CCNA Study Notes

1. Identify and describe the functions of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference model.
Physical Layer
The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between communicating network systems.
Physical layer specifications define such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and the physical connectors to be used.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. Different data link layer
specifications define different network and protocol characteristics, including the following:
Physical addressing -- Physical addressing as opposed to network addressing! defines how devices are
addressed at the data link layer.
"etwork topology -- Data link layer specifications often define how devices are to be physically connected
such as in a bus or a ring topology!.
#rror notification -- #rror notification involves alerting upper layer protocols that a transmission error has
occurred.
$e%uencing of frames -- $e%uencing of data frames involves the reordering of frames that are transmitted
out of se%uence.
&low control -- &low control involves moderating the transmission of data so that the receiving device is
not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.
The 'nstitute of #lectrical and #lectronics #ngineers '###! has subdivided the data link layer into two
sublayers: (ogical (ink )ontrol (()! and *edia +ccess )ontrol *+)!.
Netork Layer
The network layer provides routing and related functions that allow multiple data links to be combined into
an internetwork. This is accomplished by the logical addressing as opposed to the physical addressing!
of devices. The network layer supports both connection-oriented and connectionless service from higher-
layer protocols.
!rans"ort Layer
The transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that are transparent to upper
layers. Transport layer functions typically include the following:
&low control -- &low control manages data transmission between devices so that the transmitting device
does not send more data than the receiving device can process.
*ultiplexing -- *ultiplexing allows data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical
link.
,irtual circuit management -- ,irtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport
layer.
#rror checking and recovery -- #rror checking involves various mechanisms for detecting transmission
errors. #rror recovery involves taking an action such as re%uesting that data be retransmitted! to resolve
any errors that occur.
$ome examples of transport layer implementations follow:
Transmission )ontrol Protocol T)P!, "ame -inding Protocol "-P!, .$' transport protocols
Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between presentation
layer entities. )ommunication sessions consist of service re%uests and service responses that occur
between applications located in different network devices. These re%uests and responses are coordinated
by protocols implemented at the session layer. $ome examples of session layer implementations follow:
+pple /'P, D#) $)P, "&$, $0(, 1P), 2 3indows, +$P
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are applied to
application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from the application layer of one
system will be readable by the application layer of another system. $ome examples of presentation layer
coding and conversion schemes follow:
)ommon data representation formats -- The use of standard image, sound, and video formats allow the
interchange of application data between different types of computer systems.
)onversion of character representation formats -- )onversion schemes are used to exchange information
with systems using different text and data representations such as #-)D') and +$)''!.
)ommon data compression schemes -- The use of standard data compression schemes allows data that
is compressed at the source device to be properly decompressed at the destination.
)ommon data encryption schemes -- The use of standard data encryption schemes allows data
encrypted at the source device to be properly unencrypted at the destination.
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocol stack. $ome well
known standards follow:
Data: +$)'', #-)D'), #ncryption
,isual 'maging: P')T, T'&&, 4'&, 5P#4
,ideo: *'D', *P#4, 0uickTime
A""lication Layer
The application layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component.
+pplication layer functions typically include the following:
'dentifying communication partners -- The application layer identifies and determines the availability of
communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
Determining resource availability -- The application layer must determine whether sufficient network
resources for the re%uested communication are available.
$ynchroni6ing communication -- )ommunication between applications re%uires cooperation that is
managed by the application layer.
The application layer is the .$' layer closest to the end user. That is, both the .$' application layer and
the user interact directly with the software application. $ome examples of application layer
implementations follow:
T)P7'P applications -- T)P7'P applications are protocols in the 'nternet Protocol suite, such as Telnet, &ile
Transfer Protocol &TP!, and $imple *ail Transfer Protocol $*TP!.
.$' applications -- .$' applications are protocols in the .$' suite such as &ile Transfer, +ccess, and
*anagement &T+*!, ,irtual Terminal Protocol ,TP!, and )ommon *anagement 'nformation Protocol
)*'P!.
#. Describe connection$oriented netork service and connectionless netork service and identify
the key differences beteen them.
Connection$Oriented Netork Service
)onnection-oriented service involves three phases:
)onnection establishment -- During the connection establishment phase, a single path between the
source and destination systems is determined. "etwork resources are typically reserved at this time to
ensure a consistent grade of service such as a guaranteed throughput rate!.
Data transfer -- During the data transfer phase, data is transmitted se%uentially over the path that has
been established. Data always arrives at the destination system in the order in which it was sent.
)onnection termination -- During the connection termination phase, an established connection that is no
longer needed is terminated. &urther communication between the source and destination systems
re%uires that a new connection be established.
)onnection-oriented service has two significant disadvantages as compared to connectionless network
service:
$tatic path selection -- -ecause all traffic must travel along the same static path, a failure anywhere along
that path causes the connection to fail.
$tatic reservation of network resources -- + guaranteed rate of throughput re%uires the commitment of
resources that cannot be shared by other network users. 8nless full, uninterrupted throughput is re%uired
for the communication, bandwidth is not used efficiently.
)onnection-oriented services are useful for transmitting data from applications that are intolerant of
delays and packet re-se%uencing. ,oice and video applications are typically based on connection-
oriented services.
Connectionless Netork Service
)onnectionless network service does not predetermine the path from the source to the destination
system, nor are packet se%uencing, data throughput, and other network resources guaranteed. #ach
packet must be completely addressed because different paths through the network might be selected for
different packets, based on a variety of influences. #ach packet is transmitted independently by the
source system and is handled independently by intermediate network devices. )onnectionless service
offers two important advantages over connection-oriented service:
Dynamic path selection -- -ecause paths are selected on a packet-by-packet basis, traffic can be routed
around network failures.
Dynamic bandwidth allocation -- -andwidth is used more efficiently because network resources are not
allocated bandwidth that they are not going to use.
)onnectionless services are useful for transmitting data from applications that can tolerate some delay
and re-se%uencing. Data-based applications are typically based on connectionless service.
%. Describe data link addresses and netork addresses and identify the key differences beteen
them.
Data Link Layer Addresses
+ data link layer address uni%uely identifies each physical network connection of a network device. Data
link addresses are sometimes referred to as physical or hardware addresses. Data link addresses usually
exist within a flat address space and have a pre-established and typically fixed relationship to a specific
device. #nd systems typically have only one physical network connection, and thus have only one data
link address. 1outers and other internetworking devices typically have multiple physical network
connections. They therefore have multiple data link addresses.
Netork Layer Addresses
+ network layer address identifies an entity at the network layer of the .$' reference model. "etwork
addresses usually exist within a hierarchical address space. They are sometimes called virtual or logical
addresses. The relationship of a network address with a device is logical and unfixed. 't is typically based
either on physical network characteristics the device is on a particular network segment! or on groupings
that have no physical basis the device is part of an +ppleTalk 6one!. #nd systems re%uire one network
layer address for each network layer protocol they support. This assumes that the device has only one
physical network connection.! 1outers and other internetworking devices re%uire one network layer
address per physical network connection for each network layer protocol supported. &or example, a
router with three interfaces, each running +ppleTalk, T)P7'P, and .$', must have three network layer
addresses for each interface. The router therefore has nine network layer addresses.
&. Define and describe the function of a 'AC address.
*edia +ccess )ontrol *+)! addresses are a subset of data link layer addresses. *+) addresses
identify network entities in (+"s implementing the '### *+) sublayer of the data link layer. (ike most
data link addresses, *+) addresses are uni%ue for each (+" interface. *+) addresses are 9: bits in
length and are expressed as ;< hexadecimal digits: The first = hexadecimal digits are the manufacturer
identification or vendor code!, called the .rgani6ational 8ni%ue 'dentifier .8'!. These = digits are
administered by the '###. The last = hexadecimal digits are the interface serial number or another value
administered by the specific vendor. *+) addresses are sometimes called burned-in addresses -'+s!
because they are burned into read-only memory 1.*! and copied into random-access memory 1+*!
when the interface card initiali6es.
(. Define flo control and describe the three basic methods used in netorkin).
&low control is a function that prevents network congestion by ensuring that transmitting devices do not
overwhelm receiving devices with data. There are a number of possible causes of network congestion.
&or example, a high-speed computer might generate traffic faster than the network can transfer it, or
faster than the destination device can receive and process it. There are three commonly used methods
for handling network congestion:
*ufferin) - -uffering is used by network devices to temporarily store bursts of excess data in memory
until they can be processed. .ccasional data bursts are easily handled by buffering. >owever, excess
data bursts can exhaust memory, forcing the device to discard any additional datagrams that arrive.
Source +uench messa)es - $ource %uench messages are used by receiving devices to help prevent
their buffers from overflowing. The receiving device sends source %uench messages to re%uest that the
source reduce its current rate of data transmission, as follows:
;. The receiving device begins discarding received data due to overflowing buffers.
<. The receiving device begins sending source %uench messages to the transmitting device, at
the rate of one message for each packet dropped.
?. The source device receives the source %uench messages and lowers the data rate until it stops
receiving the messages.
9. The source device then gradually increases the data rate as long as no further source %uench
re%uests are received.
,indoin) - 3indowing is a flow-control scheme in which the source device re%uires an
acknowledgement from the destination after a certain number of packets have been transmitted. 3ith a
window si6e of three, the source re%uires an acknowledgment after sending three packets, as follows:
;. The source device sends three packets to the destination device.
<. +fter receiving the three packets, the destination device sends an acknowledgment to the
source.
?. The source receives the acknowledgment and sends three more packets.
9. 'f the destination does not receive one or more of the packets for some reason such as
overflowing buffers!, it does not receive enough packets to send an acknowledgment. The
source, not receiving an acknowledgment, retransmits the packets at a reduced transmission
rate.
-. Differentiate beteen the folloin) ,AN services. /.#( 0 LAP*1 2rame 3elay1 ISDN 0 LAPD1
SDLC. 4DLC1 PPP and DD3.
/.#( - 'T8-T standard that defines how connections between DT# and D)# are maintained for remote
terminal access and computer communications in PD"s. 2.<@ specifies (+P-, a data link layer protocol,
and P(P, a network layer protocol. &rame 1elay has to some degree superseded 2.<@.
2rame 3elay - 'ndustry-standard, switched data link layer protocol that handles multiple virtual circuits
using >D() encapsulation between connected devices. &rame 1elay is more efficient than 2.<@, the
protocol for which it is generally considered a replacement.
ISDN - 'ntegrated $ervices Digital "etwork. )ommunication protocol, offered by telephone companies,
that permits telephone networks to carry data, voice, and other source traffic.
SDLC - $ynchronous Data (ink )ontrol. $"+ data link layer communications protocol. $D() is a bit-
oriented, full-duplex serial protocol that has spawned numerous similar protocols, including >D() and
(+P-.
4DLC - >igh-(evel Data (ink )ontrol. -it-oriented synchronous data link layer protocol developed by
'$.. Derived from $D(), >D() specifies a data encapsulation method on synchronous serial links using
frame characters and checksums.
PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol. + successor to $('P, PPP provides router-to-router and host-to-network
connections over synchronous and asynchronous circuits.
DD3 - dial-on-demand routing. Techni%ue whereby a )isco router can automatically initiate and close a
circuit-switched session as transmitting stations demand. The router spoofs keep-alives so that end
stations treat the session as active. DD1 permits routing over '$D" or telephone lines using an external
'$D" terminal adaptor or modem.
5. Lo) into a router in both user and "rivile)ed modes.
6ser 7/7C A 8ser mode entered by logging in. Prompt will be 1outerB. To exit use the logout command.
Privile)ed 7/7C A &rom user #2#) mode, use the enable #2#) command. Prompt will be 1outerC. To
exit to user #2#) mode use the disable command.
8. 6se the conte9t$sensitive hel" facility.
#ntering a %uestion mark D! at the system prompt displays a list of commands available for each
command mode. Eou can also get a list of any commandFs associated keyworkd and arguments with the
context-sensitive help feature. To get help specific to a command mode, a command, a keyword, or
arguments perform one of the following:
!ask Command
.btain a brief description of the help system in and hel"
)ommand mode.
)onfigure a line or lines to receive help for the full set of full$hel"
8ser-level commands when a user types D.
)onfigure a line to receive help for the full set of user-level terminal full$hel"
)ommands for this exec session.
.btain a list of commands that begins with a particular abbreviated-command-entry:
)haracter string.
)omplete a partial command name. abbreviated-command-entry;!ab<
(ist all commands available for a particular command mode. :
(ist a commandFs associated keywords. command :
(ist a keywordFs associated arguments. Command keyword :
=. 6se the command history and editin) features.
3ith the current '.$ release, the user interface provides a history or record of commands that you have
entered. This feature is particularly useful for recalling long or complex command entries including access
lists. -y default, the system records ;G command lines in its history buffer. To set the number of command
lines recorded during the current terminal session use the following command:
terminal history Hsi>e number-of-linesI
To configure the number of command lines the system records, complete the following command from
line configuration mode:
history Hsi>e number-of-linesI
8seful editing commands:
Crtl$P or the up arrow key 1ecall commands in the history buffer starting with the most recent
command.
Crtl$N or the down arrow 1eturn to more recent commands in the history buffer after recalling
commands with )rtl-P or the up arrow key.
Crtl$* or left arrow key *ove the cursor back one character
Crtl$2 or right arrow key *ove the cursor forward one character
Crtl$A *ove the cursor to the beginning of the command line
Crtl$7 *ove the cursor to the end of the command line
7sc * *ove the cursor back one word
7sc 2 *ove the cursor forward one word
Crtl$3 or Crtl$L 1edisplay the current command line
1?. 79amine router elements @3A'1 3O'1 CDP1 shoA.
1.* 1ead .nly, >ard 3ired, -oot $trap, '.$, 1.* *onitor
1+* '.$ J 1unning )onfiguration *ain *emory!
",1+* $tartup )onfig A $aved via battery ;G yr (ife $pan!
&lash '.$ A P)*)'+ )ards or $'**s
$hared 1+* Packet -uffering A "ot all platforms
The )isco Discovery Protocol )DP! is a media- and protocol-independent protocol that runs on all )isco-
manufactured e%uipment including routers, bridges, access servers and switches. )DP runs on all media
that supports $ubnetwork +ccess Protocol $"+P! including local area network, &rame 1elay and +T*
media. )DP runs over the data link layer only.
specify the fre%uency of transmission of )DP updates. cd" timer seconds
specify the amount of time a receiving device should cd" holdtime seconds
hold the information sent by your device before
discarding it.
to disable )DP no cd" run
to disable )DP on an interface no cd" enable
delete the )DP table of information about neighbors clear cd" table
display cdp neighbor information sho cd" nei)hbors Htype numberI HdetailI
The show cdp neighbors command displays: Device 'D, interface type and number, hold-time settings,
capabilities, platform and port 'D information about neighbors. 8sing the detail option displays the
following additional neighbor details: network address, enabled protocols and software version.
11. 'ana)e confi)uration files from the "rivile)ed e9ec mode.
Eou can copy a configuration file from a T&TP server to the running configuration or to the startup
configuration. 3hen you copy a configuration file to the running configuration, you copy to and run the file
from 1+*. 3hen you copy a configuration file to the startup configuration, you copy it to the nonvolatile
random-access memory ",1+*!.
$tep ; )opy a file from a T&TP server to the router co"y tft" runnin)$confi)
or
Co"y tft" startu"$confi)
$tep < 3hen prompted enter the 'P address or domain ip-address or name
name of the server
$tep ? 'f prompted, enter the filename of the configuration filename
file
)onfiguration files can also be copied from an rcp server to the local router as well. Eou must first specify
the remote username:
i" rcmd remote$username username
8se steps as above except replace tftp with rcp
to view the configuration in ",11+* sho startu"$confi)
to view the current running configuration sho runnin)$confi)
to re-execute the configuration commands located in ",1+* confi)ure memory
to erase the contents of ",1+* erase startu"$confi)
1#. Control router "assords1 identification and banner.
)isco routers have two levels of passwords that can be appliedK user and privileged #2#). The user
#2#) passwords are applied to the console, auxiliary and virtual terminal lines of the )isco router.
Password authentication can be either on the line, through a local username definition or a T+)+)$,
extended T+)+)$, T+)+)$L or 1+D'8$ server. To enter privileged #2#) mode, use the enable
command. -y default, the password will be compared against the password entered with the enable
secret global command.
To uni%uely identify the router, use the hostname command as follows:
set the hostname hostname name
customi6e the prompt "rom"t string
remove the configuration prompt no service "rom"t confi)
*anners
banner e9ec
To display a banner on terminals with an interactive #2#), use the banner exec global configuration
command. This command specifies a message to be displayed when an #2#) process is created a line
is activated, or an incoming connection is made to a ,TE line!. The no form of this command deletes the
#2#) banner.
banner exec d message d
no banner exec
$yntax Description
d Delimiting character of your choice--a pound sign C! for example. Eou cannot use the
delimiting character in the banner message.
message *essage text.
banner incomin)
To specify a banner used when you have an incoming connection to a line from a host on the network,
use the banner incoming global configuration command. The no form of this command deletes the
incoming connection banner.
banner incoming d message d
no banner incoming
$yntax Description
d Delimiting character of your choice--a pound sign C! for example. Eou cannot use the
delimiting character in the banner message.
message *essage text.
+n incoming connection is one initiated from the network side of the router. 'ncoming connections are also
called reverse Telnet sessions. These sessions can display *.TD banners and '").*'"4 banners, but
they do not display #2#) banners. 8se the no motd-banner line configuration command to disable the
*.TD banner for reverse Telnet sessions on asynchronous lines. 3hen a user connects to the router, the
*.TD banner appears before the login prompt. +fter the user successfully logs in to the router, the #2#)
banner or '").*'"4 banner will be displayed, depending on the type of connection. &or a reverse Telnet
login, the '").*'"4 banner will be displayed. &or all other connections, the router will display the #2#)
banner. 'ncoming banners cannot be suppressed. 'f you do not want the incoming banner to appear, you
must delete it with the no banner incoming command.
;?. 'dentify the main )isco '.$ commands for router startup.
1&. Check an initial confi)uration usin) the setu" command.
The command parser )ommand (ine 'nterface - )('! allows you to make very detailed changes to your
configurations. >owever, some maMor configuration changes do not re%uire the granularity provided by the
command parser. 'n these cases, you can use the setup command facility to make maMor enhancements
to your configurations. &or example, you might want to use setup to add a protocol suite, to make maMor
addressing scheme changes, or to configure a newly installed interface. +lthough you can use the
command parser to make these maMor changes, the setup command facility provides you with a high-level
view of the configuration and guides you through the configuration change process.
+dditionally, if you are not familiar with )isco products and the command parser, the setup command
facility is a particularly valuable tool because it asks you the %uestions re%uired to make configuration
changes.
"ote: 'f you use setup to modify a configuration because you have added or modified the hardware, be
sure to verify the physical connections using the show version command. +lso, verify the logical port
assignments using the show running-config command to ensure that you configure the proper port.
To enter the setup command facility, enter NsetupF in privileged #2#) mode:
3hen you enter the setup command facility after first-time startup, an interactive dialog called the $ystem
)onfiguration Dialog appears on the system console screen. The $ystem )onfiguration Dialog guides you
through the configuration process. 't prompts you first for global parameters and then for interface
parameters. The values shown in brackets next to each prompt are the default values last set using either
the setup command facility or the configure command. The prompts and the order in which they appear
on the screen vary depending on the platform and the interfaces installed in the device.
Eou must run through the entire $ystem )onfiguration Dialog until you come to the item that you intend to
change. To accept default settings for items that you do not want to change, press the 1eturn key.
To return to the privileged #2#) prompt without making changes and without running through the entire
$ystem )onfiguration Dialog, press )trl-).
The facility also provides help text for each prompt. To access help text, press the %uestion mark D! key
at a prompt.
3hen you complete your changes, the setup command facility shows you the configuration command
script that was created during the setup session. 't also asks you if you want to use this configuration. 'f
you answer Ees, the configuration is saved to ",1+*. 'f you answer "o, the configuration is not saved
and the process begins again. There is no default for this promptK you must answer either Ees or "o.
&ollowing is a partial example of the setup routine:
1outerC setup
--- $ystem )onfiguration Dialog ---
+t any point you may enter a %uestion mark ODO for help.
8se ctrl-c to abort configuration dialog at any prompt.
Default settings are in s%uare brackets OHIO.
)ontinue with configuration dialogD HyesI:
&irst, would you like to see the current interface summaryD HyesI:
'nterface 'P-+ddress .PD *ethod $tatus Protocol
#thernetG ;Q<.;=.Q<.< E#$ manual up up
$erialG unassigned E#$ not set administratively down down
$erial; ;Q<.;=.Q<.< E#$ not set up up
)onfiguring global parameters:
#nter host name H1outerI:
The enable secret is a one-way cryptographic secret used
instead of the enable password when it exists.
#nter enable secret HI:
The enable password is used when there is no enable secret
and when using older software and some boot images.
#nter enable password HwwI:
#nter virtual terminal password HwwI:
)onfigure $"*P "etwork *anagementD HyesI:
)ommunity string HpublicI:
)onfigure 'PD HyesI:
)onfigure '41P routingD HyesI:
Eour '41P autonomous system number H;@I:
)onfiguring interface #thernetG:
's this interface in useD HyesI:
)onfigure 'P on this interfaceD HyesI:
'P address for this interface H;Q<.;=.Q<.<I:
"umber of bits in subnet field H:I:
)lass - network is ;Q<.;=.G.G, : subnet bitsK mask is 7<9
.
.
.
1(. Co"y and mani"ulate confi)uration files
Eou can copy a configuration file from a T&TP server to the running configuration or to the startup
configuration. 3hen you copy a configuration file to the running configuration, you copy to and run the file
from 1+*. 3hen you copy a configuration file to the startup configuration, you copy it to the nonvolatile
random-access memory ",1+*!.
$tep ; )opy a file from a T&TP server to the router co"y tft" runnin)$confi)
or
Co"y tft" startu"$confi)
$tep < 3hen prompted enter the 'P address or domain ip-address or name
name of the server
$tep ? 'f prompted, enter the filename of the configuration filename
file
)onfiguration files can also be copied from an rcp server to the local router as well. Eou must first specify
the remote username:
i" rcmd remote$username username
8se steps as above except replace tftp with rcp
to view the configuration in ",11+* sho startu"$confi)
to view the current running configuration sho runnin)$confi)
to re-execute the configuration commands located in ",1+* confi)ure memory
to erase the contents of ",1+* erase startu"$confi)
1-. List the commands to load Cisco IOS from. flash memory1 a tft" server or 3O'.
To configure a router to automatically boot an image in &lash memory, perform the following tasks:
!ask Command
$tep ; #nter configuration mode form the terminal confi)ure terminal
$tep < #nter the filename of an image stored in &lash memory boot system flash HfilenameI
boot system flash slot?.HfilenameI
boot system flash slot1.HfilenameI
boot system flash bootflash.HfilenameI
$tep ? $et the configuration register to enable loading image confi)$re)ister value
from &lash memory generally Gx<;G<!
$tep 9 $ave configuration file co"y runnin)$confi) startu"$confi)
To configure a route to load a system image from a network server using T&TP, rcp or *.P, use the
following commands:
!ask Command
$tep ; #nter configuration mode form the terminal confi)ure terminal
$tep < $pecify the system image to be booted boot system Brc" C tft"D filename Hip addressI
from a network server using rcp, T&TP or
or *.P. boot system mo" filename Hmac-addressI HintI
$tep ? $et the configuration register to enable loading confi)$re)ister value
image from a network server generally GxG;G&!
$tep 9 $ave configuration file co"y runnin)$confi) startu"$confi)
To specify the use of the 1.* system image as a backup to other boot instructions in the configuration
file, complete the following:
!ask Command
$tep ; #nter configuration mode form the terminal confi)ure terminal
$tep < #nter the filename of an image stored in &lash memory boot system rom
$tep ? $et the configuration register to enable loading image confi)$re)ister value
from 1.* generally GxG;G;!
$tep 9 $ave configuration file co"y runnin)$confi) startu"$confi)
15. Pre"are to backu"1 u")rade and load a backu" Cisco IOS softare ima)e.
;:. (ist the key internetworking functions of the .$' "etwork layer and how they are performed in a
router.
1=. Describe the to "arts of netork addressin)1 then identify the "arts in s"ecific "rotocol
address e9am"les.
+ network layer address identifies an entity at the network layer of the .$' reference model. "etwork
addresses usually exist within a hierarchical address space. They are sometimes called virtual or logical
addresses. The relationship of a network address with a device is logical and unfixed. 't is typically based
either on physical network characteristics the device is on a particular network segment! or on groupings
that have no physical basis the device is part of an +ppleTalk 6one!. #nd systems re%uire one network
layer address for each network layer protocol they support. This assumes that the device has only one
physical network connection.! 1outers and other internetworking devices re%uire one network layer
address per physical network connection for each network layer protocol supported. &or example, a
router with three interfaces, each running +ppleTalk, T)P7'P, and .$', must have three network layer
addresses for each interface. The router therefore has nine network layer addresses.
#?. List "roblems that each routin) ty"e encounters hen dealin) ith to"olo)y chan)es and
describe techni+ues to reduce these "roblems.
Distance ,ector protocols, like 1'P, specify a number of features designed to make their operation more
stable in the face of rapid network topology changes. These include a hop-count limit, hold-downs, split
hori6ons, and poison reverse updates.
>op-)ount (imit - 1'P permits a maximum hop count of ;@. +ny destination greater than ;@ hops away is
tagged as unreachable. 1'POs maximum hop count greatly restricts its use in large internetworks, but
prevents a problem called count to infinity from causing endless network routing loops.
>old-Downs - >old-downs are used to prevent regular update messages from inappropriately reinstating
a route that has gone bad. 3hen a route goes down, neighboring routers will detect this. These routers
then calculate new routes and send out routing update messages to inform their neighbors of the route
change. This activity begins a wave of routing updates that filter through the network.
Triggered updates do not instantly arrive at every network device. 't is therefore possible that a device
that has yet to be informed of a network failure may send a regular update message indicating that a
route that has Must gone down is still good! to a device that has Must been notified of the network failure. 'n
this case, the latter device now contains and potentially advertises! incorrect routing information.
>old-downs tell routers to hold down any changes that might affect recently removed routes for some
period of time. The hold-down period is usually calculated to be Must greater than the period of time
necessary to update the entire network with a routing change. >old-down prevents the count-to-infinity
problem.
$plit >ori6ons - $plit hori6ons derive from the fact that it is never useful to send information about a route
back in the direction from which it came. The split-hori6on rule helps prevent two-node routing loops.
Poison 1everse 8pdates - 3hereas split hori6ons should prevent routing loops between adMacent routers,
poison reverse updates are intended to defeat larger routing loops. The idea is that increases in routing
metrics generally indicate routing loops. Poison reverse updates are then sent to remove the route and
place it in hold-down. Poison 1everse update are updates sent to other routers with an unreachable
metric.
DDDDDD (ink $tate DDDDDDD
<;. #xplain the services of separate and integrated multiprotocol routing.
##. Describe the different classes of IP addresses Band subnettin)D.
'P addressing supports five different address classes. The left-most high-order! bits indicate the network
class. The following table provides reference information about the five 'P address classes:
'P +ddress
)lass
&ormat Purpose >igh-.rder
-its!
+ddress
1ange
"o. -its
"etwork7>ost
*ax. >osts
+ ".>.>.> (arge .rg. G ; A ;<= Q7<9 <R<9-<
- ".".>.> *edium .rg ;G ;<: A ;S; ;97;= <R;=-<
) ".".".> small .rg. ;;G ;S< A <<? <<7: <R:-<
D "7+ *ulticast ;;;G <<9 A <?S "7+ "7+
# "7+ #xperimenta
l
;;;; <9G A <@9 "7+ "7+
'P networks can be divided into smaller networks called subnetworks or subnets!. $ubnetting provides
extra flexibility, makes more efficient use of network address utili6ation, and contains broadcast traffic
because a broadcast will not cross a router. $ubnets are under local administration. +s such, the outside
world sees an organi6ation as a single network, and has no detailed knowledge of the organi6ationOs
internal structure. + given network address can be broken up into many subnetworks. &or example,
;Q<.;=.;.G, ;Q<.;=.<.G, ;Q<.;=.?.G, and ;Q<.;=.9.G are all subnets within network ;Q;.;=.G.G. +ll Gs in
the host portion of an address specifies the entire network.!
<?. )onfigure 'P addresses
<9. ,erify 'P addresses
<@. Prepare the initial configuration of your router and enable 'P.
<=. +dd the 1'P routing protocol to your configuration.
<Q. +dd the '41P routing protocol to your configuration.
#8. List the re+uired IP/ address and enca"sulation ty"e.
'nterface Type #ncapsulation Type 'P2 &rame Type
#thernet novell-ether default!
arpa
sap
snap
#thernetT:G<.?
#thernetT''
#thernetT:G<.<
#thernetT$nap
Token 1ing sap default!
snap
Token-1ing
Token-1ingT$nap
&DD' snap default!
sap
&ddiT$nap
&ddiT:G<.<
<S. #nable the "ovell 'P2 protocol and configure interfaces.
?G. *onitor "ovell 'P2 operation on the router.
?;. 1ecogni6e key &rame 1elay and 2.<@ terms and features.
?<. (ist commands to configure &rame 1elay (*'s, maps and subinterfaces.
??. (ist commands to monitor &rame 1elay operation on the router.
?9. 'dentify PPP operations to encapsulate 3+" data on )isco routers.
?@. )onfigure standard access lists to figure 'P traffic.
?=. *onitor and verify selected access list operations on the router.
?Q. $tate a relevant use and context for '$D" networking.
%8. Identify ISDN "rotocols1 function )rou"s1 reference "oints and channels.
'$D" components include terminals, terminal adapters T+s!, network-termination devices, line-
termination e%uipment, and exchange-termination e%uipment. '$D" terminals come in two types.
$peciali6ed '$D" terminals are referred to as terminal e%uipment type ; T#;!. "on-'$D" terminals such
as DT# that predate the '$D" standards are referred to as terminal e%uipment type < T#<!. T#;s
connect to the '$D" network through a four-wire, twisted-pair digital link. T#<s connect to the '$D"
network through a terminal adapter. The '$D" T+ can either be a stand-alone device or a board inside the
T#<. 'f the T#< is implemented as a standalone device, it connects to the T+ via a standard physical-layer
interface. #xamples include #'+7T'+-<?<-) formerly 1$-<?<-)!, ,.<9, and ,.?@.
-eyond the T#; and T#< devices, the next connection point in the '$D" network is the network
termination type ; "T;! or network termination type < "T<! device. These are network-termination
devices that connect the four-wire subscriber wiring to the conventional two-wire local loop. 'n "orth
+merica, the "T; is a customer premises e%uipment )P#! device. 'n most other parts of the world, the
"T; is part of the network provided by the carrier. The "T< is a more complicated device, typically found
in digital private branch exchanges P-2s!, that performs (ayer < and ? protocol functions and
concentration services. +n "T;7< device also existsK it is a single device that combines the functions of an
"T; and an "T<.
+ number of reference points are specified in '$D". These reference points define logical interfaces
between functional groupings such as T+s and "T;s. '$D" reference points include the following:
1--The reference point between non-'$D" e%uipment and a T+.
$--The reference point between user terminals and the "T<.
T--The reference point between "T; and "T< devices.
8--The reference point between "T; devices and line-termination e%uipment in the carrier network.
The 8 reference point is relevant only in "orth +merica, where the "T; function is not provided by the
carrier network.
The '$D" -asic 1ate 'nterface -1'! service offers two - channels and one D channel <-LD!. -1' --
channel service operates at =9 kbps and is meant to carry user dataK -1' D-channel service operates at
;= kbps and is meant to carry control and signaling information, although it can support user data
transmission under certain circumstances. The D channel signaling protocol comprises (ayers ; through
? of the .$' reference model. -1' also provides for framing control and other overhead, bringing its total
bit rate to ;S< kbps. The -1' physical layer specification is 'nternational Telecommunication 8nion
Telecommunication $tandardi6ation $ector 'T8-T! formerly the )onsultative )ommittee for 'nternational
Telegraph and
Telephone H))'TTI! '.9?G.
'$D" Primary 1ate 'nterface P1'! service offers <? - channels and one D channel in "orth +merica and
5apan, yielding a total bit rate of ;.@99 *bps the P1' D channel runs at =9 kbps!. '$D" P1' in #urope,
+ustralia, and other parts of the world provides ?G - plus one =9-kbps D channel and a total interface rate
of <.G9: *bps. The P1' physical-layer specification is 'T8-T '.9?;.
'$D" physical-layer (ayer ;! frame formats differ depending on whether the frame is outbound from
terminal to network! or inbound from network to terminal!. The frames are 9: bits long, of which ?= bits
represent data. (ayer < of the '$D" signaling protocol is (ink +ccess Procedure, D channel, also known
as (+PD. (+PD is similar to >igh-(evel Data (ink )ontrol >D()! and (ink +ccess Procedure, -alanced
(+P-!. +s the expansion of the (+PD acronym indicates, it is used across the D channel to ensure that
control and signaling information flows and is received properly. The (+PD frame format is very similar to
that of >D() and, like >D(), (+PD uses supervisory, information, and unnumbered frames. The (+PD
protocol is formally specified in 'T8-T 0.S<G and 'T8-T0.S<;.
Two (ayer ? specifications are used for '$D" signaling: 'T8-T formerly ))'TT! '.9@G also known as 'T8-
T 0.S?G! and 'T8-T '.9@; also known as 'T8-T 0.S?;!. Together, these protocols support user-to-user,
circuit-switched, and packet-switched connections. + variety of call establishment, call termination,
information, and miscellaneous messages are specified, including $#T8P, ).""#)T, 1#(#+$#, 8$#1
'"&.1*+T'.", )+")#(, $T+T8$, and D'$).""#)T. These messages are functionally similar to
those provided by the 2.<@ protocol.
?S. Describe )iscoFs implementation of '$D" -1'
9G. Describe the advantages of (+" segmentation
9;. Describe (+" segmentation using bridges
9<. Describe (+" segmentation using routers
9?. Describe (+" segmentation using switches
99. "ame and describe two switching methods
9@. Describe full- and half-duplex ethernet operation
9=. 'dentify at least ? reasons why the industry uses a layered model
9Q. 'dentify the functions of each layer of the '$.7.$' reference model
9:. Define and explain the @ conversion steps of data encapsulation
9S. 'dentify the functions of the T)P7'P transport-layer protocols
@G. 'dentify the functions of the T)P7'P network-layer protocols
(1. Identify the functions "erformed by IC'P
The 'nternet )ontrol *essage Protocol ')*P! is a network layer 'nternet protocol that provides message
packets to report errors and other information relevant to 'P packet processing back to the source. ')*P
is documented in 1&) QS<. ')*P provides a number of helpful messages including the following:
Destination 6nreachable - The ')*P destination unreachable message is sent by a router if it is
unable to deliver a packet to the ultimate destination. The router discards the original packet.
Destinations might be unreachable for these reasons:
The source host specified a nonexistent address.
The router does not have a route to the destination less fre%uent!.
Destination unreachable messages include the following:
"etwork unreachable -- This message usually implies routing or addressing failures.
>ost unreachable -- This message usually implies delivery failures such as a wrong
subnet mask.
Protocol unreachable -- This message usually implies that the destination does not
support the upper-layer protocol specified in the packet.
Port unreachable -- This message usually implies that the Transmission )ontrol Protocol
T)P! port socket! is not available.
7cho 3e+uest and 3e"ly - The ')*P echo re%uest message is sent by any host to test node
reachability across an internetwork. 't is generated by the ping command. The ')*P echo reply
message indicates that the node can be successfully reached.
3edirect - +n ')*P redirect message is sent by the router to the source host to stimulate more
efficient routing. The router still forwards the original packet to the destination. ')*P redirects
allow host routing tables to remain small because knowing the address of only one router is
re%uired even if that router does not provide the best path!. #ven after receiving an ')*P
redirect message, some devices might continue using the less efficient route.
!ime 79ceeded - +n ')*P time-exceeded message is sent by the router if an 'P packetOs Time-
to-(ive field expressed in hops or seconds! reaches 6ero. The Time-to-(ive field prevents
packets from continuously circulating the internetwork if the internetwork contains a routing loop.
The router discards the original packet.
3outer Advertisement and 3outer Solicitation - The ')*P 1outer Discovery Protocol 'D1P!
uses router advertisement and router solicitation messages to discover the addresses of routers
on directly attached subnets. 'D1P works as follows:
;.#ach router periodically multicasts router advertisement messages from each of its
interfaces.
<.>osts discover addresses of routers on directly attached subnets by listening for these
messages.
?.>osts can use router solicitation messages to re%uest immediate advertisements,
rather than waiting for unsolicited messages.
'1DP offers several advantages over other methods of discovering addresses of neighboring
routers. Primarily, it does not re%uire hosts to recogni6e routing protocols, nor does it re%uire
manual configuration by an administrator. 1outer advertisement messages allow hosts to
discover the existence of neighboring routers, but not which router is best to reach a particular
destination. 'f a host uses a poor first-hop router to reach a particular destination, it receives a
redirect message identifying a better choice.
8ndeliverable ')*P messages for whatever reason! do not generate a second ')*P message. Doing so
could create an endless flood of ')*P messages.
@<. )onfigure extended access lists to filter 'P traffic
@?. )onfigure 'P2 access lists and $+P filters to control basic "ovell traffic
@9. *onitor and verify selected access list operations on the router
@@. Describe network congestion problem in ethernet networks
(=. Describe the features and benefits of 2ast 7thernet E
-?. Describe the )uidelines and distance limitations of 2ast 7thernet
&ast #thernet, or ;GG-aseT, is conventional #thernet but faster, operating at ;GG *bps instead of ;G
*bps. &ast #thernet is based on the proven )$*+7)D *edia +ccess )ontrol *+)! protocol and can
use existing ;G-aseT cabling. Data can move from ;G *bps to ;GG *bps without protocol translation or
changes to application and networking software.
&ast #thernet maintains )$*+7)D, the #thernet transmission protocol. >owever, &ast #thernet reduces
the duration of time each bit is transmitted by a factor of ;G, enabling the packet speed to increase tenfold
from ;G *bps to ;GG *bps. Data can move between #thernet and &ast #thernet without re%uiring
protocol translation, because &ast #thernet also maintains the ;G-aseT error control functions as well as
the frame format and length.
&ast #thernet can run over the same variety of media as ;G-aseT, including 8TP, shielded twisted pair
$TP!, and fiber. The &ast #thernet specification defines separate physical sublayers for each media type:
;GG-aseT9 for four pairs of voice- or data-grade )ategory ?, 9, and @ 8TP wiring
;GG-aseT2 for two pairs of data-grade )ategory @ 8TP and $TP wiring
;GG-ase&2 for two strands of =<.@7;<@-micron multimode fiber
'n many cases, organi6ations can upgrade to ;GG-aseT technology without replacing existing wiring.
>owever, for installations with )ategory ? 8TP wiring in all or part of their locations, four pairs must be
available to implement &ast #thernet. The *'' layer of ;GG-aseT couples these physical sublayers to the
)$*+7)D *+) layer see &igure ;!. The *'' provides a single interface that can support external
transceivers for any of the ;GG-aseT physical sublayers. &or the physical connection, the *'' is
implemented on &ast #thernet devices such as routers, switches, hubs, and adapters, and on transceiver
devices using a 9G-pin connector
#ach physical sublayer uses a signaling scheme that is appropriate to its media type. ;GG-aseT9 uses
three pairs of wire for ;GG-*bps transmission and the fourth pair for collision detection. This method
lowers the ;GG-aseT9 signaling to ?? *bps per pair, making it suitable for )ategory ?, 9, and @ wiring.
;GG-aseT2 uses one pair of wires for transmission ;<@-*>6 fre%uency operating at :G percent
efficiency to allow for 9-@- encoding! and the other pair for collision detection and receive. ;GG-ase&2
uses one fiber for transmission and the other fiber for collision detection and receive. The ;GG-aseT2 and
;GG-ase&2 physical signaling channels are based on &DD' physical layers developed and approved by
the +merican "ational $tandards 'nstitute +"$'! 2?TS.@ committee.
3hile the ;GG-aseT2 and ;GG-ase T9 specifications maintain the same ;GG-meter limit from the wiring
closet to the desktop as ;G-aseT, ;GG-ase&2 can exceed the ;GG-meter limit because it uses fiber
instead of 8TP. >owever, ;GG-ase&2 is used primarily between wiring closets and campus buildings to
better leverage its support for longer cables.
5ust as with ;G-*bps #thernet, different wiring types can be connected through a repeater. The
;GG-aseT standard defines two classes of repeaters: )lass ' and )lass ''. +t most, a collision domain can
include one )lass ' or two )lass '' repeaters. &ast #thernet is implemented in a star topology, but even
with repeaters, the network diameter is proportionately smaller than ;G-*bps #thernet given &ast
#thernetOs tenfold increase in packet speed. &or example, using two )lass '' repeaters, the maximum
distance using copper wire is ;GG meters m! to the )lass '' repeater, @ m between )lass '' repeaters,
and ;GG m to the desktop.
&ull-duplex technology delivers up to <GG *bps bandwidth because it provides bidirectional
communication -- meaning that ;GG *bps is available for transmission in each direction. &ull duplex also
increases the maximum distance supported for fiber cables between two Data Terminal #%uipment DT#!
devices up to < km. &ull-duplex communication is implemented by disabling the collision detection and
loopback functions, which are necessary to ensure smooth communication in a shared network. .nly
switches can offer full duplex to directly attached workstations or servers. $hared ;GG-aseT hubs must
operate at half duplex to detect collisions among end stations.
The ;GG-aseT specification describes a negotiation process that allows devices at each end of a network
link to automatically exchange information about their capabilities and perform the configuration
necessary to operate together at their maximum common level. This auto-negotiation activity is performed
out-of-bank using &ast (ink Pulse &(P! -urst to identify the highest physical-layer technology that can be
used by both devices, such as ;G-aseT, ;GG-aseT, ;GG-aseT2, or ;GG-aseT9. The auto-negotiation
definition also provides a parallel detection function that allows half-and full-duplex ;--aseT, half-and full-
duplex
;GG-aseT2, and ;GG-aseT9 physical layers to be recogni6ed, even if one of the connected devices does
not offer auto-negotiation capabilities.
-1. Distin)uish beteen cut$throu)h and store$and$forard sitchin).
)ut through switching will forward the packet as soon as the destination *+) is known. $tore and
forward will forward after the packet has been received and declared to be valid. )ut through is faster, but
you may pass UbadU packets.
-#. Describe the o"eration of the S"annin) !ree Protocol and its benefit
$panning-Tree Protocol is a link management protocol that provides path redundancy while preventing
undesirable loops in the network. &or an #thernet network to function properly, only one active path can
exist between two stations. *ultiple active paths between stations cause loops in the network. 'f a loop
exists in the network topology, the potential exists for duplication of messages. 3hen loops occur, some
switches see stations appear on both sides of the switch. This condition confuses the forwarding
algorithm and allows duplicate frames to be forwarded.
To provide path redundancy, $panning-Tree Protocol defines a tree that spans all switches in an extended
network. $panning-Tree Protocol forces certain redundant data paths into a standby blocked! state. 'f
one network segment in the $panning-Tree Protocol becomes unreachable, or if $panning-Tree Protocol
costs change, the spanning-tree algorithm reconfigures the spanning-tree topology and reestablishes the
link by activating the standby path.
$panning-Tree Protocol operation is transparent to end stations, which are unaware whether they are
connected to a single (+" segment or a switched (+" of multiple segments.
#lection of the 1oot $witch
+ll switches in an extended (+" participating in $panning-Tree Protocol gather information on other
switches in the network through an exchange of data messages. These messages are bridge protocol
data units -PD8s!. This exchange of messages results in the following:
The election of a uni%ue root switch for the stable spanning-tree network topology.
The election of a designated switch for every switched (+" segment.
The removal of loops in the switched network by placing redundant switch ports in a backup state.
The $panning-Tree Protocol root switch is the logical center of the spanning-tree topology in a switched
network. +ll paths that are not needed to reach the root switch from anywhere in the switched network are
placed in $panning-Tree Protocol backup mode.
-PD8s contain information about the transmitting switch and its ports, including switch and port *edia
+ccess )ontrol *+)! addresses, switch priority, port priority, and port cost. The $panning-Tree Protocol
uses this information to elect the root switch and root port for the switched network, as well as the root
port and designated port for each switched segment.
+ -PD8 exchange results in the following:
.ne switch is elected as the root switch.
The shortest distance to the root switch is calculated for each switch.
+ designated switch is selected. This is the switch closest to the root switch through which frames will be
forwarded to the root.
+ port for each switch is selected. This is the port providing the best path from the switch to the root
switch.
Ports included in the $panning-Tree Protocol are selected.
'f all switches are enabled with default settings, the switch with the lowest *+) address in the network
becomes the root switch. -y increasing the priority lowering the numerical priority number! of the ideal
switch so that it then becomes the root switch, youforce a $panning-Tree Protocol recalculation to form a
new, stable topology.
$panning-Tree Protocol Port $tates
Propagation delays can occur when protocol information is passed through a switched (+". +s a result,
topology changes can take place at different times and at different places in a switched network. 3hen a
switch port transitions directly from non-participation in the stable topology to the forwarding state, it can
create temporary data loops. Ports must wait for new topology information to propagate through the
switched (+" before starting to forward frames. They must also allow the frame lifetime to expire for
frames that have been forwarded using the old topology.
#ach port on a switch using $panning-Tree Protocol exists in one of the following five states:
-locking, (istening, (earning, &orwarding, Disabled
+ port moves through these five states as follows:
&rom initiali6ation to blocking
&rom blocking to listening or to disabled
&rom listening to learning or to disabled
&rom learning to forwarding or to disabled
&rom forwarding to disabled
-locking $tate - + port in the blocking state does not participate in frame forwarding, as shown in &igure
)-@. +fter initiali6ation, a -PD8 is sent to each port in the switch. + switch initially assumes it is the root
until it exchanges -PD8s with other switches. This exchange establishes which switch in the network is
really the root. 'f only one switch resides in the network, no exchange occurs, the forward delay timer
expires, and the ports move to the listening state. + switch always enters the blocking state following
switch initiali6ation.
(istening $tate - The listening state is the first transitional state a port enters after the blocking state,
when $panning-Tree Protocol determines that the port should participate in frame forwarding. (earning is
disabled in the listening state.
(earning $tate - + port in the learning state is preparing to participate in frame forwarding. This is the
second transitional state through which a port moves in anticipation of frame forwarding. The port enters
the learning state from the listening state through the operation of $panning-Tree Protocol.
&orwarding $tate - + port in the forwarding state forwards frames, as shown in &igure )-@. The port enters
the forwarding state from the learning state through the operation of $panning-Tree Protocol.
Disabled $tate - + port in the disabled state does not participate in frame forwarding or the operation of
$panning-Tree Protocol. + port in the disabled state is virtually nonoperational.
-%. Describe the benefits of Firtual LANs.
,(+"s provide the following benefits:
;. 1educed +dministration )osts - *oves, adds, and changes are one of the greatest expenses in
managing a network. ,(+"s provide an effective mechanism to control these changes and
reduce much of the cost of hub and router reconfiguration.
<. )ontrolling -roadcast +ctivity - $imilar to routers, ,(+"s offer an effective mechanism for setting
up firewalls in a switch fabric, protecting the network against broadcast problems that are
potentially dangerous, and maintaining all the performance benefits of switching.
?. -etter "etwork $ecurity - Eou can increase security easily and inexpensively by segmenting the
network into distinct broadcast groups. ,(+"s therefore can be used to provide security firewalls,
restrict individual user access, flag any unwanted intrusion to the network, and control the si6e
and composition of the broadcast domain.
9. (everaging #xisting (+" >ub 'nvestments - .rgani6ations have installed many shared hub
chassis, modules, and stackable devices in the past three to five years. Eou can leverage this
investment by using backplane hub connections. 't is the connections between shared hubs and
switches that provide opportunities for ,(+" segmentation.