Copyright 2014 All Rights Reserved Denise N.

Fyffe 1
Topic: Explain the process of communication between neurons
Authors: Denise N. Fyffe

Introduction
Playing cricket, watching soap operas, and remembering our first date is all possible because
neurons communicate with one another. Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons
communicate across gaps. A neuron conveys a neural impulse to another neuron or a gland,
muscle or sensory organ to create this transmission.
In order to fully understand synaptic transmission we must first look at its chemical nature.
Neurons secret chemicals, that provides the means of synaptic transmission. These chemicals are
termed as neurotransmitters. One such neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine. Otto Loewi an Austrian
physiologist who after having a dream performed an experiment using two frog hearts identified
this chemical. In 1921, Otto Loewi removed the beating heart from a freshly killed frog and
placed it in a solution of salt water. He electrically stimulated the vagus nerve to the heart, and
this caused it to beat slower. On putting another beating heart in the solution without electrically
stimulating the vagus nerve, this heart too began to beat slower. Loewi concluded that
stimulation of the vagus nerve of the first heart had released a chemical in the salt-water solution.
The neurotransmitter he identified, Acetylcholine slowed the beating of both hearts.
Neurotransmitters are stored in round packets called synaptic vesicles in the intracellular fluid of
tiny protuberances called synaptic knobs that project from the end branches of axons.
Now that we understand the chemical nature of synaptic transmission, lets reveal the process
involved in conveying neural impulses. According to (Sdorow, 1993), First when a neural
impulse reaches the end of an axon, it causes a chemical reaction that makes some synaptic
vesicles release neurotransmitter molecules into the synapse. Second, the molecules diffuse
across the synapse and reach the dendrites of another neuron. Third, the molecules attach to tiny
areas on the dendrites called receptor sites. Fourth, the molecules interact with the receptor sites
to excite the neuron, which slightly depolarise enough by neurotransmitters released by many
other neurons. A neuron thats affected by other neurotransmitters that inhibit its depolarising,
will not fire an action potential. Fifth, neurotransmitters do not remain attached to the receptor
sites continuing to affect them forever. Instead, after the neurotransmitters have done their job

Copyright 2014 All Rights Reserved Denise N. Fyffe 2

they are either broken down by chemicals called enzymes or taken back into neurons that had
released them. This process is called re-uptake.
Identify the four lobes of the brain and describe their primary functions.
The Cerebral Cortex or Cerebrum as it is otherwise called is divided into two halves the right
and left hemisphere. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes:
The Frontal Lobe, which is located to the front of the cerebrum.
The Temporal Lobe, which is located roughly behind the temples.
The Occipital Lobe, which is located at the back of the head.
The Parietal Lobe, which is at the top of the temporal and occipital lobes.
The Frontal Lobe is a lobe of the outer covering of the forebrain (cerebral cortex), that is
responsible for the motor control and higher mental processes. Its primary function is for
directed behaviour and is key to the ability to lead a mature emotional life (Warmington, 2004).
The area on the Frontal Lobe that controls specific voluntary body movements is the Motor
Cortex. The Motor Cortex on the right side of the body controls movements on the opposite side
of the body. This is known as Contralateral Control. The Motor Cortex enables us to move one
body part independently of others (Schieber, 1990)
The Parietal Lobes are responsible for processing body sensations and perceiving spatial
relations (Sdorow, 1993). The Primary cortical area of the Parietal Lobe runs parallel to the
motor cortex of the Frontal Lobes. This is called the Somatosensory Cortex. The Somatosensory
Cortex processes information related to body senses such as pain, touch, and temperature from
sensory receptors in the skin.
As in the case of the Motor Cortex, the Somatosensory Cortex forms a distorted, upside-
down homunculus of the body and receives input from the opposite side of the body. Each body
part is represented on the sensory homunculus in proportion to its sensory precision, rather than
its size.

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The Temporal Lobe is a lobe of the Cerebral Cortex responsible for processing hearing.
These lobes have their own primary cortical area, the Auditory Cortex. The Auditory Cortex
processes sound by receiving input from both ears (Geffen and Quinn, 1984). Particular area or
regions of the Auditory Cortex are responsible for processing sounds of particular frequencies.
Damage to the Temporal Lobe usually does not result in deafness. The individual will detect the
sound, but have trouble identifying them.
At the back of the brain, you have the Occipital Lobes. These contain Visual Cortex that
processes visual input. This region makes sense out of the input to your eyes. Visual sensation
from objects in your right visual field is processed in your left Occipital Lobe and visual
sensation from objects in your left visual field is processed in your right Occipital Lobe. The
diagram below shows the four lobes and their respective cortex.

Define the terms sensation and perception
Sensory processes are important to our functioning and our survival. The starting point for
both sensation and perception is a stimulus; this is defined as a form of energy (such as light
waves or sound waves) that can affect sensory organs (such as the eyes or the ears). According to
(Sdorow, 1993), Sensation is defined as the process that detects stimuli from our bodies or
surroundings. Sensations are provided by the sense organs after physical energy is transduced
into neural energy Warmington (2004).

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Perception is the process that organises sensations into meaningful patterns. They are at a
superior level, in terms of selection, organisation, and interpretation of producing awareness of
stimuli in the environment.
Explain the process of how sound enters and is processed by the mechanisms of the human
ear.
The ears are paired sensory organs comprising the auditory system, involved in the detection
of sound, and the vestibular system, involved with maintaining body balance/ equilibrium. The
ear divides anatomically and functionally into three regions: the external ear, the middle ear, and
the inner ear. All three regions are involved in hearing. The diagram below shows the different
regions of the ear.

All sounds (music, voice, a mouse-click, etc.) send out vibrations, or sound waves. Sound
waves do not travel in a vacuum, but rather require a medium for sound transmission, e.g. air or
fluid. What actually travels are alternating successions of increased pressure in the medium,
followed by decreased pressure. These vibrations occur at various frequencies, not all of which
the human ear can hear. Only those frequencies ranging from 20 to 20,000 Hz (Hz = hertz =
cycles/sec) can be perceived (Patts, 2004)
In hearing, air-borne sound waves funnel down through the ear canal and strike the eardrum,
causing it to vibrate. The vibrations are passed to the small bones of the middle ear, which form a
system of interlinked mechanical levers: First, vibrations pass to the hammer, which pushes the
anvil, which pushes the stapes stirrup. The base of the stapes rocks in and out against the oval

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window - this is the entrance for the vibrations. The stapes agitates the perilymph of the bony
labyrinth. At this point, the vibrations become fluid-borne. The perilymph, in turn, transmits the
vibrations to the endolymph of the membranous labyrinth and, thence, to the hair cells of the
organ of Corti. It is the movement of these hair cells, which convert the vibrations into nerve
impulses. The round window dissipates the pressure generated by the fluid vibrations, thus
serves as the release valve: It can push out or expand as needed. The nerve impulses travel over
the cochlear nerve to the auditory cortex of the brain, which interprets the impulses as sound.
Reference
1.
Sdorow, L. M., (1993). Psychology (2
nd
Edition), Brown & Benchmark Publishers
2.
Partners in Assistive Technology Training and Services, Retrieved from: http://webschoolsolutions.com/