Shaina Marie R.

Forca
IX-Magnesium






Chemistry is the science of matter - what matter is like, what makes up
matter, what changes occur in matter, what causes those changes. It is
key to all the other sciences and a part of every aspect of our world. This
portfolio will lead you to the lessons that we tackled this whole second
grading about some topics of elements in a periodic table. The
groupings of elements, the formulas for finding their atomic weight.
Molar mass, and many more. This portfolio will tell or show you how
amazing Chemistry is! And more of that, it will also bring you the
summary of all the lessons we had in this 2
nd
quarter. Science involves
communication. Everything scientists write is an argument, from a
memo, to a journal publication, to a grant proposal each is a
document written to convince. An ability to argue clearly and
convincingly is essential. Today's professional must have presentation
skills of all types from writing, to speaking, to preparing effective
electronic posters for meetings. Literacy is being able to publish in the
mode of your audience. The realms where we publish change and are
increasing in number daily. For example, to be literate in "casual"
communication (such as texting or IM), you must be able to publish in
that medium. For "formal" communication (such as business letters or
papers), you need the ability to publish in a formal form. And the
rules for these two are VERY different.


A. Timeline of the Periodic Table
B. Models of the Periodic Table
C. Handy Periodic Table
D. Parts & the description of the Periodic
Table
E. Chemical Bonds
F. Naming and writing the formulas
G. Writing Composition of %









TIMELINE OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
In the Beginning
A necessary prerequisite to the construction of the periodic table was the discovery of the individual
elements. Although elements such as gold, silver, tin, copper, lead and mercury have been known
since antiquity, the first scientific discovery of an element occurred in 1649 when Hennig Brand
discovered phosphorous. During the next 200 years, a vast body of knowledge concerning the
properties of elements and their compounds was acquired by chemists (view a 1790 article on the
elements). By 1869, a total of 63 elements had been discovered. As the number of known elements
grew, scientists began to recognize patterns in properties and began to develop classification
schemes.

Law of Triads
In 1817 Johann Dobereiner noticed that the atomic weight of strontium fell midway between the
weights of calcium and barium, elements possessing similar chemical properties. In 1829, after
discovering the halogen triad composed of chlorine, bromine, and iodine and the alkali metal triad of
lithium, sodium and potassium he proposed that nature contained triads of elements the middle
element had properties that were an average of the other two members when ordered by the atomic
weight (the Law of Triads).
This new idea of triads became a popular area of study. Between 1829 and 1858 a number of
scientists (Jean Baptiste Dumas, Leopold Gmelin, Ernst Lenssen, Max von Pettenkofer, and J.P. Cooke)
found that these types of chemical relationships extended beyond the triad. During this time fluorine
was added to the halogen group; oxygen, sulfur,selenium and tellurium were grouped into a family
while nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth were classified as another.
Unfortunately, research in this area was hampered by the fact that accurate values of were not always
available.
First Attempts At Designing a Periodic Table
If a periodic table is regarded as an ordering of the chemical elements demonstrating the periodicity
of chemical and physical properties, credit for the first periodic table (published in 1862) probably
should be given to a French geologist, A.E.Beguyer de Chancourtois. De Chancourtois transcribed a list
of the elements positioned on a cylinder in terms of increasing atomic weight. When the cylinder was
constructed so that 16 mass units could be written on the cylinder per turn, closely related elements
were lined up vertically. This led de Chancourtois to propose that "the properties of the elements are
the properties of numbers." De Chancourtois was first to recognize that elemental properties reoccur
every seven elements, and using this chart, he was able to predict the stoichiometry of several
metallic oxides. Unfortunately, his chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements.

Law of Octaves
John Newlands, an English chemist, wrote a paper in 1863 which classified the 56 established elements
into 11 groups based on similar physical properties, noting that many pairs of similar elements existed
which differed by some multiple of eight in atomic weight. In 1864 Newlands published his version of
the periodic table and proposed the Law of Octaves (by analogy with the seven intervals of the
musical scale). This law stated that any given element will exhibit analogous behavior to the eighth
element following it in the table.
Who Is The Father of the Periodic Table?
There has been some disagreement about who deserves credit for being the "father" of
the periodic table, the German Lothar Meyer (pictured here) or the Russian Dmitri
Mendeleev. Both chemists produced remarkably similar results at the same time working
independently of one another. Meyer's 1864 textbook included a rather abbreviated
version of a periodic table used to classify the elements. This consisted of about half of
the known elements listed in order of their atomic weight and demonstrated periodic
valence chages as a function of atomic weight. In 1868, Meyer constructed an extended table which he gave to a
colleague for evaluation. Unfortunately for Meyer, Mendeleev's table became available to the scientific
community via publication (1869) before Meyer's appeared (1870).

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907), the youngest of 17 children was born in the Siberian town of Tobol'sk
where his father was a teacher of Russian literature and philosophy (portrait by Ilyia Repin). Mendeleev was not
considered an outstanding student in his early education partly due to his dislike of
the classical languages that were an important educational requirement at the time
even though he showed prowess in mathematics and science. After his father's death,
he and his mother moved to St. Petersburg to pursue a university education. After
being denied admission to both the University of Moscow and St. Petersburg
University because of his provincial background and unexceptional academic
background, he finally earned a place at the Main Pedagogical Institute (St.
Petersburg Institute). Upon graduation, Mendeleev took a position teaching science
in a gymnasium. After a time as a teacher, he was admitted to graduate work at St.
Petersburg University where he earned a Master's degree in 1856. Mendeleev so
impressed his instructors that he was retained to lecture in chemistry. After spending
1859 and 1860 in Germany furthering his chemical studies, he secured a position as professor of chemistry at St.
Petersburg University, a position he retained until 1890. While writing a textbook on systematic inorganic
chemistry, Principles of Chemistry, which appeared in thirteen editions the last being in 1947, Mendeleev
organized his material in terms of the families of the known elements which displayed similar properties. The
first part of the text was devoted to the well known chemistry of the halogens. Next, he chose to cover the
chemistry of the metallic elements in order of combining power -- alkali metals first (combining power of one),
alkaline earths (two), etc. However, it was difficult to classify metals such as copper and mercury which had
multiple combining powers, sometimes one and other times two. While tryuing to sort out this dilema,
Mendeleev noticed patterns in the properties and atomic weights of halogens, alkali metals and alkaline metals.
He observed similarities between the series Cl-K-Ca , Br-/Rb-Sr and I-Cs-Ba. In an effort to extend this pattern to
other elements, he created a card for each of the 63 known elements. Each card contained the element's
symbol, atomic weight and its characteristic chemical and physical properties. When Mendeleev arranged the
cards on a table in order of ascending atomic weight grouping elements of similar properties together in a
manner not unlike the card arrangement in his favorite solitare card game, patience, the periodic table was
formed. From this table, Mendeleev developed his statement of the periodic law and published his work On the
Relationship of the Properties of the Elements to their Atomic Weights in 1869. The advantage of Mendeleev's
table over previous attempts was that it exhibited similarities not only in small units such as the triads, but
showed similarities in an entire network of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal relationships. In 1906, Mendeleev
came within one vote of being awarded the Nobel Prize for his work.

At the time that Mendeleev developed his periodic table since the experimentally determined atomic masses
were not always accurate, he reordered elements despite their accepted masses. For example, he changed the
weight of beryllium from 14 to 9. This placed beryllium into Group 2 above magnesium whose properties it more
closely resembled than where it had been located above nitrogen. In all Mendeleev found that 17 elements had
to be moved to new positions from those indicated strictly by atomic weight for their properties to correlate
with other elements. These changes indicated that there were errors in the accepted atomic weights of some
elements (atomic weights were calculated from combining weights, the weight of an element that combines
with a given weight of a standard.) However, even after corrections were made by redetermining atomic
weights, some elements still needed to be placed out of order of their atomic weights. From the gaps present in
his table, Mendeleev predicted the existence and properties of unknown elements which he called eka-
aluminum, eka-boron, and eka-silicon. The elements gallium, scandium and germanium were found later to fit
his predictions quite well. In addition to the fact that Mendeleev's table was published before Meyers', his work
was more extensive predicting new or missing elements. In all Mendeleev predicted the existence of 10 new
elements, of which seven were eventually discovered -- the other three, atomic weights 45, 146 and 175 do not
exist. He also was incorrect in suggesting that the element pairs of argon-potassium, cobalt-nickel and tellurium-
iodine should be interchanged in position due to inaccurate atomic weights. Although these elements did need
to be interchanged, it was because of a flaw in the reasoning that periodicity is a function of atomic weight.
Discovery of the Noble Gases
In 1895 Lord Rayleigh reported the discovery of a new gaseous element named argon which proved to be
chemically inert. This element did not fit any of the known periodic groups. In 1898, William Ramsey suggested that
argon be placed into the periodic table between chlorine and potassium in a family with helium, despite the fact
that argon's atomic weight was greater than that of potassium. This group was termed the "zero" group due to
the zero valency of the elements. Ramsey accurately predicted the future discovery and properties neon.


Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Although Mendeleev's table demonstrated the periodic nature of the elements, it remained for the discoveries
of scientists of the 20th Century to explain why the properties of the elements recur periodically.

In 1911 Ernest Rutherford published studies of the scattering of alpha particles by heavy atom nuclei which led to
the determination of nuclear charge. He demonstrated that the nuclear charge on a nucleus was proportional to
the atomic weight of the element. Also in 1911, A. van den Broek in a series of two papers proposed that the
atomic weight of an element was approximately equal to the charge on an atom. This charge, later termed the
atomic number, could be used to number the elements within the periodic table. In 1913, Henry Moseley (see a
picture) published the results of his measurements of the wavelengths of the x-ray spectral lines of a number of
elements which showed that the ordering of the wavelengths of the x-ray emissions of the elements coincided
with the ordering of the elements by atomic number. With the discovery of isotopes of the elements, it became
apparent that atomic weight was not the significant player in the periodic law as Mendeleev, Meyers and others
had proposed, but rather, the properties of the elements varied periodically with atomic number.

The question of why the periodic law exists was answered as scientists developed an understanding of the
electronic structure of the elements beginning with Niels Bohr's studies of the organization of electrons into
shells through G.N. Lewis' (see a picture) discoveries of bonding electron pairs.


The Modern Periodic Table
The last major changes to the periodic table resulted from Glenn Seaborg's work in the middle of the 20th
Century. Starting with his discovery of plutonium in 1940, he discovered all the transuranic elements from 94 to
102. He reconfigured the periodic table by placing the actinide series below the lanthanide series. In 1951,
Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work. Element 106 has been named seaborgium (Sg) in
his honor.



PARTS & DESCRIPTION OF
PERIODIC TABLE
Regions of the Periodic Table
period: a row of the periodic table. Properties of the elements are periodic, meaning that they repeat
after a specific interval. Elements in the same period have their highest energy electrons in the same
principal energy level.
group (family): a column of the periodic table. Elements in the same group have the same number of
valence electrons, and therefore have similar chemical and physical properties.
Metals, Non-Metals & Metalloids
metals: elements to the left of and below the stairstep line.
non-metals: elements to the right of and above the stairstep line.
metalloids: most of the elements that touch the stairstep line. (All except for Al and Po).


metals:
shiny
high density
good conductors of heat & electricity
malleable & ductile (can be reshaped by hammering, bending and stretching)
high melting & boiling points
most have 3 or fewer valence electrons
tend to form positive ions

non-metals:
dull
low density
poor conductors of heat & electricity
brittle
low melting & boiling points
most have 4 or more valence electrons
tend to form negative ions
metalloids: can have properties in between or can have some properties like metals and others like
non-metals.

Groups of Elements

alkali metals: elements in group IA of the periodic table.
1 valence electron (form +1 ions)
very reactive
soft
very high melting & boiling points
ions are soluble in water

alkaline earth metals: elements in group IIA of the periodic table.
2 valence electrons (form +2 ions)
reactive, though not as much as group I metals
very high melting & boiling points
ions are not soluble in water
transition metals: elements in the center section of the periodic table.
have a partially-filled d sub-level
form colored ions when dissolved in water
officially have 2 valence electrons, but can shift electrons into and out of s and d sub-levels. Often
form more than one kind of ion.
most are shiny, hard metals with high melting & boiling points

inner transition metals: elements in the f block of the periodic table.
are part of the transition metals
have a partially-filled f sub-level
officially have 2 valence electrons, but can shift electrons between s, d, and f sub-levels. Usually form
ions with +3 charges.
are rare
halogens: elements in group VIIA of the periodic table.
7 valence electrons (form 1 ions)
reactive
diatomic (atoms in pairs) in their natural state: F
2
, Cl
2
, Br
2
, I
2

low melting & boiling points. (F & Cl are gases at room temp; Br is a liquid, and I is a solid, but will melt
in your hand.)
form salts that are soluble in water (except for fluorineflouoride salts are not soluble in water.)
noble gases: elements in group VIIIA of the periodic table.
8 valence electrons (except for He which has 2)full valence shells
do not form ions
do not react with other compounds
gases
extremely low melting & boiling points. (In fact, helium cannot be made into a solid even at absolute
zero, except at extremely high pressures.)














































A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or
more atoms. The bond is caused by the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges, either
between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably;
there are "strong bonds" such as covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" such as dipoledipole interactions,
the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.
Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively charged electrons that are orbiting
the nucleus and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. An electron positioned between two
nuclei will be attracted to both of them, and the nuclei will be attracted toward electrons in this position. This attraction
constitutes the chemical bond. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller mass, they must occupy a
much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei
relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei themselves. This phenomenon limits the distance between nuclei
and atoms in a bond.
In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms.
The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases indeed most of the physical environment around us
are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure and the bulk properties of matter.

What are weak bonds?
Weak bonds are those forces of attraction that, in biological situations, do not take a large amount of
energy to break. For example, hydrogen bonds are broken by energies in the order of 4 - 5 kcal/mol.; van
der Waals interactions have energies around Kcal/mol. Compare this to the energy needed to
break strong bonds
What are the different kinds of weak bonds?
In biological terms, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions are considered weak
bonds
What are the biological consequences of weak bonds?
In biological systems weak bonds are being continually broken and refomed without the aid of enzymes.
Compare this to covalent bonds

. Weak bonds may be easily broken but they are very important because they help to determine and
stabilize the shapes of biological molecules. For example they are important in stabilizing the secondary
structure (alpha helix and beta peated sheat) of proteins. Hydrogen bonds keep complementary strands
of DNA together. Hydrogen bonds participate in enzymic catalysis.

I. Ionic Bonds
bonding between a metal and non-metal or the bond between a positive ion and a negative ion forming a
binary compound.
end in the suffix "ide"
Or bonding between a metal and a complex ion.
Steps in writing formulas:
Use a periodic table of elements and of ions.
Write the symbol and charge of the cation first (positive ion)
Write the symbol and charge of the anion next (negative ion)
Use criss-cross rule to balance for an electrically neutral compound.

Name Symbol and Charge Formula
Sodium cloride Na+ Cl- NaCl
Magnesium oxide Mg2+ O2- MgO
Calcium bromide Ca2+ Br- CaBr2
Aluminum sulphide Al3+ S2- Al2S3
Nickle (III) chloride Ni3+ Cl NiCl3

II. Covalent Bonds
sharing of bonds between two non-metals
end in "ide"
Steps in writing formulas:
refer to periodic table of elements
write symbol of each element
use prefix system for naming.
1 mono 6 - hexa
2 di 7 - hepta
3 - tri 8 - octa
4 - tetra 9 - nona or ennea
5 - penta 10 - deca

Name Symbols Formulas
carbon monoxide C O CO
carbon dioxide C O CO2
carbon tetrachloride C Cl CCl4
dinitrogen monoxide N O N2O
dinitrogen pentafluoride N F N2F5

III. Binary Acids
contain hydrogen and a nonmetallic element
are an aqueous solution of the pure compound
have prefix hydro, suffix ic
1. hydroiodic acid HI(aq)
2. hydrobromic acid HBr(aq)
3. hydrochloric acid HCl(aq)
4. hydrofluoric acid HF(aq)
5. hydrocyanic acid HCN(aq)

Percentage composition is the percentage of a formula mass represented by each element.
Percentage composition compares the mass of one part of a substance to the mass of the
whole.
Calculating percentage composition:
Do a formula mass calculation.

Divide the total atomic mass for each element by the total formula mass of the compound.
Sample Problem: Calculate the percentage composition of C2H5OH

Because of rounding mass numbers to whole numbers, the total % could be between 99 and
101. If it is outside that range, you probably have a mistake.
Empirical Formulas are the simplest formula that represents the whole number ratio between
the elements in a compound.
Molecular formulas and empirical formulas are sometimes the same:
The molecular formula for water is H
2
O, a 2 to 1 ratio.
Since the subscripts will not reduce H
2
O is also water's empirical formula.
Molecular formulas and empirical formulas are not always the same:
The molecular formula for glucose is C
6
H
12
O
6
, not a 1 to 1 ratio.
Reduce the subscripts to the lowest form.
The empirical formula for glucose is CH
2
O, a 1 to 1 ratio.

Calculating empirical formulas:
Subscripts in a chemical formula are usually thought of as a ratio of atoms.
Subscripts can also be thought of as a ratio of moles.
To determine an empirical formula, one must determine the mole ratio.
A mole is the number of atoms needed to equal the atomic mass of an element, therefore the
atomic mass of an element in grams is equal to one mole of its atoms.
Sample Empirical Formula Problem:
Determine the empirical formula of a compound that is composed of 36.5% sodium, 25.4% sulfur, and
38.1% oxygen.
Find the number of moles of each element present.
Since the amount of each element is given in percentage, you must convert the percentage to a mass. If
100 grams of the sample are assumed, the percentages given are the same as grams.

Determine the whole number mole ratio.
Divide each mole number by the smallest mole number.


Use the mole ratio for the subscripts of each element in the formula.
The empirical formula is Na
2
SO
3


Molecular formula from empirical formula:
The formula mass of the empirical formula in the sample problem above is 126 u. If the
molecular mass is known to be 378 u, what is the molecular formula?
Divide the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass to get a whole number.
378
/
126
= 3
Multiply each subscript in the empirical formula by this whole number.

You now have the molecular formula - Na
6
S
3
O
9


Therefore, I conclude that Chemistry Topics are not so
difficult to understand when you really study about it.
Everything is needed to be explained by Science. Chemistry
Module II is not hard for me, about formulas and some
elements, what are the chemicals, finding out who discover
the Periodic Table are really interesting to learn and youll
discover. Those elements and symbols are difficult at first
(its just my feeling) but when our teacher discuss about it, I
found out that theres no reason to tell that learning them is
difficult. Because I also do some research about those
lessons and topics. Science Chemistry is interesting to
learn. JUST ALWAYS PAY ATTENTION! Were going on now
to the next chapter of Science, I wish that I can learn more
in Chemistry. Thats all!