Hutchins Identifying Trainers' Knowledge of Training Transfer Research Findings

Identifying trainers
knowledge of training
transfer research ndings
closing the gap between
research and practice
Holly M. Hutchins and Lisa A. Burke
Training professionals were surveyed concerning their knowl-
edge of transfer of training research. Survey items were devel-
oped from an integrative literature review based on empirical
ndings of factors that directly or indirectly (through learning)
inuence training transfer. Survey results suggest that training
professionals are in agreement with empirical transfer ndings
in the areas of training design and the work environment, but
differ in their agreement of how individual differences impact
transfer success and of relevant transfer evaluation ndings.
Training professionals were more familiar with academic
transfer research when they occupied higher job positions
within their organization, held a training certication and had
a college degree. The results of our study and the implications
for addressing the research-to-practice gap among training
professionals are also discussed.
One imperative facing training researchers is making study results available and useful
to practitioners. Known as the research-to-practice gap, a transparent exchange
of ideas from study to application is lacking in the training discipline (Salas &
Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Although collaborative opportunities, dedicated conference
Holly M. Hutchins, PhD, College of Technology, University of Houston, 4800 Calhoun Drive,
Houston, TX 77018. Email: hmhutchins@uh.edu. Lisa A. Burke, PhD, SPHR, College of Business
Administration, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, 300 Fletcher Hall, 615 McCallie Avenue,
Chattanooga, TN 37403. Email: lisa-burke@utc.edu
The authors would like to especially thank Dr Ken Brown for his numerous gracious inputs.
International Journal of Training and Development 11:4
ISSN 1360-3736
2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2QD,
UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA 02148, USA.
236 International Journal of Training and Development
tracks and recognition opportunities (e.g. American Society of Training and Develop-
ment (ASTD) Excellence in Research-to-Practice Award) have emerged to close this gap
(Short, 2006), the relationship between theory and application in the training discipline
remains largely disjointed. Training transfer, the generalization and maintenance of
learning to the job context (Baldwin & Ford, 1988), is an area that can especially benet
from informed application in organizational settings. Although it is estimated that
organizations expend billions
1
on training, these learning investments often fail to
yield comparable performance improvements (Phillips, 2002). In a survey of 150 orga-
nizations, training professionals reported that less than 50 per cent of employees
successfully transfer their new knowledge and skills 6 months after training (Saks &
Belcourt, 2006). This situation, coupled with the low percentage of rms and trainers
that actually assess behavioral training outcomes in terms of job performance and
return-on-investment (Balaguer et al., 2006; Rivera & Paradise, 2006), suggests training
practitioners may lack a grounded knowledge of empirical transfer ndings.
Studies of practitioner beliefs concerning academic ndings have produced provoca-
tive insights about the research-to-practice gap in human resource and training-related
research. For example, in an impressive study of US and international human resource
(HR) professionals (n = 946) beliefs concerningeffective HRpractices, Rynes et al. (2002)
found HR professionals differed in their agreement with research ndings on issues of
employee selection, recruitment, andperformance appraisal. The authors uncoveredthe
largest discrepancy between practitioner knowledge and extant research in the area of
selection, a primary area of HR responsibility. The Rynes et al. (2002) study prompts
speculation as to whether or not the revealed knowledge gap has contributed to
ill-informed decisions concerning attracting, selecting, and developing a high-
performing workforce. Closer to the domain of the present study, Huint and Saks (2003)
studied the gap between Canadian research and practitioner beliefs regarding specic
training transfer interventions. They found managers (n = 174) only slightly preferred
supervisory support over other post-training transfer interventions (specically relapse
prevention) to enhance trainees use of training back on the job. Yet, the role of
supervisory support and feedback for enhancing transfer is far more established in the
literature (Clarke, 2002; Lim&Johnson, 2002; Taylor et al., 2005) than relapse prevention
techniques (Hutchins &Burke, 2006). Inaddition, a case studyreportinginterviews with
training and human resource development (HRD) practitioners (n = 13) described
differences in how that practitioners perceived and used research ndings (Keefer &
Stone, 2007). The authors found practitioners tend to overlook research unless the
ndings helpthemsolve practice-basedproblems, are easilyaccessible andinterpretable
and align with suggestions advanced in other practitioner-oriented publications (e.g.
T&D, Performance Improvement). Unfortunately, as Rynes et al. (2007) have observed, what
researchers study does not always coincide with what is used by training professionals
or published in the practitioner literature.
To date, there are no comprehensive published studies examining training practitio-
ners knowledge of academic research dealing with factors inuencing training trans-
fer (such as learner characteristics, training design and work environment). Empirical
ndings surrounding transfer may be overlooked, given the attention garnered by
other areas of training practices, such as training design and delivery methods, or by
HR in general. As an example, items tapping HR professionals knowledge of training
made up only 13 per cent (four items) in the Rynes et al. (2002) survey compared with
other HR areas (i.e. compensation and benets, stafng, employment and management
practices) with only one item tapping training transfer. Rynes and her colleagues
developed their survey items based on the training and development content area
covered in the Human Resources Certication Institutes Professional in Human
Resources exam, the certication exam recognized by the Society of Human Resource
Management (SHRM). To identify how transfer was considered in a training certica-
1
The ASTD State of the Industry report (2006) estimates that US organizations spend $109.25 billion on
learning and development annually.
Trainers knowledge of training transfer research 237
2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
tion exam, we reviewed study materials for the Certied Professional in Learning and
Performance (CPLP) (an ASTD certication) and found information on transfer
restricted to the use of coaching as a post-training method and knowledge of
Kirpatricks (1998) four evaluation levels.
Notably, Zenger et al. (2005) suggest that a lack of emphasis in supporting training
transfer might be attributed to an imbalance between the resources provided by rms
for each phase of the instructional design process and the actual value each phase
contributes to sustained performance improvement. Specically, the authors estimate
that 85 per cent of training resources are dedicated to designing and delivering train-
ing, with the remaining 15 per cent divided between front-end analysis and follow-up
(i.e. transfer and evaluation) activities. However, when considering the value of each
phase to overall performance improvement, the authors suggest that 50 per cent of all
performance improvement resulting from training interventions may be attributed to
post-training activities that support transfer and measure performance. Based on this
work alone, the discrepancy between the importance of transfer to performance
improvement and the emphasis placed on building trainer knowledge of transfer
methods is an area of concern.
Although transfer researchers have made substantive strides in linking trainee char-
acteristics (Colquitt et al., 2000), the design of training interventions (Machin &Fogarty,
2004) and the role of the work environment (Holton et al., 2000; Lim & Johnson, 2002;
Tracey et al., 1995) to transfer outcomes, no studies have explored the extent to which
training practitioners transfer beliefs are consistent with ndings in the research
literature. However, such guidance on what makes transfer successful is futile if
training practitioners are simply unaware of research-based ndings captured in the
academic base. We agree with Short (2006) that research examining the theorypractice
tension is needed within the training and HRD discipline to understand how the gap
is actually experienced within the profession. We would also suggest that researchers
not stop at just recognizing that such a gap exists, but also demonstrate how it is
manifested within a particular area of interest, and then base targeted suggestions on
these ndings. In this empirical study, we assess the extent to which a gap in transfer
knowledge exists among practitioners, and offer specic ways to bridge the gap
between theory and practice based on our ndings.
Method
Participants
Our sample of survey respondents was composed of members of a regional ASTD
chapter located in a south-central metropolitan city, initially contacted by chapter
leadership regarding voluntary survey participation. Our survey invitation included a
description of the research questions, how subjects were identied, incentives to par-
ticipate, security measures, researcher contact information and the URL link to our
survey. The survey was created and administered online using Survey Monkey for
convenient participant access and data control (Ilieva et al., 2002). Incentives included
four small Amazon.com gift certicates, randomly awarded from the pool of partici-
pants. The survey was available for 2 weeks and two reminder messages were sent to
participants. The use of upfront branching questions ensured subjects were currently
working practitioners in the training, HRD or workplace learning eld. Of approxi-
mately 413 surveys distributed via email to valid addresses, 172 surveys were returned
(41.6 per cent), of which 139 provided usable data (i.e. passing our lter questions and
with complete data), yielding a higher than average response rate of 33.7 per cent (139
of 413) for survey research.
Procedures for survey development
Critical to this study was the development of survey items representative of established
research ndings in the training transfer literature. First, we identied a relevant
taxonomy of major factors inuencing transfer to categorize the diverse transfer litera-
ture. Specically, we examined the developing knowledge regarding three primary
factors inuencing transfer including learning characteristics, intervention design and
delivery and work environment inuences as based upon inuential conceptual
models in the eld (Baldwin &Ford, 1988; Ford &Weissbein, 1997; Salas et al., 1999). We
also used a recent integrative review of training evaluation and effectiveness factors (cf.
Alvarez et al., 2004) to conrm emerging transfer variables that were not represented in
earlier models, but were found in our review. Our guiding framework for reviewing
articles was Torracos (2005) methodology for creating integrative reviews. We synthe-
sized incremental training transfer studies by identifying relevant meta-analyses and
empirical articles that establishrelevant researchndings. Our goal was that eachsurvey
itemwouldbe supported(at a minimum) by a meta-analysis or two publishedempirical
studies located in peer-reviewed journals and had a statistically signicant relationship
in the same direction. Focusing on studies using eldsample data, we includedcase and
lab data only where quantitative studies are scant. We searchedonline databases, such as
Business Source Premier, Academic Source Premier, MasterFILE, Psychology and
Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsycINFO, Professional Development Collection, ERIC
and Vocational and Career Collection using relevant key words, including transfer of
training, transfer of learning, training transfer, skill maintenance and skill generalization to
identify published empirical articles on transfer of training.
The next step was generating specic survey items that were accurate (i.e. true to the
research) based on the array of research ndings in the extant literature. A pilot test of
our initial 40-item survey was performed using several leading training researchers
and training practitioners, who had an average of 10.3 years of experience. The goal of
the pilot test was to enhance the content validity of the survey items. We did this by
having the researchers rate each item on domain relevance, item clarity and appropri-
ateness of the items tapping each factor (Rubio et al., 2003). Practitioners rated only item
clarity, but both groups provided open-ended comments and suggestions for improve-
ment in the survey.
Item analyses of the ratings were performed and used to eliminate or modify prob-
lematic items using expert suggestions. All but nine of the 40 original items scored 3.6
(4.0) or higher on clarity, and all but seven of the 40 original items scored 3.6 (4.0) or
higher on domain relevance. After modifying and eliminating items as necessary, we
piloted an online version of the 32-item survey with undergraduate and graduate HRD
students to ensure item clarity, reasonable survey completion time, aesthetically
appealing survey format, appropriate response validation parameters and accuracy of
data submission procedures (Burke & James, 2006). To establish testretest reliability,
we then administered the online survey to senior-level undergraduate students (n = 33)
enrolled in management courses at two US-based universities. A time 1 and time 2
measure were gathered using a 4-week interval. The correlation between the two sets
of responses was 0.78 (p < 0.01).
Results
Sample Description
Aside from the primary survey items (detailed in Table 1), we gathered demographic
measures, including gender, years of work experience in the eld of training or a
related area, highest level of academic degree completed, college major, current job
level, area of focus or expertise and relevant professional certications (e.g. ASTD and
SHRM).
Participants mostly were female (69 per cent), with an average of 15 years of profes-
sional experience (standard deviation (SD) = 7.68) in training or workplace learning.
Over half (60 per cent) were employed in a training-related position for a private or
public sector organization, whereas the remaining respondents identied themselves
as an independent consultant (25 per cent) or by another title (12 per cent). Participants
were diverse in their job level, serving as analyst/associate (40 per cent), manager (26
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e
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a
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c
k
a
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t
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t
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d
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.
(
5
)
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r
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s
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h
o
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c
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g
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r
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n
s
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c
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e
s
s
.
T
r
u
e
8
1
%
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.
8
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l
f
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s
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o
r
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l
.
,
1
9
9
8
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a
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2
0
0
4
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1
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i
s
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,
1
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1
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o
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n
&
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a
t
h
a
m
,
2
0
0
0
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.
T
a
b
l
e
1
:
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
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t
e
m
A
n
s
w
e
r
%
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
(
%
U
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
)
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e
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a
r
c
h
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
N
o
t
e
s
(
6
)
T
r
a
i
n
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s
w
h
o
a
r
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t
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r
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n
t
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v
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t
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d
.
F
a
l
s
e
7
4
%
(
2
1
.
6
%
)
B
a
r
r
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c
k
a
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d
M
o
u
n
t
(
1
9
9
1
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t
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a
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a
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(
e
x
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s
(
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o
=
0
.
2
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)
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e
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k
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.
(
1
9
7
4
)
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t
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.
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r
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t
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i
p
.
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a
q
u
i
n
a
n
d
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t
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n
(
2
0
0
2
)
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r
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p
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s
e
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d
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r
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c
t
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f
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t
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t
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t
r
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v
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d
t
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t
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t
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t
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p
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g
h
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n
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a
c
t
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n
g
w
i
t
h
o
t
h
e
r
s
.
R
o
w
o
l
d
(
2
0
0
7
)
f
o
u
n
d
a
p
o
s
i
t
i
v
e
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
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o
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b
e
t
w
e
e
n
e
x
t
r
o
v
e
r
s
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o
n
a
n
d
t
r
a
n
s
f
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r
m
o
t
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v
a
t
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n
.
A
d
d
i
t
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o
n
a
l
r
e
s
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a
r
c
h
i
s
n
e
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d
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d
t
o
c
l
a
r
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f
y
t
h
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f
f
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c
t
s
o
n
a
c
t
u
a
l
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
.
(
7
)
O
n
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
,
t
r
a
i
n
e
e
s
h
i
g
h
i
n
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a
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v
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(
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.
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n
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y
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a
t
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v
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m
o
t
i
o
n
s
)
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c
h
i
e
v
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l
o
w
e
r
l
e
v
e
l
s
o
f
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
.
T
r
u
e
6
9
%
(
2
2
.
3
%
)
I
n
C
o
l
q
u
i
t
t
e
t
a
l
.
(
2
0
0
0
)
,
a
n
x
i
e
t
y
p
r
o
d
u
c
e
d
n
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g
a
t
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v
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c
o
r
r
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l
a
t
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n
s
w
i
t
h
e
v
e
r
y
t
r
a
i
n
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n
g
o
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t
c
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m
e
,
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n
c
l
u
d
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n
g
t
r
a
n
s
f
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r
.
M
a
c
h
i
n
a
n
d
F
o
g
a
r
t
y
(
2
0
0
4
)
f
o
u
n
d
n
e
g
a
t
i
v
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a
f
f
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c
t
i
v
i
t
y
a
s
t
h
e
o
n
l
y
s
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g
n
i
c
a
n
t
p
r
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d
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c
t
o
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f
p
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s
t
-
t
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n
i
n
g
t
r
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s
f
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m
p
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e
m
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n
t
a
t
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o
n
i
n
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
s
.
(
8
)
B
e
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n
g
c
o
m
m
i
t
t
e
d
t
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o
n
e
s
o
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t
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a
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t
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n
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n
g
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
.
F
a
l
s
e
6
9
%
(
9
.
4
%
)
T
h
e
r
e
i
s
n
o
t
a
b
l
e
r
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s
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r
c
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s
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p
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r
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f
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e
h
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p
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s
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v
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t
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p
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n
a
n
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m
p
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l
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v
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f
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g
a
n
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z
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t
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n
a
l
c
o
m
m
i
t
m
e
n
t
a
n
d
t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
(
r
c
=
0
.
4
5
i
n
C
o
l
q
u
i
t
t
e
t
a
l
.
,
2
0
0
0
;
r
=
0
.
6
1
i
n
K
o
n
t
o
g
h
i
o
r
g
h
e
s
,
2
0
0
4
)
.
(
9
)
T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
t
e
n
d
s
t
o
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e
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n
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e
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e
d
m
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b
y
w
h
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r
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t
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t
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t
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a
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m
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r
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e
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4
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a
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t
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4
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r
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h
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m
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r
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T
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9
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x
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(
1
9
9
7
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l
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d
A
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s
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n
(
1
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8
4
)
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l
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t
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m
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t
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.
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a
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h
e
j
o
b
a
r
e
m
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n
s
f
e
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s
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c
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e
s
s
.
T
r
u
e
1
0
0
%
(
0
%
)
F
o
r
d
e
t
a
l
.
(
1
9
9
2
)
f
o
u
n
d
t
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a
t
a
i
r
m
e
n
o
b
t
a
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d
d
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f
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t
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p
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r
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n
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t
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r
f
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r
m
t
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a
t
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d
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f
f
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r
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d
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a
t
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t
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d
e
s
.
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n
C
l
a
r
k
e
(
2
0
0
2
)
,
l
i
m
i
t
e
d
o
p
p
o
r
t
u
n
i
t
y
t
o
p
e
r
f
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r
m
s
k
i
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l
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n
t
h
e
j
o
b
w
a
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t
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e
h
i
g
h
e
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t
b
a
r
r
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s
u
c
c
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s
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l
t
r
a
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n
i
n
g
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
(
2
4
)
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r
a
i
n
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e
s
a
r
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m
o
r
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l
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k
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c
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d
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d
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a
c
k
.
T
r
u
e
9
9
%
(
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7
%
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h
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p
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o
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d
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s
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m
,
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o
,
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9
5
;
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r
k
e
&
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a
l
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n
,
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9
9
;
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l
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2
0
0
2
)
.
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x
o
n
(
1
9
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7
)
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o
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n
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s
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p
o
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t
o
f
t
r
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n
s
f
e
r
(
r
=
0
.
3
6
,
p
>
0
.
0
0
1
)
.
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e
e
n
d
i
n
g
s
f
o
r
i
t
e
m
n
o
.
2
5
.
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u
t
u
r
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e
a
r
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s
s
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g
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p
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i
.
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.
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b
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g
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p
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t
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f
t
r
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n
s
f
e
r
.
(
2
5
)
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r
a
i
n
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e
s
a
r
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m
o
r
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l
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o
w
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r
s
.
T
r
u
e
9
7
%
(
2
.
9
%
)
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e
e
r
s
u
p
p
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e
m
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a
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g
n
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a
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s
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p
(
B
=
0
.
6
5
,
p
<
0
.
0
5
)
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i
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s
k
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r
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n
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o
d
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d
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l
a
t
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o
n
s
h
i
p
;
t
h
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t
h
e
r
v
a
r
i
a
b
l
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s
(
s
u
p
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r
v
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p
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a
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)
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f
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n
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m
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v
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n
(
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h
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a
b
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a
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o
v
a
,
2
0
0
5
)
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a
w
l
e
y
a
n
d
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a
r
n
a
r
d
(
2
0
0
5
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o
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n
d
n
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t
w
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k
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g
w
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p
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n
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p
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m
o
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s
k
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l
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t
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s
f
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r
6
m
o
n
t
h
s
p
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s
t
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t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
.
(
2
6
)
T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
s
u
c
c
e
s
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t
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n
d
s
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n
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g
o
a
l
s
.
T
r
u
e
9
1
%
(
3
.
6
%
)
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o
n
t
e
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n
o
(
2
0
0
2
)
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d
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s
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.
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a
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a
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s
p
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a
(
1
9
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9
)
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o
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a
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-
b
a
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d
,
t
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f
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t
u
r
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m
p
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a
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s
t
r
a
t
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g
y
.
T
a
b
l
e
1
:
C
o
n
t
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n
u
e
d
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t
e
m
A
n
s
w
e
r
%
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
(
%
U
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
)
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
N
o
t
e
s
(
2
7
)
T
r
a
i
n
e
e
p
e
r
c
e
p
t
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o
n
o
f
t
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a
n
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t
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m
a
t
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t
o
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a
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d
t
r
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m
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t
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e
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s
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c
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e
s
s
.
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a
l
s
e
8
5
%
(
9
.
4
%
)
T
r
a
i
n
e
e
p
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p
t
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f
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s
f
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l
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m
a
t
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t
r
a
n
s
f
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o
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t
c
o
m
e
s
d
i
r
e
c
t
l
y
(
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o
n
t
o
g
h
i
o
r
g
h
e
s
,
2
0
0
1
;
L
i
m
&
M
o
r
r
i
s
,
2
0
0
6
;
M
a
t
h
i
e
u
e
t
a
l
.
,
1
9
9
2
;
T
r
a
c
e
y
e
t
a
l
.
,
1
9
9
5
)
,
a
n
d
i
n
d
i
r
e
c
t
l
y
a
s
a
m
o
d
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r
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t
w
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i
n
d
i
v
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d
u
a
l
o
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r
g
a
n
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z
a
t
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n
a
l
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
a
n
d
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
(
B
u
r
k
e
&
B
a
l
d
w
i
n
,
1
9
9
9
)
.
T
h
e
(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
c
o
e
f
c
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e
n
t
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
c
l
i
m
a
t
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a
n
d
t
r
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n
s
f
e
r
w
a
s
f
a
i
r
l
y
s
t
r
o
n
g
a
t
0
.
3
7
(
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
i
z
e
=
5
2
5
)
i
n
C
o
l
q
u
i
t
t
e
t
a
l
.
(
2
0
0
0
)
.
A
l
t
h
o
u
g
h
t
h
e
r
e
i
s
s
o
l
i
d
e
m
p
i
r
i
c
a
l
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
f
o
r
t
h
e
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r
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a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
l
i
m
a
t
e
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
,
c
o
n
c
e
p
t
u
a
l
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
e
x
i
s
t
o
n
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s
o
f
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
c
l
i
m
a
t
e
m
o
d
e
l
s
.
(
2
8
)
H
o
l
d
i
n
g
t
r
a
i
n
e
e
s
a
c
c
o
u
n
t
a
b
l
e
f
o
r
u
s
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n
g
t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
o
n
t
h
e
j
o
b
h
a
s
l
i
t
t
l
e
i
n
u
e
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per cent), director (11 per cent), vice president (5 per cent), or president of the rm (14
per cent). The majority of participants (90 per cent) had a college degree, with 58 per
cent of those having an advanced degree. Of those with a college degree, over half (55
per cent) completed a degree of study in training or workplace learning, with 6 per cent
currently working on a degree in the area. Fewer participants held a professional
certication either from SHRM or ASTD (9 per cent and 17 per cent, respectively).
Correlates of transfer knowledge
Several demographic variables were signicantly correlated with training practitio-
ners knowledge of transfer ndings (Table 2). Specically, transfer knowledge was
positively associated with both education (r = 0.21, p < 0.05) and training certication
(r = 0.19, p < 0.05), indicating that training practitioners who pursued higher levels of
education were more knowledgeable of transfer research ndings. This nding was
expected, given that over half of the practitioners possessed academic instruction in
training or a related area, as previously noted. Even though the CPLP certication
exam(ASTD) does not include a distinct content area dealing with transfer, knowledge
of general training-related areas (e.g. design and delivery methods) appears to have
placed participants with this certication at an advantage in answering our survey
compared with those without a certication.
Training practitioners in higher job levels were also more likely to be knowledgeable
of the transfer research ndings (r = 0.20, p < 0.05). In our sample, 56 per cent of training
practitioners held a managerial position or higher in their organization. We found that
professionals at higher levels in their organization also tended to have more work
experience in the eld of training (r = 0.43, p < 0.01). As individuals gain more training
experience and advance to higher-level jobs, they are likely in need of a more expansive
knowledge base of effective transfer practices due to increased accountability for
performance outcomes resulting from training investments (Balaguer et al., 2006).
Survey Responses by Topical Area
Illustrated in the histogram in Figure 1, the average participant correctly answered 25
of the 32 (78 per cent) transfer of training survey items. This is slightly higher than the
average (71 per cent) on the training items included in the Rynes et al.s (2002) study; 17
per cent of our sample scored below 72 per cent (23 out of 32) on the transfer exam.
Table 2: Means (M), standard deviations (SD), correlations and measure reliabilities
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
(1) Job level 2.42 1.74
(2) Education 3.44 0.89 0.21*
(3) Work experience 14.53 8.76 0.43** 0.21*
(4) ASTD certication 1.18 0.38 0.07 -0.04 0.14
(5) SHRM certication 1.10 0.31 0.02 -0.06 -0.08 0.00
(6) Knowledge of transfer 25.29 2.71 0.20* 0.21* 0.11 0.19* 0.08 0.79**
Notes: n = 107. Job level is coded: 1 = analyst, 2 = manager, 3 = director, 4 = chief learning ofcer,
5 = vice president, 6 = president; education: 1 = high school, 2 = associates degree, 3 = bachelors,
4 = masters, 5 = doctorate, 6 = Doctor of Jurisprudence; Work experience: number of years in
training; ASTD certication: 1 = no, 2 = yes; SHRM certication: 1 = no, 2 = yes; knowledge of
transfer: number of correct items out of 32 possible. Reliability for transfer knowledge was
measured as a correlation between testretest (n = 33).
* p < 0.05 (one-tailed test).
** p < 0.01 (one-tailed test).
ASTD = American Society of Training and Development, SHRM = Society of Human Resource
Management.
There was a notable array of total correct answers logged by practitioners, ranging from
a lowof 18 (56.3 per cent) to a high of 31 (96.9 per cent). Moreover, participants differed
on the extent to which they collectively agreed on specic items and in specic catego-
ries, indicating that certain knowledge gaps are more prominent.
All survey items for this study and highlights of relevant research support, along
with the answers and associated participant responses, are summarized in Table 1. We
also include a notes section to highlight gaps in the literature, which provides numer-
ous suggestions for future research. Results relevant to each of the transfer factors are
reviewed.
Learner characteristics
Participants knowledge of transfer research ndings differed most on items describing
the relationship between transfer success and individual factors (i.e. cognitive ability,
personality and motivation), with correct responses ranging from a low 33 per cent on
one item to 96 per cent on another item. This result suggests practitioners knowledge
of how individual trainee differences impact transfer varies widely and/or is limited.
Participants were in high agreement (>80 per cent) on the positive relationship between
transfer and utility perceptions for career advancement and skill development, moti-
vation, openness to experience and self-efcacy. This nding might be the result of
commonsensical reasoning on the part of training respondents; that is, it may just
make intuitive sense that a trainee who has high self-efcacy (beliefs about task per-
formance) would successfully transfer skills more than someone low in self-efcacy. In
contrast, only 33 per cent of respondents believed cognitive ability would positively
inuence transfer outcomes, and almost 20 per cent were uncertain. Similar to Rynes
et al. (2002), practitioners appear to place minimal importance on the role of general
mental ability in workplace performance and learning, despite the wealth of support
for its relationship with learning and transfer (see Colquitt et al., 2000).
Concerning the role of personality traits, almost one-fourth of practitioners were
uncertain about the role of negative affectivity on transfer outcomes. Although the effects
of trainee emotions on transfer have fairly strong support in the literature, training
practitioners are apparently not cognizant of how emotions impact performance. In
Correct number of transfer items
35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

r
e
s
p
o
n
d
e
n
t
s
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 1: Histogram of transfer of learning scores*
* n = 139 respondents; 32 total survey items.
addition, only 50 per cent of practitioners correctly responded that utility perceptions are
more important than affective reactions in terms of transfer outcomes, despite two
comprehensive meta-analytic studies showing a minimal relationship (Alliger et al.,
1997; Colquitt et al., 2000) between affective and transfer performance. This nding
could be explained by the common use of Kirpatricks (1998) training evaluation frame-
work, which has been used by practitioners to infer that positive affective outcomes are
related to transfer performance. Although 74 per cent of participants believed extro-
verted individuals are more likely to have higher transfer success than those identied
as less social, 22 per cent were uncertain of this nding. The relatively low agreement
of practitioner responses in the area of personality, coupled with the high degree of
uncertain responses, indicates that practitioners are either unaware of or do not under-
stand its role in generalizing and maintaining trained knowledge and skills. As men-
tioned previously, the one exception was for openness to experience, where 85 per cent of
participants agreed that trainees who have a willingness to change and try new things
were more likely to transfer than those who are not.
Training design
In contrast to knowledge of individual differences in transfer success, practitioners
expressed high agreement (>80 per cent) on most practices (11 of 13) describing the
design and development of training, indicating that knowledge of certain design
elements has penetrated the eld of practice. This result could also be attributed to
some trainers assuming that activities used during training (and of which they facili-
tate) were more likely to impact transfer than those used before or after training where
they may not be directly involved (Saks & Belcourt, 2006). For example, practitioners
agreed that the role of over-learning through practice (99 per cent), avoiding cognitive
overload in content presentation (95 per cent) and the use of goal-setting (94 per cent) in
training inuence trainee ability to apply and maintain skills in the post-training
period. Even though more empirical work is clearly needed to substantiate the use of
active learning methods for impacting transfer, 94 per cent of training practitioners
assume interactive techniques are more effective for promoting transfer than passive
methods (i.e. lecture). Practitioners expressed some degree of uncertainty about the use
of multiple examples (13 per cent) and error-based examples (12 per cent) to promote
transfer despite their moderately established support (Ivancic & Hesketh, 2000; Smith-
Jentsch et al., 1996) in the academic literature. The high level of agreement among
trainers on the use of these specic instructional practices is also commensurate with
studies that have found support between specic learning principles (i.e. identical
elements, stimulus generalization, modeling, practice and feedback) and transfer
performance (cf. Alvarez et al., 2004).
Practitioners were less condent about the link between self-management strategies (18
per cent uncertain) on transfer of training, possibly reecting some of the mixed results
in the academic literature. That is, although practitioners agreed with the efcacy
of goal-setting (as noted above) and the use of other cognitivebehavioral (self-
management) strategies such as positive self-feedback outlined in question no. 21
strategies such as relapse prevention appear to be less recognized (Richman-Hirsch,
2001) or perhaps are less understood by practitioners. Similarly, practitioners were
cautious in their agreement (74 per cent; 15 per cent uncertain) as to whether or not
instructional media or instructional methods had more of an inuence on transfer of
training. Relevant meta-analyses of instructional media are only recently forthcoming
(see Sitzmann et al., 2006) and perhaps have not inltrated the practitioner literature.
Work environment
Survey responses representing work environment factors reect the continuing
research support in management, psychology and education for the role of practice (100
per cent), manager support (99 per cent) and peer support (97 per cent) and organizational
goal linkage (91 per cent) on positive training transfer. Practitioners were in less agree-
ment about the utility of holding trainees accountable (85 per cent) for transfer and the
use of technology (75 per cent) to support transfer success. Holding trainees accountable
for skill and knowledge transfer through the use of sanctions, follow-up reporting on
performance outcomes and as a part of performance appraisal have been positively
linked to increased transfer (Taylor et al., 2005), although calls for more research explor-
ing the socio-technical aspects of transfer exist (Kontoghiorghes, 2001; Longnecker,
2004). The evidence for using performance support technology to support transfer via
Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) unfortunately is heavily reliant upon
case-based studies (Eddy & Tannenbaum, 2003; Rossett & Mohr, 2004), but EPSSs are
poised to help employees efciently locate resources, support processes and guide
decision-making on an as-needed basis. Indeed, practitioners may not be well-versed
in the use of technology as a job support mechanism, making the specic use of
performance technologies as a training transfer support tool a fairly remote concept.
Evaluation of transfer
Items assessing research-based evaluation ndings garnered the least agreement
among training practitioners in our survey. Given the attention in practitioner journals
to the topic of evaluation, these results were somewhat unexpected. The most glaring
example was in the area of trainee reactions and learning. A hefty 95 per cent of practi-
tioners disagreed that the relationship between trainee reaction and transfer success is
minimal, even though affective outcomes have been found to have a weak association
with training transfer (r = 0.07 in Alliger et al., 1997) in the literature. Practitioners were
more agreeable (72 per cent) although they still expressed some uncertainty (15 per
cent) with research ndings regarding the relationship between learning and transfer.
Finally, practitioners varied in their responses concerning the role of supervisors for
assessing transfer back to the job, with almost 26 per cent uncertain of the correct
answer. Their confusion is somewhat understandable given that sources to conrm
transfer success likely depend upon the initial training and work design for trainees
(Kupritz, 2002).
Discussion of results
As with any study, ours has limitations, including a moderate sample size constrained
by geography and participant diversity. Our ndings may actually underestimate the
research-to-practice gap in transfer, as the bulk of our respondents were highly edu-
cated and active ASTD chapter members, indicating a keen interest in keeping abreast
of new ideas an attribute that may be different from the average training profes-
sional. In addition, our sample was located in the USA, and so results may not be
indicative or generalizable to training professionals located in other countries. There-
fore, replication of our survey with a larger and more internationally diverse sample of
training practitioners is suggested.
The results of the present study indicate that training practitioners are in general
agreement with standing ndings in the areas of training design and the work envi-
ronment. In contrast, training practitioners agreed less with ndings concerning indi-
vidual differences that impact transfer success and on evaluation practices used to
measure transfer outcomes, thus suggesting a research-to-practice gap in these areas.
Consequently, our results suggest trainers may be neglecting information in front-end
audience analyses or needs assessments that could be useful for predicting transfer and
designing interventions to buttress transfer for certain learner proles (Broad, 2005).
The relationship between needs analysis and transfer is not a new idea; researchers
have long suggested conducting needs analysis to identify obstacles to transfer
(Hesketh, 1997; Holton et al., 2000), and included needs analysis as a primary point of
departure in evaluation and effectiveness models to ensure that training content will
inuence change in learners and result in positive business results and return-on-
investment (Alvarez et al., 2004; Broad, 2005). In their evaluation of learning interven-
tions, trainers may inaccurately reason that stopping at a reaction level (satisfaction) of
measurement is sufcient, as they erroneously reported trainee reactions were predic-
tive of transfer. This misinterpretation alone would represent a awed assumption in
the eld and may explain, in part, the widespread neglect of measurement activities in
rms beyond assessing learning outcomes or the overreliance on evaluation models
that do not consider multiple individual variables (Balaguer et al., 2006).
Training professionals showed the most variability in their agreement with items
tapping the individual differencestransfer relationship. Although practitioners gener-
ally agreed that trainee expectations of valued outcomes and self-efcacy did inuence
transfer, our results indicate that factors such as personality, utility perceptions, orga-
nization commitment, motivation and cognitive ability are lesser known correlates of
transfer of training. These results could be attributable to the lack of exposure and
availability of research results to training practitioners, an observation made by Ford
and Weissbein (1997) over a decade ago concerning the scant research exploring indi-
vidual differences in transfer research. Notably, we found the highest knowledge areas
exist for variables where research ndings had been published in journals across
multiple representative disciplines (e.g. management, HRD, training and psychology),
and that lower knowledge areas emerged for research ndings that were only pub-
lished in single disciplines. For example, research on transfer and self-efcacy have
been published in psychology, management and HRD outlets, whereas studies dealing
with personality traits and performance are predominantly distributed via organiza-
tional behavior outlets; as such, their implications have less of a chance to penetrate
training practitioner knowledge bases.
In addition, training practitioners may be less knowledgeable of transfer ndings
linked to less established areas in the research base, referred to as a knowledge transfer
problem between academics and practitioners (Van de Ven & Johnson, 2006). Studies
in the areas of emotions, rewards and incentives and certain personality factors are not
long-standing, suggesting that transfer researchers are expanding the range of indi-
vidual differences past the more frequently used variables of self-efcacy and attitudi-
nal outcomes. For example, research in the area of affectivity and extroversion (Machin
& Fogarty, 2004; Naquin & Holton, 2002) indicates progress toward a more expansive
look at individual differences inuence on transfer success. Unfortunately, such
advances in academic models appear to remain undercommunicated to and/or not yet
espoused by trainers.
The second main area where training practitioner knowledge was inconsistent with
transfer research ndings is in the area of transfer evaluation, with correct responses
ranging between 5 and 72 per cent for three items. As noted in Table 1, these items
measured practitioner knowledge of attitudinal and learning outcomes as related to
transfer and the role of supervisors in determining trainee transfer. Although many
organizations and practitioner outlets have called for analysing training investments by
using metrics linked to protability, the industry-generated evidence suggests there is
a much lower assessment of behavioral and results-oriented outcomes compared with
reaction and learning outcomes. Specically, evaluation data collected from organiza-
tions recognized for their effective training practices
2
(n = 39) identied that only 38 per
cent were assessing behavioral and results outcomes and even fewer were measuring
the return on investment of their learning investments (Rivera & Paradise, 2006). In
addition, a survey of executives in HR and training (n = 251) found nearly 40 per cent
of organizations had no formal measures for linking training efforts to business per-
formance indicators, namely protability and quality improvements (Balaguer et al.,
2006). These prior results, together with the present ndings, suggest training practi-
tioners may be focusing on the micro issues of evaluating specic training interven-
tions versus outcomes associated with departmental and organizational-level impacts
as noted in more contemporary models of transfer and training effectiveness (Alvarez
et al., 2004; Ford & Weissbein, 1997; Holton & Baldwin, 2003; Salas & Cannon-Bowers,
2001).
2
Evaluation data were collected in 2006 from select organizations located in the USA recognized for
their efforts to foster, support, and leverage enterprise-wide learning for business results. These orga-
nizations submit detailed data on their learning investments and practice each year to be used in the
ASTD State of the Industry Report.
Addressing the research-to-practice gap
Our survey of transfer research ndings presents an examination of one aspect of the
research-to-practice gap among training practitioners. In addition to the array of
opportunities for future research suggested by Table 1, the results of our study indicate
that targeted research and practitioner activities are needed to close the research-to-
practice gap for training transfer. Although training practitioners have reported access-
ing relevant research or conducting research to improve performance in their rms,
their attempts appear limited to garnering anecdotal evidence from other colleagues or
gathering best practices information reported in practitioner outlets, rather than the
academic base (Holton, 2004; Keefer & Stone, 2007; Rynes et al., 2002).
In an attempt to forge new opportunities to understand and lessen the research-to-
practice gap, a promising line of inquiry might be to identify which academic research
ndings in training have actually penetrated the practitioner literature (and which have
not). A content review of popular practitioner literature bases could help to identify
which research results have breeched the research-to-practice divide and may generate
additional ideas for how to make empirical results useful and accessible to practitio-
ners. Moreover, involving editors of training journals in academic conference sessions
might educate researchers on properly packaging their work to such outlets. Ultimately,
as transfer research matures and integrates multiple individual, design and work
environment variables, researchers concerned about making the results useful and
accessible to practitioners would benet from knowing how to best position their
studies for the widest appeal to practitioners in the eld.
Despite the array of suggestions in the academic literature for increasing the
exchange between researchers and practitioners (Berger et al., 2004; Latham, 2001;
Rynes et al., 2002; Short, 2006), which typically focus on researchers responsibilities,
one angle yet to be closely examined is the trainers role and how they are
inuenced to learn about and use transfer ndings in their everyday duties. We do
not intend to minimize the role of researchers in bridging the gap, but there are
multiple parties involved in the exchange and application of training research, and
examining all stakeholders including trainers may help us bridge the gap more
effectively. To help us understand a trainers role in the research-to-practice gap, we
can invoke a long-standing framework in the study of workplace behavior, which
suggests employee performance is a function of ability, motivation and opportunity
(Peters & OConnor, 1980). Not surprisingly, these are some of the same character-
istics outlined in the literature to shore up training transfer, thus applying a
performance-oriented perspective to developing trainers knowledge and support for
transfer. Based on this model, a trainers focus on transfer activities can be better
understood by examining his/her ability, motivation and opportunity to support
transfer in organizations.
In terms of a trainers ability to support transfer, it has been conceded that academic
research ndings are often difcult to understand (Berger et al., 2004; Kuchinke, 2004)
and that to some, an interpreter may be needed to help trainers understand academic
studies (Bates & Bates, 2003; Huint & Saks, 2003; Salas et al., 1997). More practically,
organizations could ensure trainers espouse the proper jobperson t (for their training
jobs) so that their knowledge, skills and abilities prepare them for understanding and
applying training research ndings. Commensurate with our ndings, trainers who
have an academic degree in the eld of HRD or training appear more knowledgeable
of the basic literature in training and may therefore be better equipped to interpret and
share academic ndings with colleagues, communicate with academics about transfer
and remain aware of outlets providing transfer research. Interestingly, our review of
ASTDs CPLP exam materials yielded only a cursory assessment of transfer knowl-
edge, indicating trainers are not even required to have a thorough knowledge of
transfer practices for achieving a level of professional certication. Thus, providers of
standardized knowledge-based certication exams that deal with training may want to
incorporate our survey items (or some subset) to ensure certied trainers possess the
knowledge of transfer needed to be successful in their job.
In terms of trainer motivation, it is likely that those trainers (just as trainees) who are
held accountable for transfer results are more inclined to design for and measure
transfer. In addition, afliation with the relevant professional associations (such as
ASTD, SHRMandother international trainingassociations andsocieties) shouldencour-
age trainer motivation to support transfer, as these organizations tout the importance of
evaluating training interventions and regularly disseminate information on various
training topics, including transfer. Consistent with our ndings, those individuals with
higher-level positions in the training eld will likely be motivated to stay abreast of
academic transfer research given their job responsibilities. Lastly, we believe that
training practitioners will be more motivated to gather and examine transfer results in
their rms if provided a simple, easy-to-administer tool for measuring transfer, such as
the Transfer of Training Evaluation Model (TOTEM), createdby the Knowledge Transfer
Center, Department of Energy (see http://learnativity.com/roi-learning.html).
Finally, in terms of opportunities in their work environment, trainers who are afforded
the time and access to various modes of information delivery (e.g. via podcasts, list-
servs and EPSS) to become knowledgeable about training research should be in a better
position to acquire the knowledge and apply it in their everyday training duties. In
addition, rms providing resources to their trainers to attend training conferences,
including academic conferences such as Academy of Human Resource Development
(AHRD), and who are given the opportunity to apply this learning in their organiza-
tion, will also be likely candidates for sustaining transfer. Ultimately, the suggested
ideas could help promote the science of our discipline and advance progress toward
recouping more on training investments by supporting enhanced transfer knowledge
of trainers.
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