What is Renewable Energy?

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resourcessuch as

sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heatwhich are renewable
(naturally replenished). Renewable energy technologies range from solar
power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and bio fuels for
transportation.
Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that are
continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water,
and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is constantly
renewed.
Alternative energy is a term used for an energy source that is an alternative to using
fossil fuels. Generally, it indicates energies that are non-traditional and have low
environmental impact. The term alternative is used to contrast with fossil fuels according
to some sources. By most definitions alternative energy doesn't harm the environment,
a distinction which separates it from renewable energy which may or may not have
significant environmental impact. Renewable energy is any energy source that is naturally
replenished, like that derived from solar, wind, geothermal or hydroelectric action. Energy produced
from the refining of biomass is also often classified as renewable. Coal, oil or natural gas, on the other
hand, are finite sources.

What is Biomass?
Biomass, is a renewable organic matter, and can include biological material derived
from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels.
Wood energy is derived both from harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste
products. Waste energy can be generated from municipal waste, manufacturing waste,
and landfill gas. Biomass alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived almost exclusively from
corn.
What is Biodiesel?
Biodiesel is fuel made from plant oils that can be used in diesel engines. They are
typically made of renewable organic raw materials such as soybean or rapeseed oils,
animal fats, waste vegetable oils or microalgae oils.
There are many sources of energy that are renewable and considered to be
environmentally friendly and harness natural processes. These sources of
energy provide an alternate cleaner source of energy, helping to negate the
effects of certain forms of pollution. All of these power generation techniques
can be described as renewable since they are not depleting any resource to
create the energy. While there are many large-scale renewable energy
projects and production, renewable technologies are also suited to small off-
grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where energy is often
crucial in human development.
10
Tidal Power

Tidal energy can be generated in two ways, tidal stream generators or by
barrage generation. The power created though tidal generators is generally
more environmentally friendly and causes less impact on established
ecosystems. Similar to a wind turbine, many tidal stream generators rotate
underwater and is driven by the swiftly moving dense water. Although not yet
widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides
are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Historically, tide mills
have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of the USA. The
earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times.
Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative
motions of the EarthMoon system, and to a lesser extent from the EarthSun
system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with
Earths rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides. British
company Lunar Energy announced that they would be building the worlds first
tidal energy farm off the coast of Pembrokshire in Wales. It will be the worlds
first deep-sea tidal-energy farm and will provide electricity for 5,000 homes.
Eight underwater turbines, each 25 metres long and 15 metres high, are to be
installed on the sea bottom off St Davids peninsula. Construction is due to
start in the summer of 2008 and the proposed tidal energy turbines, described
as a wind farm under the sea, should be operational by 2010.
9
Wave Power

Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the
capture of that energy to do useful work for example for electricity
generation, water desalination, or the pumping of water (into reservoirs).
Wave energy can be difficult to harness due to the unpredictability of the
ocean and wave direction. Wave farms have been created and are in use in
Europe, using floating Pelamis Wave Energy converters. Most wave power
systems include the use of a floating buoyed device and generate energy
through a snaking motion, or by mechanical movement from the waves peaks
and troughs. Though often co-mingled, wave power is distinct from the diurnal
flux of tidal power and the steady gyre of ocean currents. Wave power
generation is not currently a widely employed commercial technology although
there have been attempts at using it since at least 1890. The worlds first
commercial wave farm is based in Portugal, at the Aguadora Wave Park,
which consists of three 750 kilowatt Pelamis devices. In the United States, the
Pacific Northwest Generating Cooperative is funding the building of a
commercial wave-power park at Reedsport, Oregon. The project will utilize the
PowerBuoy technology Ocean Power Technologies which consists of
modular, ocean-going buoys. The rising and falling of the waves moves the
buoy-like structure creating mechanical energy which is converted into
electricity and transmitted to shore over a submerged transmission line. A 40
kW buoy has a diameter of 12 feet (4 m) and is 52 feet (16 m) long, with
approximately 13 feet of the unit rising above the ocean surface. Using the
three-point mooring system, they are designed to be installed one to five miles
(8 km) offshore in water 100 to 200 feet (60 m) deep.
8
Solar Power

Photovoltaic (PV) Solar power is harnessing the suns energy to produce
electricity. One of the fastest growing energy sources, new technologies are
developing at a rapid pace. Solar cells are becoming more efficient,
transportable and even flexible, allowing for easy installation. PV has mainly
been used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator
powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic
array. The 1973 oil crisis stimulated a rapid rise in the production of PV during
the 1970s and early 1980s. Steadily falling oil prices during the early 1980s,
however, led to a reduction in funding for photovoltaic R&D and a
discontinuation of the tax credits associated with the Energy Tax Act of 1978.
These factors moderated growth to approximately 15% per year from 1984
through 1996. Since the mid-1990s, leadership in the PV sector has shifted
from the US to Japan and Germany. Between 1992 and 1994 Japan
increased R&D funding, established net metering guidelines, and introduced a
subsidy program to encourage the installation of residential PV systems. Solar
installations in recent years have also largely begun to expand into residential
areas, with governments offering incentive programs to make green energy
a more economically viable option. In Canada the government offers the
RESOP (Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program).
7
Wind Power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy by wind turbines into a useful
form, such as electricity or mechanical energy. Large-scale wind farms are
typically connected to the local power transmission network with small
turbines used to provide electricity to isolated areas. Residential units are
entering production and are are capable of powering large appliances to entire
houses depending on the size. Wind farms installed on agricultural land or
grazing areas, have one of the lowest environmental impacts of all energy
sources. Although wind produces only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use,
it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and
2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration,
accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 11% in
Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008.
Wind energy has historically been used directly to propel sailing ships or
converted into mechanical energy for pumping water or grinding grain, but the
principal application of wind power today is the generation of electricity. As of
2008, Europe leads the world in development of offshore wind power, due to
strong wind resources and shallow water in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea,
and limitations on suitable locations on land due to dense populations and
existing developments. Denmark installed the first offshore wind farms, and
for years was the world leader in offshore wind power until the United
Kingdom gained the lead in October, 2008. Other large markets for wind
power, including the United States and China focused first on developing their
on-land wind resources where construction costs are lower (such as in the
Great Plains of the U.S., and the similarly wind-swept steppes of Xinjiang and
Inner Mongolia in China), but population centers along coastlines in many
parts of the world are close to offshore wind resources, which would reduce
transmission costs.
6
Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of
power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the
most widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is
constructed, the project produces no direct waste. Small scale hydro or micro-
hydro power has been an increasingly popular alternative energy source,
especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small
scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with
little or no discernible environmental effect or disruption to fish migration. Most
small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water
diversion, but rather use water wheels to generate energy. This was
approximately 19% of the worlds electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and
accounted for over 63% of electricity from renewable sources. While many
hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to
serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often
built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium
electrolytic plants, for example. In the Scottish Highlands there are examples
at Kinlochleven and Lochaber, constructed during the early years of the 20th
century. The Grand Coulee Dam, long the worlds largest, switched to support
Alcoa aluminum in Bellingham, Washington for Americas World War II
airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in
addition to aluminum power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo
Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium
industry. New Zealands Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply
electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.
5
Radiant Energy

This natural energy can perform the same wonders as ordinary electricity at
less than 1% of the cost. It does not behave exactly like electricity, however,
which has contributed to the scientific communitys misunderstanding of it.
The Methernitha Community in Switzerland currently has 5 or 6 working
models of fuelless, self-running devices that tap this energy. Nikola Teslas
magnifying transmitter, T. Henry Morays radiant energy device, Edwin Grays
EMA motor, and Paul Baumanns Testatika machine all run on radiant energy.
This natural energy form can be gathered directly from the environment or
extracted from ordinary electricity by the method called fractionation. One of
the earliest wireless telephones to be based on radiant energy was invented
by Nikola Tesla. The device used transmitters and receivers whose
resonances were tuned to the same frequency, allowing communication
between them. In 1916, he recounted an experiment he had done in 1896. He
recalled that Whenever I received the effects of a transmitter, one of the
simplest ways [to detect the wireless transmissions] was to apply a magnetic
field to currents generated in a conductor, and when I did so, the low
frequency gave audible notes.
4
Geothermal Power

Geothermal energy is a very powerful and efficient way to extract a renewable
energy from the earth through natural processes. This can be performed on a
small scale to provide heat for a residential unit (a geothermal heat pump), or
on a very large scale for energy production through a geothermal power plant.
It has been used for space heating and bathing since ancient roman times,
but is now better known for generating electricity. Geothermal power is cost
effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly, but has previously been
geographically limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent
technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of
viable resources, especially for direct applications such as home heating. The
largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The
Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. As of 2004, five
countries (El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica)
generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.
Geothermal power requires no fuel, and is therefore immune to fluctuations in
fuel cost, but capital costs tend to be high. Drilling accounts for most of the
costs of electrical plants, and exploration of deep resources entails very high
financial risks. Geothermal power offers a degree of scalability: a large
geothermal plant can power entire cities while smaller power plants can
supply rural villages or heat individual homes. Geothermal electricity is
generated in 24 countries around the world and a number of potential sites
are being developed or evaluated.
3
Biomass

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, refers to living and recently dead
biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. In this
context, biomass refers to plant matter grown to generate electricity or
produce for example trash such as dead trees and branches, yard clippings
and wood chips biofuel, and it also includes plant or animal matter used for
production of fibers, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include
biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. Industrial biomass can be
grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass,
hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, and a variety of tree species,
ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil). The particular plant used is
usually not important to the end products, but it does affect the processing of
the raw material. Production of biomass is a growing industry as interest in
sustainable fuel sources is growing. The existing commercial biomass power
generating industry in the United States produces about 0.5 percent of the
U.S. electricity supply. Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the
largest biomass power plant in North America. The facility reduces
dependence on oil by more than one million barrels per year, and by recycling
sugar cane and wood waste, preserves landfill space in urban communities in
Florida.
2
Compressed Natural Gas

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline, diesel,
or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it
is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer
than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and
disperses quickly when released). CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal
combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel vehicles
(gasoline/CNG). Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used in Europe and
South America due to rising gasoline prices. In response to high fuel prices
and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in light-duty
passenger vehicles and pickup trucks, medium-duty delivery trucks, transit
and school buses, and trains. Italy currently has the largest number of CNG
vehicles in Europe and is the 4th country in the world for number of CNG-
powered vehicles in circulation. Canada is a large producer of natural gas, so
it follows that CNG is used in Canada as an economical motor fuel. Canadian
industry has developed CNG-fueled truck and bus engines, CNG-fueled
transit buses, and light trucks and taxis. Both CNG and propane refueling
stations are not difficult to find in major centers. During the 1970s and 1980s,
CNG was commonly used in New Zealand in the wake of the oil crises, but fell
into decline after petrol prices receded.
1
Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy
from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in use
today is through nuclear fission, though other methods might one day include
nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. All utility-scale reactors heat water to
produce steam, which is then converted into mechanical work for the purpose
of generating electricity or propulsion. In 2007, 14% of the worlds electricity
came from nuclear power, with the U.S., France, and Japan together
accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. There are 439 nuclear
power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. According
to the World Nuclear Association, globally during the 1980s one new nuclear
reactor started up every 17 days on average, and by the year 2015 this rate
could increase to one every 5 days. According to a 2007 story broadcast on
60 Minutes, nuclear power gives France the cleanest air of any industrialized
country, and the cheapest electricity in all of Europe. France reprocesses its
nuclear waste to reduce its mass and make more energy. Reprocessing can
potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium in spent
nuclear fuel, putting it into new mixed oxide fuel. This produces a reduction in
long term radioactivity within the remaining waste, since this is largely short-
lived fission products, and reduces its volume by over 90%. France is
generally cited as the most successful reprocessor, but it presently only
recycles 28% (by mass) of the yearly fuel use, 7% within France and another
21% in Russia.
Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that
reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign
oil. Proponents also emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further
reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in
the Western World is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. Critics
believe that nuclear power is a potentially dangerous energy source, with decreasing proportion
of nuclear energy in power production, and dispute whether the risks can be reduced through
new technology. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air
pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also point out that
nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western
countries. Critics point to the issue of storing radioactive waste, the history of and continuing
potential for radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, the history of and continuing
possibility of nuclear proliferation and the disadvantages of centralized electricity production.
Solar Energy
The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. The sun, an average star, is a fusion
reactor that has been burning over 4 billion years. It provides enough energy in one minute to
supply the world's energy needs for one year. In one day, it provides more energy than our
current population would consume in 27 years. In fact, "The amount of solar radiation striking
the earth over a three-day period is equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy
sources."

Solar energy is a free, inexhaustible resource, yet harnessing it is a relatively new idea. The
ability to use solar power for heat was the first discovery. A Swiss scientist, Horace de
Saussure, built the first thermal solar collector in 1767, which was later used to heat water and
cook food. The first commercial patent for a solar water heater went to Clarence Kemp of the
US in 1891. This system was bought by two California executives and installed in one-third of
the homes in Pasadena by 1897.
Producing electricity from solar energy was the second discovery. In 1839 a French physicist
named Edmund Becquerel realized that the sun's energy could produce a "photovoltaic effect"
(photo = light, voltaic = electrical potential). In the 1880s, selenium photovoltaic (PV) cells
were developed that could convert light into electricity with 1-2% efficiency ("the efficiency of a solar
cell is the percentage of available sunlight converted by the photovoltaic cell into electricity"), but how the conversion
happened was not understood. Photovoltaic power therefore "remained a curiosity for many years, since it was very
inefficient at turning sunlight into electricity." It was not until Albert Einstein proposed an explanation for the
"photoelectric effect" in the early 1900s, for which he won a Nobel Prize, that people began to understand the
related photovoltaic effect.
CHECK OUT THE SOLAR MAP

"Solar technology advanced to roughly its present design in 1908 when William J. Bailey of the
Carnegie Steel Company invented a collector with an insulated box and copper coils." By the
mid-1950s Bell Telephone Labs had achieved 4% efficiency, and later 11% efficiency, with
silicon PV cells. From then on, interest in solar power intensified. During the late 1950s and
1960s, the space program took an active role in the development of photovoltaics. "The cells
were perfect sources of electric power for satellites because they were rugged, lightweight and
could meet the low power requirements reliably." Unfortunately, the cells were not practical for
use on earth due to the high cost of making them efficient and lightweight, so further research
was necessary.
Solar energy may have had great potential , but it was left on the backburner whenever fossil
fuels were more affordable and available. "Only in the last few decades when growing energy
demands, increasing environmental problems and declining fossil fuel resources made us look
to alternative energy options have we focused our attention on truly exploiting this tremendous
resource." For instance, the US Department of Energy funded the installation and testing of
over 3,000 PV systems during the 1973-1974 oil embargo. By the late 1970s, energy companies
and government agencies had invested in the PV industry, and "a tremendous acceleration in
module development took place." Solar energy improvements were again sought during the
Gulf War in the 1990s.
Considering that "the first practical solar cells were made less than 30 years ago," we have
come a long way.The profligation of solar professional companies designing unique and specific solar
power systems for individual homes, means there is no longer an excuse not to consider solar power for your home.
The biggest jumps in efficiency came "with the advent of the transistor and accompanying semiconductor
technology." The production cost has fallen to nearly 1/300 of what it was during the space program of the mid-
century and the purchase cost has gone from $200 per watt in the 1950s to a possible mere $1 per watt today. The
efficiency has increased dramatically to 40.8% the US Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Lab's new
world recordas of August 2008.
We still use solar power in the same two forms today, thermal and photovoltaic. The first
concentrates sunlight, converts it into heat, and applies it to a steam generator or engine to be
converted into electricity in order "to warm buildings, heat water, generate electricity, dry crops
or destroy dangerous waste." Electricity is generated when the heated fluid drives turbines or
other machinery. The second form of solar power produces electricity directly without moving
parts. Today's photovoltaic system is composed of cells made of silicon, the second most
abundant element in the earth's crust. "Power is produced when sunlight strikes the
semiconductor material and creates an electric current." The smallest unit of the system is a
cell. Cells wired together form a module, and modules wired together form a panel. A group of
panels is called an array, and several arrays form an array field.
There are several advantages of photovoltaic solar power that make it "one of the most
promising renewable energy sources in the world." It is non-polluting, has no moving parts that
could break down, requires little maintenance and no supervision, and has a life of 20-30 years
with low running costs. It is especially unique because no large-scale installation is required.
Remote areas can easily produce their own supply of electricity by constructing as small or as
large of a system as needed. Solar power generators are simply distributed to homes, schools,
or businesses, where their assembly requires no extra development or land area and their
function is safe and quiet. As communities grow, more solar energy capacity can be added,
"thereby allowing power generation to keep in step with growing needs without having to
overbuild generation capacity as is often the case with conventional large scale power systems."
Compare those characteristics to those of coal, oil, gas, or nuclear power, and the choice is
easy. Solar energy technologies offer a clean, renewable and domestic energy source.
Photovoltaic power even has advantages over wind power, hydropower, and solar thermal
power. The latter three require turbines with moving parts that are noisy and require
maintenance.
Solar energy is most sought today in developing countries, the fastest growing segment of the
photovoltaics market. People go without electricity as the sun beats down on the land, making
solar power the obvious energy choice. "Governments are finding its modular, decentralized
character ideal for filling the electric needs of the thousands of remote villages in their
countries." It is much more practical than the extension of expensive power lines into remote
areas, where people do not have the money to pay for conventional electricity.
India is becoming one of the world's main producers of PV modules, with plans to power
100,000 villages and install solar-powered telephones in its 500,000 villages. By 2000, Mexico
plans to have electrified 60,000 villages with solar power. Zaire 's Hospital Bulape serves 50,000
outpatients per year and is run completely on solar power, from air conditioning to x-ray
equipment. And in Moroccan bazaars, carpets, tin ware, and solar panels lie side by side for
sale. Probably the most outstanding example of a country's commitment to solar power is in
Israel . In 1992, over half of all households (700,000) heated their water with solar energy
systems. And there are 50,000 new installations every year.
Solar power is just as practical in populated areas connected to the local electrical power grid as
it is in remote areas. "An average home has more than enough roof area to produce enough
solar electricity to supply all of its power needs. With an inverter, which converts direct current
(DC) power from the solar cells to alternating current (AC), which is what most home
appliances run on, a solar home can look and operate very much like a home that is connected
to a power line."
Household energy supply is but one use of solar power. There are actually four broad
categories that can be identified for solar energy use: industrial, rural habitation, grid-
connected, and consumer/indoor. Industrial uses represent the largest applications of solar
power in the past 30 years. "Telecommunications, oil companies, and highway safety
equipment all rely on solar power for dependable, constant power far from any power lines."
Roadside call boxes and lighted highway signs rely on the sun's energy in order to provide
reliable services without buried cable connections or diesel generators. Navigational systems
such as marine buoys and other unmanned installations in harsh remote areas are also ideal
applications for solar power because "the load demands are well known and the requirements
for reliable power are the highest." Rural habitation includes "cabins, homes, villages, clinics,
schools, farms, as well as individually powered lights and small appliances." Grid-connected
systems pair solar power with an existing grid network in order to supply a commercial site with
enough energy to meet a high demand, or to supplement a family's household supply.
Consumer/indoor uses of PV cells include watches and calculators; PV modules power
computers and radios.
The practicality and environmentally safe nature of solar power is influencing people worldwide,
which is evident in equipment sales. According to Seimens Solar, production of PV cells and
modules increased threefold from 40 MW in 1990 to about 120 MW in 1998. "Worldwide sales
have been increasing at an average rate of about 15% every year during the last decade . We
believe that there is a realistic possibility for the market to continue to grow at about a 15%
rate into the next decade. At this rate, the world production capacity would be 1000 MW by
2010, and photovoltaics could be a $5 billion industry."
There are only two primary disadvantages to using solar power: amount of sunlight and cost of
equipment. The amount of sunlight a location receives "varies greatly depending on
geographical location, time of day, season and clouds. The southwestern United States is one of
the world's best areas for sunlight . Globally, other areas receiving very high solar intensities
include developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America ." See also sustainable house
design
But a person living in Siberia would not benefit much from this renewable resource. And while
"solar energy technologies have made huge technological and cost improvements, [they]are still
more expensive than traditional energy sources." However solar equipment will eventually pay
for itself in 2 to 5 years depending on h ow much sun a particular location receives. Then the
user will have a virtually free energy source until the end of the equipment's working life,
according to a paper called "Energy Payback Time of Crystalline Silicon Solar Modules." Future
improvements are projected to decrease the payback time to 1 to 3 years.
The best way of lowering the cost of solar energy is to improve the cell's efficiency, according
to Larry Kazmerski, Director of the DOE's National Center for Photovoltaics. "As the scientists
and researchers at the NCPV push the envelope of solar-cell efficiency, we can begin to
visualize the day when energy from the sun will be generating a significant portion of the
country's electric power demand." Any improvements and subsequent cost cuts will also be vital
to space applications.Also try finding the right Electric company in order to save money. Power
companies can help you benefit with decisions such as this.
As the price of solar power lowers and that of conventional fuels rises, photovoltaics "is entering
a new era of international growth." So much so, that solar power "will remain an excellent
energy option, long after the momentary fossil fuel model fades into smoke.

Wind Energy
Societies have taken advantage of wind power for thousands of years. The first known use was
in 5000 BC when people used sails to navigate the Nile River . Persians had already been using
windmills for 400 years by 900 AD in order to pump water and grind grain. Windmills may have
even been developed in China before 1 AD, but the earliest written documentation comes from
1219. Cretans were using "literally hundreds of sail-rotor windmills [to] pump water for crops
and livestock."
The Windmill
The Dutch were responsible for many refinements of the windmill, primarily for pumping excess
water off land that was flooded. As early as 1390, they had connected the mill to "a multi-story
tower, with separate floors devoted to grinding grain, removing chaff, storing grain, and (on the
bottom) living quarters for the windsmith and his family." Its popularity spread to the point that
there were 10,000 windmills in England. But perfecting the windmill's efficiency to the point that
it "had all the major features recognized by modern designers as being crucial to the
performance of modern wind turbine blades" took almost 500 years. By then, applications
ranged from saw-milling timber to processing spices, tobacco, cocoa, paints, and dyes.
The windmill was further refined in the late 19th century in the US; some designs from that
period are still in use today. Heavy, inefficient wooden blades were replaced by lighter, faster
steel blades around 1870. Over the next century, more than six million small windmills were
erected in the US in order to aid in watering livestock and supplying homes with water during
the development of the West. The first large windmill to produce electricity was the "American
multi-blade design," built in 1888. Its 12-kilowatt capabilities were later superceded by modern
70-100 kilowatt wind turbines.
Wind Energy Sources
Today, people are realizing that wind power "is one of the most promising new energy sources"
that can serve as an alternative to fossil fuel-generated electricity.
With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America's electricity (or about the
amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than 1% of its land area. And
within that area, less than 5% of the land would be occupied by wind equipment-the remaining
95% could continue to be used for farming or ranching. By the year 2020, 10 million average
American homes may be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO2
emissions every year. Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all
living things, and wind energy can do just that.
The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines annually displace the
energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons of carbon emissions,
as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid rain. In other words,
"more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions."
Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not imagined that wind
power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact,
many utility services around the world offer wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3
cents per kWh. If a household used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or
$5 dollars per month for it and the price is still dropping.
Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear
power. Wind energy is therefore "cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural
gas.[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of electricity it
generates." The success of this energy is in part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down
by more than 80% since the early 1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts
see the cost dropping by an additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005."
Electricity from wind
Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, India and Australia are among the world's leading nations in
the acquisition of wind energy. Wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds.
Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one of the
most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $3 billion in 2008. Major offshore
developments are likely in northern European waters in the early part of the next century.
This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in
decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial
quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, as
wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land
As of 1999, global wind energy capacity topped 10,000 megawatts, which is approximately 16
billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. That's enough to serve over 5 cities the size of Miami ,
according to the American Wind Energy Association. Five Miamis may not seem significant, but
if we make the predicted strides in the near future, wind power could be one of our main
sources of electricity. "With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America 's
electricity (or about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than 1%
of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be occupied by wind
equipment the remaining 95% could continue to be used for farming or ranching." By the year
2010, 10 million average American homes may be supplied by wind power, preventing 100
million metric tons of CO 2 emissions every year.
Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all living things, and wind
energy can do just that. "The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines
annually displace the energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons
of carbon emissions, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid
rain." In other words, "more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas
emissions."
Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not imagined that wind
power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact,
many utility services around the world offer wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3
cents per kWh. If a household used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or
$5 dollars per month for it and the price is still dropping. Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per
kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear power. Wind energy is therefore
"cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural gas[which] emits one pound of
greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of electricity it generates." The success of this energy
is in part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the early
1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost dropping by an
additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005."
Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, and India are among the world's leading nations in the
acquisition of wind energy. According to Chris Flavin, a speaker at the World Oil Forum held in
Denver , Colorado , on October 30, 1998, " Navarro , Spain , is utilizing wind power to generate
23% of its electricity needs." Denmark now generates 8 percent of its electricity from wind
power. Flavin, a vice president and senior energy policy analyst at the Worldwatch
Institute, reported that wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds. In fact,
according to Worldwatch Institute Online , "The world added 2,100 megawatts of new wind
energy generating capacity in 1998, a new all-time record, and 35% more than was added in
1997. Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one
of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $2 billion in 1998." Major
offshore developments are likely in northern European waters in the early part of the next
century. This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic
increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver
substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable
energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land.
According to an April 1999 press release, "Worldwide, wind energy capacity has expanded at an
annual rate of 25.7% during the 1990s, with the total doubling every three years and the cost
of production declining steadily as each doubling occurs and economies of greater volume are
realized." Christophe Bourillon, executive director of the European Wind Energy Association,
remarked that Europe has emerged "as a world leader in wind energy development" in the
1990s, which he expects this to continue.
As far as the wind industry in the US is concerned, June of 1999 signaled the end of the best
year yet. The executive director of the American Wind Energy Association attributes this "wind
rush" to "progressive state policies and growing consumer demand for 'green' (low-
environmental-impact) power." Many states now require that part of their energy production
come from renewable sources. And utilities are now offering people "the choice of buying green
power at a premium over power from conventional, environmentally-damaging sources such as
fossil fuels. In most cases, wind, as one of the lowest-cost renewable energy sources, is the
primary beneficiary." Utilities as well as policymakers are continuously surprised by the public's
positive response to the availability of this green power.
Bird fatalities on wind farms are a concern. A study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area in
California found 182 dead birds, 119 of which were raptors. In response to this, the wind
industry is committed to modifying the equipment in order to make the area safer for birds.
Ideas include reducing the number of perches on turbines, spacing turbines far apart and in the
direction of migration, painting patterns on blades that contrast with landscape colors, and even
broadcasting a radio frequency to keep birds away altogether. Amidst its efforts to take
responsibility in this issue, the industry quietly points out how many millions of species are
killed annually during the acquisition and distribution of most conventional sources of energy.

Overall, the advantages of wind power heavily outweigh the disadvantages. Although it can only
supplement other sources of energy for now, it provides skilled jobs for people in rural
communities, replaces environmentally harmful energy sources, and is inexhaustible." It will
never be subject to embargoes or 'price shocks' caused by international conflicts," and "unlike
oil fields, wind energy is renewable, year after year, forever."
Wind Energy News


Will They Fly? Storms Buffet Wind-Power Alternatives
Wind-energy alternatives that go beyond those ubiquitous ground-based turbines face technical challenges and new
competition from cheap gas.
Posted on 27 September 2014 | 11:22 am
Texas Tech Wind Researchers Receive $1.4 Million for Innovative Project


What Is Renewable Energy?
Renewable energy sources can be replenished in a short period of time. The five renewable
sources used most often are:
Biomass including wood and wood waste, municipal solid waste, landfill gas, biogas,
ethanol and biodiesel
Water (hydropower)
Geothermal
Wind
Solar
What Role Does Renewable Energy Play in the United States?
The use of renewable energy is not new. More than 150 years ago, wood, which is one form of
biomass, supplied up to 90% of our energy needs. As the use of coal, petroleum and natural gas
expanded, the United States became less reliant on wood as an energy source. Today, we are
looking again at renewable sources to find new ways to use them to help meet our energy needs.
In 2009, consumption of renewable sources in the United States totaled 7.4 quadrillion Btu 1
quadrillion is the number 1 followed by 15 zeros or about 7% of all energy used nationally.

The Role of Renewable Energy Consumption in the Nation's Energy Supply
About 8% of U.S. electricity was generated from renewable sources in 2009, with over half
going towards the production of electricity. The next largest use of renewable energy is the
production of heat and steam for industrial purposes. Renewable fuels, such as ethanol, are also
used for transportation and to provide heat for homes and businesses.
Renewable energy plays an important role in the supply of energy. When renewable energy
sources are used, the demand for fossil fuels is reduced. Unlike fossil fuels, non-biomass
renewable sources of energy (hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar) do not directly emit
greenhouse gases or other pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, mercury and carbon monoxide.

Facts about Renewables
As the impact of fossil fuels on our environment becomes ever more stark, renewable energy -
with its non-polluting qualities and infinite capacity - is just what we need to save our fragile
planet. Thanks to the work of engineers and scientists we are able to harness the renewable
energy available to us and make it useful. Prepare yourself for our top 10 must-know renewable
energy facts...
1. There are five main forms of renewable energy: solar, wind, water, biofuel and geothermal
(heat from the earth).
2. If it could be properly harnessed, enough sunlight falls on the earth in just one hour to meet
world energy demands for a whole year!
3. Ever the innovator, Albert Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 for his ground-
breaking experiments with solar power and photovoltaics.
4. The geothermal energy from the core of the Earth is closer to the surface in some areas than
in others. Where hot underground steam or water can be tapped and brought to the surface it can
be used to generate electricity.
5. A world record was set in 1990 when a solar-powered aircraft flew across the USA in 21
stages, using no fuel at all.
6. One wind turbine can produce enough electricity to power up to 300 homes.
7. The largest wind turbine in the world, soon to be located in the North Sea, has blades almost
the length of a football field.
8. An average wind speed of just 14mph is needed to convert wind energy into electricity; that
shouldn't be too hard to come by in breezy Britain!
9. Water is the most commonly used renewable energy resource, providing enough power to
meet the needs of 28.3 million people.
10. Those clever old Romans not only gave us the modern drainage system and many of our
roads, they were also among the first to use geothermal energy to heat
Biomass Energy
The term "biomass" refers to organic matter that has stored energy through the process of
photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be transferred through the food chain to
animals' bodies and their wastes, all of which can be converted for everyday human use through
processes such as combustion, which releases the carbon dioxide stored in the plant material. Many of
the biomass fuels used today come in the form of wood products, dried vegetation, crop residues, and
aquatic plants. Biomass has become one of the most commonly used renewable sources of energy in
the last two decades, second only to hydropower in the generation of electricity. It is such a widely
utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and indigenous nature, that it accounts for
almost 15% of the world's total energy supply and as much as 35% in developing countries, mostly for
cooking and heating.
Biomass is one of the most plentiful and well-utilised sources of renewable energy in the world.
Broadly speaking, it is organic material produced by the photosynthesis of light. The chemical material
(organic compounds of carbons) are stored and can then be used to generate energy. The most
common biomass used for energy is wood from trees. Wood has been used by humans for producing
energy for heating and cooking for a very long time.
Biomass has been converted by partial-pyrolisis to charcoal for thousands of years. Charcoal, in turn
has been used for forging metals and for light industry for millenia. Both wood and charcoal formed
part of the backbone of the early Industrial Revolution (much northern England, Scotland and Ireland
were deforested to produce charcoal) prior to the discovery of coal for energy.
Wood is still used extensively for energy in both household situations, and in industry, particularly in
the timber, paper and pulp and other forestry-related industries. Woody biomass accounts for over
10% of the primary energy consumed in Austria, and it accounts for much more of the primary energy
consumed in most of the developing world, primarily for cooking and space heating.
It is used to raise steam, which, in turn, is used as a by-product to generate electricity. Considerable
research and development work is currently underway to develop smaller gasifiers that would produce
electricity on a small-scale. For the moment, however, biomass is used for off-grid electricity
generation, but almost exclusively on a large-, industrial-scale.
There are two issues that affect the evaluation of biomass as a viable solution to our energy problem:
the effects of the farming and production of biomass and the effects of the factory conversion of
biomass into usable energy or electricity. There are as many environmental and economic benefits as
there are detriments to each issue, which presents a difficult challenge in evaluating the potential
success of biomass as an alternative fuel. For instance, the replacement of coal by biomass could result
in "a considerable reduction in net carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to the greenhouse effect."
On the other hand, the use of wood and other plant material for fuel may mean deforestation. We are
all aware of the problems associated with denuding forests, and widespread clear cutting can lead to
groundwater contamination and irreversible erosion patterns that could literally change the structure
of the world ecology.
Biomass has to be considered in the search for an alternative source of energy that is abundant in a
wide-scale yet non-disruptive manner, since it is capable of being implemented at all levels of society.
Although tree plantations have "considerable promise" in supplying an energy source, "actual
commercial use of plantation-grown fuels for power generation is limited to a few isolated
experiences." Supplying the United States ' current energy needs would require an area of one million
square miles. That's roughly one-third of the area of the 48 contiguous states. There is no way that
plantations could be implemented at this scale, not to mention that soil exhaustion would eventually
occur. Biomass cannot replace our current dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas, but it can
complement other renewables such as solar and wind energy.
According to Flavin and Lenssen of the Worldwatch Institute , "If the contribution of biomass to the
world energy economy is to grow, technological innovations will be needed, so that biomass can be
converted to usable energy in ways that are more efficient, less polluting, and at least as economical as
today's practices." When we have enough government support and have allotted enough land for the
continuous growth of energy crops for biomass-based energy, we may have a successful form of
alternative energy. But "as long as worldwide prices of coal, oil and gas are relatively low, the
establishment of plantations dedicated to supplying electric power or other higher forms of energy will
occur only where financial subsidies or incentives exist or where other sources of energy are not
available." Although it is currently utilized across the globe, biomass energy is clearly not capable of
sustaining the world's energy needs on its own.
Hydroelectric Power

Moving water is a powerful entity responsible for lighting entire cities, even countries. Thousands of
years ago the Greeks used water wheels, which picked up water in buckets around a wheel. The
water's weight caused the wheel to turn, converting kinetic energy into mechanical energy for grinding
grain and pumping water. In the 1800s the water wheel was often used to power machines such as
timber-cutting saws in European and American factories. More importantly, people realized that the
force of water falling from a height would turn a turbine connected to a generator to produce
electricity. Niagara Falls , a natural waterfall, powered the first hydroelectric plant in 1879.
Man-made waterfalls dams were constructed throughout the 1900s in order to maximize this source of
energy. Aside from a plant for electricity production, a hydropower facility consists of a water reservoir
enclosed by a dam whose gates can open or close depending on how much water is needed to produce
a particular amount of electricity. Once electricity is produced it is transported along huge transmission
lines to an electric utility company.
"By the 1940s, the best sites for large dams had been developed." But like most other renewable
sources of energy, hydropower could not compete with inexpensive fossil fuels at the time. "It wasn't
until the price of oil skyrocketed in the 1970s that people became interested in hydropower again."
Today one-fifth of global electricity is generated by falling water.
"Over the past 100 years, the United States has led the world in dam building. Secretary of the Interior
Bruce Babbitt recently observed that, 'on average, we have constructed one dam every day since the
signing of the Declaration of Independence.'"Of the 75,187 dams in the US , less than 3% are used to
produce 10-12% of the nation's electricity. With over 2,000 facilities, the US is the second largest
producer of hydropower worldwide, behind Canada . The dams that do not produce electricity are used
for irrigation or flood control. Many people believe these pre-existing sites could contribute to the
country's power supply in a cost-effective manner if hydroelectric facilities were constructed.
There are several favorable features of hydropower. Anywhere rain falls, there will be rivers. If a
particular section of river has the right terrain to form a reservoir, it may be suitable for dam
construction. No fossil fuels are required to produce the electricity, and the earth's hydrologic cycle
naturally replenishes the "fuel" supply. Therefore no pollution is released into the atmosphere and no
waste that requires special containment is produced. Since "water is a naturally recurring domestic
product and is not subject to the whims of foreign suppliers," there is no worry of unstable prices,
transportation issues, production strikes, or other national security issues.
Hydropower is very convenient because it can respond quickly to fluctuations in demand. A dam's
gates can be opened or closed on command, depending on daily use or gradual economic growth in the
community. The production of hydroelectricity is often slowed in the nighttime when people use less
energy. When a facility is functioning, no water is wasted or released in an altered state; it simply
returns unharmed to continue the hydrologic cycle. The reservoir of water resulting from dam
construction, which is essentially stored energy, can support fisheries and preserves, and provide
various forms of water-based recreation for locals and tourists. Land owned by the hydroelectric
company is often open to the public for hiking, hunting, and skiing. Therefore, "hydropower reservoirs
contribute to local economies. A study of one medium-sized hydropower project in Wisconsin showed
that the recreational value to residents and visitors exceeded $6.5 million annually." Not to mention
the economic stimulation provided by employment.
Hydroelectric power is also very efficient and inexpensive. "Modern hydro turbines can convert as
much as 90% of the available energy into electricity. The best fossil fuel plants are only about 50%
efficient. In the US , hydropower is produced for an average of 0.7 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). This
is about one-third the cost of using fossil fuel or nuclear and one-sixth the cost of using natural gas,"
as long as the costs for removing the dam and the silt it traps are not included. Efficiency could be
further increased by refurbishing hydroelectric equipment. An improvement of only 1% would supply
electricity to an additional 300,000 households.
Hydropower has become "the leading source of renewable energy. It provides more than 97% of all
electricity generated by renewable sources worldwide. Other sources including solar, geothermal,
wind, and biomass account for less than 3% of renewable electricity production." In the US , 81% of
the electricity produced by renewable sources comes from hydropower. "Worldwide, about 20% of all
electricity is generated by hydropower." Some regions depend on it more than others. For example,
75% of the electricity produced in New Zealand and over 99% of the electricity produced in Norway
come from hydropower.
The use of hydropower "prevents the burning of 22 billion gallons of oil or 120 million tons of coal each
year." In other words, "the carbon emissions avoided by the nation's hydroelectric industry are the
equivalent of an additional 67 million passenger cars on the road 50 percent more than there are
currently." The advantages of hydropower are therefore convincing, but there are some serious
drawbacks that are causing people to reconsider its overall benefit.
Since the most feasible sites for dams are in hilly or mountainous areas, the faults that often created
the topography pose a great danger to the dams and therefore the land below them for thousands of
years after they have become useless for generating power. In fact, dam failures do occur regularly
due to these terrain conditions, and the effects are devastating.
When a new dam's reservoir floods the countryside, people who live in the area have to move and
relinquish their former lifestyles in order to make way for the project. This is very stressful and often
controversial, especially if a community has maintained a particular way of life on the same land for
generations. Such is the case in Chile, where the indigenous Pehuenche "are currently fighting
construction of the 570MW, US $500,000,000 Ralco Dam on the Biobo River Eight families continue to
refuse to negotiate land exchanges with Endesa [the utility company], and wish to remain on their
lands." If the project succeeds, a 13-square-mile reservoir would flood the land and force 600 people
out of their homes, 400 of whom are Pehuenche "whose ancestral home is the upper Biobo." A total of
five dams have been planned, which "would force the relocation of 1,000 Pehuenches, 20% of the
survivors of this ancient culture."
The construction of a dam not only affects the people nearby, it can severely alter a river's natural
functions. According to American Rivers, a conservation organization, "by diverting water for power,
dams remove water needed for healthy in-stream ecosystems. Stretches below dams are often
completely de-watered." This may not seem like a significant problem until animal species are studied.
Birds that have migrated to a specific riparian environment for generations no longer have enough
insects on which to prey when the water level drops. If they have few migration alternatives, that
could mean the endangerment of species that once flourished. Fish species such as salmon "depend on
steady flows to flush them down river early in their life and guide them upstream years later to spawn.
Stagnant reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and significantly increase the duration of their
migration." Native populations of fish may decrease or disappear altogether due to temperature
changes caused by dams. Slower water flow means warmer temperatures, and bottom-release of cold
water means cooler temperatures. Several of hydropower's disadvantages focus on fish. It is easy to
forget how important fish and other aquatic life are, some of which reside at the bottom of the food
chain.
The environmental changes caused by hydroelectric projects may be obvious to the local biologist, but
elude the average person. Most people will more readily notice a smoggy haze developing in an area
where a coal plant is operating than a smaller population of a particular bird species where a
hydropower facility functions. Such oversights lead people to believe that nothing is wrong.
Hydroelectric companies and organizations often emphasize their "clean" manufacture of electricity and neglect to
mention the long-term environmental hazards. "Dams hold back silt, debris, and nutrients." Silt collects behind the
dam on the river bottom, accumulating heavy metals and other pollutants. Eventually this renders the dam
inoperable, leaving the mess for future generations, who will either have to remove the collected debris or live with a
potentially catastrophic mudflow poised to inundate the area below the dam.
There is also a debate between preserving rivers for their aesthetic value versus meeting the energy needs of
thousands of people. The latter has prevailed. Today "there are 600,000 river miles impounded behind dams. In
contrast, only 10,000 river miles (not even half of 1%) are permanently protected under the National Wild and Scenic
Rivers System." The only undammed river in the US that is longer than 600 miles is the Yellowstone .
Hydropower may be better on the environment than fossil-fuel sources, but its future is so uncertain that we may
need to focus on other alternatives. According to the National Hydropower Association, "an increasing array of
statutes, regulations, agency policies and court decisions have made the hydroelectric licensing process costly,
arbitrary and time-consuming. A typical hydropower project takes 8 to 10 years to find its way through the licensing
process. By comparison, a natural gas fired plant, which emits significant carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) gases, can typically
be sited and licensed in 18 months. Given this uncertain climate, few investors are willing to risk their capital on new
hydropower development. Furthermore, some project owners and operators contemplate abandonment of their
projects rather than proceeding with relicensing."
Relicensing is a complex process in which private dams are re-evaluated every 30 to 50 years. The Federal Energy
Regulatory Committee "considers anew whether it is appropriate to commit the public's river resources for private
power generation FERC is now required, when deciding whether to issue a license, to consider not only the power
generation potential of a river, but also to give equal consideration to energy conservation, protection of fish and
wildlife, protection of recreational opportunities, and preservation of other aspects of environmental quality."
Relicensing was infrequent until 1993, when hundreds of licenses began to expire. "The Hydropower Reform
Coalition formed in 1992 to take advantage of this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to restore river ecosystems through
the relicensing process." To the Coalition's dismay, a new bill is being considered called the Hydroelectric Licensing
Process Improvement Act, which if passed, "would limit the abilities of federal agencies to protect natural resources,"
making relicensing easier for dam operators.
Some people favor dam removal so that healthy rivers and riverside communities can be restored, but American
Rivers reports that most of the larger dams in the US "are not likely candidates for removal." In that case it may be
wasteful not to use them to their full potential as long as they are still sturdy. A hydropower assessment conducted
by the US Department of Energy found that 4,087 sites could be developed without constructing a new dam. "The
assessment consider[ed] such values as wild/scenic protection, threatened or endangered species, cultural values
and other non-power issues. If all of this potential were to be developed 22.7 million metric tons of carbon could be
avoided." But this savings in carbon emissions pales when compared to the tonnage of silt and other material that
must be handled if the river is to be restored to a freely-flowing state. All rivers will eventually silt up the dam. At this
point future generations will have the choice to either keep the useless dam or remove it. Keeping the poorly
consolidated silt and mud behind the dam is potentially dangerous. Removal costs will often exceed the value of
power produced over the dam's lifetime.
Unlike other renewables such as wind and solar power that receive more praise than criticism, hydropower is a highly
controversial issue. While it does have many merits, it too is like so many other sources of energy if we ignore the
critics' warnings, we may not realize its full imHydrogen and Fuel Cells
Hydrogen and Fuells Cells Home
Hydrogen and Fuell Cells Power
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Production
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Transportation and Distribution
Introduction
Fossil and nuclear fuel reserves are becoming increasingly limited, and the world's energy future will have to
include several renewable alternatives to these failing resources. A promising possibility is to exploit the energy
potential of the most plentiful element in the known universe hydrogen.
We will look at how hydrogen was initially discovered and how it has been used in the past. Next we will
examine methods of production, distribution, and transport of hydrogen, as well as how hydrogen can be used
safely. Then we will look how hydrogen can be used safely. Lastly, we will examine the present state of the art in
terms of energy applications available now, such as fuel cells and hydrogen as a combustible fuel, and we will also
consider the developing ideas and technologies that will be used in our energy future.
History
The quest for understanding the natural world around us is as old as human consciousness. This quest
continues in the present day, as scientists and researchers delve with increasing intensity into the mysteries of
physics, chemistry, and biology to unlock the secrets inherent in the physical universe.
Hydrogen H
Atomic Number: 1 Atomic Weight: 1.00794 Electronic Configuration: 1
Hydrogen is a gaseous element that was first discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1766. It is the first
element on the Periodic Table. Hydrogen is:
Colorless
Tasteless
Odorless
Slightly soluble in water
Highly explosive
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, and serves as the fuel for the fusion
reactions in stars. Normal hydrogen is diatomic (two hydrogen atoms chemically paired).
Atmospheric hydrogen has three isotopes: protium (one proton in nucleus), deuterium (one proton

Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Swiss physician, naturalist and alchemist, was a contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci
and Copernicus. In the course of investigating what would become chemistry and medicine, Paracelsus wrote of
combining sulfuric acid and iron, noting that this combination produced a gas or "air" as he conceived it at the time,
and that when this air was produced it was released under considerable pressure.
Later a French chemist, Nicholas Lemery , showed that the gas produced in the sulfuric acid/iron reaction was
flammable, but it was Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), a British physicist, who was credited with the discovery of
hydrogen in 1766. Another French chemist, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1793), considered the founder of
modern chemistry, described one of the component elements of water as hydrogen , from the Greek words hudor
(water) and gennan (generate). It was also Lavoisier who noted that the only byproduct of burning hydrogen was
water itself.
In 1802 a British chemist named Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) was studying the chemical effects of
electricity when he found that by passing an electric current through water, he was able to cause the water to
chemically decompose into its component elements of hydrogen and oxygen. This process, which later became
known as electrolysis, led Davy to theorize that chemical compounds are bound together by electric energy.
Working with the concept of chemical decomposition through applied electricity, a Welsh lawyer and non-
scientist who was also a knighted judge, Sir William R. Grove, expanded on the work done by Sir Humphry Davy.
Grove demonstrated that the process of chemical decomposition could be reversed, and that hydrogen and oxygen
could be compelled to bind together forming water. At the same time the process produced an electric current that
"could be felt by five persons joining hands, and which when taken by a single person was painful." Grove's
discoveries came to fruition in the form of the first hydrogen fuel cell, which he invented in 1839. While it would be
over one hundred years before interest was rekindled in Grove's work, it would prove to be extremely important in
fuel cell technology, which today is the main source of electric power for space vehicles.
During the latter part of the Nineteenth Century , before the advent of what we now know as natural gas, a
hydrogen-rich gas was produced from coal to be used in the gas lamps and heaters of European and American
homes. Known in the U.S. as "town gas," and consisting of 50% hydrogen and 50% carbon monoxide, this fuel
helped lay the foundation for the safe use of hydrogen, which due to its highly volatile nature, must be handled and
transported with the utmost care.
For most of us, the most infamous use of hydrogen was in the lighter-than-air zeppelin. While balloons and
flying air ships had been using hydrogen for almost fifty years, it was the development in 1900, by Count Ferdinand
von Zeppelin of Germany, of the rigid framed air ship that allowed for greater speed and durability in flight than had
previously been possible. With its aluminum skeleton framing a solid outer shell, von Zeppelin's first ship, the LZ 1,
was designed with military applications in mind, opening up the possibility of long range battlefield reconnaissance
from the air, as well as opportunities for tactical options like dropping bombs.
With Germany's entrance into World War I, zeppelins were equipped with bombs and machine guns, making
them dangerous targets for the fledgling efforts of early British air forces using the limited biplane technology of the
time. Bombs were carried from German held bases in France , and dropped with impunity over London . While the
accuracy of these attacks was very poor, they served a devastating psychological role in demoralizing Britains . By
the end of the war however, improvements in airplane design and capability, as well as the innovation of the
phosphorus coated incendiary tracer bullets spelled the end of the hydrogen-filled dirigible.
Following World War I , Germany and the United States both continued with the development of rigid framed air
ships, enhancing their air speed and reliability. Especially in Germany , these huge dirigibles, often over four hundred
feet in length, became commonplace, and were used extensively for luxurious passenger travel. In 1928, the Graf
Zeppelin, designated LZ127, was launched, and would go on to fly farther than any zeppelin before or since.
Test flown initially in March of 1936, the zeppelin Hindenburg would fly into history as perhaps the most
memorable air disaster of the Twentieth Century. Having made the transatlantic crossing from Germany to Lakehurst
, New Jersey ten times in the year previous to May of 1937, the 804-foot air ship represented the state of the art in
zeppelin design, and such trips were fairly routine.
and one neutron in nucleus), and tritium (one proton and two neutrons). ( 1 )
American manufactured air ships had by this time switched to the less volatile and nonflammable lighter-than-air
helium gas. However, the German ship still used hydrogen as its lift medium, a fact which still generates controversy
sixty years after the events that would indelibly link the Hindenburg tragedy with the dangers of hydrogen gas.
On May 6, 1937, as the Hindenburg approached its mooring tower at the Lakehurst Naval Air Station, it
burst into flames. While the fire consumed only the zeppelin's cover material at first, it quickly ignited the explosive
hydrogen within the massive ship. Thirty-five of the ninety-seven people aboard the Hindenburg lost their lives that
day, as well as one American Navy crewman on the ground.
The continuing controversy over the cause of the Hindenburg crash is central to the issues here, as modern
historians and investigators differ in their opinions as to the chain of events leading up to the disaster.
Unsubstantiated rumors of sabotage not withstanding, opinions differ as to whether the fire was started by leaking
hydrogen ignited by a static electricity spark, or by static electricity starting a fire in the zeppelin's cover material.
Thunderstorms were passing through the Lakehurst area that day, providing ample conditions for a static discharge,
but whether it was the cover material or leaking hydrogen that provided the fire with its starting place will probably
never be known.
The Hindenburg experience has actually helped ensure the safe handling of hydrogen in what are primarily
industrial applications in the present. Safer storage mediums have also been developed, which will be described later,
replacing earlier dangerous storage. The perception that handling hydrogen is inherently dangerous has done much
to hamper the public acceptance of hydrogen research and applications. However, properly handled, hydrogen is no
more dangerous than gasoline or propane. Curiously, it was reported that no fatality from the Hindenburg accident
was directly attributable to hydrogen burns, as the millions of cubic feet of hydrogen burned off in less than one
minute. It was the diesel fuel, which powered the air ship's drive engines, that burned many of the dead and injured
that day, as well as feeding the ground fire which took several hours to extinguish.
It was in the United States that Francis Bacon, a descendant of the famous English scientist and philosopher,
developed the first modern successful hydrogen fuel cell in 1932, which was refined until a 5 kilowatt fuel cell system
was demonstrated in 1952. As the United States began its push for space flight in the late 1950's, fuel cell
technology appealed to many scientists and engineers. It was much less dangerous than any known nuclear
application, much more compact and lighter than any type of battery, as well as being simpler to deal with
mechanically than any solar photo-voltaic technology available at that time. Today hydrogen fuel cells provide much
of the electric power for the Space Shuttle, as well as power for electric automobiles and varied other emerging
applications. With a little imagination we can see the direct line from Paracelsus five hundred years ago to the
possibilities that lay in front of us in the near future.
pact on our natural resources until it is too late.


Other Forms of Renewable Energy
Other forms of conventional renewable energy include tidal, ocean thermal, wave, and hot fusion. Tidal energy
utilizes the gravitational energy of the attraction of the Sun, Earth and Moon. Wave power converts the energy
released in crashing waves, which originated in the wind, which is driven by sunlight. Ocean thermal energy exploits
the greatest collector of solar energy on Earth the sea. Hot fusion is not strictly renewable since it consumes
hydrogen, but hydrogen is so abundant that it can be considered limitless for human purposes. Each of these energy
forms has its own advantages and disadvantages, but none of them is the answer to the looming energy crunch. We
will address each of them in turn.
Tidal Energy works on the same fundamental principal as the water wheel. In the case of tidal energy, however,
the difference in water elevation is caused by the difference between high and low tides. The technology involves
building a dam, or barrage, across an estuary to block the incoming tide, the outgoing tide, or both. When the water
level on one side of the dam is higher than the level on the other side due to a tidal change, the pressure of the
higher water builds. The water is channeled through a turbine in the dam in order to get to the other side, which
produces electricity by turning an electric generator.
Tidal energy is being harnessed in several countries around the world, from facilities in Russia to France with 400
kW to 240 MW capacities. Some proposed sites, however, exhibit extraordinary potential. Britain 's Severn Estuary
and Canada 's Bay of Fundy have potential capacities of as much as 8,000 and 30,000 MW, respectively. The Severn
Estuary averages an 8.8-meter (26-foot) tidal range and the Bay of Fundy averages a 10.8-meter (32-foot) tidal
range, ideal for substantial electricity generation. But the rarity of these exceptionally high tides is the main limitation
of this energy source. Considering that "a tidal range of at least 7 meters is required for economical operation and for
a sufficient head of water for the turbines," few places in the world can make a facility's establishment worthwhile.
Since tidal power's "estimated capacity is 50 times smaller than the world's hydroelectric power capacity," it cannot
compare to other renewables.
Another constraint to the tidal system is the sheer amount of time that passes in which little electricity can be
generated between the rising and falling tides. During these times, the turbines may be used to pump extra water
into the basin to prepare for periods of high electricity demand, but not much else can be done in the interim to
generate more electricity. By its very nature, a tidal-based energy facility can only generate a maximum of ten hours
of electricity per 24-hour day. That means it cannot be expected to supply power at a steady rate or during peak
times.
Although the operation and maintenance of a tidal power plant is low, the cost of the initial construction of
the facility is prohibitive, so the overall cost of the electricity generated would be quite high. For example, it is
estimated that the Severn tidal project with a proposed capacity of 8,640 MW will cost $1,600 per kW, or over $13.8
billion. This cost exceeds that of coal and oil facilities by a considerable amount.
In contrast to the combustion of fossil fuels , the use of tidal energy makes no contribution to global warming.
But tidal energy facilities do not come without an environmental price tag. The alteration of the natural cycle of the
tides may affect shoreline as well as aquatic ecosystems. Pollution that enters a river upstream from the plant may
be trapped in the basin, while the natural erosion and sedimentation pattern of the estuary may be altered. Local
tides could decrease by more than a foot in some areas, and the "enhanced mixing of water" could stimulate the
growth of organisms, better known for their red tide effect, which paralyze shellfish. So little is known about the
potential harm of a tidal energy facility that some people believe "one of the only methods of increasing our
knowledge about how tidal barrages affect ecosystems may be the study of the effects after such facilities have been
built." With such uncertainty, tidal power appears to be an unproven alternative energy candidate.
Assuming that the high costs and the environmental issues were circumvented, the problem of distributing
the energy generated by tidal facilities would still exist. Since the collection sites are limited and fixed at unalterable
locations, the power they generate must still be distributed throughout the inland areas serviced by the plant via a
transmission grid system. The distribution of the energy across vast inland spaces presents formidable problems. This
would make it extremely difficult to replace the existing energy infrastructure, and our entire electricity needs could
never be met by tidal power alone.
"Worldwide, approximately 3000 gigawatts (1 gigawatt = 1 GW = 1 billion watts) of energy is continuously
available from the action of tides. Due to the constraints outlined above, it has been estimated that only 2% or 60
GW can potentially be recovered for electricity generation." Despite tidal power's inability to replace conventional
energy sources, it will not be dismissed in the near future. Britain , India , and North Korea have planned to
supplement their grid with this renewable energy source. Meanwhile, "a university study in January [1998] said New
Zealand could become the first country in the world to run solely on fossil fuel-free power if it exploited the tides on
its long coastlines as well as its plentiful wind and sunshine. But while the wind may not constantly blow and the sun
may not shine 24 hours a day, the advantage of the tides is that they never cease."
Wave Energy, like tidal power, will always be available, but there are current constraints that limit its contribution
to the electrical grid. Areas with the strongest winds will produce the highest concentrations of wave power a low-
frequency energy that can be converted to a 60-Hertz frequency. The best areas are on the eastern sides of the
oceans (western side of the continents) between the 40 and 60 latitudes in both the northern and southern
hemispheres. The waters off California and the UK are regarded as the best potential sites. " California 's coastal
waters are sufficient to produce between seven and 17 MW per mile of coastline."
There are several drawbacks of wave energy . While the "wave power at deep ocean sites is three to eight
times the wave power at adjacent coastal sites," constructing and mooring the site and transmitting the electricity to
shore would be prohibitively costly. Especially considering that "a wave power unit will probably not have much more
than three times the output of a single wind turbine." Once in place, the device could be a dangerous obstacle to
navigational craft that cannot see or detect it on radar, while fishermen may have trouble with the underwater
mooring lines. Conversely, an onshore wave energy system or offshore platform would have a significant visual
impact. Scenic views would be replaced by industrial activity.
Wave energy has received little attention in comparison to other renewable sources of energy. Though 12
broad types of wave energy systems have been developed combinations of fixed or moveable, floating or
submerged, onshore or offshore s cientists have not fully investigated this technology. "Many research and
development goals remain to be accomplished, including cost reduction, efficiency and reliability improvements,
identification of suitable sites in California, interconnection with the utility grid, better understanding of the impacts
of the technology on marine life and the shoreline. Also essential is a demonstration of the ability of the equipment to
survive the salinity and pressure environments of the ocean as well as weather effects over the life of the facility."
Even a successfully built and operated wave power facility could not provide extra power for peak demand, nor
would it be a reliable source of energy.
There is a handful of wave energy demonstration plants operating worldwide, but none produces a significant
amount of electricity. Projects have been discussed for various sites in California San Francisco, Half Moon Bay , Fort
Bragg , and Avila Beach but no firm plans have been made. While government agencies in Europe and Scandinavia
are sponsoring research and development, "wave energy conversion is not commercially available in the United
States . The technology is in the early stages of development and is not expected to be available within the near
future due to limited research and lack of federal funding."
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) seems to be a promising source of renewable, non-polluting energy
for the future. The oceans comprise over two-thirds of the earth's surface, meaning they collect and store an
enormous amount of solar energy. The raw numbers show that if even 0.1% of this stored energy could be tapped,
the output would be 20 times the current daily energy demands of the United States .
Ocean thermal energy conversion exploits the temperature gradient between the varying depths of the ocean,
requiring at least a 36F difference from top to bottom, as is found in tropical regions. This difference in temperature
is the "heat engine" for a thermodynamic cycle. There are three types of OTEC designs: open cycle, closed cycle, and
hybrid cycle. In an open cycle, seawater is the working fluid. Warm seawater is evaporated in a partial vacuum,
expanding through a turbine connected to an electrical generator. The steam then passes through a condenser that
uses cold seawater from the depths of the ocean, and the result is desalinated water that can be used for other
purposes. New seawater is used in the next cycle. In a closed cycle, a low boiling point liquid such as ammonia or
refrigerant is used as the working fluid, vaporized by warm seawater. After expanding through a turbine connected
to an electrical generator, cold seawater is used to condense the vapor back into a liquid to start the process again. A
hybrid cycle combines the two processes, in which flash-evaporated seawater creates steam, which in turn vaporizes
a working fluid in a closed cycle. The vapor from the working fluid powers the turbine while the steam is condensed
for desalinated water, as in an open system. The hybrid system continues to process seawater and produce
electricity.
OTEC taps energy in a consistent fashion, producing what "is probably the most environmentally friendly energy
available on the planet today." Unfortunately, the realization of this promising potential is largely experimental in
nature for the time being. In fact, the only ocean thermal energy conversion plant in the U.S. was an experimental
facility the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELHA), which was closed at the end of a successful test in 1998.
The technology is still far from being developed to an extent to make this type of innovation viable as a
widespread alternative energy source. The facility in Hawaii , for instance, produced the highest amount of electricity
to date with a 210 kW open-cycle OTEC experimental facility that operated from 1992 to 1998. When considering the
capacity of conventional combustion turbines, ranging from a typical output of 25 MW to a maximum 220 MW, this
technology is not even in the running. It is most applicable on small islands that depend on imported fuels. This
system would render an island more self-sufficient while improving the sanitation and nutrition standards, with an
abundance of desalinated water that could be used to grow aquaculture products.
It will be some time before OTEC technology is in a position to partially phase out the use of fossil fuels. The
location limitations stall any worldwide progress, and the ability of the technology to produce the quantity of energy
needed to supply the world energy demands is still largely theoretical.
Nuclear fusion has been called "the Holy Grail of the energy field." It is the diametrically opposite process of
nuclear fission, in which an atom of the heavy isotope Uranium-238 is split in a collision with an accelerated neutron,
releasing some of the energy from inside the atom. Fusion involves combining light atoms, which releases an
enormous amount of energy. The waste product of this reaction is helium and it is precisely this process which fires
most stars, in particular our sun. "Fusion is attractive as an energy source because of the virtually inexhaustible
supply of fuel, the promise of minimal adverse environmental impact, and its inherent safety."
The atoms fused together in a reaction are not ordinary hydrogen atoms that contain only one proton in the
nucleus. They are the heavy isotopes of deuterium or tritium that contain one or two neutrons along with the protons
in their nucleus. These isotopes are somewhat rare in nature "about one part [deuterium] in 6000 is found in
ordinary water" but the technology exists to isolate them in great abundance.
The fundamental problem with traditional nuclear fusion is that the fuel, the heavy hydrogen, must be raised
to over one hundred million degrees. At such a tremendous temperature, the electrons are stripped away from the
heavy hydrogen atoms leaving a fully ionized state called "plasma." This plasma must then be held together in order
to produce useful amounts of electricity. There are no known construction materials that can withstand such
temperatures, so the plasma must be contained by magnetic or inertial confinement. "Magnetic confinement utilizes
strong magnetic fields, typically 100,000 times the earth's magnetic field, arranged in a configuration to prevent the
charged particles from leaking out (essentially a 'magnetic bottle'). Inertial confinement uses powerful lasers or high
energy particle beams to compress the fusion fuel."
Another fundamental problem with hot fusion revolves around "whether a fusion system producing sufficient
net energy gain to be attractive as a commercial power source can be sustained and controlled." While fusion power
production has increased from less than one watt to over 10 million watts over the years, we still have yet to witness
a net energy gain. Even if this were to be achieved in the near future, the metallurgical requirements that must be
met by the surrounding structural materials are extremely demanding and cost prohibitive. Accomplishing a net
energy gain in hot fusion will involve the construction of a $1 billion device for experimenting with burning plasma.
Add to this the estimate of $300 million per year that the fusion community in the US will require for "significant
enhancements of the program" up from the current $230 million. The US is not alone in its fusion expenditure.
Concerned about reliance on imported energy, Japan and Europe, respectively, have allotted 1.5 and 3 times the
budget that the US currently spends for hot fusion.
The incredible complexity and cost of this process is the precise reason why the announcement of a "cold fusion
breakthrough" at the University of Utah a few years ago met with such enthusiasm. If the process could be brought
about at room temperatures, the complexity that now prevents the generation of power based on nuclear fusion
would disappear.
While billions of dollars and decades of research have been devoted to hot fusion, we are far from mastering
this type of energy generation. " Optimistic projections do not suggest that fusion energy will contribute significantly
to energy supply until well into the next century." Nevertheless, the US Department of Energy's August 1999 Final
Report of the Task Force on Fusion Energy concluded "that we should pursue fusion energy aggressively." .
Back Up Power
When the sun doesn't shine and the wind doesn't blow...
Backup power is needed for those times when your system's batteries are discharged, usually when you've consumed
too much energy or when there has not been enough renewable energy coming into your system. This happens to
photovoltaic (PV) systems during long periods of cloudiness, especially during the shorter days of winter. It can
happen to hydro systems during the dry season, or to wind systems during calm. If you live outside of town in a
remote area, a generator is vital in case you run out of power.
There are basically two kinds of generators used in RE systems. The most common is the standard 120/240 VAC
generator you can buy at a hardware or department store. Since they produce alternating current, they require a
battery charger to change it to DC for your batteries. This is not the most efficient way to do things. First,
most battery chargers cannot take advantage of the full power available from an AC generator, causing them to run
at less than their full efficiency. Second, the charger itself has built-in inefficiencies, especially if it has a large
transformer.
The other kind of generator is low voltage DC. These generators are capable of putting nearly their full power into a
battery bank, since no additional charger is required. The disadvantage of these is that they cannot be used
independently of an inverter-based system as household 120 VAC backup.
If you have access to any combination of solar, hydrogen, and wind, you have the advantage of access to
complimentary systems. Often when one isn't able to produce, the other is at its prime. Hydrogen can be used as a
source of energy and has hardly any detrimental effects on the enivronment. Research a variety of renewable energy
sources you can utilize to ensure minimum consequences including biomass and geothermal power.
Backup power can come either from a generator or from the utility grid. Most renewable energy users have the goal
of not using backup power. In the case of a generator, it's a noisy, pollution-belching machine, and in the case of the
utility grid... well, you're avoiding that for a reason, right?
Essentially, if you need back up power, your best option is a solar powered generator as they are more
environmentally friendly. Any invention, whether it be a vehicle or a household appliance, that can benefit the
environment should be the more appealing choice.
Battery Storage
For when the sun doesn't shine...
A battery stores electrical energy in a reversible chemical reaction. The renewable energy (RE) source (PV, wind, or
hydro) produces the energy, and the battery stores it for times of low or no RE production. Most batteries employed
in renewable energy systems use the same electro-chemical reactions as the lead-acid battery in your car. But, unlike
your car battery, they are specifically designed for deep cycling. And most renewable energy systems have batteries
which store between ten and hundreds of times more energy than a car battery. This doesnt guarantee you will
have a consistent performance with batteries. One should consider backup power in case your batteries become
discharged due to lack of renewable energy in the RE system or an over consumption of energy.
There are many brands and types of batteries available for RE systems. It is important to find the right battery for
your situation and wallet. The two most common batteries are the L-16 and golf cart sizes. With proper care, RE
system batteries have a lifetime of five to ten years, but there are more expensive batteries that are warranted to
last ten to twenty years.
Battery capacity is rated in amp-hours. 1 amp-hour is the equivalent of drawing 1 amp steadily for one hour, or 2
amps steadily for half an hour. A typical 12 volt system may have 800 amp-hours of battery capacity. This battery
can draw 100 Amps for 8 hours if fully discharged and starting from a fully charged state. This is the equivalent of
1,200 watts for eight hours (watts = amps x volts), or about the same power consumed as running a small hair dryer
for eight hours.
However, completely discharging your battery decreases its longevity, and can ruin it in short order. Most home
power users will only tap into a portion of available capacity to keep their batteries alive longer. Opinion varies as to
the appropriate depth of discharge, but most agree that 50% (and many say 30%) is the maximum a battery should
be routinely discharged. Never go below 80% depth of discharge. 50% means that the above 1200 watt hair dryer
would only be used for 4 hours instead of the 8 indicated by the maximum capacity of the batteries.
Batteries typically are encased in plastic and need to be wired together in series and parallel strings by the installer.
Some larger batteries are pre-wired and encased in steel containers.
Batteries do not belong inside your living space. They have dangerous chemicals in them, so they must be contained
to avoid spills. They also put out hydrogen and oxygen gas while being charged, so they should be vented to the
outdoors. Their tops and connections must be periodically cleaned to avoid energy losses. Batteries must also be
routinely topped off with distilled water. Finally, they need to be "equalized" with an occasional controlled overcharge
to keep the individual cells at equal states of charge.
Using DC Power
Using the power directly from the source...
Low voltage DC appliances (mostly 12 VDC) can be operated directly from batteries or photovoltaic modules. For
many years good inverters to power the standard 120 VAC appliances common to most modern homes did not exist.
Many DC appliances were developed to accommodate these systems, including DC incandescent and fluorescent
lighting, televisions, stereos, refrigerators, and even vacuum cleaners and washing machines. These are mostly 12
volt, though some appliances are available in 24 volt models.
Inverters are greatly improved now, making 120 VAC appliances the standard, but many off-the-grid homes still use
low voltage DC appliances. Using DC loads is a more efficient use of energy because inverters have a 50 to 95
percent efficiency, depending on the amount of power being consumed through the inverter and the make/model of
the inverter. Due to declining demand, fewer DC appliances are being manufactured. Most of these are being used in
third-world applications where inverters and other sophisticated electronics are still beyond the financial means of the
users.


World top 10 renewable electricity producers[edit]
Measurements are in TWh/year (terawatt-hours per year), equal to 1 billion Kilowatt-hours per
year.
Ran
k
Count
ry
Yea
r
Total
[1]

Hydroelectrici
ty
[2]

Wind
Power
[3]

Biomass a
nd Waste
[4]

Solar
[5]

Geotherm
al
[6]

1
China
2011 797.4 687.1 73.2 34 3


Europea
n Union
[7]

2010 699.3 397.7 149.1 123.3 23.1 5.6
2
United
States
2011 520.1 325.1 119.7 56.7 1.81 17.0
Ran
k
Count
ry
Yea
r
Total
[1]

Hydroelectrici
ty
[2]

Wind
Power
[3]

Biomass a
nd Waste
[4]

Solar
[5]

Geotherm
al
[6]

3
Brazil
2011 459.2 424.3 2.71 32.2 0.0002

4
Canada
2011 399.1 372.6 19.7 6.4 0.43

5
Russia
2011 166.7 166.2 0.018 0.038

0.464
6 India 2011 162 131 26 4 1

7
Germany
2013 147 15.4 47.2 40.85 29.7

8
Norway
2011 123.6 122.1 1.143 0.265 0.007

9
Japan
2011 116.4 82.5 4.35 23.1 3.80 2.89
10
Spain
2013 110.722 41.303 54.301 2.167 12.951

All countries[edit]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

This section needs additional citations
for verification. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (June 2014)
Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Afghanist
an
2008

520

62.50

Albania
2010 7.702 7,702

100.00
[11]

Algeria
2009

310

0.77

Angola
2008

3,804

96.45

Argentina
2008

29,955 40 1,551

27.33

Armenia
2008

1,779 2

30.38

Australia
2011 29.302 19,685 6,432 2,500 684.4 0.5 9.64
[12]

Austria
2011 45.66 37,701 1,934 5,851 174

69.38
[13]

Azerbaija
n
2008

2,210

9.80

Banglade
sh
2008

1,459

4.43

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Belarus
2008

39 1 77

0.35

Belgium
2011 10 197 2,336 5,966 1,503

9
[14]

Belize
2008

204

94.88

Benin
2008

1

0.78

Bhutan
2008

7,063

99.97

Bolivia
2008

2,258

177

40.71

Bosnia
and
Herzegovi
na
2008

4,506

35.50

Brazil
2009 409.806 387,078 1,374 21,354

88.88
[15]

Bulgaria
2013 5.509 3,234 47

17
[16]

Burkina
Faso
2009

131

19.73

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Burma
2008

3,988

62.06

Burundi
2008

206

99.04

Cambodi
a
2008

46

4 2

3.78

Cameroo
n
2008

4,190

77.29

Canada
2012 408.638 376,300 23,063 6,380 430
2,465 (2009)
[17]

64.23
[15]

Cape
Verde
2008 0.257

7

2.73

Central
African
Republic
2008 0.160 130

81.25

Chile 2008

23,643 36 2,929

44.14

China
2009 576.833 548,955 25,000 2,500 428

17.88
[15]

Colombia
2008

43,085 51 561

85.66

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Comoros
2008 0.052 2

3.85

Republic
of the
Congo
2008 0.452 371

82.08

Costa
Rica
2008

7,313 188 78

1,075 93.15

Cote
d'Ivoire
2008

1,879

112

35.89

Croatia
2011 4.819 4,600 189 30

45.7
[18]

Cuba 2008

137

371

2.99

Cyprus
2013 0.78

535.2 162.56 82.6

6

Czech
Republic
2010 6.441 3,380.6 335.5 2,110.1 615.7

8.51
[19]

Democrat
ic
Republic
of the
Congo
2008

7,409

99.42

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Denmark
2009

6,721 2,983 2.7

27.4
[20]

Dominica
2008

32

36.78

Dominica
n
Republic
2008

1,711

28

11.93

Ecuador
2008

11,181 3 397

64.12

Egypt
2008

14,535 884

12.44

El
Salvador
2008

2,018

100

1,443 62.24

Equatoria
l Guinea
2008

2

2.17

Eritrea
2008 0.27

2

0.74

Estonia
2009

32 195 39 (2006)

3.03
[16]

Ethiopia
2008

3,263

13 88.18

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Faroe
Islands
2010 0.081 67 14

28.93
[21]

Fiji 2009

660

68.04

Finland
2014

12,588 262 8,586 6

34.3
[22]

France
2010 83 68,000 9,600 4,800 600

15.1
[23]

Gabon
2008

885

7

45.44

Georgia
2008

7,090

85.50

Germany
2013 147 15,400 47,200 40,850 29,700 25.4 31.00
[24]

[25]

Ghana
2008

6,133

75.09

Greece
2011 22.98 4,012 3,314 12,618 2,733 302 15.9
[26]

Guatemal
a
2008

3,675

1,474

61.33

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Guinea
2008

500

54.35

Haiti 2008

179

38.41

Honduras
2008

2,268

187

39.21

Hungary
2010 3.17 190 530 2,449 1

8.48
[27]

Iceland
2009 16.832 12,279

4,553 100.00
[28]

India 2009

104,439 15,300 2,000 42

14.58

Indonesia
2011 21.99 12,419 4.69 198 0.77 9,371 11.99
[29]

Iran 2010

16,100 128 1 4 1 20.69
[citation needed]

Iraq
2008

555

1.60

Ireland
2012 5.446 759 4,247 440

19.6
[30]

Israel 2014 0.42 16 9 209 184

3

Italy 2012 89.759 43,256 13,333
9,281 (201
0)
[17]

18,637 5,252 31.19
[31]

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Jamaica
2008

156 47 102

4.16

Japan
2007 95 86,350 1,754

2 3,027 9.41

Jordan
2008

61 3 9

0.56

Kazakhst
an
2009

7,496

9.91

Kenya
2008

2,821

305

1,120 62.53

Kyrgyzst
an
2010

11,254

93.30
[32]

Laos 2008

3,680

92.46

Latvia
2008

3,078 56 42

62.10

Lebanon
2008

369

3.69

Lesotho
2009 0.5198 519.8

99.5
[33]

2010 0.906 535 224 147

5.85
[34]

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Lithuania
Luxembo
urg
2009 0.312 106.99 55.1 129.04 21.12

6.79
[35]

Republic
of
Macedoni
a
2008

832

13.92

Madagas
car
2008

735

66.82

Malawi
2008

1,451

86.58

Malaysia
2009

8,640

1 8.54

Mali 2008

275

56.12

Mauritani
a
2008

60

10.97

Mauritius
2008

100

4.16

Mexico
2013 15.286 12,431 1,844 142 37 823 25
[36]

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Moldova
2008

81

2.37

Montene
gro
2013

2,498

65.63

Morocco
2008

920 283

6.17

Mozambi
que
2008

14,963

99.92

Namibia
2008

1,556

70.82

Nepal
2008

3,042

99.67

Netherlan
ds
2010 11.721 101 4,503 7,058 60

9.7
[37]

New
Caledonia
2008

440

24.44

New
Zealand
2012 31.1 22,638 2,053 575

5,844 72.5
[38]

Nicaragu
a
2008

529

321

306 33.81

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Nigeria
2008

5,664

28.14

North
Korea
2008

13,927

61.85

Northern
Mariana
Islands
2001

1

1


Norway
2011 123.6 122,100 1,143 265 7

96.6
[39]

Pakistan
2009

27,075

30.34

Palau

18


Panama
2008

3,933

18

63.29

Papua
New
Guinea
2008

900

30.35

Paraguay
2010 54.065 54,065

100.00
[40]

Peru 2008

18,850 1 472

60.53

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Philippine
s
2009

9,690 61 13 1 10,187 33.71

Poland
2009

2,385 1,038 4,976

5.92

Portugal
2013 30.647 14,892 12,026 2,516 482 197 58.1
[41]

Puerto
Rico
2008 20.921 156

0.75

Runion
2008

633

37.17

Romania
2013 19.77 14832 4692 113 137

34.1
[42]

Russia
2011 166.7 166,200 18 38

464 15.8
[43]

Rwanda
2008

30

18.75

Saint
Vincent
and the
Grenadin
es
2008

23

17.42

2009

49

0.0035
[44

45.37

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Samoa
]

Sao
Tome and
Principe
2008

10

24.39

Serbia
2009

11,100

29.7

Senegal
2008

227

29

2 10.56

Sierra
Leone
2008

18

31.03

Slovakia
2009

4,417 5 508

19.96

Slovenia
2008

3,959

277 1

27.10

South
Africa
2008

1,247 246 30 21

0.65

South
Korea
2009

2,785 646 533 945

1.18

Spain
2013
[
45]

110.722 41,303 54,301
2,167 (200
6)
12,951

42.4

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Sri
Lanka
2008

4,087 3 2 15

46.18

Sudan
2008

1,448

33.50

Suriname
2008

875

55.38

Swazilan
d
2008

200

42.55

Sweden
2009

64,473 2,361 11,321 5

60.42

Switzerla
nd
2009

35,315 18 2,314

58.52

Syria 2008

2,843

7.35

Tajikistan
2009 15.642 15,642

98.08
[46]

Tanzania
2008

2,628

61.39

Thailand
2013 11.960 7,042 223 4,593 100 2 12.45

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Togo 2008

90

2

58.60

Trinidad
and
Tobago
2008

10 0.13

Tunisia
2008

38 37

0.52

Turkey
2012 67.177 57,812 5,582 2,665

1,118 28.1
[47]

Turkmeni
stan
2008

3

0.02

Uganda
2008

1,631

74.95

Ukraine
2013 15.462 14,447 522 29 464

8.74

United
Kingdom
2013 52.810 4,719 27,412 18,657 2,015

14.8
Provision
al
[48]

United
States
2011
[
49]

520.067 272,100 70,800 54,300 808 15,200 10.05

Uruguay
2008

4,460

787

61.92

Countr
y
Ye
ar
Total
renew
able
(TWh)
Hydr
o
(GW
h)
[8]

Win
d
(GW
h)
[9]

Biom
ass
(GWh)
Solar
(GW
h)
[10]

Geothe
rmal
(GWh)
[6]

% of
total
genera
tion
Ref
Uzbekist
an
2009

9,237

19.47

Venezuel
a
2009 85.839 85,839

69.57

Vietnam
2008

25,726

36.77

Zambia
2011 11.300 11,300

99.66
[50]

Zimbabw
e
2008

4,220

54.64




THE FEASIBILITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN PAKISTAN

Over the last thirty years, Asia has become a major player on the global scene. Many economies
have become tigers while China and India are developing more rapidly than anyone had expected.
Because of these developments, electricity demand is expected to increase 8% every year until
2015. As the world wakes up to the reality of climate change, electricity will increasingly have to
come from renewable sources such as wind and solar. Pakistan is in a good position to exploit these
because it has abundant wind and sun. This article will look at this potential, the barriers that exist to
further development and of course reasons why it must follow the course to a greener energy
future.
Origins of Wind Power
Many people do not realize that wind energy first came about in Asia. Between 500 and 900 AD, a
vertical axis turbine was developed in Persia to grind grain and pump water. These wind turbines
were made from bundles of reeds or wood. During the 11th century, the Crusaders brought back the
concept of the windmill to Europe where it was first used by the Dutch to grind corn and to drain
wetlands in order for people to settle and build homes. In recent years, Europe and North America
have led in terms of installed wind capacity.
Asia is now -again- making its presence felt. India and China currently have the fourth and fifth
largest number of wind turbines installed, respectively.
It is interesting to note however, that while India has 45,000 megawatts (MW) of wind energy
potential and a much larger surface area, Pakistan has at least 50,000 MW of potential.
The Viability of Wind Power in Pakistan
Pakistan is fortunate to have something many other countries do not, which are high wind speeds
near major centres. Near Islamabad, the wind speed is anywhere from 6.2 to 7.4 metres per second
(between 13.8 and 16.5 miles per hour). Near Karachi, the range is between 6.2 and 6.9 (between
13.8 and 15.4 miles per hour). Pakistan is also fortunate that in neighboring India, the company
Suzlon manufactures wind turbines, thus decreasing transportation costs. Its turbines start to turn at
a speed of 3 metres per second. Vestas, which is one of the worlds largest wind turbine
manufacturers, has wind turbines that start turning at a speed of 4 metres per second. In addition to
Karachi and Islamabad, there are other areas in Pakistan that receive a significant amount of wind.
In only the Balochistan and Sindh provinces, sufficient wind exists to power every coastal village in
the country. There also exists a corridor between Gharo and Keti Bandar that alone could produce
between 40,000 and 50,000 megawatts of electricity.
Given this surplus potential, Pakistan has much to offer Asia with regards to wind energy. In recent
years, the government has completed several projects to demonstrate that wind energy is viable in
the country. In Mirpur Sakro, 85 micro turbines have been installed to power 356 homes. In Kund
Malir, 40 turbines have been installed, which power 111 homes. The Alternative Energy
Development Board (AEDB) has also acquired 18,000 acres for the installation of more wind
turbines.
In addition to high wind speeds near major centres as well as the Gharo and Keti Bandar corridor,
Pakistan is also very fortunate to have many rivers and lakes. Wind turbines that are situated in or
near water enjoy an uninterrupted flow of wind, which virtually guarantees that power will be
available all the time. Within towns and cities, wind speeds can often change quickly due to the
presence of buildings and other structures, which can damage wind turbines. In addition, many
people do not wish for turbines to be sited near cities because of noise, though these problems are
often exaggerated. Wind turbines make less noise than an office and people comfortably carry on
conversations while standing near them.
Solar Energy a Feasible Alternative for Pakistan
As is becoming painfully evident with summer around the corner, Pakistan is an exceptionally sunny
country. If 0.25% of Balochistan was covered with solar panels with an efficiency of 20%, enough
electricity would be generated to cover all of Pakistani demand. In all provinces the AEDB has
created 100 solar homes in order to exploit solar energy.
Solar energy makes much sense for Pakistan for several reasons: firstly, 70% of the population lives
in 50,000 villages that are very far away from the national grid, according to a report by the Solar
Energy Research Centre (SERC). Connecting these villages to the national grid would be very
costly, thus giving each house a solar panel would be cost efficient and would empower people both
economically and socially.
In many Pakistani villages, wood and animal dung is used for cooking fuel; however, this is causing
widespread deforestation. Women are also forced to walk for many miles each day to gather wood.
Then, their health suffers from the smoke emitted from cooking on wood fires. The AEDB completed
a project whereby villagers that received solar panels were also given solar cookers. During the
project, deforestation decreased by 80% near the villages and the cookers were also made in
Pakistan, which generated local economic growth.
Coal Power and Hydroelectricity
In addition to wind and solar, Pakistan has the fifth largest coal deposits in the world. However, the
negative impacts of coal have been well documented. When power is produced from coal, sulfur
dioxide and nitrous oxides are produced as well, which cause an increase in smog, ozone depletion
and acid rain. Nitrous oxide is also a very powerful greenhouse gas. Even before the power is
produced, the transportation of coal also impacts health due to the coal dust and the emissions from
the vehicles. Lastly, the heavy metals from coal mine waste can seep into groundwater and rivers, of
which there are many in use Pakistan.
Pakistan also has some deposits of natural gas in the Potwar Plateau region and near the border
between Balochistan and Sindh, but these are likely to disappear within 20 years.
Because of the presence of many rivers and lakes, it may be tempting to go down the route of large
hydroelectric dams, but this may not be the answer for Pakistan. There are many examples of
hydroelectric projects in India and China that show the detriments of hydroelectricity. In China, one
million people are being relocated as part of the Three Gorges Dam project and 62,000 acres of
farmland will be flooded. The reservoir for the dam will contain one billion tons of sewage, states
Diana Biggs in her case study on the Three Gorges Dam. In Pakistan, the Kalabagh dam was put on
hold for environmental reasons in the 1980s and since then, there has been very little activity in this
area. Due to the publicity that large dams have gained in recent years, it looks unlikely that Pakistan
will take this route.
Financial and Policy Incentives
Despite the fact that Pakistan is so well endowed with wind and solar potential, only a few projects
such as those mentioned above have been completed. One of the reasons why this has occurred is
that Pakistan does not have major financial incentives available for those who want to install wind
turbines or solar panels. Let us look at the case of India, Pakistans neighbour. Despite having less
potential for wind, India now has the worlds fourth largest number of wind turbines installed at 7,093
MW, according to India: Renewable Energy Market report. In front of India are Germany at 21,283
MW, Spain at 13,400 MW and the US at 12,934 MW. In Germany, Spain and India, those who install
wind turbines and solar panels are guaranteed a certain rate per kilowatt hour. In India, this varies
according to the technology and the area. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India reports
that in most areas, between 2500 and 4800 rupees are guaranteed for solar panels, and for wind
turbines, between 250,000 and 300,000 rupees are awarded.
Because of the above incentives, the cost of wind in India is between 2 and 2.5 cents per kilowatt
hour while in Pakistan, the cost is 7 cents. In December 2006, President Musharraf announced a
national renewable energy policy. This policy means that small projects do not need approval and
that any person can put up their own project. However, there are no financial incentives for doing so.
At the moment, all renewable energy equipment has no sales or income tax and is free of custom
duty, but these incentives do very little to stimulate growth in the renewable energy market where
RoIs and other financial ratios have a long gestation or breakeven period.
1. Diana Biggs, Three Gorges Case Study
http://www.arch.mcgill.ca/prof/sijpkes/arch374/winter2001/dbiggs/three.html
2. GLOBE-Net, India: Renewable Energy Market http://www.globe-net.ca/market_reports/
index.cfm?ID_Report=1069
3. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources, CFA Provided Under Various Renewable
Energy Schemes/ Programmes http://mnes.nic.in/cfa-schemes-programmes.htm
Conclusion
It is starkly evident that Pakistan is a suitable country for the installation of wind and solar: due to
high winds near cities; the presence of rivers and lakes as well as the availability of wind turbines
from nearby India. There are also other reasons for installing renewable energy.
In 2006, the government reported that Pakistani economic growth reached 8.4 percent and will most
likely grow for the foreseeable future. It is quite normal for power outages to happen on a daily basis
in the country, but this cannot continue if the Pakistani economy is to grow. In March 2007, President
Musharraf stated that renewable energy should be part of the push to increase energy supplies by
10 to 12 percent every year. The government has also set a target of 10 percent of energy to come
from renewables by 2015. If it does follow through with aggressive capacity enhancements, Pakistan
could be an Asian leader in renewable energy given its strategic endowments.