Section 3: Equivalence Relations

Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A. R is

an equivalence relation on A if R is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.
From the last section, we demonstrated that
Equality on the Real Numbers and Congruence
Modulo p on the Integers were reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive, so we can describe
them as equivalence relations.
10.3.1
Examples
What is the smallest equivalence relation on a
set A?
R = {(a,a) | a A}, so that n(R) = n(A).
What is the largest equivalence relation on a set
A?
R = A A, so that n(R) = [n(A)]
2
.
10.3.2
Equivalence Classes
Definition: If R is an equivalence relation on a set
A, and a A, then the equivalence class of a is
defined to be:
[a] = {b A | (a,b) R}.
In other words, [a] is the set of all elements
which relate to a by R.
For example: If R is congruence mod 5, then
[3] = {..., 12, 7, 2, 3, 8, 13, 18, ...}.
Another example: If R is equality on Q, then
[2/3] = {2/3, 4/6, 6/9, 8/12, 10/15, ...}.
Observation: If b [a], then [b] = [a].
10.3.3
A String Example
Let = {0,1} and denote L(s) = length of s, for
any string s *. Consider the relation:
R = {(s,t) | s,t * and L(s) = L(t)}
R is an equivalence relation. Why?
REF: For all s *, L(s) = L(s);
SYM: If L(s) = L(t), then L(t) = L(s);
TRAN: If L(s) = L(t) and L(t) = L(u), L(s) = L(u).
What are the equivalence classes of R?
[], [0], [00], [000], [0000], ...
in other words,
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
, ...
10.3.4
Relations and Partitions
Recall that a partition of a set is a collection of
mutually disjoint subsets whose union is the
original set.
Equivalence relations and partitions are tied
together by the following:
Definition: Given a partition of a set A, the
binary relation induced by the partition is
R = {(x,y) | x and y are in the same partition set}.
Theorem: If A is a set with a partition and R is
the relation induced by the partition, then R is an
equivalence relation.
10.3.5
Making Equivalence Relations
This example shows how to apply this theorem to
create the induced equivalence relation.
The collection {{1,2,3}, {4,5}, {6}} is a partition
of {1,2,3,4,5,6}. To find the induced equivalence
relation, observe:
{1,2,3} {1,2,3} = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),
(2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}
{4,5} {4,5} = {(4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5)}
{6} {6} = {(6,6)}
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1),
(3,2), (3,3), (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5), (6,6)}
10.3.6
Formally Making
Equivalence Relations
Theorem: Let A be a set partitioned by the
collection {A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, ...}. Then the equivalence
relation induced by the partition is given by:
R = (A
1
A
1
) (A
2
A
2
) (A
3
A
3
) ...
From the last example, the collection
{{1,2,3}, {4,5}, {6}} partitioned {1,2,3,4,5,6},
so the induced relation is:
R = {1,2,3}{1,2,3} {4,5}{4,5} {6}{6}
10.3.7
Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Theorem: Let A be a set partitioned by the
collection {A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, ...}. If a
1
A
1
, a
2
A
2
,
a
3
A
3
, etc., then the equivalence relation
induced by the partition is given by:
R = ([a
1
][a
1
]) ([a
2
][a
2
]) ([a
3
][a
3
]) ...
From the last example, the collection
{{1,2,3}, {4,5}, {6}} partitioned {1,2,3,4,5,6},
so the induced relation is:
R = ([1] [1]) ([4] [4]) ([6] [6])
10.3.8
Going the Other Way
Theorem: Let A be a non-empty set and let R be
an equivalence relation on A. Then the distinct
equivalence classes of R partition A.
For example, given the relation of congruence
mod 5 on the Integers, we obtain the partition:
Z = [0] [1] [2] [3] [4].
If = {0,1}, what partition of
4
is induced by
R = {(s,t) | s,t
4
and density(s) = density(t)}?

4
= [0000][0001][0011][0111][1111]
10.3.9
Functions, Relations & Partitions
Let f be a function defined on a set A, and
consider the relation R={(a,b) | f(a) = f(b)}.
Show R is an equivalence relation and describe
the partition of A induced by R.
REF: f(a) = f(a) for all a A;
SYM: If f(a) = f(b), then f(b) = f(a);
TRAN: If f(a) = f(b) and f(b) = f(c), f(a) = f(c).
Each partition set contains those elements whose
output from f is the same.
10.3.10
An Example
Let f be the function on Z, given by f(x) = x
4
+ 1.
x: 0 1 2 3 4 ...
f(x): 1 2 9 82 257 ...,
This function induces the partition:
Z = {0} {1, 1} {2, 2}
{3, 3} {4,4}...
10.3.11
Graphs & Partitions
If we generate the directed graph of an
equivalence relation just right, then the induced
partition jumps out:
1
3
4
2
5
6
10.3.12