MCAT Subject Tests

Dear Future Doctor,

The following Subject Test and explanations contains questions not in test format and
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vocabulary and practicing MCAT-like questions as actually speaking.

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Executive Director, Pre-Health Research and Development
Kaplan Test Prep



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Biology Subject Test 4

1. Which of the following produces bile?
A. Small intestine
B. Large intestine
C. Gall bladder
D. Liver
E. Pancreas


2. In the adult man, red blood cells are produced in the
A. spleen.
B. liver.
C. bone marrow.
D. heart.
E. veins.


3. The sympathetic nervous system causes which of the
following?
A. Constriction of the pupil
B. Decreased heart rate
C. Increased gastric secretion
D. Reduction of adrenaline secretion
E. Increased respiration


4. Epinephrine
A. is synthesized by the adrenal cortex.
B. is a steroid hormone.
C. is released during parasympathetic stimulation.
D. is released by the adrenal medulla.
E. causes bronchial constriction when released into
the bloodstream.


5. An action potential spike is due to
A. increased permeability to K
+
.
B. increased permeability to Na
+
.
C. decreased permeability to Ca
2+
.
D. membrane hyperpolarization.
E. increased permeability to Cl

.
6. Which statement about the heart is NOT true?

A. The pacemaker is the SA node.
B. The SA node is capable of autonomous firing.
C. The vagus nerve can slow the heart rate.
D. Systolic pressure is lower than diastolic pressure.
E. Both ventricles contract simultaneously.


7. In a reflex arc
A. the sensory neuron synapses directly with the
motor neuron.
B. sensory and motor neurons can synapse outside of
the spinal cord.
C. sensory neurons synapse in the brain.
D. the motor response occurs without synaptic delay.
E. a minimum of three neurons must participate.


8. Skeletal muscle has all of the following except
A. multinucleated cells.
B. sarcoplasmic reticulum.
C. intercellular conductivity of action potentials.
D. individual innervations of each muscle fiber.
E. a regular array of molecular components.


9. The liver performs all of the following functions except
A. removal of bacteria from the bloodstream.
B. removal of bilirubin from the bloodstream.
C. synthesis of bile.
D. storage of bile.
E. synthesis of angiotensinogen.


10. Pancreatic exocrine secretions contain all of the
following EXCEPT
A. proteases.
B. lipases.
C. amylases.
D. glucagon.
E. bicarbonate ions.

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11. Acetylcholine
A. is secreted by the adrenal glands.
B. is the initial substrate in glycolysis.
C. is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle.
D. and norepinephrine act as transmitters across
synapses.
E. inhibits action potential transmission.


12. A rectifier is an electrical device that allows current to
flow only in one direction. In human physiology, an
analogous device is the
A. axon.
B. dendrite.
C. synapse.
D. Schwann's sheath.
E. spinal nerve.


13. What is the probability of a tall child with blue eyes
being born to a heterozygous tall, heterozygous brown-
eyed mother and a homozygous tall, homozygous blue-
eyed father, if tall height, and brown eye color are
dominant? (NOTE: the genes for eye color and height
are unlinked.)
A. 1/4
B. 1/2
C. 3/4
D. 1/8
E. None of the above


14. If a gallstone blocked the duct leading from the
gallbladder, which of the following would be less easily
digested?
A. Amino acids
B. Proteins
C. Fats
D. Starch
E. Glycogen


15. The cartilaginous structure that prevents food from
going down the trachea is the
A. glottis.
B. epiglottis.
C. tongue.
D. larynx.
E. esophageal sphincter.

16. In the speculation concerning the origins of life, one
theory states that purines, pyrimidines, sugars, and
phosphates combined to form
A. nucleotides.
B. nucleosides.
C. carbohydrates.
D. fats.
E. proteins.


17. Anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic
respiration because
A. oxaloacetic acid serves as the final hydrogen
acceptor.
B. it occurs in water.
C. it requires a greater expenditure of cell energy.
D. it requires a longer time for ATP production.
E. glucose molecules are incompletely oxidized.


18. Muscle contraction depends on
A. myosin and actin fibers simultaneously
contracting.
B. myosin contraction only.
C. actin contraction only.
D. myosin and actin sliding over each other.
E. myosin expanding while actin contracts.


19. In humans, most of digestion occurs in the
A. mouth.
B. stomach.
C. liver.
D. small intestine.
E. pancreas.


20. Which of the following is not a function of the human
liver?
A. Breakdown of amino acids to urea
B. Regulation of blood sugar levels
C. Detoxification of poisons
D. Storage of glycogen
E. Manufacture of red blood cells in the adult

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21. If the pancreatic ducts of a human are tied off, which
of the following is mostly likely to occur in several
hours?
I. Diabetic crisis
II. Acromegaly
III. Impaired digestion
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and II
E. II and III

22. Active transport is best defined as
A. diffusion of soluble substances across a membrane
from a region of high concentration to low
concentration.
B. osmosis of water across a semi-permeable
membrane involving the hydrolysis of polypeptides.
C. the movement of materials across a semipermeable
membrane against an electrochemical gradient.
D. the movement of materials across a semipermeable
membrane with an electrochemical gradient.
E. the movement of substances across a membrane in
accordance with the Donnan equilibrium.

23. Which of the following hormones raises the
concentration of blood calcium?
A. Glucagon
B. Calcitonin
C. Parathyroid hormone
D. Aldosterone
E. Anti-diuretic hormone

24. Which of the following is not a necessary condition for
the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
A. Random mating
B. Large gene pool
C. Random emigration and immigration
D. Forward mutation rate equals backward mutation
rate
E. No inbreeding

25. Temperature regulation is a function of the
A. medulla.
B. pons.
C. cerebrum.
D. pineal gland.
E. hypothalamus.

26. Which of the following stimulates the conversion of
glycogen to glucose?
A. Insulin
B. Parathyroid hormone
C. Pepsin
D. Glucagon
E. Calcitonin


27. Which of the following events occurs first?
A. Rupture of the Graafian follicle
B. Secretion of estrogen
C. Corpus luteum formation
D. Progesterone release
E. Decrease in FSH release by pituitary


28. Water absorption occurs primarily in the
A. duodenum.
B. jejunum.
C. stomach.
D. large intestine.
E. mouth.


29. Which of the following glands produces both exocrine
and endocrine secretions?
A. Parathyroid
B. Adrenal
C. Pituitary
D. Parotid
E. Pancreas


30. Continuous muscle contraction causes a buildup of lactic
acid because
A. it is a breakdown product of ADP.
B. it is a degredation product of phosphocreatine.
C. it is a metabolic end-product of anaerobic
metabolism.
D. it is a breakdown product of fatty acid degradation.
E. actomyosin contraction releases cross-links of
lactate.

31. All viruses
A. carry DNA.
B. carry RNA.
C. lack protein.
D. have chromosomes.
E. cannot reproduce outside of cells.
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32. Bile is a (an)
A. hormone.
B. enzyme.
C. protein.
D. emulsifying agent.
E. protease.


33. Which of the following directly supply the energy for
muscle contraction?
A. Lactic acid
B. Lactose
C. ADP
D. ATP and phosphocreatine
E. cAMP and ATP


34. Hyperthyroidism is always associated with
A. low blood pressure.
B. severely diminished mental activity.
C. high metabolic rate.
D. low body temperature.
E. decreased heart rate.


35. Carbon monoxide, when inhaled, may be lethal
because
A. of its irritation of the pleura.
B. of its preferential replacement of oxygen in
hemoglobin.
C. it forms insoluble complexes in the bloodstream.
D. it poisons the cytochrome system.
E. it directly inhibits the sodium pump.


36. In which of the following would you find cristae?
A. Endoplasmic reticulum
B. Mitochondria
C. Nucleus
D. Nucleolus
E. Ribosomes


37. Which of the following is NOT a metabolic waste
product?
A. CO
2

B. lactate
C. H
2
O
D. pyruvate
E. ammonia
38. Which stage of embryonic development consists of a
hollow ball of cells surrounding a fluid filled center?

A. Zygote
B. Morula
C. Blastula
D. 2-Layer gastrula
E. 3-Layer gastrula


39. Which of the following aspects of cellular respiration is
correctly paired with the location in the cell where it
occurs?
A. Electron transport chain-inner mitochondrial
membrane
B. Glycolysis-inner mitochondrial membrane
C. Krebs cycle-cytoplasm
D. Fatty acid degradation-lysosomes
E. ATP synthesis-outer mitochondrial membrane


40. Chemical X is found to denature all enzymes in the
synaptic cleft. What are the effects of chemical X on
acetylcholine (ACh)?
A. ACh is not released from the presynaptic
membrane.
B. ACh does not bind to the postsynaptic membrane.
C. ACh is degraded before it acts on the postsynaptic
membrane.
D. ACh is not inactivated in the synaptic cleft.
E. None of the above


STOP! END OF TEST.

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THE ANSWER KEY AND EXPLANATIONS BEGIN ON THE FOLLOWING PAGE.
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BIOLOGY SUBJECT TEST 4

ANSWER KEY
1. D
2. C
3. E
4. D
5. B
6. D
7. E
8. C

9. D
10. D
11. D
12. C
13. B
14. C
15. B
16. A

17. E
18. D
19. D
20. E
21. C
22. C
23. C
24. C

25. E
26. D
27. B
28. D
29. E
30. C
31. E
32. D

33. D
34. C
35. B
36. B
37. D
38. C
39. A
40. D



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EXPLANATIONS


1. D
The liver produces bile. Bile contains no enzymes; it emulsifies fats, breaking down large globules into small
droplets.
The small intestine, choice A, is where chemical digestion is completed and nutrients absorbed.
The large intestine, choice B, functions in the absorption of salts and water.
The gall bladder, choice C, stores the bile prior to its release in the small intestine.
The pancreas, choice E, produces digestive enzymes (e.g. amylase, trypsin, and lipase) and hormones (e.g. insulin
and glucagon).

2. C
Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. In the fetus, they are produced in the liver. Answer choice A is
incorrect because the spleen stores a volume of blood and filters it but does not produce it. Answer choice B is incorrect
because the liver removes foreign material and detoxifies chemicals in the blood. Answer choice D is incorrect because
the heart provides the pressure that enables the blood to travel throughout the body. Answer choice E is incorrect because
the veins deliver blood to the heart.

3. E
The sympathetic nervous system is known as the "fight or flight" response. Stimulation of this branch of the
autonomic nervous system is characterized by an increase in heart rate, dilation of the pupils, an increase in respiration
and bronchial dilation, and more blood to the skeletal muscles and away from the digestive organs. Also, an increase in
the amount of adrenaline secretion occurs. Answer choices AD are all characteristics of the antagonistic branch of the
autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, known as the "rest and digest" response.

4. D
Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is released by the adrenal medulla. Answer choice C is incorrect because
this release is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system. Answer choice B is incorrect because epinephrine is a
peptide hormone; steroid hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex. Answer choice E is incorrect because epinephrine
causes bronchial dilation.

5. B
An action potential spike refers to the depolarization of the axon. First, the axon becomes more permeable to Na
+

ions from the outside through the opening of sodium channels. In rushes sodium, and then the potassium channels open
and K
+
rushes out of the axon. Afterwards, the cell is returned to normal through the action of the Na
+
/K
+
pump. Answer
choices C and E are incorrect because Ca
2+
and Cl

ions are not associated with depolarization and answer choice D is
incorrect because hyperpolarization actually makes an axon less likely to trigger an action potential.

6. D
The heartbeat is initiated by the sino-atrial node located in the wall of the right atrium, and travels through the atria.
It is regulated but not controlled by the accelerator nerve (sympathetic) and the vagus nerve (parasympathetic). It is then
picked up by the AV node, which signals the bundle of His (AV bundle), which transports the contraction through the
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ventricles via the Purkinje fibers. While the AV node does have contractile ability and controls the contraction of the
ventricles, it does not control the contraction of the entire heart and is not as regular as the signal from the SA node. The
SA node is located in the wall of the right atrium and is not functionally dependent upon nervous stimulation as this tissue
initiates the heartbeat, although it can be modified by the nervous system. The delay between the contraction of the atria
and the ventricles allows for the filling of the ventricles with the blood from the atria. The systolic pressure is actually
higher than the diastolic pressure as the systolic pressure is the pressure of the ventricular contraction while the diastolic
pressure is the pressure between contractions.

7. E
A reflex arc is a stimulus coupled to a rapid motor response, and is meant for quickness or protection. Examples of
this are blinking or recoiling away from a hot stove. An example of a reflex arc would begin with you touching a hot pot
on a stove, which would stimulate a sensory nerve. The sensory nerve directs a signal towards the CNS, and synapses
with an interneuron in the spinal cord. The interneuron (which is entirely within the spinal cord) synapses with a motor
neuron, which delivers the response signal to your arm and hand, causing you to involuntarily drop the pot and move your
arm away. The process requires no input from the brain. Answer choice C is incorrect because although some sensory
neurons due synapse in the brain, those that are involved in simple reflex arc do not. Answer choice D is incorrect
because there is a very brief delay that occurs at the two synaptic junctions (it takes time for the neurotransmitters to
diffuse).

8. C
Skeletal muscle has multinucleated fibers with a regular array of actin and myosin filaments. These filaments slide
along each other and shorten during contraction. This process requires ATP. Each muscle cell/fiber is innervated by a
branch of the nerve innervating this muscle. The axon releases an action potential to each muscle fiber. This action
potential cannot pass from one muscle fiber to another. When this action potential reaches the muscle fiber, it causes the
release of Ca
2+
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to initiate the sliding of the actin and myosin filaments.

9. D
The liver is a biochemical factory that stores sugar as glycogen in response to insulin levels; breaks down glycogen to
glucose due to signals from glucagon and epinephrine; converts excess amino acids to glucose, fats, and ammonia;
converts ammonia to urea for excretion; removes bacteria and bilirubin (which is utilized in the formation of bile salts)
from the bloodstream; synthesizes angiotensinogen; and produces bile, which emulsifies fats. Therefore, only answer
choice D is not listed as a function of the liver but is rather a function of the gall bladder. The liver produces the bile
while the gall bladder stores it until it is needed.

10. D
As an exocrine gland, the pancreas secretes proteases, lipases, and amylases, which aid in the digestion of food, and
bicarbonate ions which buffer the pH of the chyme coming from the stomach. Glucagon is an endocrine secretion of the
pancreas in response to a low blood glucose level. It causes an increase in the levels of glucose through the degradation of
glycogen, and decreases the uptake by muscles.

11. D
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter found in neuromuscular junctions and synapses. Norepinephrine, dopamine, and
serotonin are also neurotransmitters found in these locations. They are chemical messengers released as action potential
reaches the end of the axons. After crossing the synaptic cleft, they cause the depolarization of the adjacent cell
membrane. Answer choices A, B, and C are incorrect because acetylcholine isn't secreted by the adrenal glands and is not
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involved in glycolysis or the citric acid cycle. Answer choice E is incorrect because it does not inhibit an action potential,
rather it causes an action potential.

12. C
The synapse is a small space between an axon and dendrite of two neurons. After stimulation, the axon will release a
neurotransmitter across this cleft, which will diffuse and bind receptors on the dendrite of the next neuron. The
neurotransmitter can only be released by the axon and can only be received by the dendrite and is therefore similar to a
rectifier. Answer choice A is incorrect because the axon is only the section of the neuron away from the cell body while
answer choice B is incorrect because the dendrite is the section of the neuron going toward the cell body. Answer choice
D is incorrect because Schwann cells are insulating cells of the neurons. Answer choice E is incorrect because a spinal
nerve is a bundle of nerves where they enter and exit the spinal cord.

13. B.
Lets first define the alleles in this problem. Let T equal tall height and t equal short height. Now lets define B as
brown eye color, and b as blue eye color. The father is described as homozygous tall and homozygous blue-eyed, so we
know his genotype is TTbb. The mother is described as heterozygous tall and heterozygous brown-eyed, so her genotype is
TtBb. This question asks you to determine the probability that these parents could produce a tall child with blue eyes
(T_bb). Remember, the genes for height and eye color are unlinked. Now, the father can only contribute the T and b
alleles, so all of his gametes will have both the T and b alleles. On the other hand, the mother can contribute either T or t
and either B or b, so her gametes are the following, all in equal amounts: TB, tB, Tb, or tb. Thus, the possible genotypes
of the offspring are: TTBb, TTbb, TtBb, Ttbb. Half the offspring are tall and brown eyed, and the other half are tall and
blue-eyed. Therefore, the probability of a tall child with blue eyes is 1/2 (one out of two), or choice B. A shorter method
involves calculating phenotype ratios for height and eye-color seperately and then combining them. The mating of TT x
Tt produces 100% tall. The mating of Bb x Bb produces one half blue and one half brown. Multiplying 1 tall times one
half blue gives us one half tall blue, or choice B.

14. C
Bile is formed in the liver and released by the gall bladder, and emulsifies fats to increase the surface area of the fat
molecules so that lipases can break them down. Therefore, without bile, fats would be more difficult to digest.

15. B
The cartilaginous structure that prevents food from going down the trachea is known as the epiglottis. This structure
closes off the respiratory tract and covers the glottis, which is the opening at the top of the trachea. Answer choice C is
incorrect because the tongue is a muscle, not cartilage, and does not close off the trachea. Answer choice D is incorrect
because the larynx is also known as the voice box, and is located below the glottis. Answer choice E is incorrect because
the esophageal sphincter is also known as the cardiac sphincter, and separates the esophagus from the stomach.

16. A
Nucleotides are made up of a nitrogenous base, guanine, uracil, adenine, cytosine, or thymine; a sugar, either ribose
or deoxyribose; and a phosphate group. Adenine and guanine are purines while thymine, cytosine, and uracil are
pyrimidines. Answer choice B is incorrect because a nucleoside does not contain the phosphate group, just the nitrogenous
base and the sugar. Answer choice C is incorrect because carbohydrates are only sugars, while answer choice D is
incorrect because fats are glycerols and three fatty acids. Answer choice E is incorrect because proteins are only linked
amino acids and do not contain anything found in a nucleotide.

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17. E
Cellular respiration is the most efficient catabolic pathway used by organisms to harvest the energy stored in glucose.
Whereas glycolysis yields only two ATP per molecule of glucose, cellular respiration can yield 3638 ATP. Cellular
respiration is an aerobic process; oxygen acts as the final acceptor of electrons that are passed from carrier to carrier
during the final stage of glucose oxidation. The metabolic reactions of cell respiration occur in the eukaryotic
mitochondrion and are catalyzed by reaction-specific enzymes.

18. D
Muscle contraction occurs when two types of muscle proteins slide past each other, thus creating a contraction.
These two types of muscle fibers or muscle proteins are known as actin and myosin fibers. Myosin fibers are thick fibers,
and actin fibers are thin fibers. They slide past each other as ATPs are used as an energy source. Neither one of the fibers
shrinks in size. The muscle cell itself will shrink in size because the fibers slide past each other, thereby causing a
decrease in the size of the muscle cell, and therefore a contraction of the muscle. Likewise, neither actin nor myosin fibers
can expand. So therefore choices A, B, C, and E are all incorrect.

19. D
Most chemical digestion within human beings occurs in the small intestine. Within the small intestine, almost all
protein digestion, all disaccharide digestion, most starch digestion, all fat or lipid digestion, and all absorption of food
occurs. There is, previous to the small intestine, a small amount of starch digested in the mouth by salivary amylase into
the disaccharide maltose. There is also within the stomach a small amount of protein digestion, in which the stomach
enzyme pepsin splits proteins into smaller chains of amino acids known as peptides. However, the digestion occurring
before the small intestine is not very significant, and almost the entire digestive process occurs within the small intestine.
Answer choice C is incorrect because the liver is not part of the alimentary canal; that is, food does not pass through the
liver. The liver does produce bile, an emulsifying agent, which helps increase the surface area of fats and mixes them
within the watery enzyme environment of the small intestine. Choice E is incorrect for the same reason. The pancreas
does produce a number of digestive enzymes, including the proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin, and the fat-digesting
enzyme lipase, as well as pancreatic amylase. The enzymes, however, operate within the small intestine, not the pancreas
itself.

20. E
The liver is a multi-function organ, necessary for the maintenance of life in humans. The liver does form urea from
the metabolism of excess amino acids. Amino groups are removed from the amino acids, and eventually these amino acids
can be changed into other molecules such as glucose, glycogen, and fats. The amino groups, which are removed from the
amino acids, are combined with CO
2
through a series of reactions to form the moderately toxic waste product urea. The
liver also regulates blood sugar level by removing glucose from the blood when the blood glucose is high, storing it as
glycogen, likewise breaking down glycogen and putting glucose back into the blood when blood glucose is low. The liver
can detoxify many compounds, including alcohol and other drugs. Likewise, it can take apart many pharmaceutical
products and chemicals, and readies them for excretion by the kidneys. The liver does not manufacture red blood cells in
the adult, although it is a source of red blood cells in the developing fetus. Red blood cells in the adult are formed
primarily in the red bone marrow.

21. C
Pancreatic ducts lead from the pancreas to the duodenum. They carry pancreatic enzymes, including pancreatic
amylase, lipase, and some proteases, such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, from the pancreas to the duodenum. The
pancreatic duct also delivers bicarbonate, which is contained in the pancreatic secretions, which helps to neutralize acidic
stomach contents as they enter the duodenum. The hormones produced by the pancreas do not pass through the pancreatic
ducts. Hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream. The pancreas is a dual organ, in that it produces both
enzymes and hormones. So a diabetic crisis will not occur, as a tying off of the pancreatic ducts will not affect the
production of pancreatic hormones insulin and glucagon. Choice II is also incorrect; acromegaly is a result of excessive
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secretion of growth hormone in an adult. It causes excessive bone growth of some facial bones, and the result is a
characteristic distorted facial appearance. There is no connection between the growth hormone, which is secreted by the
anterior pituitary, and the tying off of the pancreatic duct, so only choice III will occur.

22. C
Active transport is defined as the use of energy to move a substance across a membrane against a concentration
gradient.

23. C
Parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland. Its function is to increase blood calcium through removal
of calcium from bones and other calcium-containing tissues. The removal of calcium from bones is primarily done by
osteoclasts, which are bone-absorbing cells. The antagonistic hormone to parathyroid hormone, which reduces blood
calcium by depositing it into bone and other calcium-containing tissue, is calcitonin, choice B, secreted by the thyroid
gland. Answer choice A is incorrect; glucagon, from the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas, raises
blood glucose. Answer choice D is incorrect; aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex, and it increases sodium
reabsorption in the kidneys. Answer choice E is also known as ADH or vasopressin; its function is to increase water
reabsorption in the collecting tubules of the kidneys.

24. C
The Hardy-Weinberg law states that gene ratios and allelic frequencies remain constant through the generations in a
nonevolving population. Four criteria must be met for this to occur: 1. Random mating; 2. a large population; 3. no
migration into or out of the population; and 4. a lack of mutation. If all four of these are met, the gene frequencies will
remain constant. Anytime all four of these are not met, the gene frequencies will change and evolution may occur.

25. E
The hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of a large number of basic human functions, including temperature
regulation, sleep/wake cycles, water and salt balance, hunger, and many others. It produces hormones such as vasopressin
and oxytocin, which are stored in the posterior pituitary. It also produces releasing factors that control the secretions of
the anterior pituitary. Answer choice A is incorrect because the medulla is involved in such basic functions as regulation
of heart rate and breathing rate. Answer choice B is incorrect because the pons contains tracts that connect the cerebrum
to other parts of the brain, and it also works in conjunction with the medulla in controlling breathing rate. Answer choice
C is incorrect because the cerebrum is in charge of such functions as memory, conscious thought, voluntary motor activity,
and the interpretation of sensation. Answer choice D is incorrect because the pineal gland secretes the hormone
melatonin, which is involved in the control of circadian rhythms and which also may be involved in sexual maturation.

26. D
Glucagon is secreted by a cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. The function of glucagon is to increase
blood glucose by causing the liver to change glycogen back into glucose, and to cause muscle cells to change glycogen to
glucose and release it into the bloodstream. It is the antagonist to choice A, insulin, which stimulates the opposite
conversion of glucose to glycogen. Answer choice B is incorrect because parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium by
removing it from stored calcium in bone and other tissues. Answer choice C is incorrect because pepsin is a proteolytic
enzyme that works in the acidic environment of the stomach. Answer choice E is incorrect because calcitonin lowers
blood calcium by storing it in bone and other tissue.

27. B
The hypothalamus will release factors that will cause the anterior pituitary to produce the hormones FSH and LH.
FSH, or follicle stimulating hormone, will stimulate the ovary to produce mature ovarian follicles. During the follicular
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stage, the ovary is also producing the hormone estrogen. As the estrogen is released, FSH levels will drop and LH, or
luteinizing hormone, levels will increase. The drop in FSH and increase in LH will trigger the follicle to release the
ovum. This is known as ovulation. The LH continues to affect the former follicle, which is now called the corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Answer choice B would occur first. The secretion of estrogen by the ovary,
under the influence of FSH during the follicular stage, will occur immediately before choice E, a decrease in FSH release
by the pituitary. This decrease of FSH is caused in part by high levels of estrogen. The decrease in FSH, accompanied by
an increase in LH, will cause choice A, rupture of the follicle, which is ovulation. Following that, answer choice C, the
corpus luteum will form. As the corpus luteum matures, answer choice D, progesterone levels will increase.

28. D
The large intestine is primarily involved in water reabsorption. Some salts and minerals are also reabsorbed with
this water, and bacteria within the large intestine can also produce vitamin K. Answer choice A is incorrect because the
duodenum is the anterior section of the small intestine, which connects to the posterior end of the stomach. Answer choice
B is incorrect because the jejunum is the second section of the small intestine. It connects to the duodenum on its anterior
end and to the ileum on its posterior end. Answer choice C is incorrect because the stomach is primarily a food-holding
organ. Some small amount of protein digestion occurs there. Answer choice E is incorrect because the mouth does not
absorb water, but it does chew and moisten food and convert a small amount of starch to maltose through the enzyme
salivary amylase.

29. E
The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine organ. The exocrine function is performed by the cells that secrete
digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and maltase, and bicarbonate into the small intestine via a series of ducts. The
endocrine function is performed by small glandular structures called the islets of Langerhans, which are composed of
alpha, beta, and delta cells. Alpha cells produce and secrete glucagon; beta cells produce and secrete insulin; delta cells
produce and secrete somatostatin.

30. C
Continuous muscle contraction utilizes all the available oxygen, and causes the muscle fiber to depend on anaerobic
respiration for energy. NAD
+
must be regenerated for glycolysis to continue in the absence of O
2
. This is accomplished by
reducing pyruvate into lactic acid and only produces two ATP per glucose.

31. E
Viruses are simple, non-living organisms, which take on living characteristics when they infect a cell. They contain
either DNA or RNA and a protein coat in the form of a capsule. Their genetic material is not in the form of a
chromosome but is actually a complex of nucleic acids and proteins known as histone. They must have a host cell in order
to replicate, although this cell can be either a eukaryote or a prokaryote.

32. D
Bile is an emulsifying agent, which increases the surface area of fats allowing an increase in contact with the enzyme
lipase, which breaks down fats. It is not an enzyme as it does not catalyze a chemical change of fats. The lipid molecules
are still lipids, only smaller particles of lipids after interaction with bile. Bile is made up of bile salts that are cholesterol
derivatives, and pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin. Answer choice A is incorrect because hormones are
chemical messengers that send signals to their target cells. Answer choice B is incorrect because enzymes catalyze
chemical reactions. Answer choice C is incorrect because proteins are complex organic polymers of amino acids linked
together by peptide bonds. Answer choice E is incorrect because proteases are enzymes that digest proteins.

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33. D
ATP and phosphocreatine are energy storage molecules located in the muscle fibers. They release the energy utilized
during contraction as actin and myosin filaments slide along one another. Answer choice A is incorrect because lactic
acid is a byproduct of anaerobic respiration, not an energy source. Answer choice B is incorrect because lactose is a
disaccharide known as milk sugar made up of glucose and galactose. Answer choice C is incorrect because ADP is a low
energy form of ATP. Answer choice E is incorrect because cAMP is a second messenger found in cells that are target cells
of peptide hormones.

34. C
Hyperthyroidism results in an excess of thyroxin and other thyroid hormones. These hormones increase the basal
metabolic rate and blood pressure. Patients with hyperthyroidism are often characterized by sensitivity to heat, and
nervousness. Answer choices A, B, D, and E, hypothyroidism, on the other hand, is characterized by low metabolism, low
heart rate, low body temperature, and diminished mental activity.

35. B
CO, like O
2
, is attracted to and stored on hemoglobin molecules. It binds hemoglobin actually more strongly than
O
2
, and is almost irreversibly bound by hemoglobin. It is found in incompletely burned fuels, faulty space heaters, and
barbecue grills used indoors. CO is not irritating as it is odorless and colorless. It does not form complexes in blood or
affect the cytochrome chain. It is a hemoglobin poison and does not affect the mitochondria or the sodium pump.

36. B
Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration within the cell and hence the suppliers of energy. Each
mitochondrion is bound by an outer and an inner phospholipid bilayer membrane. The outer membrane is smooth and
acts as a sieve, allowing molecules through on the basis of size. The area between the inner and outer membranes is
known as the intermembrane space. The inner membrane has many convolutions called cristae and a high protein content
that includes the proteins of the electron transport chain. The area bounded by the inner membrane is known as the
mitochondrial matrix and is the site of many of the reactions in cell respiration. Mitochondria are different from the other
organelles in that they are semiautonomous; that is, they contain their own circular DNA and ribosomes, which enables
them to produce some of their own proteins and to self-replicate by binary fission.

37. D
Metabolic waste products are the compounds that are released during enzymatic processes in cells. The
accumulation of waste products can kill the cell and the entire organism, so they must be cleared from the body. Pyruvate
is an intermediate of cellular respiration, and is either anaerobically converted into the waste product lactate or further
metabolized into the wastes CO
2
and H
2
O. Pyruvate is not a waste product, so choice D is correct.
Choices A and C are incorrect because both are the waste products of aerobic respiration. If CO
2
is not removed, it
can lead to acidosis of the blood, since CO
2
can react with H
2
O to form carbonic acid. CO
2
is removed at the lungs.
Choice B is incorrect because lactate is the waste product of anaerobic respiration. Lactate is eventually converted to
pyruvate in the liver when O
2
becomes available. If it is not metabolized, it can lead to lactic acidosis (acidification of the
blood) and death.
Choice E is incorrect because ammonia is the waste product of protein metabolism. Ammonia is converted to the
less toxic urea in the liver, and removed by the kidneys. If ammonia is not converted and cleared, it can cause the blood to
become alkaline, which is potentially fatal.

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38. C
Blastulation begins when the morula develops a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel, which by the fourth day of
human development will become a hollow sphere of cells called the blastula.
Choice A is incorrect because the zygote is the diploid (2N) cell that results from the fusion of two haploid (N)
gametes.
Choice B is incorrect: The morula is the solid ball of cells that results from the early stages of cleavage in an embryo.
Choices D and E are incorrect. The gastrula is the embryonic stage characterized by the presence of endoderm,
ectoderm, the blastocoel and the archenteron. The early gastrula is two-layered; later a third layer, the mesoderm,
develops.

39. A
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a complex carrier mechanism that generates ATP through oxidative
phosphorylation and it occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Choice B is incorrect because glycolysis is the oxidative breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate and it
occurs in the cytoplasm.
Choice C is incorrect because the Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. The Krebs cycle is a cycle which
begins when acetyl CoA combines with OAA to form citrate. Then a complicated series of reactions follows which results
in the release of 2 CO
2
and the regeneration of OAA.
Choice D is incorrect because fatty acid degradation occurs in microbodies called peroxisomes which beak down fat
into smaller molecules to use as fuel.
Choice E is incorrect because ATP synthesis occurs in the matrix (Krebs cycle), inner mitochondrial membrane
(ETC), and in the cytoplasm (glycolysis).

40. D
ACh is inactivated in the synaptic cleft by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase after it has acted upon the postsynaptic
membrane. If chemical X denatures acetylcholinesterase, it will not be able to inactivate acetylcholine and prevent the
continuous depolarization of the effector membrane.