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J. Great Lakes Res.

24(4):859-867
Internal. Assoc. Great Lakes Res., 1998
Tastes and Odors in Kingston's Municipal Drinking Water:
A Case Study of the Problem and Appropriate Solutions
Bruce C. Anderson* and Laura-Kate Quartermaine
Department of Civil Engineering, Ellis Hall
Queen s University
Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6
ABSTRACT. This paper describes a 1995 study conducted in Kingston, Ontario, commissioned by the
water utility to quantify the degree of public concern over algae-induced tastes and odors (TIO) in local
drinking water. These TIO episodes had been sporadic in the past, but were becoming more frequent as a
result of changes occurring in the water source (Lake Ontario). Complaints to the utility had increased
an estimated ten-fold from the previous year, due to a long-term TIO episode in the late summerlearly fall
of 1994. The utility was interested in gathering information both locally and provincially on the impacts
and effects of these episodes, which would be used to formulate a strategy for dealing with this problem
in future. The results from this study played a key role in this process.
From the results of a public opinion survey and a survey of strategies used by other utilities experienc-
ing similar problems, it was concluded that, while the number of complaints increased during these peri-
ods, the degree of public concern was not substantial enough to warrant any significant changes in water
treatment operations at this time. There was also little desire to increase public spending on water treat-
ment. As well, it appears that the affected consumers were capable of dealing with this problem on an
individual basis through use of water filtration pitchers in the home. 1t was recommended that a public
education campaign be instituted by the utility, to better inform the public about these episodes and asso-
ciated risks as they occurred. Further monitoring of the frequency of occurrence of these episodes was
also suggested.
INDEX WORDS: Algae, geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol, public perception, tastes and odors, water qual-
ity, Lake Ontario, water treatment.
INTRODUCTION
Origin and Impacts of Musty Tastes and Odors
in Drinking Water
Surface waters can contain tastes and odors asso-
ciated with decaying organic matter, biological
growth, and chemicals originating from industrial
sources. During the summer, lake and reservoir sup-
plies may be plagued by blooms of algae that im-
part compounds producing fishy, grassy, or other
foul odors. Many of the earthy-musty odors origi-
nate from certain species of blue-green algae and
actinomycetes (mould-like bacteria). The problems
associated with algae growth itself are numerous,
and are well documented (i.e., Shawwa and Smith
1995). Organic compounds of algal origin can pro-
duce tastes and odors in small yet detectable quanti-
*Corresponding author. Email: anderson@civil.queensu.ca
859
ties at the ng/L (l0-
9
) level. The release of organic
compounds and extracellular organic material from
algae can inhibit conventional flocculation in treat-
ment plants (Hargesheimer and Watson 1996). The
formation of humic-like, poorly degradable sub-
stances can also occur; these may be precursors for
trihalomethane (THM) formation when chlorine is
used as a disinfectant. Algae growth can also lead
to an increased concentration of ammonium nitro-
gen in water, which can further inhibit chlorine dis-
infection.
Many algal species have been implicated in the
production of tastes and odors (coming from the
classes Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Diatoms,
Chrysophyceae, Euglenophyceae, Dinophyceae,
and Cryptophyceae; Tate and Arnold 1990). How-
ever, it is generally agreed that geosmin (l a, 10/3-
dimethyl-9a-decalol) and 2-methylisoborneol
(MIB) are the compounds primarily responsible for
860 Anderson and Quartermaine
earthy-musty tastes and odors in drinking water
(Korth et ai. 1992, Krasner 1988). These com-
pounds are saturated cyclic tertiary alcohols that are
resistant to oxidation by conventional water treat-
ment chemicals (Peterson et ai. 1995). Korth et ai.
(1992) found that MIB and geosmin can be detected
at very low concentrations (10 and 30 ng/L respec-
tively). Krasner (1988) found similar results using a
flavor profile analysis (FPA), a sensory method
using a trained panel of 4 to 6 individuals. Using
this method, MIB and geosmin were detected in the
range 10 to 15 nglL. Khiari et ai. (1992) also used
sensory gas chromatography to identify concentra-
tions of odorous compounds in drinking water, in
conjunction with the FPA test; similar detection
levels were found.
Chemicals used in conventional water treatment
processes can cause the release of dissolved organ-
ics from photosynthetic aquatic organisms, some of
which can impart taste, odor, and toxicity to treated
water. When algae/cyanobacteria come into contact
with these treatment chemicals, physical damage
may result in the release of their cell contents as
dissolved organic matter. This release occurs natu-
rally during active growth and decay of phytoplank-
ton, but chemically induced cell damage can lead to
a sudden release of intracellular organic com-
pounds, and produce tastes and odors. Rosen et ai.
(1992) believe that cells release geosmin as they
enter the stationary growth phase, after active
growth is complete. They further state that changes
in the cell membrane, or cell death, would also lead
to this release. Peterson et ai. (1995) found that
prechlorination at water treatment plants resulted in
cyanobacterial release of geosmin into the water.
They conducted a study of several types of water
treatment chemicals applied at typical doses, and
their effects on the release of geosmin from Aipha-
nizomenon fios-aquae. The results indicated that
only Type III chemicals (oxidants such as chlorine
and potassium permanganate, and the algicide cop-
per sulphate) caused extensive release of cellular
components, including geosmin. Ashitani et ai.
(1988) reported similar results.
Overview of Abatement Technologies
Much work has focussed on the elimination of
unpleasant tastes and odors in finished drinking
water. McGuire and Gaston (1988) reviewed the
available control technologies, and found that facil-
ities with coagulation/sedimentation/filtration were
effective in removing the phytoplankton if the
strong oxidant was added at the end of the treat-
ment sequence. Otherwise, the cell membrane was
destroyed and its contents released. They concluded
that in general, a three pronged abatement strategy
was required for combatting off-flavors, which in-
cluded reliable analytical methods for compound
identification, source control, and water treatment
technology. Montiel (1983) also conducted a review
of the problem, and stressed the need for prevention
in the source water, including limiting phosphorus,
nitrogen and carbon discharges.
Numerous studies have examined specific single
or coupled technologies for T/O control. Air strip-
ping has shown limited success, since geosmin and
MIB are only moderately volatile, as expressed by
their Henry's law constants (Lalezary et ai. 1984).
Conventional oxidation processes using chlorine,
chloramines, chlorine dioxide, and potassium per-
manganate have been largely ineffective at remov-
ing geosmin and MIB. However, advanced
oxidation technologies (using ozone either alone or
in some combination with hydrogen peroxide) are
showing some promise in this application (Koch et
ai. 1992, Lang et ai. 1995). Activated carbon has
long been known as an excellent method to remove
dissolved and particulate matter from drinking
water. The carbon can be applied directly to the raw
source water (as powdered activated carbon, PAC)
and allowed to react prior to the addition of oxidants
or coagulating chemicals, or as a replacement for
conventional filtration media in a fixed bed (as gran-
ular activated carbon, GAC). Some cited advantages
of PAC are little capital investment required, few
operating personnel needed, and flexibility of appli-
cation for sporadic taste and odor episodes
(Lalezary-Craig et ai. 1988). Hattori (1988), on the
other hand, investigated several types of treatment
methods, and he found that GAC was the most ef-
fective for complete removal of the offensive com-
pounds. Other technologies which have been
investigated, with mixed results, include biological
filtration (Egashira et ai. 1992, Sumitomo 1992),
and dissolved air flotation (Hargesheimer and Wat-
son 1996).
Justification of This Study
Seasonal taste and odor (T/O) problems in drink-
ing water supplies are widespread throughout On-
tario communities drawing water from Great Lakes
sources, as well as in many other communities
(Hargesheimer and Watson 1996, Young et ai.
1996). As detailed above, these problems can be
Tastes and Odors in Kingston Drinking Water 861
caused by the metabolic action of algae, and predic-
tion of the occurrence and magnitude of the
episodes can be difficult. However, most of the
episodes occur in the late summer/early fall at
which time the algae species responsible encounter
optimal growing conditions. While not a primary
health concern, tastes and odors are aesthetic con-
cerns which are easily noticed by the consumer,
who may perceive the water to be "bad." As such,
complaints to the local water utility may increase
significantly during these periods. This research fo-
cusses on T/O occurrence and public concern in
Kingston, Ontario, as a direct result of a significant
episode which occurred in the fall of 1994, and
which resulted in an estimated 10 fold increase in
the number of complaints to the utility. The results,
however, may be applied to many other Great
Lakes communities facing these same issues.
While there are technical solutions available for
taste and odor problems, as detailed above, there
are a number of difficulties facing the local water
utility in formulating a control strategy which will
address these problems. These include the lack of
long-term data on algae growth (useful for the pre-
diction of the frequency of occurrence); the impact
of zebra mussels on aquatic ecosystems (i.e., in-
creased light penetration resulting from improved
water clarity) and subsequent effects on algae
growth (Donnan and MacKay 1991, Snyder et al.
1992); the need for zebra mussel control systems at
water intakes (which can magnify the problem if
algae cells are oxidized and release T/O causing
compounds which aren't removed in subsequent
treatment); a lack of adequate funding to address all
infrastructure concerns; and a lack of statistical in-
formation quantifying the degree of public concern
over this issue. Of these, the single largest compli-
cation appears to be the presence of the zebra mus-
sel in the Great Lakes, and the resultant need for
control systems at water utilities (most often as a
prechlorination system at the intake). With in-
creased water clarity resulting from the filter feed-
ing mussels, it has been suggested that the average
summer temperature of the Great Lakes/St.
Lawrence River system has increased in the past 10
years, leading to improved growth conditions for
both algae and zebra mussels (Snyder et al. 1992).
Given a concurrent loading of nutrients to these
same systems, it is reasonable to suggest that the
problem of tastes and odors in drinking water,
which may have been sporadic and unpredictable in
the past (such as in Kingston), will become more
frequent in the future, and will require more serious
consideration by water utilities.
The research involved the generation of a data-
base of information from municipalities across On-
tario, dealing with the incidence of T/O episodes
and currently applied technical/nontechnical solu-
tions, to aid the local utility in formulating their
strategy. As well, a comprehensive survey of
Kingston residents was carried out, to determine
how the participants felt in general about the qual-
ity of their drinking water, and to gather specific in-
formation on their reaction to the 1994 T/O
episode. This information would be a valuable re-
source to enable the utility to make rational deci-
sions about this particular problem, with options
ranging from changing or optimizing unit opera-
tions at the treatment facility, to an active public ed-
ucation campaign (which would attempt to
regularly inform the public about the quality of
their water during these episodes), to a "no change"
option. The paper details the results of this re-
search, and serves as a case study of the types of
problems facing many water utilities in the Great
Lakes region, the range of solutions to these prob-
lems and the need to balance the risks of the prob-
lems with the costs associated with the solutions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Kingston Drinking Water Survey
A telephone survey of Kingston residents was
conducted during July and August 1995. The ques-
tions were formulated with guidance from the Pub-
lic Utilities Commission of the City of Kingston,
and the wording was edited to eliminate bias by the
George L. Edgett Statistical Laboratory (STAT-
LAB), Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
Queen's University. STATLAB also provided guid-
ance for coding of survey responses. A sample size
of 400 was chosen to produce a confidence interval
of approximately 10%. A list of 600 random num-
bers was generated by STATLAB using a computer
program listing page number, column, and line
number. This list was then used to generate the
sample set with a good geographical spread across
the city using Might's directory, which lists resi-
dent's addresses and telephone numbers alphabeti-
cally by street name. Entries listed as "township"
were rejected since they were not served by the
City of Kingston water distribution system, as were
those samples without a listed telephone number. It
was anticipated that the original list of 600 numbers
would generate the target sample set of 400.
862 Anderson and Quartermaine
Two callers contacted the selected residents by
telephone, and responses were noted on standard
record sheets. An announcement of the survey was
also published in the Kingston Whig-Standard
newspaper prior to the start of the survey; it was an-
ticipated that greater public awareness and an ap-
peal for involvement would lead to a higher
response and participation rate. Residents were tele-
phoned a maximum of three separate times in an at-
tempt to reach them; after that the number was
discarded. Of the 405 assumed valid telephone
numbers originally selected, some were either out
of service, or were in fact from homes located in
Kingston Township. In total, 124 completed sur-
veys were obtained and 179 refusals occurred (i.e.,
the person contacted declined to participate in the
survey), for a total contact success rate of 74.8% of
the target sample size, and a total response rate of
38.4%. While the response rate was somewhat low,
the authors felt that this was typical of such sur-
veys, and did not impair the validity of the survey
results.
Analysis of the survey results was done using
EPI-INFO (Dean et aZ. 1991), a public domain soft-
ware package for epidemiology and disease surveil-
lance created at the Centers for Disease Control,
Atlanta, Georgia. Each questionnaire record sheet
was entered and saved as a separate data file, set up
to allow only dictated coding for responses. All sur-
vey results were entered in duplicate by two differ-
ent operators, and a comparison function was used
to detect any discrepancies between the duplicate
sets; these were listed and edited. Comparisons
were run several times until both record files con-
tained identical information. This was done to en-
sure that the data were entered exactly as they
appeared on the completed surveys, and to elimi-
nate operator data entry errors. Once the data were
entered, frequency analysis was completed by EPI-
INFO for each question. As well, some correlation
analysis was also completed for select questions in
order to gauge how responses to particular ques-
tions influenced the responses to later ones.
Water Treatment in Ontario:
Taste and Odor Experiences
To add to the baseline information required to
allow the local utility to formulate a strategy for
dealing with tastes and odors, contacts were made
with many of the water utilities across the province
which draw from a surface water source, to allow for
comparison with Kingston's situation and treatment
process scheme. Table 1 lists the utilities which par-
ticipated in the survey, and their water source. The
utilities were initially contacted by telephone, and, if
receptive, an introductory letter and questionnaire
were sent for completion. The questions pertained to
the treatment operations of the plant, information on
the community served, a brief history of taste and
odor problems in the area, and a request for specific
information on measures taken or planned to combat
off-flavors. The information was compiled as it was
received, and a number of trends and strategies were
identified. It was anticipated that through collection
and publication of this information, utilities would be
aware of options and control measures that had been
applied with some success.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Kingston Drinking Water Survey
Results of the public perception survey of
Kingston residents are presented in Table 2 (detail-
ing important baseline information), and in Figures
1 to 5 (which display the frequency analysis of key
questions from the survey). The results were useful
in determining the degree of concern of the con-
TABLE 1. Participating municipalities in Ontario taste and odor survey.
Municipality
Belleville
Blenheim
Brockville
Burlington
Cobourg
Durham
Gananoque
Goderich
Hamilton-Wentworth
Water Source
Bay of Quinte
Lake Erie
St. Lawrence River
Lake Ontario
Lake Ontario
Lake Ontario
St. Lawrence River
Lake Huron
Lake Ontario
Municipality
Napanee
Niagara
Owen Sound
Parry Sound
Peel
Port Hope
Prescott
Toronto
Sault Ste. Marie
Water Source
Lake Ontario
Lake Erie
Lake Huron
Georgian Bay
Lake Ontario
Lake Ontario
St. Lawrence River
Lake Ontario
Lake Superior
Tastes and Odors in Kingston Drinking Water
TABLE 2. Survey baseline information.
863
Question
Length of time at current address
Age
Gender
Use a home water treatment device
Type of device
Why do you have this device?
Most important factor concerning
quality of drinking water
How much information do you receive
about drinking water quality?
How important is it to get more
information about water quality?
Response
< 1 yr 12.3%; > 1 yr 87.7%
18-24: 8.2%; 25-44: 49.2%; 45-64: 25.8%; > 65: 15.3%
male 36%; female 64%
yes 35.8%; no 64.2%
conservation device 2.2%; tap filter 13.3%; filter pitcher 77.8%; other
6.7%
health and safety; taste; appearance, odor, gift; family pressure
looks/tastes 19.4%; health and safety 65.3%; both 15.3%
a lot 2.4%; some 11.4%; very little 40.7%; none 43.1 %; don't know 2.4%
very important 39.0%; somewhat important 40.7%; not very important
17.1%; not at all 3.3%
sumers about taste and odor incidents; these are
enumerated below. All conclusions were based on
quantitative assessment of the survey responses, but
for clarity of presentation (especially in the case
where multiple answers were possible), not all in-
formation is summarized in the figures and tables.
1. Almost 80% of the participants felt that the
water utility was doing an excellent or good job in
providing quality drinking water (Fig. 1), and about
70% of respondents believed that the quality of
their drinking water was excellent or good (Fig. 2).
2. While almost 80% of the respondents rarely or
never experienced problems with water quality at
their taps (Fig. 3), the large majority (65%) still
stated that health and safety were their most impor-
tant concerns with the quality of their drinking
water (Table 2). Only about 20% indicated they
were concerned with the appearance and taste of
their water (Table 2).
3. When respondents did experience problems
with the quality of their drinking water, taste was
cited as the main problem (72%), with odor being
the second most cited concern (37%). Other minor
concerns were color/clarity and temperature.
4. Approximately 36% of the participants stated
that they used some form of home water treatment
FIG. 1. Rating of utility in providing quality
drinking water. FIG. 2. Rating of drinking water quality.
Excellent
Fair
Poor
Don't Know
Good
Excellent
Fair
Poor
Don't Know
Good
864 Anderson and Quartermaine
Very Often
Never
Sometimes
Don'tKnow
Rarely
Aug '94
Feb '95
Sept '94
II May '95
Dec '94
July '95
FIG. 3. Frequency of problems with water qual-
ity in the home.
FIG. 4a. Changes in water quality experienced
by month.
FIG. 4b. Action taken as a result of changes in
water quality.
6. During those identified periods of changes in
water quality, 87% of respondents said they experi-
enced problems with taste and odor. Interestingly,
this caused a large majority of those respondents to
become concerned about the health and safety of
their drinking water, but less than half of those af-
fected took any action in response to this problem
(Fig. 4b). Of those who did take some kind of ac-
tion, most simply changed their habits within the
home (i.e., by drinking bottled water, buying and
using a filtration device, boiling their water, or sim-
ply not drinking the water at all, and presumably
switching to some other form of beverage). Very
device, with a refrigerator filtration pitcher being
by far the most common (almost 78% of all re-
sponses) (Table 2). Other devices mentioned were a
conservation device, tap filters, boiling of the water,
and a steam distillation system (1 response). The
main reason for the presence of these devices was
for taste control, with health and safety also a con-
cern. Other reasons included the presence of cold
and convenient filtered water (when stored in the
refrigerator), the fact that the device was a gift, or
family pressure to use the device, presumably as a
function of concerns about water quality. There was
a strong correlation found between the frequency of
use of a home treatment device and the respon-
dent's view about the quality of their drinking water
(lIP = 15.8).
5. Approximately 25% of respondents stated that
they had experienced water quality changes in the
previous year (July 1994 to June 1995), with most
of these changes occurring in the late summer and
early fall of 1994 (Fig. 4a). In addition, the large
majority (91 %) had neither seen nor heard anything
in the media during that period, nor were they aware
of any events or incidents in the local community
that might have threatened or harmed the quality or
safety of local drinking water. This indicated that
the problems cited were truly experienced, and not a
function of information contained in the local
media, which did publicize the 1994 T/O episode at
the request of the water utility. In support of this, no
correlation was found in the survey results between
what participants heard in the media and whether
local water changes were noticed.
None
Drank bottled water
Contacted PUC
mOther
Tastes and Odors in Kingston Drinking Water 865
FIG. 5. Percentage increase in water bill con-
sumer willing to pay to maintain quality.
few of those surveyed contacted the PUC during
this time, which might indicate that the survey sim-
ply missed most of those who did complain directly
to the PUC, given the increase in complaints re-
ceived by the utility during this T/O episode.
7. Many of those surveyed indicated that they cur-
rently already paid enough (or too much) for their
water, and were therefore unwilling to spend more,
based on their opinion about the quality of the water
(Fig. 5). The majority, however, indicated their will-
ingness to increase the amount spent to maintain
local water quality, with the largest number of re-
spondents willing to pay an additional 5% for this.
8. Finally, the majority of those surveyed indi-
cated that they currently received very little or no
information about the quality of their drinking
water, which they felt was very important for them
to receive (Table 2).
It was concluded from the survey that, while
some people were concerned about tastes and odors
in their drinking water, either in general or as a di-
rect result of the 1994 episode, only a small per-
centage took any action outside the home (i.e.,
contacting the water utility). The large majority of
respondents simply either used a water filtration
pitcher or stopped drinking the water during these
episodes. While this conclusion is partially con-
strained by the number of respondents during the
survey (and possibly by the amount of time which
had passed between the T/O episode of interest, and
this survey), the authors nonetheless feel that the
results generally reflect the attitude of the Kingston
consumers. Further to this point, it is suggested that
None
10%
1-3%
>15%
5%
the large number of people contacted who declined
to participate in the survey can be inferred to be in-
dicative of the lack of concern about water quality
during T/O episodes.
It was also interesting that very few people were
willing to increase their spending on water, based
on taste and odor incidents alone. This is notable in
light of the research of Frehs et ai. (1996), who
found that the average willingness-to-pay to assure
adequate water servicing was just over $26.00 per
month, over and above current water servicing
prices. It might therefore be concluded that willing-
ness-to-pay is more related to overall water quality
(in terms of maintenance of infrastructure, opti-
mized treatment, etc.), rather than to a single aes-
thetic problem like tastes and odors.
Water Treatment in Ontario:
Taste and Odor Experiences
From the municipalities contacted during this sur-
vey, nineteen responses were received. Plants varied
in size (3,050 m
3
/d to about 950 MUd) and age (just
over 100 years old to 18 months old at the time of
contact). Distribution system sizes ranged from
about 35 km to 487 km of watermains. Most plants
were configured along classic process lines, similar
to the Kingston treatment plant (i.e., prechlorination,
chemical addition for coagulation, sedimentation,
dual media filtration, and dechlorination). Some
plants also had further chemical addition for specific
treatment purposes, i.e., fluoride for dental protec-
tion, and ammonium for chloramine production. Al-
most all municipalities contacted stated that they had
experienced problems with zebra mussels in their
source water; as a result, most plants chlorinated at
the intake line as a control measure. As well, all but
one contact stated that they had experienced seasonal
taste and odor problems in the previous year, due to
high temperatures or algae growth. Most of these
episodes occurred during spring runoff (presumably
resulting from turnover in a thermally stratified sys-
tem) and late summer/early fall.
Control and response strategies varied between
locations. A few operations did not attempt to rem-
edy the problem; rather, as a seasonal occurrence it
was simply endured. In this case, some of those mu-
nicipalities issued press releases to inform the public
about the source and nature of the T/O problem, and
to assure the public that the bacteriological quality
of the water was acceptable. Another plant, operat-
ing without filtration, cleaned all tanks and flushed
the distribution system two times per year. Although
866 Anderson and Quartermaine
this had been a moderately successful strategy, this
plant is currently looking to add a filtration unit to
the process train. Several plants increased their chlo-
rine dose or substituted chlorine dioxide in hopes of
completely oxidizing taste and odor causing com-
pounds; no information about the success of these
strategies was given. One plant in the Niagara re-
gion had used PAC for T/O control for the previous
decade; however, use of prechlorination for zebra
mussel control rendered this strategy ineffective,
and in 1993 the plant switched to using a GAC filter
bed, with excellent results. Other plants have been
experimenting with PAC or GAC, either alone or in
conjunction with other process elements (i.e., dis-
solved air flotation to remove algae). Much of this
work is ongoing, and little information about the
success of these strategies is currently available.
CONCLUSIONS: CURRENT SITUATION
AND RECOMMENDED STRATEGY
FOR KINGSTON
From the results of these surveys, it is obvious
that there is no unique solution to the problem of
tastes and odors in drinking water, since many fac-
tors influence both the magnitude of the problem
and the utility's ability to deal with it. There are
three main options which can be viewed as address-
ing the problem in a practical manner, i.e., changing
or optimizing unit operations at the treatment facil-
ity to remove the responsible compounds prior to
distribution; a public education campaign which
would attempt to regularly inform and assure the
public about the quality of their water during these
episodes; and a "no change" option which assumes
that these episodes will not be a regular occurrence
and therefore warrant no action. As described
above, all three strategies are being practiced in On-
tario to combat T/O problems.
The decision to change treatment methods would
require substantial information about the frequency
of algae growth episodes and the likelihood of these
being significant enough to produce T/O. It is likely
that zebra mussels will continue to thrive in the
Great Lakes, and this may have significant effects
on algae growth as water turbidity decreases and
temperature increases. At present, however, this is
only speculation, and no long-term data are avail-
able to use this to justify proposed process changes.
The results of the drinking water survey of
Kingston residents showed that only about 25% of
those surveyed noticed changes in the quality of tap
water they receive, with the majority identifying
those changes as increased tastes and odors occur-
ring in late summer/early fall of 1994. Overall this
episode resulted in the number of complaints re-
ceived by the water utility to increase substantially,
and it is recommended that complaint records be
kept by the utility as part of longer-term information
collection, which should also include detailed infor-
mation about future T/O episodes. At present, how-
ever, while the zebra mussel control program
continues, no process changes are recommended,
given the apparent small number of people con-
cerned by the tastes and odors, and the reluctance
expressed by the participants to increase spending to
control this problem (most likely through the use of
an activated carbon operation). In addition, it is rec-
ommended that the public be informed about these
issues as they occur, to maintain consumer confi-
dence in the local drinking water utility. This will
require a more proactive public education program
by the utility, which may include informing the pub-
lic about the direct and indirect costs of any process
changes, so that they will be better informed of both
the risks and costs associated with T/O episodes.
While these recommendations, if implemented,
should allow the utility to deal with sporadic T/O
episodes, consideration will need to be given to a
change in the treatment process if these become an
annual occurrence. The utility is currently doing
pilot testing of GAC filters, since T/O episodes
have occurred each year (to varying degrees) since
the original 1994 episode. It is notable that this
might create a further complication, in that any
such change would require the utility to apply for a
new Certificate of Approval for operation from the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment (MOE), which
would most likely require a change in the solids
handling procedures at the treatment plant as well.
This may be viewed as an indirect cost of taste and
odor control, but one which will also be borne by
Kingston consumers.
Finally, any change in system operation, and the
associated capital and operational costs of that
change, will need to be carefully considered in light
of other current or future needs at the facility (e.g.,
implementation of particle counting and optimized
particle removal for control of Cryptosporidium; re-
placement of decaying infrastructure; etc.). Since
the consumer will ultimately pay for such modifica-
tions/improvements, all needs should be examined
in an integrated fashion, to allow for rational deci-
sions to be made about the strategies required to
maintain the quality of Kingston's drinking water.
In this respect, the issues facing the Kingston utility
Tastes and Odors in Kingston Drinking Water 867
are no different than those faced by many other util-
ities in the Great Lakes area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding for this study was provided through a
grant from the Kingston Public Utilities Commis-
sion to Queen's University, and by a Natural Sci-
ences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
research grant held by the first author. The help
provided by the Public Utilities Commission during
the conduct of this research is gratefully acknowl-
edged, as is the assistance of Dr. Terry Smith and
STATLAB, Dept. of Mathematics and Statistics,
Queen's University. Our thanks also go to Carol
Mothersill and Jill Goddard for their help with tele-
phone surveying and data entry.
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Submitted: 16 September 1997
Accepted: 18 August 1998
Editorial handling: Lino Grima

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