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2
Abstract
Emissions from automotive air-conditioning systems are a growing concern
nowadays because of their impact on climate change. Throughout the years,
governmental actions and strict rules have been considered for transitions between
refrigerants for Mobile Air-Conditioning (MAC) systems, in order to limit their
contributions to greenhouse gases, anthropogenic climate change, as well as stratospheric
ozone depletion. As of today, restrictions on substances exceeding a Global Warming
Potential (GWP) above 150 have been forced by the European Union, whereas the rest of
the world, including the US, is still negotiating and testing the possibility and
sustainability for the development of new alternative refrigerants, such as the R-1234yf
and the R-744 instead of R-134a, which is currently the most used refrigerant in MAC
systems worldwide.

These regulatory hurdles on the alternative refrigerants reveal a greater concern
for further examining the comparative sustainability of these three refrigerants, associated
with the environmental impacts as well as the human health risks. Therefore, in this study
we will analyze the sustainability of implementing MAC systems working with three
different types of refrigerants R-134a, R-1234yf (HFO-1234yf), and R-744 (CO
2
), more
specifically we will be studying the global warming contribution from those three
systems. Furthermore, since the thermodynamic properties of a refrigerant and
performance of the MAC system may be affected by pressure, ambient temperature and
humidity, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular geographical region.
Thus, our study will be mainly focused on their functioning in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, more specifically in Jeddah.

In order to analyze the associated global warming impact over 100 years
(GWP
100
), a change-oriented Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) will be used to compare the
CO
2
-equivalent emissions of each system contributing to climate change. This vast
category of emissions will be generated from emissions associated with refrigerant
leakage, toxic by-products emissions, atmospheric degradation products (such as HF and
other fluoride based-compounds), as well as from the total energy consumed (either from
fuel or electricity) resulted from each final MAC system during this cradle-to-grave
assessment.



S
Introduction and Rationale

From as far as we can remember, all the automotive air conditioning (AC) systems were
using either the hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFCs) or the chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
refrigerants (e.g the Freon R-12 or CFC-12). Although they carried some benefits of non-
flammability and non-toxicity, however their high Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP)
raised a lot of concern, as well as their corresponding global warming potential (GWP)
which is extremely high. Thus, by the year 1990, their usage was banned under the
Montreal Protocol to limit depletion of stratospheric ozone [1]. This protocol is an
international environmental treaty, responsible for global phase-out of the consumption
and production of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). Thus, alternatives with lower
ODP start to be considered, such as the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), more specifically the
HFC-134a for automotive ACs, having zero ODP due to the absence of the chlorine
element.

To date, the HFC-134a replaces all the CFCs for mobile air-conditioning systems,
since 1990. By 2004 all vehicles produced or sold in North America, Japan, and Europe
were using HFC-134a [1]. However, HFC substances started revealing another concern,
which is their high global warming potentials, which is thousands of times greater than
CO
2
. Thus, although HFC-134a is a zero ODP automotive refrigerant, it is still a potent
green-house-gas (GHG). For that reason, the EU issued a Directive 2006/40/EC that
prohibits the use of automotive refrigerants with GWP greater than 150, starting from
January 1, 2011[2]. In response to such regulations, the mobile air conditioning (MAC)
industry evaluated alternative appropriate MAC refrigerants that carry much lower GWPs
and lower atmospheric lifetimes in order to reduce climate forcing: (i) the unsaturated
HFCs, known as the HFOs (HFO-1234yf), and (ii) CO
2
(R-744). Table 1 below shows
the comparative environmental parameters between the different types of refrigerants
used in MAC systems, with their potential risks. Studies are still being carried out
worldwide in order to decide on the most sustainable refrigerant system to use. This
decision is greatly dependent on the country of implementation since different countries
have different policies about energy and fuel usage, as well as different atmospheric
conditions that affect the functionality of a MAC system.

Saudi Arabia, distinct from most of the countries worldwide, has an extensive
bond with the usage of MAC systems. The temperatures and humidity are extremely high
throughout the whole year (Table 2), making MAC systems a necessary and essential
product for everyday life. Throughout the whole year, air conditioning systems, in every
car on the streets, are turned on for a big percentage of time per day [3], in contrast to
other countries worldwide where they turn on the AC in their cars for only 2 months a
4
year (during summer). On that note, it has been shown that CO
2
equivalent emissions
resulting from the transportation sector in Jeddah, is about 266 million metric tons of
CO
2-
eq- emissions per year, or 13.7 metric tons per person [4]. In addition, it has been
shown that worldwide, one of the main contributors to Greenhouse Gas emissions (GHG)
is the transportation sector with 28 % share of the total, as seen in figure 1 below. And as
we explained previously, within the transportation sector, CO
2
equivalent emissions
corresponding to automotive refrigerant MAC systems in Jeddah seem to exceed any
other city worldwide.
Thus, our study relies in studying an alternative refrigerant MAC system for
Jeddah in order to analyze which adopted alternative MAC system will allow to decrease
substantially the CO
2
equivalent emissions in Jeddah, hence contributing highly to a
decreased worldwide global warming effects that led to environmental disasters.


Commercial
Lifetime
Refrigerant ODP GWP
Atmospheric
Lifetime
(years)
Risks
~1960-1994
CFC-12
(Freon)
1 10,900 100
Ozone
depletion,
climate
change
1990 - ~2017 HFC-134a 0 1430 14
Climate
change
Future HFO-1234yf 0 4
0.030116

Mildly
flammable,
TFA
deposition
Future CO
2
(R-744) 0 1
29.3k-36.1k

Potential
toxicity,
Hazardous
to driver
safety

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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Average
T
avg, max
(in
o
C) 29 29 29 33 35 36 37 37 36 35 33 30 33.3
T
avg, min
(in
o
C) 19 18 19 21 23 24 26 27 25 23 22 19 22.2

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Project Objective

The scope of this analysis is to compare the environmental footprints, more
specifically the global warming impact (GWP
100
) of the alternative refrigerants R-1234yf
and R-744 to the currently used R-134a in Jeddah, throughout the whole life span of the
MAC system. A change-oriented life cycle assessment will be conducted from cradle-to-
grave, in other words, from the production of the refrigerant MAC system (including the
refrigerant itself), until its end-of-life cycle (recycling, landfilling), within a lifespan of
11 years. This specific lifespan was chosen since it has been shown that on average, the
lifetime on one car in Jeddah is bout 11 years [6], and hence the lifetime of one MAC
system is 11 years as well.
The system boundaries of the process will start from the manufacturing and
production of the refrigerant and the MAC components, up to the end-of-life of the
refrigerant system. Note that input material and chemical flows entering our boundary for
production are all new materials and compounds that do not come from recycled one.
Likewise, all the materials recycled in the End-of-Life (EOL) stage do not enter our
system again, they go for other purposes (input flows for other systems). In between,
transportations will be considered as well as servicing of the refrigerant throughout the
lifespan, depending on each refrigerant lifetime. Also, note that production of the whole
refrigerant MAC system occurs in Japan (this choice will be explained later on in the
6
Inventory analysis), and operation of the MAC system occurs only on the streets of
Jeddah, where the temperature is fixed to be around 30
o
C on average (including day time
and night time, i.e. 24 hours), throughout the whole year.
Databases during the whole life span of the refrigerant system will be provided
from the GREEN-MAC-LCCP-Version 3b software that is used for this LCA study, as
well as from the GREET software and other journal scientific papers conducting on
related studies. Since the R-1234yf and R-744 MAC systems are still under study and no
available systems have been yet shown in industry for them, the adoption of this model
will use input globally harmonized data and assumptions from the industry, and will
provide a more realistic application of the engineering data obtained from bench tests
because it applies them to various driving cycle engine conditions [2]. This excel-
generated software helps providing the LCCP (Life Cycle Climate Performance)
coefficient related to CO
2
-eq. emissions of the proposed alternative refrigerants,
compared with the baseline R-134a MAC system that already exists and is available. This
model developed by General Motors in 2005 is the best available tool for identifying and
quantifying direct and indirect environmental impacts and their contribution to climate
forcing and global warming potential. Its flexibility and accuracy in predicting the life
cycle GHG impact of alternative refrigerants made it the global standard methodology for
assessing the climate impact of MAC systems.
However, due to some complications, we were not able to run the software, we
only used it as a database source, from which we mostly got our flows for the MAC
components production and EOL stage. Note that this software presents the required
database based on the country or region of study. And since Saudi Arabia is clearly not
under study, it has been put under the general category of the Middle East. However, our
data and numbers depend on the weather conditions of the specific region of operation, as
well as on the lifetime of the car and driving cycles. So we went through all the countries
studied by this software, and we found that the city of Bangkok presented the perfect
match for the city of Jeddah. The weather conditions were similar as well as for the car
lifetime. Thus, we took our proxy-data considering the case of Bangkok for our Jeddah
study.




7
Literature Review
The refrigerants of mobile air conditioning systems have a significant impact on the
Earth's climate due to severe greenhouse gases emissions, as mentioned previously.
MAC systems consume more energy than any other auxiliary vehicle equipment. In fact,
it has been shown that in the United States alone, MAC systems consume over 7 billion
gallons of gasoline every year, emitting over 58 million metric tons of carbon dioxide
equivalent emissions. Refrigerant leakage adds the equivalent of over 50 million metric
tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere each year too [7]. Based on that, much effort
has been put into the study of alternative refrigerants for MAC systems, and a lot of life
cycle assessment studies have been performed to try to compare the future alternative
refrigerants to the currently used R-134a.

MAC Environmental Indicators for LCA
In order to understand more some of the LCA studies found in the literature review, it is
important to note that there are several assessment methods available out there to apply to
the results of the life cycle inventory (LCI) in order to find the least harmful refrigerant to
the environment. Among them the following:
i. The Dutch Handbook method or CML02, which quantifies the results into the
impact categories to evaluate the environmental impact of certain refrigerants in
A/C systems [8]. Among these impact categories are: Climate change (GWP),
stratospheric ozone depletion (ODP), Human toxicity (HT), Acidification (AP)
and Eutrophication (EP).
ii. Another method is called Eco-Indicator 99 (EI99) that includes normalization and
weighting of the three damaging categories: Human health, ecosystem quality and
ecosystem resources, resulting in one index [8].
iii. TEWI: The Total Equivalent Warming Impact method, which is the sum of the
direct and indirect impacts on global warming. The direct TEWI component is
determined by the refrigerant loss created by leakage and recovery loss, the in-
direct one by the energy consumption of the system. This concept has become
widely used in evaluating the environmental impact of refrigerant systems [9].


iv. LCWI: Life Cycle Warming Impact method. It is the expansion of TEWI
method by including transportation, chemical production and atmospheric break
down products impacts.
TEWI = GWP (direct) + GWP (indirect)
8
v. LCCP: Life Cycle Climate Performance. This method was a further
development of the LCWI in 2003 and implemented in 2005. It includes direct
and indirect impacts. In the direct impacts, it contains MAC leakage and
additional sources including atmospheric reaction product of refrigerant,
manufacturing, transport, service leakage, and end-of-life. The indirect impacts
includes MAC operations and additional sources involving chemical production
of refrigerant and transport, MAC manufacturing and its vehicle assembly and
end-of-life recycling process [9].

Similar LCA studies
Several studies have been already conducted to assess the sustainability of similar
engineering technologies and activities. Among them the following:

1) LCA study of several refrigerant MAC systems through the LCCP indicator
developed by the Green-Mac-LCCP tool. It is a comparative study that evaluates the
life cycle energy and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions of alternative refrigerant
MAC systems (R-1234yf and R-744) to the baseline R-134a system. It shows the
LCCP refrigerant performance starting from the manufacturing to the use of the MAC
system and through the end-of-life of the whole refrigerant MAC system. Their report
shows the direct and indirect emissions as a framework for the project, and predicts
the CO
2
eq- emissions for each refrigerant up to 2017 [10]. Unlike other studies, this
study takes into consideration the performance of the MAC system itself, and the
emissions that are due to the components of the system rather than just from the
refrigerant itself. They also fix assumptions on the car type. They studied both
Midsize and small car size. And they performed this study for different geographical
continents: categories are the US, Europe, Asia, and Africa&Middle East in the same
category. Their results show that the R-1234yf has lower LCCP in all the world
regions, for both small and midsize cars. The improvement relative to the baseline r-
134a is around 7%-10%. Whereas the R-744 showed either equal performance to R-
134a for small cars, and worse by 2% for midsize cars. Also, they noted that the R-
744 system behavior is more dependent on temperatures than the other 2 systems, and
they concluded that it would behave better in cooler climates.

2) Hyundai did a study on Kia cars. They performed a comparative LCA study on
alternative refrigerants for their MAC systems [2]. They took as a boundary condition
one of their SUV cars with 2.0 L diesel fuel engine and 4-cylinders automatic
transmission, over a time framework of 10 years (1998-2008). They performed both
LCWI = TEWI + GWP (Transport) + GWP (Chemical
Production) + GWP (Atmospheric breakdown products)
9
an environmental (categories are: global warming, acidification, resource depletion,
photo-chemical oxidant creation) and eco-efficiency assessment between HFO-123yf
and R-744 to know which is the most sustainable alternative refrigerant for R-134a.
The study clearly identifies amounts of CO
2
eq-emissions into three life cycle
categories: manufacturing, use and end of life (only dismantling included) as shown
in figure 1. Their results show that R-1234yf shows the best fuel efficiency during
operation of the AC and in general has the least impact on global warming. However,
in contrast to the previous study, the R-744 system contributes less to GWP than the
R-134a. And the reason is that this study is not as detailed as the previous one: they
dont include weather conditions dependency. As for the eco-efficiency analysis, they
show that the RR-1234yf has higher eco-efficiency than R-744. And thus their
conclusion was that the R-1234yf is the better choice for sustainable development.


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3) Another report performed by the UK government, discusses the guidance on
minimizing GHG emissions for refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump systems
[11]. It is a comparative study on the different impacts of the refrigerants alone. It
examines the characteristics of alternative refrigerants such as: HFCs
(hydrofluorocarbons), HCs (hydrocarbons), Ammonia, CO
2
(carbon dioxide), and
FCs (fluorocarbons), by listing their effects through different impact indicators such
as: GWP, toxicity, flammability, efficiency, used materials, pressure, cost, availability
and familiarity, as shown in table 3. However, no LCA was really performed
quantifying the amounts of emissions contributing to the impact categories listed.
Their results show that the ideal way of reducing F-gas or ODS (ozone depleting
substances) emissions to zero is to use an alternative refrigerant, such as CO
2
,
1u
ammonia or hydrocarbons. And they mention that much care about the alternative
refrigerant design must taken care of, to make sure that is cost effective and has the
lowest overall carbon footprint. Their final comparison of results is shown in table
4. This study doesnt have a conclusion of which is the best to use, it just represents
informative comparative assessments for peoples personal evaluations.


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11
4) Finally, there is another LCA study that ranks refrigerants by different assessment
methods [8]. The main focus was to compare the three different assessment methods
used to evaluate the environmental impacts of refrigerants used for MAC systems.
The methods compared are: Dutch Handbook method (CML02), Total Equivalent
Warming Impact (TEWI), and Eco-Indicator 99 (EI99). The application examined in
this LCA study is an A/C system as functional unit of a standard European passenger
car. And the A/C system is operated with respect to average German climate
conditions within a 10 years lifetime of the passenger car. The refrigerants examined
are: R-134a, R-152a, the hydrocarbons (HC) R-290 and R-600a, and carbon dioxide
(R744), and the environmental impacts of dichloromethane (R30) were assessed for
comparison. In general, the scope of the LCA included input and output of
production, operation (including servicing/refilling), and disposal phase, and their
main focus was on energy consumption during the operation phase of the A/C system.
Their final results show that in MAC systems, the refrigerants E134
(Tetrafluorodimethyl ether) and E125 (Pentafluorodimethyl ether) are not suitable
replacements for R134a. And the following methyl ether based refrigerants E7000,
E7100, E7200, and the hydrocarbons R600a and R290, show to have smaller
environmental impact than R134a with all the assessment methods they used. And
finally, by using the assessment methods CML02, TEWI and EI99 that we discussed
in a previous section in the report, the R744 shows to have a more sustainable
footprint than R134a, through the study of different impact categories such as climate
change (GWP), ODP, and acidification.


To summarize, based on the discussed LCA studies performed on the alternative
refrigerants in interest, we can see that Green MAC LCCP evaluates the sustainability of
the systems on a worldwide-generalized basis. Hyundai KIA on the other hand,
performed the study specifically on Hyundai cars, with no geographical boundary and
weather conditions specified. The UK government report focused the assessment only on
UK standards, and was more of a vague general assessment with no quantifying data.
And finally, the last study discussed, focused mainly on comparing three different
sustainability indicators for refrigerant systems in Germany.
All these studies were inspiring to apply the LCA of refrigerant MAC systems on Jeddah
city, given that no single oriented study was done about the environmental impacts of
refrigerant MAC systems in Saudi Arabia. Several factors make Saudi Arabia an
interesting geographical zone for this specific study, ranging from its distinct deserted
weather conditions to the fact that its the second largest oil reserved, making it one of
the top worlds cheapest gasoline fuel [12].
12
Technology Analysis
Mobile Air Conditioning Systems
Studies show that an average person comfort zone ambient is defined between 20
o
C to
26
o
C, with relevant humidity of 45 to 50%. A lot of factors such as ambient air, sunlight,
and engine heat and others can cause to increase the air temperature within the vehicle
more than 50
o
C. Therefore, air conditioning systems are responsible to cool, circulate,
purify and dehumidify the air to reach to user comfort zone [13].
Mobile air conditioner vehicle systems consist of compressor, condenser, filter, thermal
expansion and evaporator. The compressor compresses the vapor refrigerant to have
high-pressure, thus high temperature based on the ideal gas Law: PV=nRT [14]. The high
pressure and temperature refrigerant vapor travels through the condenser where the heat
is released to the cooler ambient air, based on low heat transfer, passing trough the
condenser tubes and changing the refrigerant from vapor to liquid. Then the refrigerant
moves through the filter drier onto the expansion valve to lower the pressure. The cold
low-pressure liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coil to cool the warm
ambient air that blows across the evaporator fins. The refrigerant in this stage changes
from liquid to vapor based on the gained heat energy from the outside warm air. The
vapor refrigerant goes again to the condenser to increase the pressure and heat and repeat
the cycle one again [13], as shown in figure 2.
This is the general concept of any mobile air conditioner system. However, there are
several types for air conditioner systems that differ slightly form the described model.
Some systems add other components for better functioning or double some components
for better results. Thus, in this study we are considering the basic mobile air conditioning
system only including the required differences to change from refrigerant to another if
there are any.

1S


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14
Life cycle assessment
Goals and scope definition
All chemicals and products have certain impacts on the environment according to
their energy consumption, toxicity, and contribution to climate change. The aim of this
life cycle assessment (LCA) is to investigate and evaluate the climate change (GWP
100
)
footprint of the refrigerant MAC systems operating in Jeddah in order to find the least
harmful option for the environment. Hence, we will pursue a change-oriented LCA to
compare the CO
2
-eq emissions from the mobile air conditioning systems attributed to the
use of three different refrigerants: R-134a, R-1234yf, and R-744. The GREEN-MAC-
LCCP model will provide us with some databases that are classified as presented in
equation 1. In fact, half of the current direct HFC (hydrofluorocarbons) emissions are
from mobile air conditioning systems, and so the Life Cycle Climate Performance
(LCCP) parameter will help identifying the best technology to minimize GHG emissions
from refrigeration and air conditioning applications, as well as to recognize the
comparative direct and indirect GHG such as CO
2
eq- and HF emissions to examine their
potential risk on the environment as well on humans. However, as mentioned, we took
into consideration all these parameters in our study, but we were not able to run the
program to get the final LCCP parameter.

Functional unit
For each refrigerant MAC system, its function is to keep the passenger
compartment at a comfortable temperature of about 20 C. The functional unit that will
allow us to compare the environmental impact of each of the three refrigerant MAC
systems is: per one hour of AC ON of the refrigerant MAC system. Therefore, the
studied flows will be the amount of energy consumed as well as CO
2
-eq emissions per

LCCP = GWP (Indirect) [energy consumption expressed as CO
2
-eq emissions
from chemical production of refrigerant & transport, MAC manufacturing
components & vehicle assembly, MAC operation, EOL recycling processes] +
GWP (direct) [chemical refrigerant emissions including atmospheric reaction
products of refrigerant, manufacturing MAC leaks, and EOL refrigerant emissions]
(Equation .1)
1S
hour of operation of AC to cool down the air to 20 C. This chosen functional unit will be
evaluated for a final comparative comprehension of the environmental impacts of each
refrigerant system.
Input and output flows for the different stages of manufacture & production,
transportation, operation, and EOL stage of the refrigerant systems, will be obtained
based on the model and assumptions described in the following sections.
However, at first, all the flows will be obtained per one MAC system (which is
equivalent to per 550 g of refrigerant, as we are going to see later on), thus conversion to
functional unit is necessary, and the steps will be explained in a separate section.
System boundaries
The general boundary of the refrigerant MAC system will be from cradle-to-grave,
starting from the production and manufacturing of the refrigerant and MAC components,
transportation of the full refrigerant system, operation of the MAC, and ending up with
end-of-life (treatment/recycling) of the refrigerant MAC system.
Spatial Boundary: During operation of the MAC, the geographical boundary will
be in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Other countries will be included, such as Japan during
production stage, where the refrigerant and corresponding MAC components are
manufactured. Also, note that the temperature will be fixed to 30
o
C.
Temporal Boundary: the lifespan of our study will be for 11 years as we have
explained previously, since its equivalent to the lifetime of one MAC system.
Production & EOL boundary: All input material used for production are new and
do not come from recycled materials and all recycled materials in the EOL do not
enter the system again.
In between, transportations of both the refrigerant and the whole MAC system from
Japan to Jeddah will be considered with their corresponding emissions.
The objective of this project is to compare the global warming impact of the different
refrigerant systems under same performance and working conditions. And since our an
MAC system withholds a lot of variables, we needed to fix some of these variants by
making the following assumptions described in next section.


16
Model System Assumptions
The GREEN-MAC-LCCP database has been the perfect tool for us in evaluating and
assuming the energy use and emissions during production and manufacturing of the MAC
components, since it provides insight databases from automotive industries about the
materials used for such MAC systems that were nowhere to be available as an-open
source on the Internet.
The boundary assumptions are limited on a comparison of CO
2
-eq emissions of
alternative refrigerants based on direct and indirect emissions (Table 5). The direct
emissions result from the leaks of the refrigerant into the atmosphere and are expressed in
terms of CO
2
-eq. emissions based on the GWP of the refrigerant. The indirect emissions
result from the energy consumption due to MAC system manufacturing, operation, and
end-of-life (EOL), and are reported in terms of CO
2
-eq. emissions, considering the carbon
content of the fuel utilized in each process and during vehicle operation.

Direct emissions Indirect Emissions
Regular/ Irregular emissions
Energy consumption for MAC components
production + Assembly
Service emissions
Energy consumption for refrigerant
production
Leakage during production & transport Energy consumption during operation
EOL emissions
Energy for EOL, recycling/recovery of
system & refrigerant
Leakage from refrigerant production and
transportation
Energy consumption during transportations

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17
SYSTEM MANUFACTURING-TO-EOL ASSUMPTIONS DATA
Our system assumptions take into consideration key MAC system characteristics
such as vehicle type, driving time/day, hours of A/C ON per day, weather conditions
(such as temperature), vehicle lifetime, compressor speed, average driving speed,
refrigerant leakage rates, MAC system mass requirements, energy requirements due to
manufacturing, and end-of-life impacts of alternative refrigerants and MAC components.
Note that also we took proxy-data from the city of Bangkok when we took
information from the GRENN-MAC-LCCP. Since some of the data is temperature
dependent, we took the proxy-data assigned to Bangkok city instead of the Middle East,
since based on temperature, humidity and lifetime of the car, that was the perfect
assumption. But note that this proxy data is only valid when we took for example into
consideration the lifetime of the refrigerant and servicing of refrigerant, as well as the
leakage rate during servicing. Other informations were not relevant to the city of
operation, and thus the data for example for refrigerant production and transportation
were taken from other scientific sources and studies (references will be mentioned in the
inventory list section). But most of the input data for the refrigerants, is taken from
publications by Dupont and from experimental work done by General Motors (owning
the copyright of this model).
Finally, table 6 below summarizes our main system assumptions that we took into
consideration for our comparative study. Note that regarding the EOL assumptions; they
were taken from vehicle recycling partners (USCAR). The only part that is assumed to be
disassembled (so that it does not go to the shredder) is the condenser. The other parts go
to the shredder and separated according to the composition. The energy required to
recycle the metallic and fluid components is evaluated by considering: (Avg. Energy to
dismantling and shredding 1 kg of metals and fluids) x (mass of metal or fluid). The
energy required to recycle the plastic components is evaluated by considering: (Avg.
Energy to dismantling, shredding and landfilling 1 kg of plastic) x (mass of plastic
component). And finally, the energy calculation of the recovery equipment considers the
electricity mix scenarios for each country so that the CO
2
eq-emissions of this operation
depend on the type of fuels used. In this case, since the EOL is taken from the MAC-
LCC-software, these values are correlated to the case of qBangkok city.
The CO
2
-eq emissions associated with the GREEN-MAC-LCCP database, are
estimated by considering that each vehicle is equipped with R-134a MACs in the years
up to 2013, and all new vehicles produced after 2013 have the new alternative refrigerant
MAC systems (for our care R1234yf and R744) up to the year 2017.

18
Vehicle Assumptions
Refrigerant System
Assumptions
Vehicle Operation &
Climate
Assumptions
EOL Assumptions
Car size: compact,
small, sedan type
Leakages

Driving cycle/day in
Jeddah streets= 2
hours/day

Complete release of
refrigerant in the
EOL
Engine type + fuel:
in-line 4-cylinders,
Automatic
Transmission (A/T) +
1.6 L capacity of
gasoline fuel
Temperature at
evaporator outlet
(based on ambient
temperature of
Jeddah)
1 hour driving = 1
hour AC ON
All metallic parts go
to the shredder &
separated according
to the composition.

Compressor works at
its maximum speed:
100 % of its capacity
! ~ 3500 rpm for our
car type
Time AC 0N= 2
houisuay
Total EOL energy
for metallic parts
includes transport,
dismantling and
shredding.

Condenser/ Gas
cooler Air inlet air at
idle conditions
Closed windows in
car at all time (so that
cooled air inside
compartment is
preserved)
Total EOL of plastic
parts reflects the
energy requirements
of the Automotive
shredder residue to
the landfill.

Engine cooling fan
Average driving
speed in Jeddah:
65.1 km/h



Ambient Temperature
Operation (~30
o
C)


"#$%& N( O1:&% @<5/&2 #55=24/,1.5 :#/#



19
Normalization: Conversion to Functional Unit
After calculating all of the corresponding emission flows per one MAC system (or per
550 g of refrigerant), they will be normalized according to the functional unit for the
three different scenarios, in order to be able to compare the total emissions from each
refrigerant scenario per one hour of AC operation.
In order to perform the conversion, we need to have these following informations:
We know that 1 refrigerant MAC system is equivalent to 550 g of refrigerant
Lifespan of our study = 11 years


We need to know that total amount of refrigerant (kg) used during the whole
lifespan. This depends on the refrigerant lifetime and how many services it will
require.
Number of hours AC ON per day = 2 hours/day
Then, we proceed by following these steps:
Step 1: We gather all the flows/ 550 g of refrigerant or flows/1 MAC system
Step 2: Get total amount of refrigerant used (kg)/lifespan
Step 3: From step 1 and 2, we are able to get determine the Flows/lifespan
Step 4: Get hours of AC ON per lifespan ! lifespan= 8035.5 hours AC ON
Step 5: Knowing the equivalent of the lifespan in terms of numbers of hours of AC ON,
we are able to finally calculate the total Flows/hour of AC ON.






2u
Environmental Flows:
Environmental flows are classified accordingly:

" Refrigerant + MAC components Production:
i. Refrigerant Production: CO
2
eq-emissions due to:
Refrigerant leakage
Toxic-by-products
Atmospheric Degradation Products (ADP): Trifluoroacetic
Acid (TFA), formyl-fluoride compounds such as HCOF,
COF
2
, and HF (hydrogen fluoride): when the refrigerants
R-134a and R-1234yf are leaked, they break down in the
atmosphere and they radicals recombine with other
chemicals and result in these ADP by-products.
Energy consumption from fuel and electricity
ii. MAC components production: CO
2
eq-emissions associated to
energy consumption per kg of materials used + energy consumed
during vehicle assembly

" Transportation: CO
2
- eq emissions associated to refrigerant leakage and
energy/fuel consumption


" MAC system Operation: during the functioning of the AC system in the car,
CO
2
eq-emissions due to:
MAC refrigeration cycle ! fuel consumption to operate
the MAC system
Refrigerant leakage
Refrigerant leakage during service

" MAC system EOL: CO
2
-eq emissions from:
Energy consumption to treat MAC components (recycle,
landfill, shredding, transport)
Breakdown of refrigerant radicals: release of CO
2
+
HFC emissions to atmosphere

Impact Category: Climate Change/Global Warming Potential (GWP
100
): total CO
2
eq.
emissions can be determined from all the flows we have listed above, on order to be able
to finally compare the contribution of each refrigerant MAC system to climate change.
21
Scenarios Modeled

In this study, we will study three different models of MAC systems:

1. R-134a system (which is currently available)
2. R-1234yf system (near-future implementation)
3. R-744 system (far-future implementation: still under study)

Automobile air conditioning systems can differ from one company to another and their
manufacture may differ from one geographical region of function to another. These
dissimilarities are necessary since MAC systems are affected by the weather conditions
of the region in interest. Nevertheless, this is not of an interest in this specific study, and
for that purpose here we generalize that each MAC system should have the following
main components for the refrigeration cycle, without any specificities on the type of each
component. For example, we dont need to specify whether its a parallel flow condenser
or a serpentine condenser, we just take into a consideration the general properties of the
condenser that might be of interest when changing the refrigerant type.

System components:

Theimal expansion system (valve "TXv" oi by-pass oiifice tube)
Evapoiatoi
Compiessoi
Conuensei with integiateu seiviceable uiyei
Receiveiuiyei
Accumulatoi

0ui woik ielies on implementing an alteinative iefiigeiant in the NAC system. The
peifoimance-baseu stanuaius foi low uWP iefiigeiants in Euiope anu the 0niteu
States allow automakeis to choose a ieplacement foi BFC-1S4a. Bowevei, othei
conceins incluuing cost, feasibility, anu safety can limit these options. BF0-12S4yf,
anu caibon uioxiue aie alteinatives that may substantially ieuuce climate impacts
anu meet safety stanuaius. Bowevei, a lot of mechanical engineeiing challenges
aiise because uiffeient iefiigeiants have uiffeient moleculai uensities, piessuies,
anu ciitical tempeiatuies. Thus, baseu on the gas anu liquiu phase piopeities of the
uesiieu iefiigeiant, alteiations of the NAC components neeu to be maue in oiuei to
meet the neeus of the alteinative iefiigeiant.

22
The R-1S4a system alieauy exists anu the layout of the system is well known
anu in use in all automotive inuustiies woiluwiue. Bowevei, as foi the alteinative
iefiigeiants R-12S4yf anu R-744, the system mouel is still not well uefineu anu
fixeu. Bowevei, significant piogiess has been maue to uevelop anu uemonstiate the
availability of these components, but this alone has not oveicome questions about
uuiability fiom automakeis. 0n that note, in oiuei to have a iough unueistanuing of
the iequiieu piopeities foi each iefiigeiant system, we ueciueu to iepiesent the
piojection of the layout systems maue by the Byunuai Company (figuie S). Basically,
the component iequiiements aie the same, howevei as we can see fiom figuie S, the
alteinative iefiigeiants aie moie costly, suggesting the use of eithei moie mateiials
foi thickei hoses anu compaitments, oi uiffeient mateiials that have moie
mechanical iobustness anu stiength.



?,-=+& >( I<=.:#, 4+1P&3/,1. *1+ 21:&%,.- /;& #%/&+.#/,0& +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&25
678
2S

?,-=+& L( I<=.:#, OHG 5<5/&2 31241.&./5 3124#+,51. *1+ :,**&+&./ /<4&5 1*
+&*+,-&+#./ 678

Furthermore, figure 4 gives a more detailed understanding for the requirements of the
components in each system scenario. We can notice that the R-134a and R-1234yf are
very much similar, which is due to the fact that both refrigerants have almost the same
densities, and thus not much differences need to be taken into consideration. Whereas the
R-744, has a very high density, 5 to 10 times higher. Thus, a lot in the system needs to be
changed, such as the compressor volume, the TXV type, and the discharge hose tube size
and material, in order to withstand the very high pressures of the CO
2
refrigerant.
Refrigerant R-134a
R-134a is a high GWP refrigerant, which is non-toxic and non-flammable. As water, it
has the same abilities to change the state, but R-134a can do this more rapidly and at
much lower temperature than water. At anytime above -26.3
o
C, R-134a changes its state,
becoming a vapor and absorbs large quantities of heat from inside the vehicle. This is
what creates the cooling effect you feel inside the vehicle. Figure 5 shows some of its
cons and pros.
24

?,-=+& E( )Q'>L# #:0#./#-&5 #.: :,5#:0#./#-&5 6'>8

Refrigerant R-1234yf
HFO-1234yf is a class A2 refrigerant suggesting non- toxicity and mildly flammability. It
has similar thermodynamic properties as the R-134a with moderate pressures at high
temperature. So it is thermally stable and compatible with the R-134a components.

Refrigerant R-744
Carbon dioxide is an A1 refrigerant. The main advantages are a very low environmental
impact, non-flammability and non-toxicity. The disadvantage is high pressure at low
temperatures: CO
2
reaches its critical point at very low temperature and high pressure.
A leak in a sealed vehicle cabin is a safety hazard since the gas can displace a significant
amount of oxygen. Exposure to concentrations between 4-5% can affect driver
performance.

The potentiality of using CO
2
as an alternative refrigerant is still under study, because as
mentioned, AC systems for R-744 seem to face some engineering challenges since they
operate at extremely higher pressures than R-134a and R-1234yf systems, requiring the
development of high-pressure hoses, compressors and other components. Thus, the R-744
remains a technologically challenging solution that requires further development time.
2S
Table 7 below summarizes the important thermodynamic properties of each of the three
refrigerants considered in this study. These values, retrieved from the NSIT chemistry
EBook [15] are the most important when designing an automotive air conditioning
system, in order to secure compatibility with the refrigerant requirements and challenges.

Temperature
(
o
C)
Pressure
(bar)
Density (kg/m
3
)
(Liquid phase/ vapor phase)

R-134a R-1234yf R-744 R-134a R-1234yf R-744

10 4.15 4.32 45.022
1261/
20.23
1146/
24.1
816.12/
135.16

30 7.70 7.72 72.147
1187.5/
37.54
1076/
43.3
593.31/
345.1
Critical
Temperature
(T
c

o
C)
101.06 95 30.98 - - -
Critical
Pressure (P
c

bar)
40.59 33.8 73.77 - - -
Critical
Density (D
c

kg/m
3
)
511.9 478.01 467.6 - - -
Normal
boiling point
o
C
-26.074 -29 -78.4 - - -

"#$%& R( ";&+21:<.#2,3 4+14&+/,&5 1* /;& #=/121/,0& +&*+,-&+#./5 5/=:,&:







26
Refrigerant Servicing
Each refrigerant has a different lifetime. And thus, based on that, during the
lifespan of our study, each refrigerant needs to be serviced for different amounts. From
the table below, knowing the lifetime of each refrigerant and the number of services
required for their lifetime, we are able to determine the number of servicing per year.
From this information, we get the total number of services during the lifespan of our
study, corresponding to each MAC system. Finally, as is presented in the table below, we
get the total amount of refrigerant necessary in each MAC system throughout the whole
lifespan of 11 years [6].
Also, throughout our study, we will be showing results with service and with
no service. Including service means that our total flows are computed per total amount
of refrigerant used during the lifespan, whereas no service means that the flows are
computed per 550 g of refrigerant (which is just the amount that is available in a MAC
system when the car is purchased). The no service can be analogous to a study that has
a lifespan of only 1 year, since during this time, no servicing for any of those refrigerants
is required. This can be helpful in order to have a better understanding of how each
category in each life stage has an effect on climate change, for each of the different
refrigerant MAC systems.


"#$%& S( )&*+,-&+#./ 5&+0,3,.- #.: /1/#% #21=./ =5&: :=+,.- /;& %,*&54#. 1* /;,5 5/=:<






L|fet|me (years) Number of serv|ces Serv|ce]L|fespan
1ota| amount of
refr|gerant (kg)]||fespan
k-134a !" $ !%" 1.4
k-1234yf & $ $%' 1.9
k-744 & " (%! 3.9
27
System Flow Chart









!"# %&%'()
*%(
+,-.(%/01233
&(04%5
6(7-8,(
"%%()9,&
:;<
+=-%)01',-1>?
%74(@@-1>?
4(8&8,(?
,01@A,,? 7B,C
'401%/D4'5
!"#$%"&'$()#* "#, -(.,$&/.# 012 3#, .% 4)%2
E(.4->(401'
!01B.08'B4-1>
#;
F
G(H + 4(.4->(401'
I 'DJ-8 9&G/4D@B8'%
I(1(4>&5

:1(4>&
!08 K&%'()
!01B.08'B4-1>
+8D)/D1(1'%
/4D@B8LD15
:1(4>&
M401%/D4'
E(.4->(401'
NB(,
:1(4>&
M401%/D4' D.
E(.4->(401'
!"# %&%'()
NB(,
:1(4>&
NB(,
:1(4>&
#7()-80,%
ODP% .D4
4(.4->(401'
/4D@B8LD1
!0'(4-0, ODP%
.D4 !"#
%&%'()
8D)/D1(1'%
:1(4>&
5("#16.('"/.# '.
7.$#'(8 .% 012
#;
F
G(H + 4(.4->(401'
I 'DJ-8 9&G/4D@B8'%
I(1(4>&5

#;
F
G(H
+ 4(.4->(401'
,(0C0>( I (1(4>&5

#;
F
G(H
+(1(4>&5

#;
F
G(H
+ 4(.4->(401'
,(0C0>( I (1(4>&5

#;
F
G(H + 4(.4->(401'
I 'DJ-8 9&G/4D@B8'%
I(1(4>&5

#;
F
G(H + 4(.4->(401'
I 'DJ-8 9&G/4D@B8'%
I(1(4>&5

:1(4>&
4)%2 78&92 -(.&211 :9.;
3
28
L|fe Cyc|e Inventory (LCI)
Manufactur|ng & roduct|on

For each refrigerant MAC system, the total energy consumption and total CO
2
eq-
emissions to manufacture and produce separately the refrigerant and the corresponding
MAC components, are taken into consideration.
First, we will begin with the refrigerant production, then we will evaluate the
manufacturing of the corresponding MAC components by also taking into consideration
the assembly of the vehicle.
,K Refrigerant production

Foi each iefiigeiant, these aie the following chemical ieactions foi the piouuction
piocess:

R-1S4a piocess

|16j
(1) "GT + BF ! )'>># + BCl
(2) R1SSa + BCl + BF ! )'>L# + BCl

+ Atmospheiic Begiauation Piouucts (ABP)Fluoiiue baseu- BUVW7>

Wheie:
TCE (Tiichloioethylene) - BUVW LE
R-1SSa - 1,1,1-tiifluoio-2-chloioethane
BF - Byuiogen Fluoiiue
BCl - Byuiochloiic aciu

As we can see, the piouuction piocess of the iefiigeiant R1S4a actually iequiies
fiist the piouuction of the TCE compounu sepaiately. We aie not going to go into the
uetails of the chemical ieactions foi the piouuction of TCE, howevei, the main
infoimation to iemembei is that TCE has a global waiming potential (uWP1uu) of 4S.
So in oiuei to piouuce R1S4a, fiist it is necessaiy to piouuce TCE, which will be
useu as an input foi the piocess ieaction. Anu thus, its global waiming effect will be
taken into consiueiation in oui calculations. Then, the R1S4a piocess piouuction
occuis as seen in figuie 2.
29

?,-=+& 7( V+13&55 :,#-+#2 *1+ )'>L# 4+1:=3/,1. 6'N8
Finally, when the iefiigeiant R1S4a molecules aie ciackeu in the stiatospheie,
fuithei chemical ieactions occui, piouucing fluoiiue baseu atmospheiic uegiauation
piouucts (ABP): Foimyl Fluoiiue (BC0F), Caibonyl Fluoiiue (C0F2), anu
Tiifluoioacetyl Fluoiiue (CF2C0F). In total, these ABP have a uWP of 2S. Thus,
global waiming impact of these fluoiine emissions will be taken into consiueiation
in oui analysis.

Finally, this piocess piouuces aiounu 11Suu metiic tons of R1S4a pei yeai |Sj,
knowing that uuiing piouuction these machines use natuial gas fuel |Sj.


R12S4yf piocess
|16j

(1) G"?T + BF ! )'7>L<* + BCl
(2) R12S4yf + BF ! )7LE*#

+ Atmospheiic Begiauation Piouucts (ABP)Fluoiiue baseu- BUVW7>

Wheie:
CTFE (Chloiotiifluoioethylene) -- BUVW EXXX
R-24Sfa - 1,1,1,S,S-Pentafluoiopiopane - BUVW 'X>X
BF - Byuiogen Fluoiiue
BCl - Byuiochloiic aciu



Su
The piouuction piocess of the iefiigeiant R12S4yf iequiies fiist the piouuction of
the CTFE compounu sepaiately, thiough the piocess seen below in figuie S. We aie
not going to go in uetails in the chemical ieactions foi the piouuction of CTFE,
howevei, the main infoimation to iemembei is that CTFE has a global waiming
potential (uWP1uu) of Suuu.

?,-=+& >( V+13&55 :,#-+#2 *1+ G"?T 4+1:=3/,1. 6'N8

So in oiuei to piouuce R12S4yf, fiist it is necessaiy to piouuce CTFE which will be
useu an input foi the piocess ieaction. Anu thus, its global waiming effect will be
taken into consiueiation in oui calculations anu analysis. Then, as can be seen fiom
the piocess uiagiam foi R12S4yf piouuction in figuie 4, when R12S4yf is piouuceu,
it ieacts back with BF anu piouuces the iefiigeiant R24Sfa, which has a global
waiming potential (uWP1uu) of 1uSu. Anu thus, the global waiming impact of
R24Sfa will also be taken into consiueiation in oui analysis.


?,-=+& L( V+13&55 :,#-+#2 *1+ )'7>L<* 4+1:=3/,1. 6E8
S1
Finally, when the iefiigeiant molecules aie ciackeu in the stiatospheie, fuithei
chemical ieactions occui, piouucing fluoiiue baseu atmospheiic uegiauation
piouucts (ABP): Foimyl Fluoiiue (BC0F), Caibonyl Fluoiiue (C0F2), anu
Tiifluoioacetyl Fluoiiue (CF2C0F). In total, these ABP have a uWP of 2S, combineu
togethei. Thus, as well these fluoiine emissions' impact will be taken into
consiueiation in oui analysis.

Finally, this piocess piouuces aiounu 14uuu metiic tons of R12S4yf pei yeai |16j,
knowing that uuiing piouuction these machines use natuial gas fuel |16j


R744 piocess |17j
Inuustiial C02 ! Bigh giaue C02 Y)RLL

As foi the R744 piouuction piocess, it is basically a piocess that tiansfoims
inuustiial giaue caibon uioxiue to a highei giaue C02 that can be suitable foi
iefiigeiant use (R744). A iough piocess uiagiam foi R744 piouuction is piesenteu
in figuie S below.


?,-=+& E( V+13&55 :,#-+#2 *1+ )RLL 4+1:=3/,1. 6'R8
S2
Now iegaiuing the uimensions of the containeis anu tanks foi high giaue C02
piouuction, theie aie many uiffeient tank capacities ianging fiom being able to
piouuce 7ukg of R744houi to 1uuu kgh. Thus, we ueciueu to choose the miuule
option anu consiuei than this piocess allows the piouuction of Suukg of R744houi.
Anu thus, the amount of uiesel fuel useu uuiing piouuction is specific to this specific
tank size, which consumes 174.S kg of uiesel fuelhoui, with coiiesponuing powei
absoibeu of 1SS kW |17j.
Note that in oiuei to meet the specifications foi R744, extia woik is involveu foi
R744 piouuction, anu thus iefiigeiant giaue C02 is moie expensive to piouuce than
inuustiial giaue piouucts.

Finally, we neeu to note that some fugitive emissions have been taken into
account foi the piouuction of the iefiigeiants R1S4a anu R12S4yf. These
estimations foi the fugitive emissions have been pioviueu in ielation to some
leakages occuiiing foi specific components such as valves anu connectois |16j.
Foi R1S4a piocess, fugitive emissions incluue the following emissions: TCE, BCl, BF,
R1S4a, anu R1SSa. Foi 12S4yf piocess, fugitive emissions incluue the following:
CBSCl, CTFE, CTFP (S-chloio-1,1,2-tiifluoiopiopene), BCl, BF, R12S4yf, anu R24Sfa.
No fugitive emissions have been consiueieu foi R744 piouuction.

Tables below show all oui final flows foi the iefiigeiant piouuction stage:

G;&2,3#%5
?=-,/,0&
&2,55,1.5
BUV GZ7 T[ \]-^_
;1=+ 1*
4+1:=3/,1. \1+
'E`RK' ]-
+&*+,-&+#./^
GZ7 &[Q\]-^ _
EEX- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./

]-_; 1*
4+1:=3/,1.
\'E`RK' ]-
+&*+,-&+#./^

TCE u.uu47 4S u.211S

CBSCl u

CTFE u

CTFP u

BCl u.uu86

BF u.uSu2

)Q'>L# u.u147 14Su 21.u21

)Q'>># u.uu89

"Z"HF u.u477 'LRE 21.2S2S XKXXR>

"#$%& `( ?=-,/,0& &2,55,1.5 *1+ )'>L# 4+1:=3/,1.
SS
G;&2,3#%5
?=-,/,0&
&2,55,1.5
BUV GZ7 T[ \]-^_
;1=+ 1*
4+1:=3/,1. \1+
'>''K` ]-
+&*+,-&+#./^
GZ7 &[Q\]-^ _
EEX- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./

]-_; 1*
4+1:=3/,1.
\'>''K` ]-
+&*+,-&+#./^

TCE u 4S u

CBSCl u.u11S 4 u.u4S2

CTFE u.u11S Suuu S6.S

CTFP u.u1u2

BCl u.u1

BF u.u2uS

)Q'7>L<* u.u147 4 u.uS88

)Q7LE*# u.uu89 'X>X 9.167

"Z"HF u.u418 NX>S 6S.771 XKX7RN

"#$%& 'X( ?=-,/,0& &2,55,1.5 *+12 )'7>L<* 4+1:=3/,1.


"#$%& ''( GZ7Q&[0 &2,55,1.5 *1+ )Q'7>L<* 4+1:=3/,1. \,.3%=:,.- *=-,/,0& &2,55,1.5^




a.4=/
BIB &2,55,1.
31./+,$=/,1. GZ7 &[Q\]-^ _ EEX- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./

Kg C02- eqkg of R-12S4yf
piouuceu
Chemicals
TCE 6.4 S.S2
Cl u.S u.16S
CBSCl 1.S u.82S
BF 2.2 1.21
Fugitive
Emissions
u.uu7S1
"1/#%

EKR7R>'
Piocess
eneigy
Natuial gas 1 u.SS
Electiicity 2.1 1.1SS
Fugitive
Emissions
u.uS u.u16S
"1/#%

'KR7'E
"Z"HF

RKLL`

S4

"#$%& '7( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *1+ )Q'>L# 4+1:=3/,1. \,.3%=:,.- *=-,/,0& &2,55,1.5^


"#$%& '>( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *1+ )QRLL 4+1:=3/,1.

To find the ADP CO
2
eq- = GWP * ADP (kg)/kg of refrigerant
ABP BUV
HMV \]-^ _J- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q \]-^_
]- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q \]-^_
EEX - 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
Foimyl Fluoiiue (BC0F) 2u u.u6S 1.S u.71S
Caibonyl Fluoiiue (C0F2) 1 u.uS2S u.uS2S u.u1787S
Tiifluoiocetyl Fluoiiue
(CFSC0F)
2 u.1S u.26 u.14S
"Z"HF 2S u.227S 1.S92S XKSRN

"#$%& 'L( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 HMV :=+,.- )Q'>L# 4+1:=3/,1.

a.4=/ BIB &2,55,1. 31./+,$=/,1.
GZ7W &[Q\]-^ _ EEX- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./

kg C02-eqkg of R-1S4a
piouuceu
Chemicals
TCE u.6 u.SS
BF 2.1 1.1SS
Fugitive Emissions

u.u276
"1/#%

'KE'>
Piocess
eneigy
Natuial gas u.7 u.S8S
Electiicity 1.6 u.88
Fugitive Emissions u.u1 u.uuSS
"1/#%

'K7RXE

"Z"HF

7KRS>

a.4=/ BIB &2,55,1.5 31./+,$=/,1.
GZ7 &[Q\]-^ _ EEX- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./

kg C02-eqkg R744 piouuceu
Chemical C02 gas 1 u.SS
Piocess
eneigy
Biesel Fuel 12.6S 6.9S7S
Electiicity u.19 u.1u4S

"Z"HF 1S.84 RKN'7

SS
HMV BUV
HMV \]-^ _J- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q \]-^_ ]-
1* +&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q \]-^_
EEX - 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
Foimyl Fluoiiue (BC0F) 2u u.u6S 1.S u.71S
Caibonyl Fluoiiue (C0F2) 1 u.uS2S u.uS2S u.u1787S
Tiifluoiocetyl Fluoiiue
(CFSC0F)
2 1 2 1.1
"Z"HF

1.u97S S.SS2S 'KS>>

"#$%& 'E( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 HMV :=+,.- )Q'7>L<* 4+1:=3/,1.

,,K MAC components production

For the MAC components production, we have taken into consideration the following
components, as well as their assembly:
Compressor, piping/hoses, sensors, condenser, receiver/accumulator, engine cooling fan,
evaporator, expansion device and fasteners.
Through the GREEN-MAC-LCCP software, we were able to retrieve from their database
the amounts of materials used for each component for each MAC system, as well as their
corresponding energy consumption and thus CO
2-
eq emissions. The results are presented
in the tables below:
OHG G1241.&./5

T.&+-< 1* V+1:=3/,1. \O9_]-^ GZ7QT[ \]-_]-^
G124+&551+


Aluminum Castings SS.9S 1.S6S

Aluminum Foigings S6 1.64

Elastomeis 1uS S.1

Steel Foiging 18.9 2.S

Coppei Alloys SS S.S

Steel Castings 17 1.6

Plastics 8u S

"1/#% >LEKSE 'NKEXE
V,4,.-_I15&5


Plastics 8u S

Rubbeis 1uS S.1

Stainless Steel 2u S.1

Wiought Steel 18.S 2
S6

"#$%& 'N( F,5/ 1* OHG 31241.&./5 D,/; /;&,+ 31++&541.:,.- &.&+-< 31.5=24/,1. #.:
GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5


Wiought Aluminum S7.S6S 6.S

Fittings 24.S2S 6.S

"1/#% 7S>K>` 7LK7
@&.51+5


Tiansuucei 2u7.8947S68 1S.1S789474

Theimistoi 2u7.8947S68 1S.1S789474

Piessuie Switch 8u S

C02 Sensoi 2u7.8947S68 1S.1S789474

Piessuie Relief Bevices SS S.S

"1/#% RESKNSL7'XE LEKRR>NSL7'
G1.:&.5&+


Wiought Aluminum S7.S6S 1.64
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#/1+


Wiought Aluminum S7.S6S 1.64

Wiought Steel 18.S 2

FluxBiaze S.2 u.S6S

"1/#% N'KXNE LKXXE
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.


Steel Fan 18.S 2

Plastic 8u S

Electiic Notoi 66 S.8

Fan Clutch S7.S6S 1.64

"1/#% 7X'KSNE 'XKLL
T0#41+#/1+


Wiought Aluminum S7.S6S 1.64

Coiiosion Coating |Tij S1 S.2S

Polymei Coating 27S 14.1

"1/#% >N>K>NE 'SK``
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&


Wiought Aluminum S7.S6S 1.64

Sensing uas 129.S6 6.S68

Biaphiagm SS S.S

Wiought Steel 18.S 2

Plastic 0iifice 8u S

"1/#% >7XKL7E 'NK>XS
?#5/&.&+5


Plastic Fasteneis 8u S

Netal Clips 18.S 2

Steel (Sciews, Bolts,
Nuts)
18.S 2

"1/#% ''R R
S7
OHG G1241.&./5

c 1* &#3;
31241.&./
U&,-;/
\]-^
"1/#%
T.&+-<
\O9^
"1/#% GZ7QT[
\]-^_OHG
5<5/&2
G124+&551+


Aluminum Castings 4u% 2.S6 92.uS 4.u1

Aluminum Foigings 2u% 1.28 46.u8 2.1u

Elastomeis S% u.S2 S2.96 u.99

Steel Foiging 1S% u.96 18.14 2.21

Coppei Alloys 8% u.S1 28.16 1.69

Steel Castings 1u% u.64 1u.88 1.u2

Plastics 2% u.1S 1u.24 u.S8

"1/#% 'XXc NKLX 7>SKEX '7KL>
V,4,.-_I15&5


Plastics S% u.18 14.uu u.SS

Rubbeis 18% u.6S 64.89 1.9S

Stainless Steel u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Wiought Steel u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Wiought Aluminum 7u% 2.4S 91.S4 1S.9S

Fittings 7% u.2S 6.u1 1.S9

"1/#% 'XXc >KEX 'RNKLL 7XKX7
@&.51+5


Tiansuucei

u.Su 1uS.9S 6.S8

Theimistoi

u.1u 2u.79 1.S2

Piessuie Switch

u.uu u.uu u.uu

C02 Sensoi

u.uu u.uu u.uu

Piessuie Relief Bevices

u.2u 11.uu u.66

"1/#%

XKSX '>EKRL SKEE
G1.:&.51+


Wiought Aluminum 'XXc >KXX 'XRK7R LKRE
)&3&,0&+_H33=2
=%#/1+

Wiought Aluminum 9S% u.4u 14.91 u.6S

Wiought Steel u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

FluxBiaze S% u.u2 u.11 u.u1

"1/#% 'XXc XKL7 'EKX7 XKNS
T.-,.& G11%,.-
?#.

Steel Fan u% u.uu


Plastic SS% 1.uS 84.uu S.1S

Electiic Notoi 6S% 1.9S 128.7u 7.41

Fan Clutch u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc >KXX 7'7KRX 'XKEN
T0#41+#/1+

S8

"#$%& 'R( O#.=*#3/=+& #.: V+1:=3/,1. 1* )Q'>L# OHG 31241.&./5( T.&+-<
31.5=24/,1. #.: GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5_)Q'>L# OHG 5<5/&2


Wiought Aluminum 9S% 2.8S 1u6.49 4.67

Coiiosion Coating |Tij u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Polymei Coating 1% u.uS 8.2S u.42

"1/#% 'XXc >KXX ''EK>N EK'N
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&


Wiought Aluminum 8u% u.44 16.44 u.72

Sensing uas 2% u.u1 1.4S u.u7

Biaphiagm S% u.uS 1.S1 u.u9

Wiought Steel 1S% u.u7 1.S2 u.14

Plastic0iifice u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc XKEE 7XKRX 'KXE
?#5/&.&+5


Plastic Fasteneis 28% u.Su 4u.uu 1.Su

Netal Clips S6% 1.uu 18.Su 2.uu

Steel (Sciews, Bolts,
Nuts)
17% u.Su S.SS u.6u

"1/#% 'XXc 'KSX NLKXE LK'X
d&;,3%& H55&2$%<


Refiigeiant

1.uu u.u2

Compiessoi

1.uu u.u2

PipingBoses

1.uu u.u2

Conuensoi

1.uu u.u2

Evapoiatoi

1.uu u.u2

Total

S.uu u.11
"1/#% *1+ )Q'>L#
OHG 5<5/&2
77KE 'X`XKS NRKL
S9
OHG G1241.&./5

c 1* &#3;
31241.&./
U&,-;/ \]-^
"1/#%
T.&+-< \O9^
"1/#% GZ7Q
T[
\]-^_OHG
5<5/&2
G124+&551+


Aluminum Castings 4u% 2.S6 92.uS 4.u1

Aluminum Foigings 2u% 1.28 46.u8 2.1u

Elastomeis S% u.S2 S2.96 u.99

Steel Foiging 1S% u.96 18.14 2.21

Coppei Alloys 8% u.S1 28.16 1.69

Steel Castings 1u% u.64 1u.88 1.u2

Plastics 2% u.1S 1u.24 u.S8

"1/#% 'XXc NKLX 7>SKEX '7KL>
V,4,.-_I15&5


Plastics S% u.18 14.uu u.SS

Rubbeis 18% u.6S 64.89 1.9S

Stainless Steel u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Wiought Steel u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Wiought Aluminum 7u% 2.4S 91.S4 1S.9S

Fittings 7% u.2S 6.u1 1.S9

"1/#% 'XXc >KEX 'RNKLL 7XKX7
@&.51+5


Tiansuucei

u.Su 1uS.9S 6.S8

Theimistoi

u.1u 2u.79 1.S2

Piessuie Switch

u.uu u.uu u.uu

C02 Sensoi

u.uu u.uu u.uu

Piessuie Relief
Bevices
u.2u 11.uu u.66

"1/#%

XKSX '>EKRL SKEE
G1.:&.51+


Wiought Aluminum 'XXc >KXX 'XRK7R LKRE
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#
/1+

Wiought Aluminum 9S% u.4u 14.91 u.6S

Wiought Steel u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

FluxBiaze S% u.u2 u.11 u.u1

"1/#% 'XXc XKL7 'EKX7 XKNS
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.


Steel Fan u% u.uu


Plastic SS% 1.uS 84.uu S.1S

Electiic Notoi 6S% 1.9S 128.7u 7.41

Fan Clutch u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc >KXX 7'7KRX 'XKEN
4u

"#$%& 'S( O#.=*#3/=+& #.: V+1:=3/,1. 1* )Q'7>L<* OHG 31241.&./5( T.&+-<
31.5=24/,1. #.: GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5_)Q'7>L<* OHG 5<5/&2

T0#41+#/1+


Wiought Aluminum

2.u7


Coiiosion Coating |Tij


Polymei Coating

u.uS


"1/#% 'XXc 7K' SXKREL`RE >KN'>`N
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&


Wiought Aluminum 8u% u.44 16.44 u.72

Sensing uas 2% u.u1 1.4S u.u7

Biaphiagm S% u.uS 1.S1 u.u9

Wiought Steel 1S% u.u7 1.S2 u.14

Plastic0iifice u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc XKEE 7XKRX 'KXE
?#5/&.&+5


Plastic Fasteneis 28% u.Su 4u.uu 1.Su

Netal Clips S6% 1.uu 18.Su 2.uu

Steel (Sciews, Bolts,
Nuts)
17% u.Su S.SS u.6u

"1/#% 'XXc 'KSX NLKXE LK'X
d&;,3%& H55&2$%<
\O9^

Refiigeiant

1.uu u.u2

Compiessoi

1.uu u.u2

PipingBoses

1.uu u.u2

Conuensoi

1.uu u.u2

Evapoiatoi

1.uu u.u2

"1/#%

EKXX XK''
"1/#% )Q'7>L<* OHG
5<5/&2
7'KN 'XENK7 NEK`
41
OHG G1241.&./5

c 1* &#3;
31241.&./
U&,-;/
\]-^
"1/#% T.&+-<
\O9^
"1/#% GZ7Q
T[
\]-^_OHG
5<5/&2
G124+&551+


Aluminum Castings 2u% 1.64 S8.96 2.S7

Aluminum Foigings 1u% u.82 29.S2 1.S4

Elastomeis S% u.41 42.2S 1.27

Steel Foiging 2S% 2.uS S8.7S 4.72

Coppei Alloys 8% u.66 S6.u8 2.16

Steel Castings S2% 2.62 44.61 4.2u

Plastics u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc SK7X 7EXK'L 'NK7S
V,4,.-_I15&5


Plastics u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Rubbeis u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Stainless Steel 1S% u.7S 1S.uu 2.SS

Wiought Steel S8% 1.9u SS.1S S.8u

Wiought Aluminum 4u% 2.uu 74.7S 1S.uu

Fittings 7% u.SS 8.S8 2.28

"1/#% 'XXc EKXX '>>KLN 7'KL7
@&.51+5


Tiansuucei

u.Su 1uS.9S 6.S8

Theimistoi

u.1u 2u.79 1.S2

Piessuie Switch

u.uu u.uu u.uu

C02 Sensoi

u.uu u.uu u.uu

Piessuie Relief Bevices

u.2u 11.uu u.66

"1/#%

XKSX '>EKRL SKEE
G1.:&.51+


Wiought Aluminum 'XXc >K> ''RK``R7RE EK77ES7E
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#/1+


Wiought Aluminum 4u% u.21 7.77 u.S4

Wiought Steel SS% u.29 S.29 u.S7

FluxBiaze S% u.uS u.14 u.u1

"1/#% 'XXc XKE7 '>K7X XK`L
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.


Steel Fan SS% 1.uS


Plastic u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Electiic Notoi 6S% 1.9S 128.7u 7.41

Fan Clutch u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc >KXX '7SKRX RKL'
T0#41+#/1+


Wiought Aluminum 9S% 2.8S 1u6.49 4.67

Coiiosion Coating |Tij u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Polymei Coating 1% u.uS 8.2S u.42

"1/#% 'XXc >KXX ''EK>N EK'N
42

"#$%& '`( O#.=*#3/=+& #.: V+1:=3/,1. 1* )QRLL OHG 31241.&./5( T.&+-<
31.5=24/,1. #.: GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5_)QRLL OHG 5<5/&2


"#$%& 7X( @=22#+< *1+ 3124#+,.- /;& :,**&+&./ +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 31241.&./5
4+1:=3/,1.


Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&


Wiought Aluminum SS% u.24 8.89 u.S9

Sensing uas 2% u.u1 1.76 u.u9

Biaphiagm S% u.uS 1.87 u.11

Wiought Steel S8% u.S9 7.Su u.79

Plastic0iifice u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

"1/#% 'XXc XKNS '`KS7 'KLX
?#5/&.&+5


Plastic Fasteneis u% u.uu u.uu u.uu

Netal Clips S6% 1.uu 18.Su 2.uu

Steel (Sciews, Bolts, Nuts) 44% 1.2u 22.2u 2.4u

"1/#% 'XXc 7K7X LXKRX LKLX
d&;,3%& H55&2$%<


Refiigeiant

1.uu u.u2

Compiessoi

1.uu u.u2

PipingBoses

1.uu u.u2

Conuensoi

1.uu u.u2

Evapoiatoi

1.uu u.u2

"1/#%

EKXX XK''
"1/#% )QRLL OHG
5<5/&2
7NKR `NXK' RXK`
OHG @<5/&2 "1/#% O#55 \]-^
"1/#% GZ7QT[ \]-^ *+12
31241.&./5 eH55&2$%<_EEX-
+&*+,-&+#./
R1S4a 22.47 67.41
R12S4yf 21.S7 6S.86
R744 26.7 7u.91
4S
,,,K Total for Refrigerant MAC system Production


)&*+,-&+#./ OHG
5<5/&2
GZ7 &[Q\]-^*+12
+&*+,-&+#./ 4+1:=3/,1.
_ EEX- 1* +&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q\]-^*+12
HMV :=+,.-
4+1:=3/,1._ EEX-
1* +&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q\]-^*+12 OHG
31241.&./5
4+1:=3/,1.e#55&2$%<
_ EEX- 1* +&*+,-&+#./
R1S4a 2.78Su7S786 u.87S87S 67.41
R12S4yf 7.44881192S 1.8S287S 6S.86
R744 7.612 u 7u.91

"#$%& 7'( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 :=+,.- +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2 4+1:=3/,1. 4&+ EEX - 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
)&*+,-&+#./ OHG
5<5/&2
"1/#% GZ7 &[Q\]-^ *+12
)&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2
4+1:=3/,1. _ EEX- 1*
+&*+,-&+#./
"1/#% GZ7 &[Q\]-^
*+12 )&*+,-&+#./ OHG
5<5/&2 4+1:=3/,1. _
%,*&54#.
"1/#% GZ7 &[Q\-^ *+12
)&*+,-&+#./ OHG
5<5/&2 4+1:=3/,1. _
;1=+ HG Zf
R1S4a 71.u7 17S.S1 21.817
R12S4yf 7S.1S 2S8.8S S2.211
R744 78.S2 SS8.4u 69.491

"#$%& 77( "1/#% GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 &#3; +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2 4&+ ;1=+ HG Zf

1ransportat|on

Foi the piouuction of the whole iefiigeiant NAC system, we have taken into
consiueiation that it occuis in }apan. The ieason behinu that is that }apan owns the
biggest shaie in manufactuiing cais foi }euuah: with neaily 44 % of the total cais in
}euuah, as seen in tables 22 anu 2S |18j.
Noieovei, since the iefiigeiant piouuction anu the NAC components
piouuction occui in two sepaiate plants in }apan, theie will be two tianspoitations
taken into consiueiation: (i) the tianspoitation of the iefiigeiant to the cai
manufactuiing company (so that it gets assembleu with the NAC system anu
vehicle), anu (ii) the tianspoitation of the whole iefiigeiant NAC system fiom the
cai manufactuiing company in }apan to }euuah in Sauui Aiabia.
44
G#+ "<4& G1=./+< c
Toyota }apan 26.S
Byunuai South Koiea 1S.1
Cheviolet 0SA 1u.88
Foiu 0SA 9.4
Neiceues ueimany 7.S
Nissan }apan 7
BNW ueimany 6
Bonua }apan S.2
Kia South Koiea 4.1
uNC 0SA S.1
Lexus }apan 2.9
Nitsubishi }apan 2.8

"#$%& 7>( O15/ 414=%#+ 3#+5 ,. 9&::#;6'S8

Car Manufacturing
Country
Share of cars in Jeddah (%)
Japan 44.4
USA 25.38
Germany 13.3
South Korea 17.2

"#$%& 7L( @;#+& 1* /;& D1+%:D,:& 2#.=*#3/=+,.- 31=./+,&5 ,. 9&::#; 3#+5
There are two main categories from which we will be studying the CO
2
-eq emissions
during transportation:
Fuel consumption during transportation
Leakage of refrigerant during transportation



4S
,K Total Fuel Consumption during transportation


"+#.541+/#/,1. ' \/+=3]^( f#-1<# ! "#]#1]#

Since Bupont is the biggest company piouucing iefiigeiants, anu as we
mentioneu pieviously in the intiouuction anu is nowauays alieauy piouucing the R-
12S4yf anu ieauy to implement it in cais, we chose to iefei to the Bupont
iefiigeiant plant in }apan, locateu in the city of Nagoya.
Thus, fiist, the iefiigeiant is tianspoiteu fiom Bupont plant in Nagoya to the Toyota
cai manufactuiing company in Takaoka, }apan. We chose this ceitain plant just foi
simplicity anu since as seen in table 22, Toyota owns the biggest shaie of cais in
}euuah. The iefiigeiant will be tianspoiteu via a tiuck that consumes uiesel fuel
|19j. The uistance fiom Nagoya to Takaoka was calculateu thiough uoogle Naps to
be aiounu 284 Km, anu the aveiage tiuck speeu in }apan foi a shipment is founu to
be aiounu SS kmh |2uj. Fuitheimoie, we consiueieu that uuiing on shipment, the
tiuck tianspoits 4S.1 kg of iefiigeiantshipment.

?,-=+& N( B11-%& O#45( :,5/#.3& *+12 f#-1<# /1 "#]#1]# 67'8

46
"+#.541+/#/,1. 7 \5;,4^( "#]#1]# \9#4#.^ ! 9&::#;

Then, after the whole AC system is assembled with the refrigerant, the refrigerant MAC
system needs to be transported to the city of operation: Jeddah. The shipment occurs via
the sea, with a ship of the following size: 7000 TEU. The distance was as well calculated
through Google Earth, and it is about 1300 km. The average speed of such a ship is
around 41 km/h [22] and it uses diesel fuel as well. The ship transports around 5500 cars
per shipment [23], which translates into having 5500 MAC systems, which is also
equivalent to nearly 3 tons of refrigerant transported on the ship (1 MAC system contains
550g refrigerant). However, we are only studying the MAC system transportation and not
the whole vehicle transportation, and it is not right to consider the fuel consumption of a
ship that weights the 5500 cars versus the fuel consumption of a ship that weights the
5500 MAC systems alone. So we assumed that one car weights 1 ton and that on average
(based on the results we got from the production stage) one MAC system weights 24 kg,
then we found out that 1 MAC system represents only 2 % of the total weight of the car.
And thus, on that basis, we proceeded with our fuel consumption calculations as
presented in table 24.


"#$%& 7E( GZ7 &[Q &2,55,1.5 *+12 *=&% 31.5=24/,1. :=+,.- /+#.541+/#/,1. 4&+ EEX -
1* +&*+,-&+#./


Means
D|stanc
e (km)
Speed
(km] h)
Iue|
Consumpt|on
(kg of d|ese|
fue| ]hour)
1ota|
t|me
(h)
1ota| Iue|
Consumpt|on
(kg)]sh|pment
kg CC2 eq- from
fue|
consumpt|on]sh
|pment
kg of
refr|gerant
]sh|pment
kg CC
2
eq- from
fue|
consumpt|on]SS0
g of refr|gerant
)*+,- $.' /" /%0... .%!! $"%0(/ .0%"/./'$.( '/%! !%0/
1234 !/000 '0%5' 5!00 /!&%! $$("".(%('5 5$.0!&&%"!( /0$" /!%55
1ota| transportat|on 32.80
47
The data in table 24 are obtained as follows:
- Total Time in (h) for a trip = Distance (km) / Speed (km/h).
- Total Fuel Consumption (Kg) for a shipment = Fuel Consumption (kg of diesel
fuel /hour) * Total time (h).
- 1 gallon of diesel = 3.168 Kg [24]
- CO
2
eq- emissions from diesel fuel = 10.18 Kg/gallon [24].
- CO
2
-eq emissions from fuel consumption for shipment = (Total Fuel
Consumption (Kg) for a shipment * 10.18) / 3.168

,,K Refrigerant Leakage during transportation

Then, we took into consiueiation the leakage of iefiigeiant uuiing tianspoitation.
Fiom the uRENN-NAC-LCCP uatabase, we weie able to get the iate of leakage of
each of the iefiigeiants uuiing a uistance of 1 km uuiing tianspoitation. It has been
given that foi R-1S4a, u.uuuS kg of iefiigeiant is leakeu, anu they pioviueu that R-
12S4yf leaks XK` /,2&5 the total leakage fiom R-1S4a, anu that R-744 leaks > /,2&5
moie R-1S4a. Fiom this infoimation anu the following calculations, we weie able to
get the final uata iepiesenteu in table 2S:

- Total refrigerant leakage (kg) = First transportation Refrigerant Leakage (kg) +
Second transportation Refrigerant Leakage (kg).
- CO
2
- eq emissions (kg) = Total refrigerant leakage (kg) * GWP

"#$%& 7N( GZ7 &[Q &2,55,1.5 *+12 +&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& :=+,.- /+#.541+/#/,1. 4&+ EEX -
1* +&*+,-&+#./

kefr|gerant Leakage
(kg) f|rst
transportat|on]SS0 g of
refr|gerant
kefr|gerant Leakage
(kg) second
transportat|on]SS0 g of
refr|gerant
1ota| refr|gerant
Leakage (kg) dur|ng
transportat|on]SS0 g of
refr|gerant
kg CC2 eq- from
refr|gerant |eakage
dur|ng
transportat|on]SS0 g of
refr|gerant
67!/'8 0%000/ 0%0!/5/$/&' 0%0!'0/$/&' 20.066324
67!$/'9: 0%000$5 0%0!$/"&!"" 0%0!$($&!"" 0.0S0S17
675'' 0%000& 0%0'!!&5!./ 0%0'$0&5!./ 0.042097
48

,,,K Total emissions during transportation

Conveiting oui total iesults to oui functional unit, we get the following final iesults
foi the total C02-eq emissions uuiing the whole tianspoitation stage:

"#$%& 7R( "1/#% GZ7 &[Q &2,55,1.5 *+12 /+#.541+/#/,1. 5/#-& *1+ &#3; +&*+,-&+#./ OHG
5<5/&2

Cperat|on

Buiing the use stage of the NAC system, C02-eq emissions aie stuuieu uue to:
Fuel consumption fiom NAC system alone
Refiigeiant leakage uuiing seivicing of the iefiigeiant
Refiigeiant leakage uuiing usage (uiiving with AC 0N)

i. ?=&% G1.5=24/,1. :=+,.- 14&+#/,1.

Buiing opeiation, the NAC system iequiies eneigyelectiicity in oiuei foi it to
opeiate. This is pioviuing by the fuel of the cai. Now since each iefiigeiant NAC
system uesign is uiffeient anu they have uiffeient masses, as well as each iefiigeiant
as uiscusseu pieviously has uiffeient gas piopeities, thus each iefiigeiant NAC
system will iequiie eithei less oi moie powei in oiuei foi the compiessoi to iun at
its maximum speeu anu cool uown to compaitment of the cai fiom Su
o
C to 2u
o
C.

Refrigerant
MAC
systems
Kg CO2 eq- from
refrigerant leakage
during
transportation/550
g of refrigerant
Kg CO2 eq- from
transportation
fuel
consumption/550
g of refrigerant
Total CO2 eq-(kg)
from Refrigerant
MAC system
Transportation /
550g of refrigerant
Total CO2 eq-(kg)
from Refrigerant
MAC system
Transportation /
lifespan
Total CO2 eq-(kg)
from Refrigerant
MAC system
Transport / hour
AC ON
R134a 20.066324 32.79589482 52.86222 130.39 0.016
R1234yf 0.050517 32.79589482 32.84641 113.14 0.014
R744 0.042097 32.79589482 32.83799 233.51 0.029
49
Since R12S4yf anu R1S4a have neaily similai gas piopeities, as well the NAC
system uesign weights neaily the same, it has been shown that both these systems
will consume about 7Xc of the total fuel consumption of the cai |2S, 26j. Bowevei,
caibon uioxiue has neaily 1u times highei the piessuies of the othei two
iefiigeiants at the same tempeiatuie point, thus it iequiies a highei compiession
iatio anu thus much moie eneigy in oiuei foi the NAC system to iun at its
maximum speeu. Theiefoie, it has been shown that foi a small seuan cai like the one
we aie iefeiiing to in oui stuuy, an R744 NAC system woulu consume at least 7Rc
of the total fuel consumption of the cai |2S, 26j. This numbei can actually go highei,
up to 41%, uepenuing on the cai size anu type.

Auuitional infoimation neeueu to compute oui final iesults piesenteu table 27
below, aie:
Aveiage speeu of cai in }euuah= 6S.1 kmh
Cai iuns on gasoline fuel
Bepenuing on oui cai type anu its engine capacity:
! Fuel consumption = 6.S L of gasoline1uu km |27j
C02-eq emissionskm uiiven= 1SS gkm |27j

"#$%& 7S( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 *=&% 31.5=24/,1. :=+,.- 14&+#/,1. 4&+ ;1=+ 1* HG
Zf

ii. )&*+,-&+#./ F&#]#-& *+12 5&+0,3&

As mentioneu pieviously, uuiing the lifespan of 11 yeais, each iefiigeiant has a
ceitain numbei of seivices, uue to the lifetime of each iefiigeiant. Bata about the
amount of leakage fiom the seivice of R1S4a is ietiieveu fiom the uREEN-NAC-
LCCP uatabase. So fiom the infoimation alieauy piesenteu pieviously about the
numbei of seivices iequiieu foi each iefiigeiant, we yielu to the iesults piesenteu
in table 28:

Iue|
Consumpt|on
(L)] km
CC
2
eq-(g)]
km of dr|v|ng
car
of fue|
consumpt|on
from AC]km of
dr|v|ng
CC
2
eq- (g) from
refr|gerant system
fue| consumpt|on] km
of dr|v|ng
CC
2
eq- (g) from fue|
consumpt|on dur|ng
operat|on] hour of
AC CN
k 134a 0%0(" 153 $0 /0%( 1992.06
k 1234yf 0%0(" 153 $0 /0%( 1992.06
k744 0%0(" 153 $5 '!%/! 2689.281
Su
- 200 g of refrigerant leakage per service of 550 g of refrigerant (from GRENN-
MAC-LCCP)
- Refrigerant leakage (g) from service per lifetime = 200 g * Number of
services/lifetime of refrigerant.


"#$%& 7`( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 +&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& :=& /1 5&+0,3,.- :=+,.-
14&+#/,1. 4&+ ;1=+ 1* HG Zf

iii. )&*+,-&+#./ F&#]#-& *+12 g5&

Some regular and irregular leakages occur during the operation of the MAC system. The
distinction between both types of leakages has been explained at the beginning of the
report. The data regarding the regular and irregular leakage of each refrigerant MAC
system are retrieved form the GREEN-MAC-LCCP software, taken into account the
leakage ratios presented in table 29 below.









"#$%& >X( F&#]#-& )#/,1 1* /;& +&*+,-&+#./5 3124#+&: /1 )Q'>L#



kefr|gerant |eakage
(g) from serv|ce]
||fet|me of refr|gerant
kefr|gerant |eakage
(g) from serv|ce
]||fespan (11 years)
kefr|gerant |eakage (g)
from serv|ce ]hours on
AC CN
CC2 eq-(g) from
refr|gerant |eakage
dur|ng serv|ce ]hour
of AC CN
k-134a '00%00 $&/%// 0%0/("0'(55 S2.20
k-1234yf '00%00 '..%.& 0%0(0.'!!$& 0.24
k-744 !000%00 !$$$%$$ 0%!"$!0$.$$ 0.1S
)&*+,-&+#./
F&#]#-& )#/,1 05K
)'>L #
R1S4a 1
R12S4yf u.9
R744 S
S1

"#$%& >'( "1/#% +&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& 4&+ <&#+

"#$%& >7( GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 +&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& *+12 =5& :=+,.- 14&+#/,1.C 4&+
;1=+ 1* HG Zf

iv. "1/#% &2,55,1.5 *+12 14&+#/,1. 5/#-&


kefr|gerant
MAC systems
CC
2
eq- (g) from
refr|gerant system
fue| consumpt|on]
hour of AC CN
CC
2
eq-(g) from
refr|gerant |eakage
from serv|ce ]hour of
AC CN
CC
2
eq-(g) from
refr|gerant |eakage
dur|ng use ]hour of
AC CN
1ota| CC
2
eq-(g) from
kefr|gerant MAC system
dur|ng Cperat|on ] hour
AC CN
6!/'8 !&&$%0( "$%$0!(../' (&%(.&$"/&' 2113.9S
6!$/'9: !&&$%0( 0%$'//('"!' 0%!.'"/!!'/ 1992.49
65'' $(.&%$.! 0%!"$!0$.$$ 0%0&&"$0.5( 2689.S3

"#$%& >>( "1/#% GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2 :=+,.- 14&+#/,1.C 4&+
;1=+ 1* HG Zf





MAC system
kegu|ar |eakage
(g]year)
Irregu|ar acc|denta|
|eakage (g]year)
1ota| kefr|gerant Leakage
(g]y)
k-134a !.%( !5 /"%(
k-1234yf !(%5 !5 //%5
k-744 ""%5 !5 5$%5

kefr|gerant |eakage (g)
dur|ng use ]||fespan (11
years)
kefr|gerant |eakage (g)
dur|ng use ]hours on AC CN
CC
2
eq-(g) from refr|gerant
|eakage dur|ng use ]hour of AC
CN
k-134a /&!%( 0%0'.5//5'' 69.69
k-1234yf /50%5 0%0'(!/$5.( 0.18
k-744 5&&%5 0%0&&"$0.5( 0.10
S2
Lnd-Cf-L|fe (LCL)

Note that for specifically Jeddah, no information at all has been found regarding
the end-of-life of the car AC system, not even about the vehicle itself. From our own
resources, we have asked Abdul Latif Jamil company, which is the biggest car
representative of Toyota in Saudi Arabia, and they have told us that in Jeddah, there are
no specific programs to follow a vehicles end of life cycle, not for recycling, and not for
landfilling either. However, they have mentioned that in the near future, they are
intending to put in place these programs and special companies to follow up with the end
of life cycle of any vehicle in Jeddah.
Since this is the case, no information at all is available for the EOL of the
refrigerant MAC systems. However, since we wanted to know roughly the effect of the
EOL stage compared to the other stages, we chose to get the EOL information from the
GREEN-MAC-LCCP database. And thus, this information has been gathered on a
general basis by General Motors who own the copyright of this software.
Thus, as we have mentioned before, we consider that the refrigerant is completely
released in the atmosphere, and that the MAC components undergo some treatments
(separation of materials, shredding, recycling, landfilling). For each refrigerant MAC
system, we have retrieved the total energy consumed and the corresponding total CO
2
eq-
emissions in order to treat the MAC components.
First, we will begin with the treatment of MAC components in their EOL (note:
data include also transportation related to EOL), and then we will deal with the effect of
the release of the refrigerant in the atmosphere.

i. OHG G1241.&./5 TZF

OHG 31241.&./5 2#/&+,#%5
GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5_&.&+-<
31.5=24/,1.
T.&+-< 1*
)&3<3%,.-hh_2#55 1*
2#/&+,#%

(kgN}) (N}kg)
G124+&551+

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
V,4,.-_I15&5

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
SS
@&.51+5

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
G1.:&.51+

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#/1+

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
T0#41+#/1+

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S
?#5/&.&+5

Netals u.1u 1.7
Plastics u.1u u.1S

"#$%& >L( F,5/ 1* /;& TZF 31241.&./ 2#/&+,#%5 D,/; /;&,+ 31++&541.:,.- &.&+-<
31.5=24/,1. *1+ /+&#/2&./ #.: GZ7Q &[ &2,55,1.5


)Q'>L# OHG 31241.&./5
"1/#% O#55
\]-^
V&+3&./
)&3<3%,.-
"1/#% TZF T.&+-< *1+ i=%]
"+#.541+/C M,52#./%,.- #.:
@;+&::,.- 1* OT"HF@ j
F#.:*,%%,.- V%#5/,35 \O9^
"Z"HF GZ7QT[
\]-_/1/#% 2#55 1*
2#/&+,#%5^
G124+&551+

Netals S.9S 1uu% 1u.1 1.u
Plastics u.4S u% u.u67 u.uu67
V,4,.-_I15&5

u.u
Netals 2.7u 1uu% 4.6 u.46uu
Plastics u.81 u% u.121 u.u
@&.51+5

u.u
S4
Netals u.2u 1uu% u.S u.uSuu
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.u
G1.:&.51+

u.u
Netals S.uu 1uu% S.1 u.S
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuuu
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#/1+

u.u
Netals u.42 1uu% u.7 u.u7uu
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.u
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.

u.u
Netals 1.9S 1uu% S.S u.SSuu
Plastics 1.uS u% u.1S8 u.u
T0#41+#/1+

Netals 2.97 1uu% S.u u.S
Plastics u.uS u% u.uuS u.u
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&

Netals u.S4 1uu% u.9 u.1
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuuu
?#5/&.&+5

Netals 1.Su 1uu% 2.2 u.2
Plastics u.Su u% u.u7S u.uu7S
"Z"HF *1+ )Q'>L# OHG
5<5/&2
7'KSR

>7KN> >K>

"#$%& >E( TZF 1* )Q'>L# OHG 31241.&./5( T.&+-< 31.5=24/,1. #.: GZ7Q&[
&2,55,1.5_)Q'>L# OHG 5<5/&2
)Q'7>L<* OHG
31241.&./5
"1/#% O#55
\]-^
V&+3&./
)&3<3%,.-
"1/#% TZF T.&+-< *1+ i=%]
"+#.541+/C M,52#./%,.- #.:
@;+&::,.- 1* OT"HF@ j
F#.:*,%%,.- V%#5/,35 \O9^
"Z"HF GZ7QT[
\]-_/1/#% 2#55 1*
2#/&+,#%5^
G124+&551+

Netals S.9S 1uu% 1u.1 1.u
Plastics u.4S u% u.u67 u.uu67
V,4,.-_I15&5

u.u
Netals 2.7u 1uu% 4.6 u.46uu
Plastics u.81 u% u.121 u.u121u
@&.51+5

u.uuuuu
Netals u.2u 1uu% u.S u.uSuuu
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuuuu
G1.:&.51+

u.uuuu
Netals S.uu 1uu% S.1 u.S
SS
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuuu
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#/1+

u.uuuu
Netals u.42 1uu% u.7 u.1
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuuu
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.

u.uuuu
Netals 1.9S 1uu% S.S u.S
Plastics 1.uS u% u.1S8 u.u1S8
Evapoiatoi

u.uuuuu
Netals 2.u8 1uu% S.S u.SSuuu
Plastics u.u2 u% u.uuS u.uuuSu
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&

u.uuuuu
Netals u.S4 1uu% u.9 u.u9uuu
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuuu
?#5/&.&+5

u.u
Netals 1.Su 1uu% 2.2 u.22uu
Plastics u.Su u% u.u7S u.uu7S
"Z"HF *1+ )Q'7>L<*
OHG 5<5/&2
7XK`R

>'K'7 >K'

"#$%& >N( TZF 1* )Q'7>L<* OHG 31241.&./5( T.&+-< 31.5=24/,1. #.: GZ7Q&[
&2,55,1.5_)Q'7>L<* OHG 5<5/&2

)QRLL OHG 31241.&./5
"1/#% O#55
\]-^
V&+3&./
)&3<3%,.-
"1/#% TZF T.&+-< *1+ i=%]
"+#.541+/C M,52#./%,.- #.:
@;+&::,.- 1* OT"HF@ j
F#.:*,%%,.- V%#5/,35 \O9^
"Z"HF GZ7QT[
\]-_/1/#% 2#55 1*
2#/&+,#%5^
G124+&551+

Netals 7.79 1uu% 1S.2 1.S2u
Plastics u.41 u% u.u62 u.uu6
V,4,.-_I15&5

u.uuu
Netals S.uu 1uu% 8.S u.8Su
Plastics u.uu u% u.uuu u.uuu
@&.51+5

u.uuu
Netals u.2u 1uu% u.S u.uSu
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuu
G1.:&.51+

u.uuu
Netals S.Su 1uu% S.6 u.S6u
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuu
)&3&,0&+_H33=2=%#/1+

u.uuu
Netals u.S2 1uu% u.9 u.u9u
S6
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuu
T.-,.& G11%,.- ?#.

u.uuu
Netals S.uu 1uu% S.1 u.S1u
Plastics u.uu u% u.uuu u.uuu
T0#41+#/1+

u.uuu
Netals 2.97 1uu% S.u u.Suu
Plastics u.uS u% u.uuS u.uu1
Tb4#.5,1. M&0,3&

u.uuu
Netals u.67 1uu% 1.1 u.11u
Plastics u.uu u% u.u u.uuu
?#5/&.&+5

u.uuu
Netals 2.2u 1uu% S.7 u.S7u
Plastics u.uu u% u.uuu u.uuu
"Z"HF *1+ )QRLL OHG
5<5/&2
7NKX`

L>KE LK>

"#$%& >R( TZF 1* )QRLL OHG 31241.&./5( T.&+-< 31.5=24/,1. #.: GZ7Q&[
&2,55,1.5_)QRLL OHG 5<5/&2

ii. )&*+,-&+#./ TZF

Refrigerant leakage in EOL (g)/year = Refrigerant leakage in EOL (g/refrigerant
lifetime)/ Refrigerant Lifetime

"#$%& >S( GZ7 &[Q &2,55,1.5 :=& /1 /1/#% +&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& ,. TZF 4&+ ;1=+ 1* HG Zf

)Q'>L# )Q'7>L<* )QRLL
)&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& ,. TZF
\-^_+&*+,-&+#./ %,*&/,2&^
267 284 294
)&*+,-&+#./ F,*&/,2& 1S 9 9
)&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& ,. TZF
\-^_<&#+
17.8u S1.S6 S2.67
)&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& ,. TZF
\-^_%,*&54#. \''<&#+5^
19S.8u S47.11 SS9.SS
)&*+,-&+#./ %&#]#-& ,. TZF \-^_'
;1=+ HG Zf
u.u244 u.u4S2 u.u447
\-^ GZ7 T[Q &2,55,1.5 *+12
+&*+,-&+#./ TZF_ ' ;1=+ HG Zf
>LKSLE XK'R> XKXLE
S7
iii. "1/#% TZF 1* +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2


"#$%& >`( "1/#% GZ7Q &[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 TZF 1* /;& +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2

Comparat|ve LCI of a|| stages

Note that all these final flows iepiesenteu in the LCI coiiesponu to the "with
seivice" case. The " no seivice" iesults will be only shown in the final compaiison
section foi ease of unueistanuing the effect of each stage anu categoiy in each stage.

)&*+,-&+#./ OHG
5<5/&25
V+1:=3/,1.
\-_;1=+ HG
Zf^
"+#.541+/
\-_;1=+ HG
Zf^
Z4&+#/,1.
\-_;1=+ HG
Zf^
T.:Q1*QF,*&
\-_;1=+ HG
Zf^
"1/#% GZ7 &[Q
&2,55,1.5
\-^_;1=+ 1* HG
Zf
)'>L# 21.8 16.2 2114.u SS.9 7'SRK`
)'7>L<* S2.2 14.1 1992.S 1.S 7XLXK>
)RLL 69.S 29.1 2689.S S.9 7R`'K`

"#$%& LX( "1/#% GZ7Q&[ &2,55,1.5 *+12 &#3; +&*+,-&+#./ OHG 5<5/&2 /;+1=-;1=/ /;&
D;1%& F,*& 3<3%&






)&*+,-&+#./
OHG 5<5/&25
GZ7 &[Q\]-^*+12
OHG TZF
31241.&./5 _EEX
- 1* +&*+,-&+#./
GZ7 &[Q\]-^*+12
OHG TZF
31241.&./5
_%,*&54#.
GZ7 &[Q\-^*+12
OHG TZF
31241.&./5
_;1=+ HG Zf
GZ7 &[Q\-^*+12
)&*+,-&+#./ TZF
_;1=+ HG Zf
"1/#% GZ7 &[Q\-^
*+12 )&*+,-&+#./
OHG 5<5/&2 TZF
_ ;1=+ HG Zf
)'>L# S.S 8.14 1.u1 S4.84 >EKSN
)'7>L<* S.1 1u.68 1.SS u.17 'KEX
)RLL 4.S Su.S8 S.81 u.u4 >KSE
S8
kesu|ts
Manufactur|ng & roduct|on


u.8S
S.19
6.74
u.27
u.79
u.uu
2u.69
28.2S
62.7S
7'KS7
>7K7'
N`KL`
u
1u
2u
Su
4u
Su
6u
7u
8u
)'>L# )'7>L<*
kZ4/&1.k
)RLL
\@&+0,3&^
u.SS
u.9S u.9S
u.11
u.2S
u.uu
8.S9
8.2u
8.82
SKSL
`K>E
`KRR
u
2
4
6
8
1u
12
)'>L# )'7>L<*
kZ4/&1.k
)RLL
\f1 @&+0,3&^
!"
!
!" $%& '()* +,'(-%,(./0 123 45!"#$ & '()* +, -.
S9

As we can see from the results, the category that most contributes to CO
2
-eq
emissions during production is the manufacturing and production of the MAC
components.
Now we have presented both the service and no service results in order to have a
better understand of the impact of each category within each stage. A no service study
can be equivalent to an LCA study during a lifespan of 1 year.
Now if we look at the no service graph, we notice that the R-744 system has the
highest contribution and this is due to the fact that the R744 system uses different
materials, mostly Steel and Aluminum and no plastics, as well as thicker pipes and hoses.
This is so, in order to make the system more mechanically robust to handle the high
pressures of the CO
2
during the refrigeration cycle. Whereas the R-134a and R-1234yf
have similar gas properties, not much change in the system model is attributed. And thus,
looking at the service graph, due to the more frequent servicing of the R-744 relative to
the other refrigerants, the numbers shift up even more.
Now regarding the refrigerant production, even with no servicing, although R134a
has highest GWP, however, as we saw from the chemical reactions before, R1234yf
production results in the by-product R-245fa that has high GWP of 1030, as well as
requires first the production of CTFE that has a GWP of 5000. So in total, the global
warming impact of the R1234yf production is much higher than that of the R134a. As a
resultant for manufacturing stage, R1234yf production emits more CO
2
-eq than R-134a.
However, as for the R744 production, the number is high since we saw that they use
diesel fuel instead of natural gas, which is of course a much dirtier kind of fuel.

As a total, looking at the "no seivice" anu "no seivice" iesults, the R-1S4a
seems to contiibute the least to global waiming, wheieas R-744 seems to contiibute
the most, mainly uue to the heavy NAC system itself.











6u
1ransportat|on




6.16
u.u2 u.u4
1u.u7
14.u6
29.u2
'NK7>
'LKXS
7`KXN
u
S
1u
1S
2u
2S
Su
SS
)'>L# )'7>L<* kZ4/&1.k )RLL
\@&+0,3&^
2.Su
u.u1 u.u1
S.42 S.42 S.42
EK`7
>KL> >KL>
u
1
2
S
4
S
6
7
)'>L# )'7>L<* kZ4/&1.k )RLL
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61
Regarding transportation, the category contributing the most to global warming is
the fuel consumption. However, if we look at the no service graph, the fuel
consumption contribution is the same for all refrigerants, since we are shipping the same
amount. However, when servicing is included, due to the higher servicing of the other
refrigerants, their contribution in fuel consumption seem to be much higher than the R-
134a system.
Back to the no service graph, we notice that R134a obviously has the highest
emissions due to the leakage of the refrigerant throughout this stage. This makes sense,
since it has the highest GWP. But also, even after servicing, R134a contribute the most
because of the refrigerant leakage, whereas the other two refrigerants are insignificant.
However, as a total, including service, R-744 is the worst with almost double the
emissions of R-134a since R-744 is used more almost 3 times more than R-134a during a
lifespan of 11 years. And finally, R1234yf shows to have the least emissions during
transportation, with nearly 13% decrease in total CO
2
-eq emissions compared to the R-
134a.























62
Cperat|on




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The results show that the highest contribution to CO
2-
eq emissions during
operation, is from the fuel consumption of the AC system and not due to refrigerant
leakage as someone might expect. Both service and no service results show the same
conclusions, so we are going to focus mainly on the service graph.
We first notice that the R-744 MAC system is the worst, contributing the most to
global warming, especially in the fuel consumption category. The reason behind this, is
that the R744 MAC system requires more power to operate the compressor at its fuel
speed and thus cool down the air at the same rate as with the other refrigerant systems.
R744 system consumes 27% of the total fuel consumption of the car, whereas the other
refrigerants consume only 20% of the fuel.
Regaiuing the iefiigeiant leakage uuiing use as well as uuiing seivicing,
obviously R-1S4a contiibutes the most uue to its high uWP.
And as a result, in total, we see that the R-744 MAC system emits 20 % more
CO
2
-eq emissions than R134a system during operation. And that R1234yf is the most
suitable since it is less polluting, emitting 25 % and 5% less CO
2
-eq emissions than R-
744 and R134a systems respectively.























64
Lnd-Cf-L|fe






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Finally, in the EOL stage, we notice from both graphs that the most effective
factor is the refrigerant leakage, contributing highly to global warming. The no service
and service graphs show the same results, thus we will only comment on the with
service results.
We notice that as a total, the R-134a system is the worst. And this is mainly due
to the refrigerant release in the atmosphere, with R-134a having the highest GWP. And
actually, the difference is extremely high, even with servicing. Whereas the contributions
due to the treatments of the MAC components in their EOL is extremely insignificant in
comparison to the refrigerant final leakage.
As an outcome from the End-Of-Life stage, R-1234yf has the best results
although R-744 has lower GWP than R-1234yf. Thats because of the R-744
corresponding AC system itself that has more amounts of materials to be treated. And
thus, the R-1234yf MAC system seems to be the less polluting choice with 96% decrease
of CO
2
-eq emissions compared to R134a, and R744 presents a decrease of 90% of the
total CO
2
eq emissions during transportation.














66
kefr|gerant MAC systems Compar|son







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67
Finally, comparing all the stages together, we see that for all MAC systems, the
operation stage it the most intensive, and is the category that has the most effect.
Comparing the two alternative refrigerants to the R-134a, we see from the
service graph (since its the realistic case of our study) that R-1234yf system seems to
be the best choice contributing the least to global warming throughout its whole life
cycle from production to EOL. R-1234yf shows a 7% decrease in the total CO
2
eq-
emissions per hour of AC ON, compared to R-134a system. Whereas R-744, although it
has the least GWP as a refrigerant by itself, however it actually didnt contribute at all in
any improvement. In fact, it makes things much worse, with a 20% increase in the CO
2
eq
emissions per hour of AC ON, compared to the R-134a MAC system. And this is mainly
due to the operation stage of the MAC system where it shows to be much more power
and energy intensive, consuming much more fuel than the other two systems.
As a result to our study, it seems that the R-1234yf refrigerant MAC system
seems to be the best alternative choice, contributing to least to CO
2-
eq emissions during
the lifespan of 11 years.
68
Conc|us|on
When comparing R-1234yf and R-744 as an alternative automotive refrigerant to
the R-134a, R-1234yf has very distinct benefits with regard to fuel efficiency and overall
sustainability. R-744 would require a much larger, heavier air conditioning system than
what is used in most cars today, which is contrary to the trend toward smaller, more fuel-
efficient, sustainable cars. R-744 has shown that it is not as efficient as R-1234yf in warm
climates, and would therefore contribute considerably more overall to total greenhouse
gas emissions. In fact, our study and our results are a proof on that. Applying the Life
cycle assessment of refrigerant MAC systems in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, we concluded that
the R-1234yf is the best alterative refrigerant MAC system, where it contributes to the
least to Global Warming during the cradle-to-gate LCA. In total the R-1234yf shows to
emit around 2.04 kg CO2-eq emissions/hour of AC ON, which is by far better than the
other two systems, considering the small time variance of 1 hour. A shocking result was
that, although R-744 has GWP= 1, however the R-744 MAC system is heavily polluting
during operation. It shows to contribute even more to global warming than the R-134a
system. On that basis, it was noticed that the major contribution to Global Warming
comes from the Operation Stage, more specifically from the design of the system itself, in
which the compressor requires more power and energy (fuel) for the AC to cool down the
air at the same rate as the other refrigerant systems. Thus, improvements need to be done
on designing a lighter less fuel consuming MAC system, rather than just focusing on
using a lower GWP refrigerant.
















69
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