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The Depiction of History in Literature: A Reading of Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife

Maina T. Sammy
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Abstract
Works of popular fiction have, for a long time, been denigrated as simple entertainment;
escapist fiction, marred by formulaic narratives, superficiality, and sensationalism. This
paper revisits the dialectic relationship between literature and history, and by placing the
selected text on this praxis, seeks to challenge the accepted notions of what constitutes
serious literature by dismantling the perceived barriers that exist between the "elite" and
"popular" fiction brands. According to Bourdeu (1983), the concept of popular is always
ambiguous because it comes to us inscribed with the history of political and cultural
struggles. It is not only a site of contested evaluation but the term popular has also been
used pejoratively. Popular has been used as synonymous with low-class; and low-class with
irrelevant. This paper argues that popular literature carries within it the envisioned image of a
given society, sometimes projected through the vision of the author or by the author satirizing
the behaviour of the said society with the aim of enabling the society reflect upon its
behaviour and effect necessary changes. The paper focuses on Pat Wambui Ngurukie's
Soldier's Wife (1989) and explores how this author engages with history. It therefore
investigates the relationship between history and popular fiction and more so how the author
of the selected text captures this interplay. By premising its discussions on selected tenets of
New Historicism, this paper provides a description of the complex web of political, social and
economic attitudes, values, ideals and situations in the selected text that constitute the
conceptualization of the author's immediate environment. By employing close reading, the
paper embarks on an intrinsic reading of the selected text and by focusing on characters,
plot(s), setting(s) and use of language, examines the elements of popular fiction present in Pat
Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife; and explores how the author engages with the history of the time
of production. This paper's significance is derived from it provision of a way forward towards
understanding how writers of popular fiction capture the history which shapes their work,
furthering the study of Kenyan popular fiction, and contribution to the conceptualization of
the interplay between history and popular fiction in particular, and culture in general.
Keywords: History, Popular Fiction, Soldier's Wife, Reversed Concepts, Marriage,
Introduction
Literature in Brief
For the French philosopher Jean-Paul Satre (1905 1980), the function of literature is to
search for the meaning of life and to speculate about the role of human beings in the world
(ibid.). In view of this, Gillespie et al. (2001: 3) postulate that:
Perhaps the best way to define literature is in practice, encountering the literary
experience face-to-face through the readingsIn the process, you may notice that
a literary work leads you to encounter not precise, correct reading but a range of

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Department of Literature, Theatre and Film, Moi University, Eldoret - Kenya; Mainasanchez@gmail.com
meanings evoked by the interaction of the text with your own experience as a
reader.
Using a historic perspective, literature is seen as a product of human imagination which
employs language artistically. It is a reflection of reality, reflecting mans relationship with
his environment. It is hereby seen as a mirror for mankind. Literature reflects issues and
events through time, locations and characters. Reflection brings to mind the idea of
resemblance like that of a mirror. These reflections are historically conditioned because
they are images of objects and people included at certain time and location in the history of
man. Literature thus reflects human experiences at a given time and is based on something
real.
Literature embodies a language, or a peoples culture: ways of life, thinking and tradition.
However, literature is more important than just a historical or cultural artefact. Literature
introduces us to new worlds of experience. Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature
by looking at what the author says and how he/she says it. We may interpret the authors
message. In academic circles, the decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of
literary theory, using mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other
approaches. This paper employs selected tenets of New Historicism and locates Pat Wambui
Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife within its historical context.
Borrowing from Horaces literary tradition on poetry, followers of Horaces school of
thought emphasize to instruct or to delight, or both, as the major functions of literature
(Gillespie, et al., 2001). However, diverging scholarly opinion indicates that literature is
charged with the task of actively shaping culture. For instance, it is arguable that human
beings may learn how to cultivate a romantic idea of love (only) after reading works of
literature that portray love in this light rather than as a social or sexual arrangement between a
man and a woman (ibid.). For purposes of this paper, we note that regardless of the
differences, both ancient and modern approaches to literature emphasize on two major
functions: to construct and articulate socio-cultural realities and to involve the reader in an
invigorating interaction with these realities (ibid.). This is the working definition for this
paper.
In view of the foregoing, this paper explores how authors of popular fiction, with specific
reference to the selected text, make use of the popular fiction genre as a medium for
representing history. It therefore makes an attempt at exploring how the writer of the selected
text captures and interacts with her immediate environment in the presentation of reality
and how the interplay between history and literature provides such possibilities.
The Relationship between History and Literature
Commenting on the relationship between history and literature, Bennett (1990, p.10) observes
that:
The understandings of literatures specificity has consisted in the argument,
variously formulated, that literature, viewed as a special kind of writing, is the
product of historically specific relations of literary production. In countering this,
I suggest that literature is more appropriately regarded as a historically specific,
institutionally organised field of textual uses and effects....As Stephen Heath
remarks, the historisation of literature does not make it less real, any less specific
(on the contrary). Indeed, to theorise literature historically and institutionally is
to imbue it with a more concrete existence than is available from any aesthetic
conception of literature and, accordingly, allows questions of literary politics to
be posed in a more concrete and specific manner.
The relationship between history and literature has been for a long time, considered to be a
dialectical one. Proponents of each have many a times accused each other of failing to either
capture reality (literature) or lacking objectivity (history). However, this long debate has
bore no concrete fruits and it is the postulation of this paper that both fields do have a
relationship that ensures that they feed off from each other. For instance, while history feeds
literature with materials facts upon which to develop a story, the former also gains from the
latter through several important areas and methodologies. History has been depicted to
present factual facts as they happen. This would be translated to mean that only the vital
and important details are put into consideration. Literature, on the other hand, has more
room for detailed interrogation and evaluation which thus leads to exploration of the minutest
details. It is therefore worth noting that while both may at times operate from extreme ends,
their existence depends on each other (www.answers.com/question, 06/02/2012).
In addition, literature uses history as a backdrop. This way, it is arguable that literature speaks
of and to the period it was written. If we consider the fact that no literary text (fiction or non-
fiction) exists in a vacuum, it then follows that history feeds literature with the verisimilitude
(Watt, 1956) it so needs to speak to the readers. Commenting on the symbiotic relationship
between history and literature, Wanjala (1978, p.1) observes that:
Society is not defined only in its material attributes but also by its non-material
characteristics. Social activities include politics, law, religion, philosophy,
literature and art....literature influences the life of people....uses imagination and
verisimilitude to make aspects of life clearer...
It is therefore the postulation of this paper that given the fact that literature utilizes symbols
(language) to depict the events of a given period that shape the society, historians can learn a
lot about a given society by examining the symbols of the writings that use that period as a
platform for their literary work, whether fiction or non-fiction. This is because:
Reading the literature of any historical period can give you an idea of what the
people of the time were like, how they lived, social conditions etc. It can tell you
what the peoples views were on life, morality, what they considered important,
what their beliefs were etc. Reading (or watching) the plays of Shakespeare for
instance can give you some idea of what Elizabethan and Jacobean people were
interested in, what they thought important, what they believed etc
(www.answers.com/lit_hist_work/224).
A reading of most African novels captures the reality of the time. This could perhaps explain
why the thematic concerns of writers during the colonial period in Africa had to do with
cultural conflict, the quest for independence, vagaries of colonialism, among others while
those who wrote in post-independent Africa had themes revolving around alienation,
disillusionment, corruption, etc. A person reading Ngugis A Grain of Wheat quickly
identifies with the post-independent Africa where false heroes were being celebrated at the
expense of real heroes thus leading to a feeling of disillusionment with the much awaited
uhuru. Likewise, a reading of Alex La Gumas A Walk in the Night portrays nothing but the
hostility between the whites and blacks in apartheid South Africa. Therefore, we can safely
argue that literature reacts to historical situations, interprets and presents them. This concurs
with Gakwandi (1977, p.10) who observes that:
The African novel [literature] [is] a creative interpretation of history...which deal
with the past...which portray the process of colonial domination...which recreate
the struggle for independence and ...evoke the post-independence social and
political climate.
This brings us to the relationship between literature, history and culture. It is clear that
culture, though fluid and dynamic, influences what we write (literature). Consequently, what
we write can and is usually used to interpret our history. Moreover, history has a way of
influencing culture thus completing the chain of interdependency. In other words, history
makes up culture and both culture and history make up literature. The reason why history
makes up culture is because of groups of people that fall under the same category such as
Christians, Muslims, Africans, and so on. Within these categories, people identify themselves
as a certain group and this group grows (culture). Literature is basically a form of history
where things evolve through culture such as stories (http://au.literature.edu, 24/10/2011). For
example, a reading of Shakespeare could be interpreted as a reading of the literature and
history of the English people. Similarly, a reading of Meja Mwangis Going Down River
Road is but a shot at understanding the social, political and economic realities that faced the
population in emerging spaces in post-independent Kenya. The vivid portrayal of abject
poverty, moral decadence, corruption and total disregard of the rule of law paints a culture
(history) in which the masses are so disillusioned with the government of the day that they
opt for a man-eat-man society where the survival of an individual highly depends on the
(possible) demise of the other.
The Genre Fiction
Genre fiction is often used interchangeably with the term popular fiction, and generally
distinguished from literary fiction (Gelder, 2004). Genre fiction, also known as popular
fiction, is a term for fictional works (novels, short stories) written with the intent of fitting
into a specific literary genre in order to appeal to readers and fans already familiar with that
genre. Popular fiction is an elastic term used to group works sharing similarities of character,
theme, and setting - such as mystery, romance, or horror (ibid.).
Arguably, most Kenyan popular fiction writers concern themselves with a whole range of
themes such as the vagaries of urbanisation, causes and effects of unemployment,
prostitution, love, marriage, crime and violence, the neglect of the rural population by the
ruling elite, moral, economic and political corruption, among others (Kurtz, 1998; Bardolf,
1998).
Critical Issues of Debate
This papers explores how Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife, as a popular fiction novel, explores
the subject of the interplay between history and literature. It thus explores the terminological
slipperiness of the literature/history couplet (Bennett, 1990) where on the one hand, placing
literary works in the historical context of their moment of production in order to understand
them better is seen as privileging literature history is a little more than an auxiliary in a
study of literature - and on the other, reading literature as a form of historical knowledge, as a
particular mode of access to the past, is seen as privileging history literature merely assists
in the understanding of past societies (Widdowson, 1985). This (imaginary) boundary
between the two fields is aptly captured by Dow (1959) who observes that in certain areas,
history and literature overlap while in others history and literature are far apart. Therefore, it
is arguable that (since) historical facts are more objective as opposed to literary works
which are more imaginative and creative (subjective), history is the story of power while
literature is the art of words (Kyle, 2006).
Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife is premised on historical events. With regard to the mode of
writing, setting, context and language, the author has resorted to popular fiction as a platform
through which she gets space to engage with the history of the production of this texts. The
author thus uses popular fiction to make social commentary. This study seeks to explore the
interplay between history and literature (popular fiction) since literature is not a collection of
the writings of individuals, but organic wholes as systems in relation to which, and only
which, individual works of literary art and the works of individual artists have their
significance (Elliot, in Kermode, 1975).
It is thus this paper's contention that Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife is a text that engages with
the history of post-independent Kenya while at the same time presenting issues that affect the
populace at social, political and economic levels. This paper thus explores the relationship
between popular fiction and history and discusses how Pat Ngurukie engages with the history
of the time of production of Soldier's Wife.
Theoretical Framework
The discussions in this paper are premised on selected tenets of New Historicism. Although
the term New Historicism suggests that it is a new view to literature, rooted in historicism, it
is actually a reaction toward New Criticism. New Historicism believes that history is a story,
narrated by historians and believes historians, not a set of documents to make facts.
Proponents of New Historicism assert that history is narrated story subjectively, as no one is
free of bias, and not objectively as Traditional Historicism bias assumes. They would explain
furthermore, that this prejudice happens in two ways: First, about the viewpoint of the
narrators; it is very obvious that history is narrated differently in different situations. Second,
is the priority that historians apply toward historical events, when they try to see and narrate
some happenings, meanwhile ignore and try to forget others. This can be even unconsciously.
New Historicism rejects the very prominent account of the power narration of history. Here,
the words of a jobless middle-class teenage guy equal to the official statements of a president.
Concerning about the ignored parts of history and the marginalized people in society, New
Historicism tries to explore and discover these forgotten areas more. It prefers to study a pulp
fiction rather than an academic theory book; or to analyze a movie based on a book rather
than the so-called high literature. It is arguable that analyzing a more popular issue brings
about the chance of plurality in voices, which causes a more accurate understating of it. This
is premised on the fact that New Historicism posits that power (which was once the only
reliable source of narrating history) is never confined to a single person or a single level of
society - it moves through the culture through social, political, ideological and economic
interactions.
It need not be gainsaid that history influences the culture, and is influenced by the culture. In
other words, historical events, as well as texts and artefacts are shaped by, and shape their
culture at the same time. In regard to African literature, this study concurs with New
Historicisms sharp rejection of New Criticisms notion of close reading of a text in an
isolated situation, and asserts that a text should be studied in its context. This is because social
and political orientation can influence the work of art produced in that situation, meanwhile,
the works of art produced in a society can give a clue to an accurate understanding of history.
For instance, a deeper understanding of Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife is highly facilitated by a
parallel understanding of the political, social and economic atmosphere of post-independent
Kenya.
This paper thus posits that for effective analysis, understanding and criticism of popular
fiction, discussing an authors words, biography and acts in a particular time in history is not
enough. This study argues that in order to understand works produced during a particular
period of history, one should analyze the culture in which the author and the work appeared.
We shouldnt analyze the phenomenon in an isolated manner, but rather ask why the
phenomenon happened, and how. This is because the popular (fiction) literary text is the
passive voice of lower middle-class in society and seeks to not only highlight their attitudes
and feelings towards changes in society, but it is the (only) source through which they can
look and laugh at their lives, albeit as a mechanism to cope with their immediate life
complexities. Consequently, a literary text, like any other phenomenon, is formed and
structured by the particular conditions of a time and place, and should be discussed in its own
context, i.e. the social and cultural patterns of that era, and cannot be understood fully unless
one considers these influences, too.
From the foregoing, it is arguable that literature and history are intertwined. The question that
now begs to be answered is why this paper finds history imperative to the study of popular
fiction (literature). As evident from the foregoing, New Historicism states that history is
narrated subjectively and should be interpreted (it is not a fact to be accepted). In search of a
clue to interpret history, it finds literature as a way to reach the culture and society of the time,
in which particular phenomenon has happened. This is the first function of literature, in New
Historicism; to help us interpret history more accurately. The next step is the usage of New
Historicism in literature. In this case, the procedure is the same. One tries to understand the
cultural and social setting of the time, in which a book was introduced, to understand the text
better. New Historicism wants to know why a particular text was written in a particular time
in a particular society. It may discuss the other literary works of the time, or analyze the
political, social related issues in order to find more information regarding the time, place and
situation that produced the work. Furthermore, New Historicism would try to interpret the
culture of a time, by discussing all its available materials, such as literary works, any social,
political, artistic or popular documents, or even the written history of the time.
From the above discussion, it suffices that history, like any other narrations such as books and
novels, is written subjectively. Therefore we should talk about interpretations of event not the
facts. This comes in handy in the analysis of Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife which is premised on
historical events. In other words, the issues tackled in the selected text are influenced by
social and cultural contexts; and have a corresponding influence too. Thats why we cannot
analyze Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife as an isolated creation because it is not only a literary but
a cultural and social production of particular time(s).
Since Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife discusses more neglected subjects such as prostitution,
crime, corruption, womanizing, peasant revolts, post-independent and post-colonial realities
among others, New Historicism becomes an avenue through which the interests of the middle-
class are analysed. New Historicism thus provides a key with which the web of culture is
entangled by allowing the exploration of the interplay between history and literature as
depicted in Pat Ngurukie's Soldier's Wife.
Review of Related Literature
@@Knowledge of historical context can bring new perspective to a literary work, and fiction
can tell a lot about how an author viewed things at a specific period of time. On the other
hand, reading history with the help of primary sources (i.e., fiction, nonfiction essays of the
period of time, etc.) can also broaden the perspective of history rather than a textbook.
However, it is worth noting that each subject gives new life to another, but there are many
ways to do it (http://www.bukisa.com/articles/56941/history-and-literature).
Consequently, an understanding of history can help readers understand for instance why
certain books have been banned over time. For example, David Mailus After 4.30 has been
challenged over the offensive words in the text. However, an understanding of the situation
in post-independent Kenya (history) can help readers and critics understand why these words
were chosen first, and open debates about the meaning of words and why they should or
should not use them. This study therefore posits that a symbiotic relationship exists between
literature and history because the interplay between history and literature creates a connection
between time, space, events and by extension, the meaning attached to the events vis--vis
the dynamics that impinge on societies.
The role of different fields in influencing society has been studied by various scholars. While
defining the place of literature in the understanding of culture, Wanjala (1978: 1) observes
that:
Society is not defined only in its material attributes but also by its non-material
characteristics. Social activities include politics, law, religion, philosophy,
literature and art. These activities are shared by all members of a given society
irrespective of religion, creed or class. At its best, literature influences the life of
people, and reflects tensions within groups as well as within individuals....uses
imagination and verisimilitude to make aspects of life clearer than other forms of
discourse can (emphasis mine).
It is worth noting that Wanjala (ibid.) stresses on the need for literature to rely on
verisimilitude to capture aspects of reality. The question that follows from this argument is
whether literature can achieve this task in isolation. This study seeks to argue that the selected
text relies on historical happenings which thus give it the impetus needed to achieve the sense
of verisimilitude (Wanjala, 1978) that not only enable readers to extract meaning(s) from it,
but also enables them (readers) to identify with the literary history inherent in the text.
Odhiambo (2004) has explored the ways in which popular fiction writer David Maillu has
used the canvas of popular fiction to make social commentary. Odhiambo (2004)
demonstrates the extent to which different literary genres are exploited by writers of popular
fiction to address imagined social needs. The study by Odhiambo (ibid.) focuses on how
Mailus The Equatorial Assignment and Operation DXT fall under the sub-genre of the
romantic detective. This study focuses on Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube
and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross and seeks to position the selected texts the
popular fiction genre. While borrowing from Odhiambos (2004) study on the nature of
popular fiction to address social needs, the study goes a step further and subjects Wamugunda
Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross to a
historical analysis through which the way the authors engage with the history of the time of
the texts production is explored.
Ogolla (2004) has examined contemporary Kenyan popular fiction as a site of cultural
production, where the contradictions of African modernity are played out. Ogolla (2004)
focuses on Whispers, a column that featured on The Sunday Nation and written by the late
Wahome Mutahi. Ogollas study seeks to establish how the author uses the popular mode of
representation to address perceived threats to masculinity as a product of social change. He
also examines how the author resorts to popular fiction and uses humour, parody and satire to
address pertinent issues affecting the society. The present study builds on this study and not
evaluates the elements that constitute popular fiction in the selected texts and subjects
Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the
Cross to a historical analysis which seeks to situate the texts in their immediate environment
thus exploring the interplay between history and literature.
In a study on Postcolonial Africa, Kehinde (2009) has presented the manner in which social
and economic realities in the real world of post-independent Kenya come to be presented in
Meja Mwangis Going Down River Road. In arguing for the position of Going Down River
Road, Kehinde (ibid.) locates the text within its ideological and historical contexts. In
addition, Kehindes study positions the text as a highly utilitarian art that hugely dwells on
the socio-economic realities of its enabling milieu, thus giving it an identity and relevance
based on its immediate environment. The present study also seeks to focus on post-
independent Kenya but detours by focusing on Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of
Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross. Kehindes work is of importance
to the present study because Kehinde deals with a text that sets out to attack political, social
and economic injustice. In a similar vein, Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and
Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross can be argued to be on a journey to not only
capture post-independent Kenya but also address the issues that the populace grapple with.
According to Lndfors (1997), the literature that emerged in Africa in the late twentieth
century was profoundly influenced by political history. Lndfors (1997) argues that this
literature was shaped by social forces. He further notes that writers of this form of literature
served not only as advocates of social change but also were chroniclers of (political) history.
The present study borrows a leaf from this observation and seeks to explore how Wamugunda
Geteria and Wahome Mutahi use popular fiction as a space for presenting history in their
texts, Black Gold of Chepkube and Three Days on the Cross, respectively. Arguing for the
importance of situating texts within their historical locales, Lndfors (ibid: vii) posits that:
African literary texts can be approached in a variety of ways. They may be
examined in isolation as verbal artefacts that have a unique integrity. They may
be studied in relation to other texts that preceded or followed them. Or they may
be seen against the backdrop of the times, traditions and circumstances that
helped to shape them.
In discussing how literary works contribute to the understanding of culture, Muriungi (2002)
explores how a Kenyan novelist, Meja Mwangi, engages in dramatising how ideas of sex are
embedded in complex systems of socio-economic and cultural beliefs, values and ideals in his
text, The Last Plague. Read against a background of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, this text
becomes a vital source of how the given society reacts to the pandemic and more specifically,
how and why the author manages to represent this reality in a work of fiction. The present
study seeks to borrow from Muriungis study more so on how writers of works of fiction use
the symbol of the human body to represent the possible way(s) in which the society can
deteriorate when plunged in a history of political despondence, economic woes, moral
degradation and religious hypocrisy. In addition, the present study seeks to explore how
Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the
Cross interact with their immediate environment in a society undergoing political, economic
and social crises.
Focusing on the romantic sub-genre of popular fiction, Muhomah (2002) presents an analysis
of masculinity as espoused in Asenath Odagas Between the Years (1987) and Riana (1991).
Muhomah argues that these two texts offer insights into the expectations and hopes that the
female protagonists in the texts have for men. By investigating how masculinity is
constructed using monogamy, wealth and fatherhood as parameters, the author undertakes a
study of cultural configurations, which is of paramount importance to the present study. The
present study seeks to establish the contribution of literature and history in the construction of
culture. By situating Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis
Three Days on the Cross in their immediate historical context, this study explores how the
authors engage with the events (history) upon which the texts are premised.
According to the literature available to the researcher and as evidenced in the literature
reviewed above, little research has been done on Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of
Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross with a view of exploring how the
authors engage with the times of the texts production. In this regard, this study fills this gap
by not only situating the text within the times of its production but also by subjecting the text
to an analysis so as to explore the interplay between history and literature.
1.11 Methodology
From the foregoing, it is evident that history and literature are engaged in a complimentary
relationship that needs to be explored. Therefore, a historical approach becomes necessary
and particularly useful in proving a platform within which the interplay between history and
literature can be explored in Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome
Mutahis Three Days on the Cross. Consequently, this study seeks to follow Sharons (n.d.)
observation that one way to analyze literature is to think about the cultural and historical
perspectives of the piece. With this in mind, this study focuses on various units of analysis.
First, the study uses the expectations, preconceptions and prior knowledge of the works and
the authors as a basis for evaluation and analysis. This is helpful since the knowledge that the
works are premised on historical events enable the study to be on the lookout for such
signposts. Second, questions such as what type of literary works and genre do the texts fall
under? form another unit of analysis. Here, the study intends to explore the elements of
prose fiction manifested in the selected works. This comes in handy in the studys attempt to
explore the elements of popular fiction present in Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of
Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross. Third, this study seeks to focus
on major elements and techniques of literary writing in Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of
Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross as a unit of analysis. Here, by
placing emphasis on plot, characters and characterisation, setting, point(s) of view, images
and symbols, and style and language, the study is in a vantage position to explore how
Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the
Cross engage with the history of their production. Fourth, the study also focuses on thematic
concerns and subjects of interrogation in Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and
Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross as a unit of analysis.
This study employs an eclectic approach by adapting both descriptive and evaluative
approaches to realizing its objectives. In the descriptive criticism, the researcher undertakes
an analysis of the selected texts, their aim(s), methods and effects (Tilak, 1993). Using this
method, the researcher is able to analyse the selected texts, trace the influences that have
given rise to them and then discuss them critically item by item (ibid.). In the evaluative
criticism, the researcher focuses on the evaluation of the selected texts. By use of this
approach, the researcher explores the elements of popular fiction that are present in
Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the
Cross.
This study is library based. It highly depends on documented literary materials where the
issues under investigation are discussed. The study employs close reading where a critical
and descriptive analysis is used. By visiting libraries, archives and the internet, the
researcher was in a position to undertake an in-depth reading of not only the selected texts but
also literary and journalistic material that focuses on literature at a general level, popular
fiction at a particular level and the interplay between history and Kenyan popular fiction at a
specific level. The researcher also visited various libraries such as the Margaret Thatcher
Library of Moi University, The Kenya National Library in Eldoret, and The Jomo Kenyatta
Memorial.
By use of the above, the researcher undertakes an intrinsic reading of Wamugunda Geterias
Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross and by focusing on
characters, plot(s), setting(s) and use of language: examines the elements of popular fiction
present in Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days
on the Cross; explores how Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome
Mutahis Three Days on the Cross engage with the history of the time of their production;
and situates Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three
Days on the Cross within the contemporary society.
(Defining) The Popular Fiction
Arguably, the task of clearly stating the definition of what really constitutes a genre is one
marred by difficulties, ranging from conceptual to terminological to contextual. It therefore
comes as no surprise when Jameson (1975, p.135) argues that genres are essentially
contracts between a writer and his writers, or rather ... they are literary institutions ... like
other agreements or contracts. However, despite this attempt at establishing an
understanding of genres as fluid and relative categories subject to dynamism as a result of
political, social and economic developments and changes, it is worth noting that when all
variables are considered, specific definitions of genres become not only possible but
necessary.
To start with, it need not be gainsaid that the definition of a genre largely lies in the
relationship between the reader, the author and to some extent, the publisher. This comes in
handy more so when the said readers create and reinforce generic walls by devoting
themselves to one genre at an almost total exclusion of other genres. This ultimately creates a
genre that the said readers identify with. Secondly, having established the existence and
significance of genres, publishers and other associated/interested entities have gone ahead to
distinguish genres as self-referential. This could perhaps explain why sub-genres such as
crime fiction, crime romance and thrillers have texts whose contents and forms are formulaic
in response to their specific sub-sets. This is partly because as a defined sub-set, they have
already established a tradition that must be adhered to in what Gelder (2004, p.7) refers to as
a game within a game that fans expect and enjoy. Thirdly, it is worth mentioning that since
publishers also play a vital role in the definition of genres, their commercial interests are
always at play. As a means of ensuring sales, most popular fiction texts are designed to attract
the immediate attention of the target audience and no aspect of the text does this better than
the blurb. This short paragraph at the back of most popular fiction texts comes laden with the
genres tradition, its classification and, mostly, an imprint of the specific genre (Schneider-
Mayerson, XXXX).
The definition of what is and constitutes popular fiction can arguably be easily
conceptualized by understanding what it is not. In other words, it might end up being
insightful and productive if this work was to define popular fiction in relation to literary
fiction. According to Reeder (XXXX) (as cited by Joseph (XXXX), regardless of the lack of
an exact definition of what literary fiction is, an in-depth scrutiny reveals a plethora of
differences that distinguish literary fiction from popular fiction. Reeder (ibid.) observes that:
Literary fiction can be said to come more from the writer than popular fiction,
which comes directly from the desires of the general public to increase its sales.
Unlike popular fiction, literary fiction is concerned with ideas and deep thought,
and it is a manifestation of self-expression for the author as opposed to being
driven by popularity in the market. Literary fiction tends to focus more on the
characters, giving them considerable psychological depth, and on the universal
issues of life and existence, whereas popular fiction is more concerned with
keeping audiences interested through the plot and might sometimes have
characters who lack depth (www. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-popular-
fiction.htm).
The debate between the popular and the literary fiction also seems to hinge on the
ideas-emotions axis. This means that popular fiction has been considered the fiction of
emotions while literary fiction is the fiction of ideas (Thacker, 2004). Developing this
argument further shows that the purpose of literary fiction is to evoke thought as
opposed to that of popular fiction whose aim is to entertain. Consequently, writers of
literary fiction are immersed in self-expression and have little, if any, consideration of
the reader. On the other hand, writers of popular fiction are only interested in
entertaining the reader and thus in the few instances where self-expression rears its
head, its by sheer accident.
This work posits that despite the above mentioned differences that demarcate the line
between the literary and the popular, the misconception that the core purpose of popular
fiction is simply to be popular and thus make great sales for all involved parties is
nothing but misleading. This work observes that most popular fiction writers are in a
quest to offer edutainment. While seeking to write texts that engage the readership and
entertain them, these writers also dig deep into affairs affecting the society and give
voices to them. More often than not, these writers tend to actually address issues
perceived to be mundane by the writers of literary fiction. Perhaps in an attempt to
argue for the role of popular fiction, Anne Gracie (2011), a historical romance author,
stipulates that:
Popular fiction isn't simply fiction that aims to be popular every writer wants
that. Popular fiction includes includes the kind of books you see in airport
bookshops, the books that make you laugh or cry, and take you away and not
just in a plane. The prime aim of popular fiction is to entertain readers and keep
them turning pages far into the night because they can't put the book down
(http://annegracie.blogspot.com/2011/10/what-is-popular-fiction.html.)
Critics of popular fiction have dismissed popular fiction as being escapist and
formulaic. This work seeks to argue that this is not the case because contrary to the
charges of escapism, popular fiction actually does deal with reality, but in a more
optimistic manner. This is because the underlying philosophy behind most popular
fiction texts is that despite the reality of the human condition being deplorable, the
future is not all bleak and there is always room for change for the better as
espoused by Maxwell & Lowell (2012), wit:
Popular fiction is a continuation of and an embroidery upon ancient myths and
archetypes; popular fiction is good against evil, Prometheus against the uncaring
gods, Persephone emerging from hell with the seeds of spring in her hands, Adam
discovering Eve In a word, popular fiction is heroic and transcendent at a time
when heroism and transcendence are out of intellectual favor
(http://www.elizabethlowell.com/popfiction.html).
On the charge of being formulaic, the following long quote suffices to capture what popular
fiction is all about:
The concept of formula has an interesting history as first a literary device and then a
literary putdown. The Greeks divided literature into tragedy and comedy. A tragedy
had a political, masculine theme and ended in death. A comedy had a social, often
feminine theme and ended in marriage, the union of male and female from which all
life comes. We have kept the scope of tragedy, of death and despair, but we have
reduced the concept of comedy to a pottymouthed nightclub act. Perhaps that is why
critics of popular fiction reserve their most priapic scorn for the stories called
romances. Romances follow the ancient Greek formula for comedy: they celebrate
life rather than anticipate death. In addition to being almost exclusively female in
their audience and authorship, romances address timeless female concerns of union
and regeneration. The demand for romances is feminine, deep, and apparently
universal. Harlequin/Silhouette has an enormously profitable romance publishing
empire in which the majority of the money is earned outside of the American
market, in more countries and languages than I can name. Even worse than their
roots in ancient feminine concerns, romances irritate critics because they often have
a subtext of mythic archetypes rather than modernist, smaller-than-life characters.
It therefore suffices to argue that popular fiction is not basically a field defined by literary
escapism and formulaic dispositions. On the contrary, popular fiction seeks to provide
possibilities while creating an identity for itself. It would be virtually impossible to define
and thus study popular fiction if there were no distinct characteristics that define the same.
This work thus observes that regardless of sub-genre, popular fiction seeks to show that no
matter how mundane and irrelevant issues and classes of masses might be deemed, each is
vital and deserves attention. To some extent, it is possible that the so-called ordinary
earthlings might end up doing extra-ordinary things as opposed to the high and mighty.
From the foregoing, it is worth noting that defining popular fiction is a winding road
punctuated by contradictions influenced by the fluidity and cross-generic nature of fiction.
This is perhaps what Gelder (2004, p.41) seems to allude to when he defines popular fiction
as a singular and distinct category while at the same time acknowledging the diversity of
popular fiction within each specific genre. In an attempt to draw the differences between
literary fiction and popular fiction (and perhaps define what popular fiction is), this work
borrows from Bourdieus (1983) conceptualization of the differences between the two fields
as shown in Table 2.1. These differences are premised on how popular fiction texts are
conceptualized, realized, read, treated and/or evaluated.
Table 2.1: The Differences between Literary Fiction and Popular Fiction
Literary Fiction Popular Fiction
Autonomous (indifferent to public
response)
Heterogeneous (mass audience and logic
of marketplace)
High cultural production Low cultural production
Field of restricted production Field of unrestricted production
Author Writer
Creativity Industry
Language of art world Language of industry
Linked to individual work Linked to genre
Complex text Simple text
Cerebral Diffuse reading experiences
Enmeshed in world of art Craft
Whole unit recognized as inspired Readily serialised
Restrained or discrete Excessive, exaggerated
Doesn't need to have a plot Must have a driving plot or story
Source: Bourdieu (1983)
According to Galligan (2006), the seemingly opposite characteristics are in actual sense,
relational. In other words, each position acts as a determining factor on the placement and
importance of its opposite. For instance, an understanding of simplicity would require a
parallel understanding of what complexity is all about. It should be noted, however, that:
the fluidity of the literary field and the autonomy of the author/writer can
always allow their work to create crossroads or produce new intergeneric
engagements. Boundaries can shift as authors/writers experiment with their own
frameworks to reinforce or subvert the 'generic identity' that can sustain the
writer's position in the field
(http://www.australianhumanitiesreview.org/archive/Issue-September-
2006/galligan.html).
Popular fiction thus seems to be operating within a new paradigm in terms of language.
Creativity is thus replaced by industry and the language of the art world is subordinated to the
language of industry. Popular fiction, in its many genres, is promoted as a kind of industrial
practice. Popular fiction also defines itself in the detailing similarities and differences at play
in the advertising practices (the book blurbs, book covers, size and quality of paper and book
design) adopted in the promotion of different genres. Considering the size of the mass market
produced under the heading of popular fiction, it is arguable that popular fiction as a genre
gains its definition from the interplay between the reader, the writer and the publisher.
Soldiers Wife
Soldiers Wife is a text by Pat Wambui Ngurukie. It is one among her many books including
Tough Choices (1991), Businessmans Wife (1991) and I will be your substitute (1984), just
to mention but a few. First published on October 19, 1989 by Macmillan Education Limited,
Soldiers Wife revolves around the life of Pam Kanini Mutisya, who is married to Jimmy
Mutisya, an army personnel. The text uses the popular fiction genre as a platform on which
the author engages the readers in a journey through which a wide range of (social) themes
and subjects such as marriage, tribalism, family relationships, sex and gender, traditions,
among others, is explored.
Through the combination of a third person point of view and an omnipresent one, the author
enables the reader to follow events which affect and shape Pams life. Set within a historical
and spatial period spanning the war in Rhodesia (1971 1980), present day Zimbabwe, and
the tradition of coups in Nigeria (1975 Brigadier Muitala Ramat Muhammed and Lt-Gen
Olusegun Obasanjo and 1983 Major General Muhammadu Buhari), the text explores the
effects of war on family life and values. The text deals with the not-so-common subjects
addressed by serious literature and this, arguably, is a justifiable reason why the text can
easily be classified under the popular fiction genre. Ngurukies Soldiers Wife deals with the
effects and vagaries of war, more so at the social level where family ties are severed,
marriages broken, romance redefined and transnational boundaries transcended.
As is the norm with most popular fiction novels, the author has Pam marrying Jim in a
hurried wedding with a marriage that lasts 6 days before Jim is sent to Rhodesia. This leaves
Pam to trudge alone through the new experience of a married life with letters between her and
Jim as her companion. It is possible that the author is making an attempt at redefining
romance and love. The two are reversed and redefined. When Pam receives an invite to join
Jim in Rhodesia, this comes as the breakthrough she has been waiting for but little does she
know that her most trying moments have just begun. Her arrival in Rhodesia marks the
depiction of another version of Jim, a conniving serial monogamist whose high affinity for
women is unrivalled. Jim turns out to be a womanizer who will stop at nothing to achieve his
physical desires. For quite some time, Pam blames herself for the turn of events until she can
take it no more and almost gives Jim a taste of his own medicine. Through a plethora of
literary techniques, Ngurukie takes the reader through the life of Pam and the tribulations
married women undergo under the suffocating embrace of patriarchy. It takes a near-death
experience to change Jim back to the loving husband Pam thought he was. By the end of the
novel, Jim has passed away living Major General Okonkwo to come and rescue Pam (again)
from loneliness and dejection and they live happily ever after.
Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife as Popular Fiction
Arguably, most Kenyan popular fiction writers concern themselves with a whole range of
themes such as the vagaries of urbanisation, causes and effects of unemployment,
prostitution, love, marriage, crime and violence, the neglect of the rural population by the
ruling elite, moral, economic and political corruption, among others (Kurtz, 1998; Bardolf,
1998). With this in mind, this work posits that Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife (1989) falls
under the wider genre of popular fiction not only because of the thematic concerns the text
deals with but also because of the embellished ornaments (Watt, 1956) the author employs.
Focusing on the romantic sub-genre of popular fiction, Muhomah (2002) presents an analysis
of masculinity as espoused in Asenath Odagas Between the Years (1987) and Riana (1991).
Muhomah argues that these two texts offer insights into the expectations and hopes that the
female protagonists in the texts have for men. By investigating how masculinity is
constructed using monogamy, wealth and fatherhood as parameters, the author undertakes a
study of cultural configurations, which is of paramount importance to this work. By situating
Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife in its immediate historical context, it is thus possible to explore
how the author engages with the events (history) upon which the text is premised.
In a study on Postcolonial Africa, Kehinde (2009) has presented the manner in which social
and economic realities in the real world of post-independent Kenya come to be presented in
Meja Mwangis Going Down River Road. In arguing for the position of Going Down River
Road, Kehinde (ibid.) locates the text within its ideological and historical contexts. In
addition, Kehindes study positions the text as a highly utilitarian art that hugely dwells on
the socio-economic realities of its enabling milieu, thus giving it an identity and relevance
based on its immediate environment. This work focuses on post-independent Africa but
detours by focusing on Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife. Kehindes work is of importance to the
work because Kehinde deals with a text that sets out to attack political, social and economic
injustice. In a similar vein, Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife can be argued to be on a journey to
not only capture post-independent Africa but also addresses the issues that the populace
grapple with.
This work observes that it suffices that history, like any other narrations such as books and
novels, is written subjectively. Therefore we should talk about interpretations of events and
not the facts. This comes in handy in the analysis of Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife which,
arguably, is premised on historical events. In other words, the issues tackled in Pat Ngurukies
Soldiers Wife are influenced by social and cultural contexts; and have a corresponding
influence too. Thats why we cannot analyze Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife as an isolated
creation because it is not only a literary but a cultural and social production of particular
time(s). Since Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife discusses more neglected subjects such as
marriage, family relationships, promiscuity, tribalism, alcoholism, womanizing, post-
independent and post-colonial realities among others, it therefore utilizes the popular fiction
medium as an avenue through which the interests of the middle-class are analysed.
This work finds it apt to quote Bennett (2012) who defines the genre of Romance as:
....a work of art in which the plot line must be substantial enough for the
reader to maintain interest from chapter to chapter. In other words, the reader
must be able to say when reading the book, I care about these people and
what happens to them. I want the best for them, despite the personal and
circumstantial obstacles that war to keep them apart.
Soldiers Wife, despite a few adaptations, falls under the category of Western Romance since
it very closely conforms and modifies this sub-genre. This is a sub-genre of popular fiction
distinguished by an easily discernible plot that follows the life of two individuals who,
regardless of the many hurdles and challenges they face, eventually fall in love. It is a quest
for the depiction of love as having the ability to overcome challenges and obstacles. This sub-
genre is also characterised by the presence of a specific type of setting. In most instances, the
authors of this sub-genre set their work in exotic places thus enhancing the romantic mood. In
the selected text, one cannot fail to notice Paris, lonely woods and weddings as settings that
enhance the love scene (Soldiers Wife, pp 93; 122).
Consequently, the setting an author decides on for his/her text speaks volumes. The setting of
Ngurukies Soldiers Wife is by no means an accident. Pat sets her book in the 1970s and
1980s during the war in Rhodesia and arguably, the use of parallelism between the conflicts
and confusion that mar countries at war can be distinctly mirrored in the conflict and
confusion that define Pams life. Pams life is but an amalgamation of unanswered questions
and uncertainty. As is rife with most popular fiction texts, the author uses the historical
setting to shed light into subjects matters deemed mundane by serious literature. By placing
the text in this war mood, the author is thus able to explore the turmoil that defines the life of
women in societies defined by patriarchal doctrines. By the time Pam is getting married to
Jim, she thinks she has found the best man God could ever provide and she is so much in love
and at peace that everyday chores were done with smiles and laughter (p. 38). This changes
drastically when she joins Jim in Rhodesia. Jim has changed and he no longer seems to have
the same feelings for her. It seems to have dawned on him that the more women he can lay
his hands on, the merrier he will be.
It is worth mentioning that the events in the text oscillate majorly between three countries
Kenya, France and Rhodesia and this is of significant value to this work. The presence of
France is felt through the introduction of Paris as a setting. As earlier stated, history and
fiction do feed from each other and it is arguable that the author uses a historical event the
war to deal with social issues. As a writer of popular fiction and more so embedded in
Romance, Ngurukie downplays the nature of the war and we are told very little about the
cause and course of the war. Instead, she chooses to deal with thematic concerns deemed
irrelevant during her time of writing. Ideally, the times of war are not the times to deal with
trivial matters of love and relationships. The author thus simply uses the war as a
background to discuss matters of love and marriage.
Of significance to this work is the use of the three countries mentioned above as a driving
force of the plot. Rhodesia is depicted as a country ravaged by the effects of war and the
confusion that defines such times. It is therefore a conducive environment for hatred and
misplaced anger. Geographically, Rhodesia is a hot place that incubates feelings of regret,
disdain and hatred. It is in Rhodesia where Jims feelings towards Pam start fluctuating
between love and pure hatred. In a possible moment of authorial intrusion, the author quips,
Mutisya was as unpredictable with his love affairs as the Rhodesian weather (Soldiers
Wife, p. 114). Rhodesia is thus presented in great contrast to Kenya which geographically, is
a country majorly defined by cool climates. It is the ideal setting for the growth and nurture
of romantic endeavours. In the text, the romantic engagement between Pam and Jim begins
and blossoms while the two are in Kenya. Kenya, as a setting, thus becomes vital in the
growth of the characters romantic life. Towards the end of the text, Pams emotional stability
is only realized when she comes back and settles in Kenya. This is made even more
pronounced by the fact that her second attempt at emotional fulfilment is achieved when
Brigadier Okonkwo marries her in Kenya.
The use of Paris as an exotic setting for the events in the text is also of import to this work.
Like Kenya, Paris becomes a space for the re-birth of romantic relationships and the
solidification of old ones. Being the world-acclaimed centre of love, it is in Paris that Jim
and Pam begin their journey toward emotional and marital stability. The entire period that
captures their presence in France is marked by good tidings in their life. From Jims
promotion to Pam achieving her life-long dream of learning French, the author seems to be
selling Paris as a space for romance. This is aptly captured in the statement: Life in France
was full of happiness for them both; Jim loved his wife every hour of the day (p. 122). For a
text ostensibly set in a war period, Ngurukie seemingly deviates from the war and seeks to
highlight the possibilities of romance. It is thus the argument of this work that writers of
popular fiction in Africa use historical events and phenomena as a backdrop against which to
engage in social commentary. This explains why Ngurukie relegates the war to the
background and chooses to focus on matters pertaining to love and romance, marriage life as
an institution, the virtues of forgiveness thematic concerns considered mundane.
During times of war, the populace is always engulfed by tension. No one really seems to
know who will win the war and what the victors might do. In such cases, it is possible to have
people who sympathise with ether sides and might make excuses for them. The fighting
between the Rhodesian government and the guerrilla freedom fighters is no exception. This is
paralleled in Pams life throughout the text. She feels that she is losing Jim but still feels it is
her duty to stand by him. When all the evidence points to Jim as a serial monogamist who not
only runs away with his junior officers girlfriend (Rosetta) (p. 58), but also got temporally
married to local girls; (p.58), Pam still takes it upon herself to make excuses for him. For
instance, Jim decides to spend time with Rosetta instead of meeting Pam at the airport and
leaves the task to the Njoroges. As she awaits his return from official duties, Pam is
confronted by evidence that her husband is not who she thinks he is. Perhaps brought up
within an African setting where patriarchy is the norm of the day, Pam is portrayed as a naive
girl who believes in love and who must make excuses for Jims behaviour. Despite being
deeply hurt and disappointed, the author has her saying I think I am misjudging Jim. He
must have been in a hurry when he wrote this note. I know he loves and cares for me....
(p.44).
Closely related to the above is the way Pam reacts to the knowledge that her husband is
cheating on her. Just like the populace during the times of war who are driven by fear and
cant question the powers-that-be, Pam decides to hurt inside rather than question her
husbands infidelity. Whenever Jim is undergoing his slight feelings of guilt (p. 72), he
resorts to being on the offensive to stop Pam from asking questions. Deep down, she knows
why he is being rude to her and in a foul mood but decides not to ask. She stops trying to
understand his bad moods which were more frequent than a pregnant womans (p.73).
This work argues that the author uses the parallelism between times of war and mirrors the
same in marriage. Pams marriage to Jim is marked by uncertainty and fear. She fears the
consequences of questioning the authority and thus withdraws to a cocoon of disappointment
and fear.
This work also seeks to explore the presentation of Pam as a formulaic character of popular
fiction. This is closely related to the setting discussed above since as earlier mentioned,
popular fiction writers already have a target audience and must therefore strive to speak to
them. In other words, the language used and the characters created by the author must
coincide with the audiences version of reality so that they (the audience) can identify with
them (the characters). Consequently, writers of popular fiction must conform to the
representation of stoic characters whom the audience expects to see.
Ngurukies book, Soldiers Wife, has one such character Pam. Pam is depicted as a modern
woman who reflects the concerns of the day the fight against patriarchy. To achieve the
objective of voicing her concern, the story is narrated from a third person point of view, her
point of view. This could perhaps explain why her presence shadows each and every scene in
the text. Whether it is in the officers mess or in the jungle, every event has a corresponding
effect on Pams life. When Jim is busy happily kissing and laughing with his mistress (p.93)
on the bonnet of a Land Rover in the jungle, the audience can feel the anger in Brigadier
Okonkwo. By extension, this anger is amplified by the feeling of pity the reader has towards
the loving and trusting Pam who is being betrayed by Jim. It therefore suffice to argue that by
using Pams voice as the voice of reason, the author seems to be communicating to the
immediate audience (the 1970s) that patriarchy no longer has room in a developing society.
This is also vital in enabling students of culture get a glimpse of the 1970s post-independent
Africa and the trials women had to undergo in the struggle to emancipate themselves from the
clutches of male dominance.
Pam is also depicted as an attractive and nicely dressed woman who is defined by her
virtuous character and glamour. This is in contrast to all the other women in the text who
fight for Jims attention. Despite her many temptations to leave Jim and fall into the arms of
Brigadier Okonkwo, Pam values her marriage vows and sticks by the irresponsible Jim. This
is despite that fact that both are aware of the feelings between them. It is only after Jims
death that Pam finally marries Major General Okonkwo who can now provide comfort and
solace (p. 136). This goes a long way in showing the moral road that writers of popular
fiction are apt at taking. Despite the so-called strong language and vivid description of moral
decadence, texts which fall under this category, more often than not, tend to have a moral
lesson or messages to pass across (Greenlee, Monson & Taylor, 1996). Ngurukies Soldiers
Wife can be argued to advocate for faithfulness, perseverance, tolerance and understanding,
just to mention but a few. It is worth mentioning that this is no mere coincidence and is a
reflection of the authors own beliefs and values. As an individual, Ngurukie is herself a
committed Christian and a divorcee. She was actually married to a soldier before the divorce.
This work thus posits that Ngurukies foray into issues to do with the sanctity of marriage and
the important role of forgiveness in the marriage institution is highly influenced by her
religious stands.
Arguably, the most prominent theme among the popular fiction writings of the 1970s and
1980s is promiscuity and prostitution. According to Odhiambo (2004, p.93 - 94), whenever
sex/sexuality is written about in the African novel, invariably the question of promiscuity and
prostitution forms a significant element of this discourse because it has become one of the
most important components of urban life in Africa. Ngurukie makes an attempt at
questioning the patriarchal conceptions where men are given the implicit freedom to steer the
relationships they are in. Regarding monogamy, being faithful is a one-sided affair where the
man asks the woman to be faithful to him without a corresponding demand on himself.
Ngurukie uses notions of romance and love as a platform on which to analyse issues
concerned with gender and marriage. Using love at first sight as a trope (p. 8 10),
Ngurukie presents to us a Pam who is so much in love with Jim that they cant imagine
anything going wrong with their lives. Immediately the two fall in love, they hurriedly get
married and Mutisya and Kanini were both young and too much in love to care what was
happening outside the four walls of their house (p. 39). This soon changes when reality
strikes and Jim turns out to be the African promiscuous man Ngurukie intends to portray (p.
60). Ngurukie presents to us a man who is incapable of being faithful to his wife despite the
many assurances he gives both to himself and to his wife. This work argues that the author
uses a common feature of popular fiction to plunge into a deeper analysis of issues that
affected society in the 1970s the subject of marriage. Through this platform, the author
questions the mans unquestionable right to be unfaithful while the woman dutifully awaits
the husbands redemption.
From the foregoing, it suffice to conclude that despite the argument that texts are autonomous
entities by their own authority and thus the need to avoid both the intentional fallacy
(biographical criticism) and historical fallacy, most popular fiction texts in Africa have an
intimate connection with their historical and social context. As evidenced above, more often
than not, this context is repressed and used as a backdrop to discuss matters otherwise
considered mundane by the so-called canonical literature. As this section has shown,
Ngurukie thus resorts to the war in Rhodesia not as an avenue to discuss its cause and course,
but as a background on which to make social commentary. This could perhaps explain why
she relegates the war to the background and chooses to focus on matters pertaining to love
and romance, marriage life as an institution, the virtues of forgiveness, and the vagaries of
patriarchy, among others. In a way, therefore, the text employs history as the repressed
unconscious of literature.
This section has also shown that no matter how trivial or unimportant a text may appear, like
any other historical phenomenon, the said texts can and should be analysed for their
historicity. This is because by making use of comparable texts form the same period as the
said texts, such an analysis is bound to lead to a greater understanding of how a specific text
interacted with its environment when it was produced.
Conclusion
This chapter has attempted a definition of what constitutes popular fiction and the various
sub-genres that characterise the genre. The chapter has also made an attempt to distinguish
between literary and popular fiction and in the process, made a case for the need to re-visit
the debates that have led to misconceptions about popular fiction. As discussed in this
chapter, it is clear that the selected texts to embody within themselves elements of popular
fiction as evidenced in their setting, thematic concerns and character and characterisation.
This chapter has thus shown how Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the Cross is a political
thriller; Pat Ngurukies Soldiers Wife is a romantic novel while Wamugunda Geterias Black
Gold of Chepkube is a historical thriller all sub-genres of popular fiction. This chapter has
also shown how the authors of the selected works have been able to merge fact and fiction to
make social, political and economic commentary on issues they deem pertinent to the society.
In conclusion, therefore, this chapter postulates that in the history-literature axis, both fields
are interlinked in a complex web of interdependency. In this regard, the relationship between
the two becomes dialectic in that history is no longer the cause or source of the work while
the literary text (in this case the popular fiction text) becomes both the producer and product
of history. The existence of the literary work does not therefore mean the demise of history
but in contrast, becomes the end and source of it. The text, by virtue of being alive long
after production, becomes the living embodiment of this historicity which, by use of
appropriate tools, can always be exhumed for analysis. In this case, therefore, the
historicity carries with it the ideology behind the work of art (the text) thus negating the
concept of one superseding the other. This is because both history and popular fiction feed
each other in such a manner that the denial of ones existence leads to an immediate death of
the other. In other words, the absence of the historical aspect in the text denies the researcher
a relationship between the text and historicity to study.
Conclusions
It was also clear that the social and historical voices, populating language, all its words and
all its forms which provide language with its particular concrete conceptualization, are
organized in the selected texts into a structured stylistic system that expresses the different
socio-ideological position of the authors within their epoch/time. Since a text (novel) has
three levels of ideologies the novel itself; the characters; and the author, it suffices to
conclude that this chapter clearly illustrated that Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of
Chepkube and Wahome Mutahi's Three Days on the Cross bring out the different ideologies
inherent in them both as products and producers of their immediate environment.
Chapter Four showed that the selected texts can be said to borrow from their immediate
histories to pass commentaries on the social ills that pervade the Kenyan society. As Kehinde
(2004) observes, an excessively materialistic and capitalistically vain society often
experiences a terrible level of moral decadence and spiritual vacuity. The living conditions
are often dehumanizing, and existence becomes cheapened. The selected texts centre on the
plight of the Kenyan masses that have been brutalized by social stratification. When they can
no longer sustain themselves, since the economy is in the hands of foreign interests whose
concern is the production of food for profit and exploitation of foreign markets rather than the
welfare of the masses, the youth (and women) are forced to move into urban spaces where
they become victims of dehumanization and gross exploitation.
5.3 Conclusions
Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the
Cross are premised on historical events. With regard to the mode of writing, setting, context
and language, the authors have resorted to popular fiction as a platform through which they
get space to engage with the history of the production of these texts. The authors thus use
popular fiction to make social commentary.
Wamugunda Geterias Black Gold of Chepkube and Wahome Mutahis Three Days on the
Cross are texts that engage with the history of post-independent Kenya while at the same
time presenting issues that affect the populace at social, political and economic levels.
Through the characters in the novels, the authors of the selected texts expose the complex
problems confronting the Kenyan state, the suffering of the populace in the midst of plenty
and the inability of the state to cater for its citizens. The ordeals of the destitute citizenry in
the selected texts are similar to those portrayed by Iyayi (1982) in his The Contract and
Ngugi wa Thiong'o (1980) in Devil on the Cross. The texts illustrate the post-colonial
environment that defined most African states as characterized by continuing cant, corruption,
degeneration and frustration (Kehinde, 2004).




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