Silver is a chemical element with symbol Ag (Greek: rgros!"atin: argentm!

both #rom the $n%o&'ro(ean root )arg& #or *grey* or *shining*+ an% atomic nmber ,-. A
so#t! white! lstros transition metal! it (ossesses the highest electrical con%ctivity o#
any element! the highest thermal con%ctivity o# any metal an% is the most re#lective
metal on the (lanet. /he metal occrs natrally in its (re! #ree #orm (native silver+! as an
alloy with gol% an% other metals! an% in minerals sch as argentite an% chlorargyrite.
0ost silver is (ro%ce% as a by(ro%ct o# co((er! gol%! lea%! an% 1inc re#ining.
2hile silver has long been vale% as a (recios metal it is also se% in crrency coins!
solar (anels! water #iltration! 3ewelry an% ornaments! high&vale tableware an% tensils
(hence the term silverware+ an% as an investment in the #orms o# coins an% bllion. Silver
is se% in%strially in electrical contacts an% con%ctors! in s(eciali1e% mirrors! win%ow
coatings an% in catalysis o# chemical reactions. $ts com(on%s are se% in (hotogra(hic
#ilm an% 4&rays. 5ilte silver nitrate soltions an% other silver com(on%s are se% as
%isin#ectants an% microbioci%es (oligo%ynamic e##ect+! a%%e% to ban%ages an% won%&
%ressings! catheters an% other me%ical instrments.
6ontents
7hi%e8
9 9 6haracteristics
: : $soto(es
; ; 6om(on%s
, A((lications
9 ,.9 6rrency
: ,.: <ewelry an% silverware
; ,.; Solar energy
, ,., 2ater (ri#ication
= ,.= 5entistry
> ,.> ?hotogra(hy an% electronics
- ,.- Glass coatings
@ ,.@ Ather in%strial an% commercial a((lications
B ,.B Ciology
9D ,.9D 0e%icine
99 ,.99 $nvesting
9: ,.9: 6lothing
= Eistory
9; =.9 2orl% 2ar $$
, > Accrrence an% eFtraction
= - ?rice
@ Eman eF(osre an% consm(tion
9 @.9 0onitoring eF(osre
: @.: Gse in #oo%
> B See also
- 9D He#erences
@ 99 'Fternal links
6haracteristics7e%it8
Silver 9DDD o1 t (I;9 kg+
bllion bar
Silver is (ro%ce% %ring certain ty(es o# s(ernova eF(losions byncleosynthesis #rom
lighter elements throgh the r&(rocess! a #orm o# nclear #sion that (ro%ces many
elements heavier than iron! o# which silver is one.7:8
Silver is a very %ctile! malleable(slightly har%er than gol%+! nivalent coinage metal!
with a brilliant white metallic lster that can take a high %egree o# (olish. $t is the
mostre#lective metal on 'arth.7;8 $t has the highest electrical con%ctivity o# all metals!
even higher than co((er! bt its greater cost has (revente% it #rom being wi%ely se% in
(lace o# co((er #or electrical (r(oses. An eFce(tion to this is in ra%io&#reJency
engineering! (articlarly at KELan% higher #reJencies! where silver (lating to im(rove
electrical con%ctivity o# (arts! incl%ing wires! is wi%ely em(loye%. 5ring 2orl% 2ar
$$ in the GS! 9;!=,D tons were se% in the electromagnets se% #or enriching ranim!
mainly becase o# the wartime shortage o# co((er.7,8 7=8 7>8
Among metals! (re silver has the highest thermal con%ctivity (the nonmetal carbon in
the #orm o# %iamon% an% s(er#li% helim $$ are higher+ an% the highest o(tical
re#lectivity 7-8 ((rotecte% silver has higher re#lectance than alminim at all wavelengths
longer than I,=D nmM below ,=D nm! silver is in#erior to alminim an% its re#lectance
%ro(s to 1ero near ;9D nm+.7@8 Silver is the best con%ctor o# heat an% electricity o# any
metal in the (erio%ic table. Silver also has the lowestcontact resistance o# any metal.
Silver hali%es are (hotosensitive an% are remarkable #or their ability to recor% a latent
image that can later be %evelo(e% chemically. Silver is stable in (re air an% water!
bttarnishes when it is eF(ose% to air or water containing o1one orhy%rogen sl#i%e! the
latter #orming a black layer o# silver sl#i%e which can be cleane% o## with %ilte
hy%rochloric aci%.7B8 /he most commonoFi%ation state o# silver is N9 (#or eFam(le! silver
nitrate! AgOA;+M the less common N: com(on%s (#or eFam(le! silver($$+ #lori%e!
AgL:+! an% the even less common N; (#or eFam(le! (otassim tetra#loroargentate($$$+!
PAgL,+ an% even N, com(on%s (#or eFam(le! (otassim heFa#loroargentate($K+!
P:AgL>+79D8 are also known.
$soto(es7e%it8
0ain article: $soto(es o# silver
Oatrally occrring silver is com(ose% o# two stable isoto(es! 9D-Ag an% 9DBAg! with
9D-Ag being slightly more abn%ant (=9.@;BQ natral abn%ance+. SilverRs isoto(es are
almost eJal in abn%ance! something which is rare in the (erio%ic table. SilverRs atomic
weight is 9D-.@>@:(:+ gSmol.7998 79:8
/wenty&eight ra%ioisoto(es have been characteri1e%! the most stable being 9D=Ag with a
hal#&li#e o# ,9.:B %ays! 999Ag with a hal#&li#e o# -.,= %ays! an% 99:Ag with a hal#&li#e o#
;.9; hors. /his element has nmeros meta states! the most stable being 9D@mAg (t9S: T
,9@ years+!99DmAg (t9S: T :,B.-B %ays+ an% 9D>mAg (t9S: T @.:@ %ays+. All o# the
remaining ra%ioactive isoto(es have hal#&lives o# less than an hor! an% the ma3ority o#
these have hal#&lives o# less than three mintes.
$soto(es o# silver range in relative atomic mass #rom B;.B,; (B,Ag+ to 9:>.B;> (9:-Ag+M
79;8 the (rimary %ecay mo%ebe#ore the most abn%ant stable isoto(e! 9D-Ag! is electron
ca(tre an% the (rimary mo%e a#ter is beta %ecay. /he (rimary %ecay (ro%cts be#ore
9D-Ag are (alla%im (element ,>+ isoto(es! an% the (rimary (ro%cts a#ter areca%mim
(element ,@+ isoto(es.
/he (alla%im isoto(e 9D-?% %ecays by beta emission to 9D-Ag with a hal#&li#e o# >.=
million years. $ron meteoritesare the only ob3ects with a high&enogh (alla%im&to&silver
ratio to yiel% measrable variations in 9D-Ag abn%ance.Ha%iogenic 9D-Ag was #irst
%iscovere% in the Santa 6lara meteorite in 9B-@.79,8 /he %iscoverers sggest the
coalescence an% %i##erentiation o# iron&core% small (lanets may have occrre% 9D million
years a#ter ancleosynthetic event. 9D-?%U9D-Ag correlations observe% in bo%ies that
have clearly been melte% since theaccretion o# the solar system mst re#lect the (resence
o# nstable ncli%es in the early solar system.79=8
6om(on%s7e%it8
Silver metal %issolves rea%ily in nitric aci% (EOA
;+ to (ro%ce silver nitrate (AgOA
;+! a trans(arent crystalline soli% that is (hotosensitive an% rea%ily solble in water. Silver
nitrate is se% as the starting (oint #or the synthesis o# many other silver com(on%s! as
an antise(tic! an% as a yellow stain #or glass in staine% glass. Silver metal %oes not react
with sl#ric aci%! which is se% in 3ewelry&making to clean an% remove co((er oFi%e
#irescale #rom silver articles a#ter silver sol%ering or annealing. Silver reacts rea%ily with
sl#r or hy%rogen sl#i%e E
:S to (ro%ce silver sl#i%e! a %ark&colore% com(on% #amiliar as the tarnish on silver
coins an% other ob3ects. Silver sl#i%e Ag
:S also #orms silver whiskers when silver electrical contacts are se% in an atmos(here
rich in hy%rogen sl#i%e.
, Ag N A: N : E:S V : Ag:S N : E:A
6essna :9D eJi((e%
with a silver io%i%e
generator #or clo%
see%ing
Silver chlori%e
(Ag6l+ is (reci(itate%
#rom soltions o# silver nitrate in the (resence o# chlori%e ions! an% the other silver
hali%es se% in the man#actre o# (hotogra(hic emlsions are ma%e in the same way!
singbromi%e or io%i%e salts. Silver chlori%e is se% in glass electro%es #or (Etesting an%
(otentiometric measrement! an% as a trans(arent cement #or glass. Silver io%i%e has been
se% in attem(ts to see% clo%s to (ro%ce rain.7B8 Silver hali%es are highly insolble in
aJeos soltions an% are se% in gravimetric analytical metho%s.
Silver oFi%e (Ag
:A+! (ro%ce% when silver nitrate soltions are treate% with a base! is se% as a (ositive
electro%e (ano%e+ in watch batteries. Silver carbonate (Ag
:6A
;+ is (reci(itate% when silver nitrate is treate% with so%im carbonate (Oa
:6A
;+.79>8
: AgOA; N : AEW V Ag:A N E:A N : OA;W
: AgOA; N Oa:6A; V Ag:6A; N : OaOA;
Silver #lminate (AgAO6+! a (ower#l! toch&sensitive eF(losive se% in (ercssion
ca(s! is ma%e by reaction o# silver metal with nitric aci% in the (resence o# ethanol (6
:E
=AE+. Ather %angerosly eF(losive silver com(on%s aresilver a1i%e (AgO
;+! #orme% by reaction o# silver nitrate with so%im a1i%e (OaO
;+!79-8 an% silver acetyli%e! #orme% when silver reacts with acetylene gas.
"atent images #orme% in silver hali%e crystals are %evelo(e% by treatment with alkaline
soltions o# re%cing agentssch as hy%roJinone! metol (,&(methylamino+(henol
sl#ate+ or ascorbate! which re%ce the eF(ose% hali%e to silver metal. Alkaline soltions
o# silver nitrate can be re%ce% to silver metal by re%cing sgars sch as glcose! an%
this reaction is se% to silver glass mirrors an% the interior o# glass 6hristmas ornaments.
Silver hali%es are solble in soltions o# so%im thiosl#ate (Oa
:S
:A
;+ which is se% as a (hotogra(hic #iFer! to remove eFcess silver hali%e #rom
(hotogra(hic emlsions a#ter image %evelo(ment.79>8
Silver metal is attacke% by strong oFi%i1ers sch as (otassim (ermanganate (P0nA
,+ an% (otassim %ichromate(P
:6r
:A
-+! an% in the (resence o# (otassim bromi%e (PCr+M these com(on%s are se% in
(hotogra(hy to bleachsilver images! converting them to silver hali%es that can either be
#iFe% with thiosl#ate or re%evelo(e% to intensi#y the original image. Silver #orms cyani%e
com(leFes (silver cyani%e+ that are solble in water in the (resence o# an eFcess o#
cyani%e ions. Silver cyani%e soltions are se% in electro(lating o# silver.79>8
Althogh silver normally has oFi%ation state N9 in com(on%s! other oFi%ation states are
known! sch as N; in AgL
;! (ro%ce% by the reaction o# elemental silver or silver #lori%e with kry(ton %i#lori%e.
79@8
Silver arti#acts (rimarily n%er go three #orms o# %eterioration. Silver sl#i%e is the most
common #orm o# silver %egra%ation. Lresh silver chlori%e is (ale yellow colore%!
becoming (r(lish on eF(osre to light an% (ro3ects slightly #rom the sr#ace o# the
arti#act or coin. /he (reci(itation o# co((er in ancient silver can be se% to %ate arti#acts.
79B8
A((lications7e%it8
0any well&known ses o# silver involve its (recios metal (ro(erties! incl%ing crrency!
%ecorative items! an% mirrors. /he contrast between its bright white color an% other
me%ia makes it very se#l to the visal arts. Cy contrast! #ine silver (articles #orm the
%ense black in (hotogra(hs an% in silver(oint %rawings. $t has also long been se% to
con#er high monetary vale as ob3ects (sch as silver coins an% investment bars+ or make
ob3ects symbolic o# high social or (olitical rank. Silver salts have been se% since the
0i%%le Ages to (ro%ce a yellow or orange colors to staine% glass! an% more com(leF
%ecorative color reactions can be (ro%ce% by incor(orating silver metal in blown!
kiln#orme% or torchworke% glass.7:D8