

r
e
n
n
u
R
b
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

o
f
t
h
e

r
a
c
e

c
o
u
r
s
e
?
c
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

t
i
m
e

i
t

t
a
k
e
s

t
h
e

t
e
a
m

t
o

c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e

t
h
e

r
a
c
e
?
2
.
T
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

b
e
l
o
w

i
n
c
l
u
d
e

t
h
e

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s

f
o
r

s
t
r
a
i
g
h
t
-
l
i
n
e

m
o
t
i
o
n
.
F
o
r

e
a
c
h

o
f
t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

p
r
o
b
l
e
m
s
,
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e

w
h
i
c
h

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

o
r

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s
y
o
u

w
o
u
l
d

u
s
e

t
o

s
o
l
v
e

t
h
e

p
r
o
b
l
e
m
,
b
u
t

d
o

n
o
t

a
c
t
u
a
l
l
y

p
e
r
f
o
r
m

t
h
e
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
.
a
.
D
u
r
i
n
g

t
a
k
e
o
f
f
,
a

p
l
a
n
e

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
e
s

a
t

4

m
/
s
2
a
n
d

t
a
k
e
s

4
0

s

t
o

r
e
a
c
h
t
a
k
e
o
f
f
s
p
e
e
d
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
t
h
e

p
l
a
n
e

a
t

t
a
k
e
o
f
f
?
b
.
A

c
a
r

w
i
t
h

a
n

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
3
1
.
4

k
m
/
h

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
e
s

a
t

a

u
n
i
f
o
r
m

r
a
t
e
o
f
1
.
2

m
/
s
2
f
o
r

1
.
3

s
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

s
p
e
e
d

a
n
d

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e
c
a
r

d
u
r
i
n
g

t
h
i
s

t
i
m
e
?
x
=
12
(
v
i
+
v
f
)
x
=
12
(
v
f
)
x
=
v
i
(
t
)
+
12
a
(
t
)
2
x
=
12
a
(
t
)
2
v
f
=
v
i
+
a
(
t
)
v
f
=
a
(
t
)
v
f
2
=
v
i
2
+
2
a
x
v
f
2
=
2
a
x
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
1
0
3
.
B
e
l
o
w

i
s

t
h
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
-
t
i
m
e

g
r
a
p
h

o
f
a
n

o
b
j
e
c
t

m
o
v
i
n
g

a
l
o
n
g

a

s
t
r
a
i
g
h
t
p
a
t
h
.
U
s
e

t
h
e

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

t
h
e

g
r
a
p
h

t
o

f
i
l
l

i
n

t
h
e

t
a
b
l
e

b
e
l
o
w
.
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
2
T
i
m
e
M
o
t
i
o
n
v
a
i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
ABCDE
4
.
A

b
a
l
l

i
s

t
h
r
o
w
n

u
p
w
a
r
d

w
i
t
h

a
n

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
9
.
8

m
/
s

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

t
o
p
o
f
a

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
.
a
.
F
i
l
l

i
n

t
h
e

t
a
b
l
e

b
e
l
o
w

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

t
h
e

b
a
l
l
s

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
,
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
a
n
d

a
c
c
e
l
-
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
t

t
h
e

e
n
d

o
f
e
a
c
h

o
f
t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

4

s

o
f
m
o
t
i
o
n
.
T
i
m
e
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
s
)
(
m
)
(
m
/
s
)
(
m
/
s
2
)
1234
b
.
I
n

w
h
i
c
h

s
e
c
o
n
d

d
o
e
s

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

r
e
a
c
h

t
h
e

t
o
p

o
f
i
t
s

f
l
i
g
h
t
?
c
.
I
n

w
h
i
c
h

s
e
c
o
n
d

d
o
e
s

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

r
e
a
c
h

t
h
e

l
e
v
e
l

o
f
t
h
e

r
o
o
f
,
o
n

t
h
e

w
a
y

d
o
w
n
?
F
o
r

e
a
c
h

o
f
t
h
e

l
e
t
t
e
r
e
d

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
s

b
e
l
o
w
,
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e

t
h
e

m
o
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

o
b
j
e
c
t
(
w
h
e
t
h
e
r

i
t

i
s

s
p
e
e
d
i
n
g

u
p
,
s
l
o
w
i
n
g

d
o
w
n
,
o
r

a
t

r
e
s
t
)
,
t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
+
,
,
o
r

0
)
,
a
n
d

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
+
,
,
o
r

0
)
.
V e l o c i t y ( m / s )
t
i
m
e

(
s
)
1
5
1
050
7
0
1
0
0
A
B
C
D
E
3
0
5
0
2
0
6
0
4
0
27
T
w
o
-
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

M
o
t
i
o
n

a
n
d

V
e
c
t
o
r
s
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

3
1
5
1
.
T
h
e

d
i
a
g
r
a
m

b
e
l
o
w

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
s

t
h
r
e
e

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
s

t
o

w
h
i
c
h

a

w
o
m
a
n

t
r
a
v
e
l
s
.
S
h
e

s
t
a
r
t
s

a
t

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

A
,
t
r
a
v
e
l
s

3
.
0

k
m

t
o

t
h
e

w
e
s
t

t
o

p
o
i
n
t

B
,
t
h
e
n

6
.
0

k
m

t
o

t
h
e

n
o
r
t
h

t
o

p
o
i
n
t

C
.
S
h
e

t
h
e
n

b
a
c
k
t
r
a
c
k
s
,
a
n
d

t
r
a
v
e
l
s

2
.
0

k
m

t
o

t
h
e

s
o
u
t
h

t
o

p
o
i
n
t

D
.
a
.
I
n

t
h
e

s
p
a
c
e

p
r
o
v
i
d
e
d
,
d
i
a
g
r
a
m

t
h
e

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

v
e
c
t
o
r
s

f
o
r

e
a
c
h

s
e
g
m
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

w
o
m
a
n
s

t
r
i
p
.
b
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

w
o
m
a
n

f
r
o
m

h
e
r

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
,
A
,
t
o

h
e
r

f
i
n
a
l

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
,
D
?
c
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

t
r
a
v
e
l
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

w
o
m
a
n

f
r
o
m

h
e
r

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
,
A
,
t
o

h
e
r

f
i
n
a
l

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
,
D
?
2
.
T
w
o

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e
s

a
r
e

l
a
u
n
c
h
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

g
r
o
u
n
d
,
a
n
d

b
o
t
h

r
e
a
c
h

t
h
e

s
a
m
e
v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

h
e
i
g
h
t
.
H
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

B

t
r
a
v
e
l
s

t
w
i
c
e

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
a
s

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

A

b
e
f
o
r
e

h
i
t
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

g
r
o
u
n
d
.
a
.
H
o
w

l
a
r
g
e

i
s

t
h
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
p
r
o
j
e
c
-
t
i
l
e

B

c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

A
?
b
.
H
o
w

l
a
r
g
e

i
s

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
p
r
o
-
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

B

c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

A
?
c
.
S
u
p
p
o
s
e

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

A

i
s

l
a
u
n
c
h
e
d

a
t

a
n

a
n
g
l
e

o
f
4
5
t
o

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

r
a
t
i
o
,
v
B
/
v
A
,
o
f
t
h
e

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

B
,
v
B
,
c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d
w
i
t
h

t
h
e

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
l
e

A
,
v
A
?
CDB
A
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
1
6
3
.
A

p
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r

a
t

a
n

a
i
r
p
o
r
t

s
t
e
p
s

o
n
t
o

a

m
o
v
i
n
g

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

t
h
a
t

i
s

1
0
0
.
0

m
l
o
n
g

a
n
d

i
s

m
o
v
i
n
g

a
t

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
1
.
5

m
/
s
.
T
h
e

p
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r

t
h
e
n

s
t
a
r
t
s

w
a
l
k
-
i
n
g

a
t

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
1
.
0

m
/
s

i
n

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

a
s

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

i
s

m
o
v
i
n
g
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

p
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r
s

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
r
s
?
a
.
A

p
e
r
s
o
n

s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g

s
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
r
y

a
l
o
n
g
s
i
d
e

t
o

t
h
e

m
o
v
i
n
g

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
.
b
.
A

p
e
r
s
o
n

s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g

s
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
r
y

o
n
t
h
e

m
o
v
i
n
g

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
.
c
.
A

p
e
r
s
o
n

w
a
l
k
i
n
g

a
l
o
n
g
s
i
d
e

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

w
i
t
h

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
2
.
0

m
/
s

a
n
d
i
n

a

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

t
h
e

m
o
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
.
d
.
A

p
e
r
s
o
n

r
i
d
i
n
g

i
n

a

c
a
r
t

a
l
o
n
g
s
i
d
e

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

w
i
t
h

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
5
.
0

m
/
s
a
n
d

i
n

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

i
n

w
h
i
c
h

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

i
s

m
o
v
i
n
g
.
e
.
A

p
e
r
s
o
n

r
i
d
i
n
g

i
n

a

c
a
r
t

w
i
t
h

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
4
.
0

m
/
s

a
n
d

i
n

a

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
p
e
r
p
e
n
d
i
c
u
l
a
r

t
o

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

i
n

w
h
i
c
h

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

i
s

m
o
v
i
n
g
.
4
.
U
s
e

t
h
e

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

g
i
v
e
n

i
n

i
t
e
m

3

t
o

a
n
s
w
e
r

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
:
a
.
H
o
w

l
o
n
g

d
o
e
s

i
t

t
a
k
e

f
o
r

t
h
e

p
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r

w
a
l
k
i
n
g

o
n

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

t
o
g
e
t

f
r
o
m

o
n
e

e
n
d

o
f
t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k

t
o

t
h
e

o
t
h
e
r

e
n
d
?
b
.
H
o
w

m
u
c
h

t
i
m
e

d
o
e
s

t
h
e

p
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r

s
a
v
e

b
y

t
a
k
i
n
g

t
h
e

m
o
v
i
n
g

s
i
d
e
-
w
a
l
k

i
n
s
t
e
a
d

o
f
w
a
l
k
i
n
g

a
l
o
n
g
s
i
d
e

i
t
?
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
28
F
o
r
c
e
s

a
n
d

t
h
e

L
a
w
s

o
f
M
o
t
i
o
n
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
4
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
2
1
1
.
A

c
r
a
t
e

r
e
s
t
s

o
n

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

b
e
d

o
f
a

p
i
c
k
u
p

t
r
u
c
k
.
F
o
r

e
a
c
h

s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n

d
e
-
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

b
e
l
o
w
,
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e

t
h
e

m
o
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

c
r
a
t
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
h
e

g
r
o
u
n
d
,
t
h
e
m
o
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

c
r
a
t
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
h
e

t
r
u
c
k
,
a
n
d

w
h
e
t
h
e
r

t
h
e

c
r
a
t
e

w
i
l
l

h
i
t

t
h
e
f
r
o
n
t

w
a
l
l

o
f
t
h
e

t
r
u
c
k

b
e
d
,
t
h
e

b
a
c
k

w
a
l
l
,
o
r

n
e
i
t
h
e
r
.
D
i
s
r
e
g
a
r
d

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n
.
a
.
S
t
a
r
t
i
n
g

a
t

r
e
s
t
,
t
h
e

t
r
u
c
k

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
e
s

t
o

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t
.
b
.
T
h
e

c
r
a
t
e

i
s

a
t

r
e
s
t

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
h
e

t
r
u
c
k

w
h
i
l
e

t
h
e

t
r
u
c
k

m
o
v
e
s

t
o

t
h
e
r
i
g
h
t

w
i
t
h

a

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
.
c
.
T
h
e

t
r
u
c
k

i
n

i
t
e
m

b

s
l
o
w
s

d
o
w
n
.
2
.
A

b
a
l
l

w
i
t
h

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
m
i
s

t
h
r
o
w
n

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

t
h
e

a
i
r
,
a
s

s
h
o
w
n

i
n

t
h
e

f
i
g
u
r
e
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

e
x
e
r
t
e
d

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

b
y

E
a
r
t
h
?
b
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e

e
x
e
r
t
e
d

o
n

E
a
r
t
h

b
y

t
h
e

b
a
l
l
?
c
.
I
f
t
h
e

s
u
r
r
o
u
n
d
i
n
g

a
i
r

e
x
e
r
t
s

a

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

t
h
a
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
s

i
t
s

m
o
t
i
o
n
,
i
s

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l
f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

a
s

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

i
n

p
a
r
t

a
?
d
.
I
f
t
h
e

s
u
r
r
o
u
n
d
i
n
g

a
i
r

e
x
e
r
t
s

a

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

t
h
a
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
s

i
t
s

m
o
t
i
o
n
,
i
s

t
h
e

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

a
s

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

i
n
p
a
r
t

a
?
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
2
2
3
.
T
w
o

b
l
o
c
k
s

o
f
m
a
s
s
e
s

m
1
a
n
d
m
2
,
r
e
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e
l
y
,
a
r
e

p
l
a
c
e
d

i
n

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

w
i
t
h
e
a
c
h

o
t
h
e
r

o
n

a

s
m
o
o
t
h
,
h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
.
A

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

F
t
o

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t

i
s

a
p
p
l
i
e
d

t
o

m
1
.
A
n
s
w
e
r

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s

i
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f
F
,
m
1
,
a
n
d
m
2
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

t
w
o

b
l
o
c
k
s
?
b
.
W
h
a
t

a
r
e

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
s

a
c
t
i
n
g

o
n

m
2
?
c
.
W
h
a
t

a
r
e

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
s

a
c
t
i
n
g

o
n

m
1
?
d
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

o
f
t
h
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

f
o
r
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

t
w
o

b
l
o
c
k
s
?
4
.
A
s
s
u
m
e

y
o
u

h
a
v
e

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
d

i
n

i
t
e
m

3
,
o
n
l
y

t
h
i
s
t
i
m
e

t
h
e
r
e

i
s

a

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
,
F
k
,
b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

b
l
o
c
k
s

a
n
d

t
h
e

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
.
A
n
s
w
e
r

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s

i
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f
F
,
F
k
,
m
1
,
a
n
d
m
2
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

t
w
o

b
l
o
c
k
s
?
b
.
W
h
a
t

a
r
e

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
s

a
c
t
i
n
g

o
n

m
2
?
c
.
W
h
a
t

a
r
e

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
s

a
c
t
i
n
g

o
n

m
1
?
d
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

o
f
t
h
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

f
o
r
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

t
w
o

b
l
o
c
k
s
?
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
4
29
W
o
r
k

a
n
d

E
n
e
r
g
y
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
5
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

5
2
7
1
.
A

b
a
l
l

h
a
s

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
3

k
g
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

w
o
r
k

d
o
n
e

o
n

t
h
i
s

b
a
l
l

b
y

t
h
e

g
r
a
v
i
-
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

e
x
e
r
t
e
d

b
y

E
a
r
t
h

i
f
t
h
e

b
a
l
l

m
o
v
e
s

2

m

a
l
o
n
g

e
a
c
h

o
f
t
h
e
f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
?
a
.
d
o
w
n
w
a
r
d

(
a
l
o
n
g

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e
)
b
.
u
p
w
a
r
d

(
o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e
)
2
.
A

s
t
o
n
e

w
i
t
h

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
m
i
s

t
h
r
o
w
n

o
f
f
a

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
.
A
s

t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e

p
a
s
s
e
s
p
o
i
n
t
A
,
i
t

h
a
s

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
v
A
a
t

a
n

a
n
g
l
e

o
f
q
t
o

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l
.
T
h
e

s
t
o
n
e
t
h
e
n

t
r
a
v
e
l
s

a

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

h
t
o

p
o
i
n
t

B
,
w
h
e
r
e

i
t

h
a
s

a

s
p
e
e
d

v
B
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

w
o
r
k

d
o
n
e

o
n

t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e

b
y

t
h
e

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

d
u
e

t
o
E
a
r
t
h

w
h
i
l
e

t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e

m
o
v
e
s

f
r
o
m

A
t
o

B
?
b
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

t
h
e

k
i
n
e
t
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

o
f
t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e

a
s

i
t

m
o
v
e
s

f
r
o
m
A
t
o

B
?
c
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

s
p
e
e
d

v
B
o
f
t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e

i
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f
v
A
,
g
,
a
n
d
h
?
d
.
D
o
e
s

t
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e
s

s
p
e
e
d

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

A
a
n
d
B
d
e
p
e
n
d

o
n

t
h
e
m
a
s
s

o
f
t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e
?
e
.
D
o
e
s

t
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

t
h
e

s
t
o
n
e
s

s
p
e
e
d

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

A
a
n
d
B
d
e
p
e
n
d

o
n

t
h
e
a
n
g
l
e

q
?
h
A
B
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
2
8
3
.
A
n

e
m
p
t
y

c
o
f
f
e
e

m
u
g

w
i
t
h

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
0
.
4
0

k
g

g
e
t
s

k
n
o
c
k
e
d

o
f
f
a

t
a
b
l
e
t
o
p
0
.
7
5

m

a
b
o
v
e

t
h
e

f
l
o
o
r

o
n
t
o

t
h
e

s
e
a
t

o
f
a

c
h
a
i
r

0
.
4
5

m

a
b
o
v
e

t
h
e

f
l
o
o
r
.
A
s
s
u
m
e

t
h
a
t

t
h
e

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y
,
P
E
g
,
i
s

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

u
s
i
n
g
t
h
e

f
l
o
o
r

a
s

t
h
e

z
e
r
o

e
n
e
r
g
y

l
e
v
e
l
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y

a
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
d

w
i
t
h

t
h
e
m
u
g
s

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
n

t
h
e

t
a
b
l
e
?
b
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y

a
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
d

w
i
t
h

t
h
e
m
u
g
s

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
n

t
h
e

c
h
a
i
r

s
e
a
t
?
c
.
W
h
a
t

w
a
s

t
h
e

w
o
r
k

d
o
n
e

b
y

t
h
e

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

a
s

i
t

f
e
l
l

f
r
o
m

t
h
e
t
a
b
l
e

t
o

t
h
e

c
h
a
i
r
?
d
.
S
u
p
p
o
s
e

t
h
a
t

z
e
r
o

l
e
v
e
l

f
o
r

t
h
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

w
a
s

t
a
k
e
n

t
o

b
e

t
h
e

c
e
i
l
i
n
g

o
f
t
h
e

r
o
o
m

r
a
t
h
e
r

t
h
a
n

t
h
e

f
l
o
o
r

.
W
o
u
l
d

t
h
e

a
n
s
w
e
r
s

t
o

i
t
e
m
s

a

t
o

c

b
e
t
h
e

s
a
m
e

o
r

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
?
4
.
A

c
a
r
t
o
n

o
f
s
h
o
e
s

w
i
t
h

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
m
s
l
i
d
e
s

w
i
t
h

a
n

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
v
i
m
/
s
d
o
w
n

a

r
a
m
p

i
n
c
l
i
n
e
d

a
t

a
n

a
n
g
l
e

o
f
2
3
t
o

t
h
e

h
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l
.
T
h
e

c
a
r
t
o
n
s
i
n
i
t
i
a
l

h
e
i
g
h
t

i
s

h
i
,
a
n
d

i
t
s

f
i
n
a
l

h
e
i
g
h
t

i
s

h
f
,
a
n
d

i
t

t
r
a
v
e
l
s

a

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

o
f
d
d
o
w
n

t
h
e

r
a
m
p
.
T
h
e
r
e

i
s

a

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
,
F
k
,
b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

r
a
m
p

a
n
d
t
h
e

c
a
r
t
o
n
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

m
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y
,
M
E
i
,
o
f
t
h
e

c
a
r
t
o
n
?

(
H
i
n
t
:
A
p
p
l
y

t
h
e

l
a
w

o
f
c
o
n
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

o
f
e
n
e
r
g
y
.
)
b
.
I
f
m
i
s

t
h
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

o
f
f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

r
a
m
p

a
n
d

t
h
e

c
a
r
t
o
n
,
w
h
a
t

i
s

F
k
?
c
.
E
x
p
r
e
s
s

t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

s
p
e
e
d
,
v
f
,
o
f
t
h
e

c
a
r
t
o
n

i
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f
v
i
,
g
,
d
,
a
n
d
m
.
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
5
30
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
3
2
M
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

a
n
d

C
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
s
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
6
1
.
A

p
i
t
c
h
e
r

t
h
r
o
w
s

a

s
o
f
t
b
a
l
l

t
o
w
a
r
d

h
o
m
e

p
l
a
t
e
.
T
h
e

b
a
l
l

m
a
y

b
e

h
i
t
,
s
e
n
d
-
i
n
g

i
t

b
a
c
k

t
o
w
a
r
d

t
h
e

p
i
t
c
h
e
r
,
o
r

i
t

m
a
y

b
e

c
a
u
g
h
t
,
b
r
i
n
g
i
n
g

i
t

t
o

a

s
t
o
p

i
n
t
h
e

c
a
t
c
h
e
r
s

m
i
t
t
.
a
.
C
o
m
p
a
r
e

t
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

b
a
l
l

i
n

t
h
e
s
e

t
w
o

c
a
s
e
s
.
b
.
D
i
s
c
u
s
s

t
h
e

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

o
f
t
h
e

i
m
p
u
l
s
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l

i
n

t
h
e
s
e

t
w
o

c
a
s
e
s
.
c
.
I
n

t
h
e

s
p
a
c
e

b
e
l
o
w
,
d
r
a
w

a

v
e
c
t
o
r

d
i
a
g
r
a
m

f
o
r

e
a
c
h

c
a
s
e
,
s
h
o
w
i
n
g

t
h
e
i
n
i
t
i
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

b
a
l
l
,
t
h
e

i
m
p
u
l
s
e

e
x
e
r
t
e
d

o
n

t
h
e

b
a
l
l
,
a
n
d
t
h
e

r
e
s
u
l
t
i
n
g

f
i
n
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

b
a
l
l
.
2
.
a
.
U
s
i
n
g

N
e
w
t
o
n
s

t
h
i
r
d

l
a
w
,
e
x
p
l
a
i
n

w
h
y

t
h
e

i
m
p
u
l
s
e

o
n

o
n
e

o
b
j
e
c
t

i
n

a
c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n

i
s

e
q
u
a
l

i
n

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

b
u
t

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

i
n

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

i
m
-
p
u
l
s
e

o
n

t
h
e

s
e
c
o
n
d

o
b
j
e
c
t
.
b
.
E
x
t
e
n
d

y
o
u
r

d
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n

o
f
i
m
p
u
l
s
e

a
n
d

N
e
w
t
o
n
s

t
h
i
r
d

l
a
w

t
o

t
h
e

c
a
s
e
o
f
a

b
o
w
l
i
n
g

b
a
l
l

s
t
r
i
k
i
n
g

a

s
e
t

o
f
1
0

b
o
w
l
i
n
g

p
i
n
s
.
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

6
3
3
3
.
S
t
a
r
t
i
n
g

w
i
t
h

t
h
e

c
o
n
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
o
t
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m
,
p
f
=
p
i
,
s
h
o
w

t
h
a
t

t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

f
o
r

t
w
o

o
b
j
e
c
t
s

i
n

a
n

i
n
e
l
a
s
t
i
c

c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n

i
s

v
f
=
m
1
m
+
1
m
2
v
1
,
i
+
m
1
m
+
2
m
2
v
2
,
i
.
4
.
T
w
o

m
o
v
i
n
g

b
i
l
l
i
a
r
d

b
a
l
l
s
,
e
a
c
h

w
i
t
h

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
M
,
u
n
d
e
r
g
o

a
n

e
l
a
s
t
i
c
c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
.
I
m
m
e
d
i
a
t
e
l
y

b
e
f
o
r
e

t
h
e

c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
,
b
a
l
l

A
i
s

m
o
v
i
n
g

e
a
s
t

a
t

2

m
/
s

a
n
d

b
a
l
l

B

i
s

m
o
v
i
n
g

e
a
s
t

a
t

4

m
/
s
.
a
.
I
n

t
e
r
m
s

o
f
M
,
w
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

(
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

a
n
d

d
i
r
e
c
-
t
i
o
n
)

i
m
m
e
d
i
a
t
e
l
y

b
e
f
o
r
e

t
h
e

c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
?
b
.
T
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m
,
M
(
v
A
,
f
+
v
B
,
f
)
,
m
u
s
t

e
q
u
a
l

t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
-
t
u
m
.
I
f
t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

o
f
b
a
l
l

A
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
s

t
o

4

m
/
s

e
a
s
t

b
e
c
a
u
s
e

o
f
t
h
e

c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
,
w
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
b
a
l
l

B
?
c
.
F
o
r

e
a
c
h

b
a
l
l
,
c
o
m
p
a
r
e

t
h
e

f
i
n
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

b
a
l
l

t
o

t
h
e

i
n
i
t
i
a
l
m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

o
t
h
e
r

b
a
l
l
.
T
h
e
s
e

r
e
s
u
l
t
s

a
r
e

t
y
p
i
c
a
l

o
f
h
e
a
d
-
o
n
e
l
a
s
t
i
c

c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
s
.
W
h
a
t

g
e
n
e
r
a
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

a
b
o
u
t

h
e
a
d
-
o
n

e
l
a
s
t
i
c

c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
s
c
a
n

y
o
u

m
a
k
e
?
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
6
31
R
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
o
t
i
o
n

a
n
d

t
h
e

L
a
w

o
f
G
r
a
v
i
t
y
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
7
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

7
3
7
1
.
C
o
m
p
l
e
t
e

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

t
a
b
l
e
.
s
(
m
)
r
(
m
)
q
(
r
a
d
)
t
(
s
)
w
(
r
a
d
/
s
)
v
t
(
m
/
s
)
a
c
(
m
/
s
2
)
a
.
4
.
5
1
.
5
0
.
5
0
b
.
5
.
8
5
.
8
0
5
.
0
c
.
8
5
0
2
.
0
2
.
3
d
.
1
2
5
0
2
.
0
1
7
e
.
6
8
0
5
7
0
5
7
3
2
.
D
e
s
c
r
i
b
e

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e

t
h
a
t

m
a
i
n
t
a
i
n
s

c
i
r
c
u
l
a
r

m
o
t
i
o
n

i
n

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

c
a
s
e
s
.
a
.
A

c
a
r

e
x
i
t
s

a

f
r
e
e
w
a
y

a
n
d

m
o
v
e
s

a
r
o
u
n
d

a

c
i
r
c
u
l
a
r

r
a
m
p

t
o

r
e
a
c
h

t
h
e
s
t
r
e
e
t

b
e
l
o
w
.
b
.
T
h
e

m
o
o
n

o
r
b
i
t
s

E
a
r
t
h
.
c
.
D
u
r
i
n
g

g
y
m

c
l
a
s
s
,
a

s
t
u
d
e
n
t

h
i
t
s

a

t
e
t
h
e
r

b
a
l
l

o
n

a

s
t
r
i
n
g
.
3
.
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e

t
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

u
n
d
e
r

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

c
h
a
n
g
e
s
.
a
.
o
n
e

o
f
t
h
e

m
a
s
s
e
s

i
s

d
o
u
b
l
e
d
b
.
b
o
t
h

m
a
s
s
e
s

a
r
e

d
o
u
b
l
e
d
c
.
t
h
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
a
s
s
e
s

i
s

d
o
u
b
l
e
d
d
.
t
h
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
a
s
s
e
s

i
s

h
a
l
v
e
d
e
.
t
h
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

m
a
s
s
e
s

i
s

t
r
i
p
l
e
d
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
3
8
4
.
S
o
m
e

p
l
a
n
s

f
o
r

a

f
u
t
u
r
e

s
p
a
c
e

s
t
a
t
i
o
n

m
a
k
e

u
s
e

o
f
r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

t
o

s
i
m
u
-
l
a
t
e

g
r
a
v
i
t
y
.
I
n

o
r
d
e
r

t
o

b
e

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
,
t
h
e

c
e
n
t
r
i
p
e
t
a
l

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
t

t
h
e

o
u
t
e
r
r
i
m

o
f
t
h
e

s
t
a
t
i
o
n

s
h
o
u
l
d

e
q
u
a
l

a
b
o
u
t

1

g
,
o
r

9
.
8
1

m
/
s
2
.
H
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
h
u
m
a
n
s
c
a
n

w
i
t
h
s
t
a
n
d

a

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

o
f
o
n
l
y

1
/
1
0
0

g

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e
i
r

h
e
a
d

a
n
d

f
e
e
t
b
e
f
o
r
e

t
h
e
y

b
e
c
o
m
e

d
i
s
o
r
i
e
n
t
e
d
.
A
s
s
u
m
e

t
h
e

a
v
e
r
a
g
e

h
u
m
a
n

h
e
i
g
h
t

i
s

2
.
0

m
,
a
n
d

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e

t
h
e

m
i
n
i
m
u
m

r
a
d
i
u
s

f
o
r

a

s
a
f
e
,
e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

s
t
a
t
i
o
n
.
(
H
i
n
t
:
T
h
e

r
a
t
i
o

o
f
t
h
e

c
e
n
t
r
i
p
e
t
a
l

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f
a
s
t
r
o
n
a
u
t
s

f
e
e
t

t
o

t
h
e
c
e
n
t
r
i
p
e
t
a
l

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

a
s
t
r
o
n
a
u
t
s

h
e
a
d

m
u
s
t

b
e

a
t

l
e
a
s
t

9
9
/
1
0
0
.
)
5
.
A
s

a
n

e
l
e
v
a
t
o
r

b
e
g
i
n
s

t
o

d
e
s
c
e
n
d
,
y
o
u

f
e
e
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
a
r
i
l
y

l
i
g
h
t
e
r
.
A
s

t
h
e
e
l
e
v
a
t
o
r

s
t
o
p
s
,
y
o
u

f
e
e
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
a
r
i
l
y

h
e
a
v
i
e
r
.
S
k
e
t
c
h

t
h
e

s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
e
x
p
l
a
i
n

t
h
e

s
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n
s

u
s
i
n
g

t
h
e

f
o
r
c
e
s

i
n

y
o
u
r

s
k
e
t
c
h
.
6
.
T
w
o

c
a
r
s

s
t
a
r
t

o
n

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

s
i
d
e
s

o
f
a

c
i
r
c
u
l
a
r

t
r
a
c
k
.
O
n
e

c
a
r

h
a
s

a

s
p
e
e
d
o
f
0
.
0
1
5

r
a
d
/
s
;
t
h
e

o
t
h
e
r

c
a
r

h
a
s

a

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
0
.
0
1
2

r
a
d
/
s
.
I
f
t
h
e

c
a
r
s

s
t
a
r
t

p
r
a
d
i
a
n
s

a
p
a
r
t
,
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e

t
h
e

t
i
m
e

i
t

t
a
k
e
s

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
a
s
t
e
r

c
a
r

t
o

c
a
t
c
h

u
p
w
i
t
h

t
h
e

s
l
o
w
e
r

c
a
r
.
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
7
32
R
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

E
q
u
i
l
i
b
r
i
u
m

a
n
d

D
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
8
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

8
4
3
1
.
a
.
O
n

s
o
m
e

d
o
o
r
s
,
t
h
e

d
o
o
r
k
n
o
b

i
s

i
n

t
h
e

c
e
n
t
e
r

o
f
t
h
e

d
o
o
r
.
W
h
a
t
w
o
u
l
d

a

p
h
y
s
i
c
i
s
t

s
a
y

a
b
o
u
t

t
h
e

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
a
l
i
t
y

o
f
t
h
i
s

a
r
r
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
?

W
h
y
w
o
u
l
d

p
h
y
s
i
c
i
s
t
s

d
e
s
i
g
n

d
o
o
r
s

w
i
t
h

k
n
o
b
s

f
a
r
t
h
e
r

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

h
i
n
g
e
?
b
.
H
o
w

m
u
c
h

m
o
r
e

f
o
r
c
e

w
o
u
l
d

b
e

r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d

t
o

o
p
e
n

t
h
e

d
o
o
r

f
r
o
m

t
h
e
c
e
n
t
e
r

r
a
t
h
e
r

t
h
a
n

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

e
d
g
e
?
2
.
F
i
g
u
r
e

s
k
a
t
e
r
s

c
o
m
m
o
n
l
y

c
h
a
n
g
e

t
h
e

s
h
a
p
e

o
f
t
h
e
i
r

b
o
d
y

i
n

o
r
d
e
r

t
o
a
c
h
i
e
v
e

s
p
i
n
s

o
n

t
h
e

i
c
e
.
E
x
p
l
a
i
n

t
h
e

e
f
f
e
c
t
s

o
n

e
a
c
h

o
f
t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g
q
u
a
n
t
i
t
i
e
s

w
h
e
n

a

f
i
g
u
r
e

s
k
a
t
e
r

p
u
l
l
s

i
n

h
i
s

o
r

h
e
r

a
r
m
s
.
a
.
m
o
m
e
n
t

o
f
i
n
e
r
t
i
a
b
.
a
n
g
u
l
a
r

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m
c
.
a
n
g
u
l
a
r

s
p
e
e
d
3
.
F
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g

i
t
e
m
s
,
a
s
s
u
m
e

t
h
e

o
b
j
e
c
t
s

s
h
o
w
n

a
r
e

i
n

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

e
q
u
i
l
i
b
r
i
u
m
.
a
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

m
a
s
s

o
f
t
h
e

s
p
h
e
r
e

t
o

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t
?
b
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

m
a
s
s

o
f
t
h
e

p
o
r
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

m
e
t
e
r
-
s
t
i
c
k

t
o

t
h
e

l
e
f
t

o
f
t
h
e

p
i
v
o
t
?

(
H
i
n
t
:
2
0
%

o
f
t
h
e

m
a
s
s

o
f
t
h
e

m
e
t
e
r
s
t
i
c
k

i
s

o
n

t
h
e

l
e
f
t
.
H
o
w

m
u
c
h

m
u
s
t

b
e

o
n

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t
?
)
1
.
0

k
g
0

c
m
5
0

c
m
2
5

c
m
7
5

c
m
1
0
0

c
m
1
.
0

k
g
0

c
m
5
0

c
m
2
5

c
m
7
5

c
m
1
0
0

c
m
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t
s
4
4
4
.
A

f
o
r
c
e

o
f
2
5

N

i
s

a
p
p
l
i
e
d

t
o

t
h
e

e
n
d

o
f
a

u
n
i
f
o
r
m

r
o
d

t
h
a
t

i
s

0
.
5
0

m

l
o
n
g

a
n
d

h
a
s

a

m
a
s
s

o
f
0
.
7
5

k
g
.
a
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

t
o
r
q
u
e
,
m
o
m
e
n
t

o
f
i
n
e
r
t
i
a
,
a
n
d

a
n
g
u
l
a
r

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

i
f
t
h
e

r
o
d

i
s

a
l
l
o
w
e
d

t
o

p
i
v
o
t

a
r
o
u
n
d

i
t
s

c
e
n
t
e
r

o
f
m
a
s
s
.
b
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

t
o
r
q
u
e
,
m
o
m
e
n
t

o
f
i
n
e
r
t
i
a
,
a
n
d

a
n
g
u
l
a
r

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

i
f
t
h
e

r
o
d

i
s

a
l
l
o
w
e
d

t
o

p
i
v
o
t

a
r
o
u
n
d

t
h
e

e
n
d
,
a
w
a
y

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

a
p
p
l
i
e
d

f
o
r
c
e
.
5
.
A

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e

i
n

o
r
b
i
t

a
r
o
u
n
d

E
a
r
t
h

i
s

i
n
i
t
i
a
l
l
y

a
t

a

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

a
n
g
u
l
a
r

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
7
.
2
7
1
0
5
r
a
d
/
s
.
T
h
e

m
a
s
s

o
f
t
h
e

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e

i
s

4
5

k
g
,
a
n
d

i
t

h
a
s

a
n

o
r
b
i
t
a
l
r
a
d
i
u
s

o
f
4
.
2
3

1
0
7
m
.
a
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

m
o
m
e
n
t

o
f
i
n
e
r
t
i
a

o
f
t
h
e

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e

i
n

o
r
b
i
t

a
r
o
u
n
d

E
a
r
t
h
.
b
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

a
n
g
u
l
a
r

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
.
c
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

k
i
n
e
t
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

o
f
t
h
e

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e

a
r
o
u
n
d

E
a
r
t
h
.
d
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

t
a
n
g
e
n
t
i
a
l

s
p
e
e
d

o
f
t
h
e

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
.
e
.
F
i
n
d

t
h
e

t
r
a
n
s
l
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

k
i
n
e
t
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

o
f
t
h
e

s
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
.
6
.
A

s
e
r
i
e
s

o
f
t
w
o

s
i
m
p
l
e

m
a
c
h
i
n
e
s

i
s

u
s
e
d

t
o

l
i
f
t

a

1
3
3
0
0

N

c
a
r

t
o

a

h
e
i
g
h
t
o
f
3
.
0

m
.
B
o
t
h

m
a
c
h
i
n
e
s

h
a
v
e

a
n

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

o
f
0
.
9
0

(
9
0

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
)
.
M
a
c
h
i
n
e
A

m
o
v
e
s

t
h
e

c
a
r
,
a
n
d

t
h
e

o
u
t
p
u
t

o
f
m
a
c
h
i
n
e

B

i
s

t
h
e

i
n
p
u
t

t
o

m
a
c
h
i
n
e

A
.
a
.
H
o
w

m
u
c
h

w
o
r
k

i
s

d
o
n
e

o
n

t
h
e

c
a
r
?
b
.
H
o
w

m
u
c
h

w
o
r
k

m
u
s
t

b
e

d
o
n
e

o
n

m
a
c
h
i
n
e

A

i
n

o
r
d
e
r

t
o

a
c
h
i
e
v
e

t
h
e

a
m
o
u
n
t

o
f
w
o
r
k

d
o
n
e

o
n

t
h
e

c
a
r
?
c
.
H
o
w

m
u
c
h

w
o
r
k

m
u
s
t

b
e

d
o
n
e

o
n

m
a
c
h
i
n
e

B

i
n

o
r
d
e
r

t
o

a
c
h
i
e
v
e

t
h
e

a
m
o
u
n
t

o
f
w
o
r
k

f
r
o
m

m
a
c
h
i
n
e

A
?
d
.
W
h
a
t

i
s

t
h
e

o
v
e
r
a
l
l

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

o
f
t
h
i
s

p
r
o
c
e
s
s
?
H
O
L
T

P
H
Y
S
I
C
S
M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
8
33
M
i
x
e
d
R
e
v
i
e
w
A
n
s
w
e
r
s
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

T
h
r
e
e
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t

A
n
s
w
e
r
s
I
I
I
1
1
.
a
.
2
.
2
1
0
5
s
b
.
3
.
5
1
0
7
m
m
c
.
4
.
3
1
0
4
k
m
d
.
2
.
2
1
0
5
k
g
e
.
6
.
7
1
1
0
1
1
m
g
f
.
8
.
7
6
1
0
5
G
W
g
.
1
.
7
5
3
1
0
1
p
s
2
.
a
.
3
b
.
4
c
.
1
0
d
.
3
e
.
2
f
.
4
3
.
a
.
4
b
.
5
c
.
3
4
.
a
.
1
.
0
0
5
4
;
0
.
9
9
5
2
;
5
.
0
8
0

1
0
3
;
5
.
0
7
6
1
0
3
b
.
4
.
5
9
7
1
0
7
;
3
.
8
6
6

1
0
7
;
1
.
5
4
6
1
0
1
4
;
1
1
.
5
8
5
.
1
5
.
9

m
2
6
.
T
h
e

g
r
a
p
h

s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

a

s
t
r
a
i
g
h
t

l
i
n
e
.
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

1

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

M
a
n
u
a
l
I
I
I
2
I
I
I
2
.
a
.
v
f
=
a
(
t
)
b
.
v
f
=
v
i
+
a
(
t
)
;
x
=
12
(
v
i
+
v
f
)
t
o
r
x
=
v
i
(
t
)
+
12
a
(
t
)
2
1
.
a
.
t
1
=
d
1
/
v
1
;
t
2
=
d
2
/
v
2
;
t
3
=
d
3
/
v
3
b
.
t
o
t
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

=
d
1
+
d
2
+
d
3
c
.
t
o
t
a
l

t
i
m
e

=
t
1
+
t
2
+
t
3
3
.
T
i
m
e

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
T
y
p
e

o
f
m
o
t
i
o
n
v
(
m
/
s
)
a
(
m
/
s
2
)
A
s
p
e
e
d
i
n
g

u
p
+
+
B
s
p
e
e
d
i
n
g

u
p
+
+
C
c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
+
0
D
s
l
o
w
i
n
g

d
o
w
n
+
E
s
l
o
w
i
n
g

d
o
w
n
+
.
b
.
a
.
4
1

s
c
.
2

s
T
i
m
e

(
s
)
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
m
)
v
(
m
/
s
)
a
(
m
/
s
2
)
1
4
.
9
0
9
.
8
1
2
0
9
.
8
9
.
8
1
3
1
4
.
7
1
9
.
6
9
.
8
1
4
3
9
.
2
2
9
.
4
9
.
8
1
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

2

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

M
a
n
u
a
l
I
I
I
4
1
.
a
.
T
h
e

d
i
a
g
r
a
m

s
h
o
u
l
d

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e

t
h
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
s
a
n
d

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

f
o
r

e
a
c
h

s
e
g
m
e
n
t

o
f
t
h
e

p
a
t
h
.
b
.
5
.
0

k
m
,
s
l
i
g
h
t
l
y

n
o
r
t
h

o
f
n
o
r
t
h
w
e
s
t
c
.
1
1
.
0

k
m
2
.
a
.
T
h
e

s
a
m
e
b
.
T
w
i
c
e

a
s

l
a
r
g
e
c
.
1
.
5
8
3
.
a
.
2
.
5

m
/
s
,
i
n

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
s

m
o
t
i
o
n
b
.
1
.
0

m
/
s
,
i
n

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
s

m
o
t
i
o
n
c
.
4
.
5

m
/
s
,
i
n

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
s

m
o
t
i
o
n
d
.
2
.
5

m
/
s
,
i
n

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

t
o

t
h
e

s
i
d
e
w
a
l
k
s
m
o
t
i
o
n
e
.
4
.
7

m
/
s
,
q
=
3
2
4
.
a
.
4
.
0
1
0
1
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
b
.
6
.
0
1
0
1
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

3

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

T
h
r
e
e
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t

A
n
s
w
e
r
s
I
I
I
5
1
.
a
.
a
t

r
e
s
t
,
m
o
v
e
s

t
o

t
h
e

l
e
f
t
,
h
i
t
s

b
a
c
k

w
a
l
l
b
.
m
o
v
e
s

t
o

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t

(
w
i
t
h

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

v
)
,
a
t

r
e
s
t
,
n
e
i
t
h
e
r
c
.
m
o
v
e
s

t
o

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t
,
m
o
v
e
s

t
o

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t
,
h
i
t
s

f
r
o
n
t

w
a
l
l
2
.
a
.
m
g
,
d
o
w
n
b
.
m
g
,
u
p
c
.
n
o
d
.
y
e
s
3
.
a
.
a
=
m
1
+ F
m
2
b
.
m
2
a
c
.
F
m
2
a
=
m
1
a
d
.
m
1
m
+
1
m
2
F
4
.
a
.
a
=
m
F
1
+
F
m
k
2
b
.
m
2
a
F
k
c
.
F
m
2
a
F
k
=
m
1
a
F
k
d
.
m
1
m
+
1
m
2
(
F
F
k
)
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

M
a
n
u
a
l
I
I
I
6
1
.
a
.
6
0

J
b
.
6
0

J
2
.
a
.
m
g
h
b
.
m
g
h
c
.
v
B
=
v
A
2
+
2
g
h
d
.
n
o
e
.
n
o
3
.
a
.
2
.
9

J
b
.
1
.
8

J
c
.
1
.
2

J
d
.
a
,
b
:
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
;
c
:
s
a
m
e
4
.
a
.
12
m
v
i
2
+
m
g
h
i
=
12
m
v
f
2
+
m
g
h
f
+
F
k
d
b
.
F
k
=
m
m
g
(
c
o
s

2
3
)
c
.
v
f
=
m
v
i
2
+
2
g
(
d
s
i
n
2
3
m
c
o
s
2
3
)
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

5

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

T
h
r
e
e
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t

A
n
s
w
e
r
s
I
I
I
7
I
I
I
C o p y r i g h t b y H o l t , R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s t o n . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .
1
.
a
.
T
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e

d
u
e

t
o

t
h
e

b
a
t

i
s

g
r
e
a
t
e
r

t
h
a
n

t
h
e

c
h
a
n
g
e
d
u
e

t
o

t
h
e

m
i
t
t
.
b
.
T
h
e

i
m
p
u
l
s
e

d
u
e

t
o

t
h
e

b
a
t

i
s

g
r
e
a
t
e
r

t
h
a
n

t
h
e

i
m
-
p
u
l
s
e

d
u
e

t
o

t
h
e

m
i
t
t
.
c
.
C
h
e
c
k

s
t
u
d
e
n
t

d
i
a
g
r
a
m
s
.
B
a
t
:
v
e
c
t
o
r

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

i
n
i
t
i
a
l
m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

a
n
d

a

l
a
r
g
e
r

v
e
c
t
o
r

i
n

t
h
e

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

d
i
-
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

i
m
p
u
l
s
e

o
f
b
a
t
,
r
e
s
u
l
t

i
s

t
h
e

s
u
m

o
f
t
h
e

v
e
c
t
o
r
s
.
M
i
t
t
:
v
e
c
t
o
r

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

i
n
i
t
i
a
l

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m
a
n
d

a
n

e
q
u
a
l

l
e
n
g
t
h

v
e
c
t
o
r

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

i
m
p
u
l
s
e

o
f
m
i
t
t
,
r
e
s
u
l
t

i
s

t
h
e

s
u
m
,
w
h
i
c
h

i
s

e
q
u
a
l

t
o

z
e
r
o
.
2
.
a
.
T
h
e

i
m
p
u
l
s
e
s

a
r
e

e
q
u
a
l
,
b
u
t

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

f
o
r
c
e
s
,
o
c
c
u
r
-
r
i
n
g

d
u
r
i
n
g

t
h
e

s
a
m
e

t
i
m
e

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
.
b
.
T
h
e

t
o
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
o
w
l
i
n
g

b
a
l
l

i
s

t
h
e

s
u
m

o
f
f
o
r
c
e
s

o
n

p
i
n
s
.
T
h
e

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

p
i
n
s

i
s

e
q
u
a
l

b
u
t

o
p
-
p
o
s
i
t
e

o
f
t
o
t
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

b
a
l
l
.
3
.
m
1
v
1
i
+
m
2
v
2
i
=
(
m
1
+
m
2
)
v
f
;
m
1
v
1
i
/
(
m
1
+
m
2
)
+
m
2
v
2
i
/
(
m
1
+
m
2
)
=
v
f
4
.
a
.
M
(
6

m
/
s
)
b
.
2

m
/
s
c
.
o
b
j
e
c
t
s

t
r
a
d
e

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m
;
i
f
m
a
s
s
e
s

a
r
e

e
q
u
a
l
,
o
b
-
j
e
c
t
s

t
r
a
d
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
i
e
s
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

6

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
H
o
l
t

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

M
a
n
u
a
l
I
I
I
8
1
.
a
.
3
.
0
,
3
.
0
,
9
.
0
,
2
7
b
.
4
.
3
,
1
.
0
,
4
.
3
,
3
7
c
.
1
6
,
0
.
2
8
,
1
1
,
6
.
0

1
0
2
d
.
6
3
0
,
0
.
1
1
,
7
4
,
8
.
7
e
.
5
.
0
,
4
4
,
0
.
1
1
,
9
.
9
2
.
a
.
f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n
b
.
g
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
c
.
t
e
n
s
i
o
n

i
n

s
t
r
i
n
g
3
.
a
.
d
o
u
b
l
e
d
b
.
q
u
a
d
r
u
p
l
e
d
c
.
r
e
d
u
c
e
d

t
o

14
d
.
q
u
a
d
r
u
p
l
e
d
e
.
r
e
d
u
c
e
d

t
o

19
4
.
1
9
0

m
5
.
S
t
u
d
e
n
t

d
i
a
g
r
a
m
s

s
h
o
u
l
d

s
h
o
w

v
e
c
t
o
r
s

f
o
r

w
e
i
g
h
t

a
n
d
n
o
r
m
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

f
r
o
m

e
l
e
v
a
t
o
r
;
d
e
s
c
e
n
t

s
h
o
u
l
d

s
h
o
w

n
o
r
m
a
l
f
o
r
c
e

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
;
s
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

s
h
o
u
l
d

s
h
o
w

n
o
r
m
a
l
f
o
r
c
e

g
r
e
a
t
e
r

t
h
a
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
;
w
e
i
g
h
t
l
e
s
s
n
e
s
s
f
e
e
l
i
n
g

i
s

d
u
e
t
o

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
.
6
.
1
0
5
0

s

(
1
7
.
5

m
i
n
)
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

7

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w
34
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

T
h
r
e
e
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
v
i
e
w

W
o
r
k
s
h
e
e
t

A
n
s
w
e
r
s
I
I
I
9
1
.
a
.
I
f
t
h
e

k
n
o
b

i
s

f
a
r
t
h
e
r

f
r
o
m

t
h
e
h
i
n
g
e
,
t
o
r
q
u
e

i
s

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d
t
o
r
q
u
e

f
o
r

a

g
i
v
e
n

f
o
r
c
e
.
b
.
t
w
i
c
e

a
s

m
u
c
h
2
.
a
.
R
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

i
n
e
r
t
i
a

i
s

r
e
d
u
c
e
d
.
b
.
A
n
g
u
l
a
r

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

r
e
m
a
i
n
s
t
h
e

s
a
m
e
.
c
.
A
n
g
u
l
a
r

s
p
e
e
d

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
s
.
3
.
a
.
2
.
0

k
g
b
.
0
.
6
7

k
g
4
.
a
.
6
.
2

N
m
,
0
.
0
1
6

k
g
m
2
,
3
9
0

r
a
d
/
s
2
b
.
1
2

N
m
,
0
.
0
6
2

k
g
m
2
,
1
9
0

r
a
d
/
s
2
5
.
a
.
8
.
1
1
0
1
6
k
g
m
2
b
.
5
.
9
1
0
1
2
k
g
m
2
/
s
c
.
2
.
1
1
0
8
J
d
.
3
.
1
1
0
3
m
/
s
e
.
2
.
2
1
0
8
J
6
.
a
.
4
.
0
1
0
4
J
b
.
4
.
4
1
0
4
J
c
.
4
.
9
1
0
4
J
d
.
0
.
8
1
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

8

M
i
x
e
d

R
e
v
i
e
w

Honors Physics Review Notes Fall 2008

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Honors Physics Review Notes Fall 2008

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Honors Physics Review Notes

F = ma) to nd the rela-

8.2 Rotation and Inertia

F = 0 The net force on the ob-

= 0 The net torque on the

Elementary charge 1.602 177 33 10

. Care must be taken to

Since the two vectors to be added and the resultant form

F = ma to the statement that the force applied to an object

observed value accepted value

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi