The New Jersey margin: compaction and uid ow

B. Dugan
*
, P.B. Flemings
Department of Geosciences, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
Abstract
Rapid sedimentation by ne-grained sediments on the upper slope of the New Jersey margin has generated nearly lithostatic
uid pressures. We use measured porosity from ODP Site 1073 to predict the in situ uid pressures. We then simulate the
pressure history with one-dimensional and two-dimensional sedimentation-compaction models. Two-dimensional models
simulate a compaction-driven ow eld that is dominated by lateral ow. This ow eld increases overpressure and lowers
effective stress on the lower slope. The combination of observation and theory provide a model that illuminates a mechanism
through which seeps form and slope failure may occur in any rapidly loaded continental margin. 2000 Elsevier Science B.V.
All rights reserved.
Keywords: Overpressure; Compaction; Porosity; New Jersey
1. Introduction and methodology
Investigators have evaluated eustatic sea-level
variations and the resultant stratigraphic responses
along the New Jersey margin (Poag et al., 1987).
Others have described the distribution of bathymetric
and paleobathymetric features (Veatch and Smith,
1939) and hypothesized on the origins of these
features (Twichell and Roberts, 1982). In this paper,
we address the compaction behavior of New Jersey
margin sediments, its relationship to margin hydrody-
namics, and the implications for cold seeps and slope
stability.
To address the compaction behavior of New Jersey
slope sediments, we use core data from ODP Leg
174A, Site 1073 (Fig. 1). First, we characterize the
porosity at Site 1073. We use these data to constrain
the bulk compressibility of the sediments and to
model in situ uid pressure. We then use both a
one-dimensional and a two-dimensional sedimenta-
tioncompaction model to simulate the porosity and
uid pressure evolution. In comparison to the one-
dimensional model, the two-dimensional model
predicts higher pressures at Site 1073 as a result of
loading geometry and lateral uid ow.
2. ODP site 1073 description
ODP Site 1073 was drilled on the upper continental
slope offshore New Jersey to 663 m below sea oor
(mbsf). As shown in Fig. 2, silt and clay are the domi-
nant lithologies although a few thin sand beds are
present. Core data provided bulk density and porosity.
Bulk density data were integrated to determine the
overburden stress.
We divide the porosity at Site 1073 into three
zones: (1) a shallow zone (0100 mbsf) of decreasing
porosity; (2) a thick section (100550 mbsf) of
constant porosity; and (3) a deep zone (550
660 mbsf) of increased porosity (Fig. 2). A common
interpretation of this porosity signature is that the
Journal of Geochemical Exploration 6970 (2000) 477481
0375-6742/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0375-6742(00)00058-3
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* Corresponding author. Tel: 1-814-863-9663; fax: 1-814-
863-8724.
E-mail address: dugan@geosc.psu.edu (B. Dugan).
shallow sediments are normally compacted and the
deeper sediments are undercompacted. Porosity
greater than 0.60 below 550 mbsf may indicate that
these sediments have not compacted since deposition.
Sr
2
and Cl

both shift abruptly near the base of the

Pleistocene sediments (Fig. 2). From the proles, we
interpret little vertical advection of pore uids.
Sedimentation rates are biostratigraphically
constrained to less than 0.1 mm/yr for the Pliocene
and Miocene sections. In contrast, Pleistocene sedi-
mentation rates reached a maximum of 1.1 mm/yr
(Fig. 2). We interpret that the low Miocene sedimen-
tation rates allowed normal compaction during
Miocene deposition. Then, rapid loading by low
permeability Pleistocene silts and clays hindered the
drainage of Miocene uids. The lack of drainage has
impeded compaction of the Miocene strata and has
maintained their high porosity. The low permeability
of the Pleistocene sediments has also retarded the
expulsion of Pleistocene uids and created the
observed constant porosity signature.
3. Porositypressure model
We assume that compaction is governed by vertical
effective stress s
v
S
v
P (Rubey and Hubbert,
1959).
f f
0
e
bs
v
1
Variables are dened in Table 1. For Site 1073, we
interpret the upper 100 mbsf to be hydrostatically
pressured. We follow Hart et al. (1995) and plot
measured porosity versus vertical effective stress in
this zone. We calculate an initial porosity (f
0
) of 0.61
and a bulk compressibility (b) equal to 0.44 MPa
1
.
These constants are constrained for sediments that
have 0:40 f 0:62; which is related to a specic
B. Dugan, P.B. Flemings / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 6970 (2000) 477481 478
Fig. 1. ODP Site 1073 is located on a smooth portion of the New
Jersey Slope at 639 m water depth. Bathymetric contours are in
meters.
Fig. 2. Well section for Site 1073. Lithology, porewater chemistry,
measured porosity, reduced lithostat S
v
r
w
gz; grey line on P

),
and sedimentation rate are adapted from Austin et al. (1998). Fluid
pressures (circles on P

) are predicted from porosity.

Table 1
Nomenclature
Name Description Units
K
v
Vertical hydraulic conductivity m/s
K
h
Horizontal hydraulic
conductivity
m/s
P Fluid pressure Pa
P

Overpressure Pa
S
t
Storage coefcient Pa
1
S
v
Vertical stress Pa
t Time s
z Depth m
b Bulk compressibility Pa
1
b
f
Fluid compressibility Pa
1
f Porosity m
3
/m
3
f
o
Initial porosity m
3
/m
3
s
v
Vertical effective stress Pa
effective stress range 0:04 s
v
0:95 MPa
through Eq. (1). The porosity of the underlying sedi-
ment is within the calibration range and therefore the
effective stress of these sediments is similar to that of
the shallow section. Because the effective stresses are
similar, we assume that b is constant for the entire
section. Eq. (1) is rearranged and uid pressure is
predicted for the deeper sediments with the observed
porosity and overburden:
P S
v

1
b
ln
f
0
f

2
With Eq. (2), Site 1073 is predicted to have nearly
lithostatic uid pressures from 100550 mbsf and
lithostatic uid pressures below 550 mbsf (Fig. 2).
4. Sedimentationcompaction model
We employ a sedimentationcompaction model to
evaluate how loading and uid ow affect pressure
generation (Gordon and Flemings, 1999).
DP
Dt

K1 f
2
S
t
r
w
g
" #
7
2
P

fb
S
t
1 f

DS
v
Dt
3
where the storage coefcient (S
t
) is dened by
S
t

fb
1 f

fb
f
4
Eq. (3) is expressed in material coordinates and
predicts uid pressure in a compacting medium that
is subject to loading (DS
v
/Dt). Assumptions include:
(1) strain is uniaxial; (2) Darcys law applies; (3) sedi-
ments compact according to Eq. (1); (4) solid grains
are incompressible; and (5) aquathermal pressuring
and clay dehydration can be neglected.
We rst use a one-dimensional model to simulate
pressure evolution at Site 1073. Hydraulic conductiv-
ity is assumed to be constant K
v
9:81 10
12
m=s
and is based on experiments of New Jersey slope sedi-
ments (Blum et al., 1996). For simplicity, Site 1073 is
modeled with an average sedimentation rate of
0.95 mm/yr for 0.7 m.y., the duration of Pleistocene
loading.
The one-dimensional model for Site 1073 predicts
nearly lithostatic pressures to 50 mbsf (Fig. 3). Below
this depth, overpressures exist but are signicantly
less than those predicted from porosity.
Because of the low pressures predicted by the one-
dimensional model, we use a two-dimensional model
to evaluate the contribution of lateral uid transfer to
the regional pressure eld. The two-dimensional
model incorporates a spatially varying sedimentation
rate max: sed: rate 2:0 mm=yr; min: sed: rate
0:1 mm=yr and an anisotropic hydraulic conductivity
eld K
v
9:81 10
12
m=s and K
h
9:81
10
11
m=s: Similar to the one-dimensional model,
sedimentation rate is constant with respect to time.
After 0.7 m.y. of simulation, the two-dimensional
model predicts higher pressures than the one-dimen-
sional model for Site 1073. The model predicts
pressures at Site 1073 are nearly lithostatic to
200 mbsf (Fig. 3). Lateral transfer is a pressure source
for downslope sediments (Fig. 3).
5. Discussion and conclusions
We observe undercompaction of Miocene to Pleis-
tocene sediments and interpret that they are overpres-
sured. From the observed porosity, we predict that
uid pressures are nearly lithostatic for the entire
section. One-dimensional sedimentationcompaction
B. Dugan, P.B. Flemings / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 6970 (2000) 477481 479
Fig. 3. Simulated ow eld (arrows) and vertical effective stress
prole S
v
P; dashed lines) for line A-A
0
(Fig. 1) after 0.7 m.y. of
Pleistocene deposition. The basal and side boundaries are no ow
boundaries and the top boundary is hydrostatically pressured.
K
h
=K
v
10: Effective stress contour interval is 0.5 MPa. P

well
prole is for Site 1073. Solid line on P

prole is S
v
r
w
gz:
modelling with the observed permeability, however,
predicts less than lithostatic pressures for the Pleisto-
cene sediments at Site 1073.
A simple, two-dimensional model suggests one
way to generate signicant overpressures is lateral
uid transfer due to the geometry and rate of the load-
ing (Fig. 3). The model predicts that signicant over-
pressures will originate where loading is rapid (e.g.
the upper slope). Lower overpressures will be gener-
ated where sedimentation rates are lower. Thus,
lateral ow occurs because a lateral pressure gradient
exists. The gradient is highly dependent on the load-
ing geometry, the bulk compressibility, and the
hydraulic conductivity.
This lateral ow eld has important implications.
The simple model predicts that depositional geometry
and sedimentation rate can result in downslope-
focused uid ow that acts as a source for cold
seeps on the continental slope (Fig. 4).
Lateral uid ow also results in low effective stres-
ses on the middle- to lower-slope that will in turn
contribute to slope failure (Fig. 4). Failures on these
portions of the slope provide a possible triggering
mechanism for slope canyons that do not breach the
shelf-slope break (Fig. 1).
In conclusion, porosity data are used to estimate
nearly lithostatic uid pressures for most of ODP
Site 1073. Rapid Pleistocene sedimentation along
the upper continental slope offshore New Jersey
contributes to elevated uid pressures at this location.
Spatially varying sedimentation rates create a ow
eld that drives uids laterally and increases pressures
on the middle- and lower-slope. Increases in uid
pressures near the toe of the slope, where overburden
is low, decreases the effective stress and creates high
uid pressure gradients. Signicant decreases in effec-
tive stress will contribute to sediment failure on the
slope. The high uid pressure gradients at the toe will
drive sea oor seeps. Lateral ow and its implications
are described for the New Jersey slope, but these
processes are likely applicable to other passive
margins.
Acknowledgements
We thank Derek Elsworth for his comments and
insights that helped guide the model development.
We also appreciate the critical review of the manu-
script by two Geouids III reviewers. B. Dugan was
supported by a JOI/USSAC Ocean Drilling Fellow-
ship during this project.
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