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Basic terms:
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n = sample size
N = population size
= standard deviation (the square root of the variance)
Rememer the percentage of samples that fall !ithin "# $# and %
standard deviations () of the mean:
&ercent of samples !ithin : '()
&ercent of samples !ithin $: *+)
&ercent of samples !ithin %: **,-)
Standard error of the mean (S./) = 01n
2he mean is calculated from a sample and changes from sample to
sample 3 the S./descries ho! much the mean can var4 from sample to
sample
5orrelation coe6cient: calculates ho! closel4 related t!o measures
are7 values closer to " are more strongl4 correlated !hile values closer to
8" have strong negative correlation
5onfdence 9nterval (59): measures how reliable an estimate is
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But rememer that for a *+) 59# +) of the time the outcome !ill
fall outside of the *+) range, :or a (;) 59# $;) of the time the outcome
!ill fall outside of the 59 range
9f the 59 range includes ;# the null h4pothesis is not re<ected 3 no
statisticall4 signifcant di=erence !as found
t8test
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5alculates the proailit4 that the di=erent means et!een 2
groups is real
Requires normall4 distriuted# continuous measures
>N?@> (>nal4sis of @ariance)
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Similar to the t8test# eAcept for 3 or more groups
B
$
testing
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Similar to t8test# eAcept it is used for categorical measures 3
calculates !hether or not a di=erence et!een t!o
percentages0proportions (not means) is real
Statistical Cistriutions
Statistical Distribution is a continuous proailit4 distriution# !hich is
a function that predicts the proailit4 that an oservation !ill fall
et!een t!o real numers, 2here are three main t4pes of
distriutions7 Normal Distribution, Bimodal Distribution, and
Skewed Distribution.
Statistical Characteristics: 2hese three statistical distriutions all share
the same underl4ing statistical traits,
Mean 8 >lso Dno!n as the average of oserved values,
.Aample: Set = ("# %# (# ";# ";# ";# "E# "(# "(# $$# $'# $-# %$)
" F % F ( F "; F "; F "; F "E F "( F "( F $$ F $' F $- F %$
= "**0"% = "-,%;( = !
Mean is appro"imatel# !
Mode 8 2he most frequentl4 occurring oservation in a set of data,
.Aample: Set = G"# %# (# ";# ";# ";# "E# "(# "(# $$# $'# $-# %$H
Mode is $# since "; is the most frequentl4 occurring oservation
!ithin this data set,
Median 8 2he middle value separating the lo!er half of a distriution from
the upper half of a distriution,
.Aample: Set = G"# %# (# ";# ";# ";# "E# "(# "(# $$# $'# $-# %$H
Median is %, or the !th &alue in the list since it is the eAact
middle value separating the upper half of the distriution from the lo!er
half,
Normal Distribution:
>lso Dno!n as the 'aussian distribution
5an e defned 4 mean()* and standard de&iation(*.
9t is a s#mmetric distriution,
>t the highest point on the ell curve the mean + mode + median.
>ll oservations !ill fall !ithin a certain standard deviation
F08 " S2C = ,-.
F08 $ S2C = /0.
F08 % S2C = //.!.
Skewed Distribution:
Skewness is the measure of as4mmetr4 !ithin a proailit4
distriution, > sDe!ed distriution often indicates the presence of an
outlier !ithin the results
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1ositi&e skew has the tail trailing o= to the right, /ode I /edian
I /ean
Negati&e skew has the tail trailing o= to the left, /ode J /edian
J /ean
K4potheses and .rror 24pes
Null K4pothesis (K;): no di=erence et!een $ groups, .Aamples:
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Leeping lood sugars I "(; in criticall4 ill patients doesnMt decrease
mortalit4
>lternative K4pothesis (K"): there is a di=erence et!een $ groups
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.Aample: treating septic patients !ith antiiotics lo!ers their
mortalit4 rate
24pe " .rror (N): incorrectl4 accept K" as true
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2he p &alue measures the proailit4 of committing 24pe " errors
24pe $ .rror (O): failing to re<ect K; !hen the null h4pothesis is false
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.Aample: declaring a guilt4 man innocent
O is the proailit4 of maDing this error
&o!er= "8O
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&roailit4 of fnding a Ptrue e=ectP, 9ncludes oth re<ecting K; !hen
K; is false and accepting K" !hen K" is true
Cependent on sample size: the larger the sample# the more liDel4
the results reQect the events in the population
R sample size R the stud4Ms po!er
9ncidence S &revalence
1re&alence: proportion of population !0 a disease at a particular point in
time (i,e,# point prevalence) or during a particular period of time (i,e,#
period prevalence)
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1oint pre&alence:
2otal T of cases of a disease at a given point in time 0 2otal population at
risD at that time
1eriod pre&alence:
2otal T of cases of a disease during a given period of time 0 2otal
population at risD during that time period
2ncidence: rate at !hich ne! cases occur in a population
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9ncidence is the numer of ne! cases in a time period divided 4
the numer of people at risD for ecoming a ne! case,
T ne! cases
UT at risD for ecoming a ne! case
1re&alence + 2ncidence " Duration
2herefore:
8 5hronic diseases: prevalence J incidence
8 >cute (short8lived) diseases: prevalence V incidence
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.Aample of a chronic disease in !hich prevalence J incidence:
8 prevalence of 9BC (inQammator4 o!el disease) is W%;; cases per
";;#;;; persons
8 annual incidence of 9BC is W"( ne! cases per 4ear per ";;#;;; persons
Specifcit4# Sensitivit4# &&@ S N&@
$X$ tales are often constructed !0 t!o8letter areviations:
Y 2&=true positive
8 :&=false positive
8 :N=false negative
8 2N=true negative
or
!0 single8letter variales:
8 a=2&
8 =:&
8 c=:N
8 d=2N
Zse !hichever convention !orDs est for 4ou,
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Cisease
&resent
Cisease
>sent
2otals
&ositive 2est Result
(or RisD :actor
&resent)
2& :& 2&F:&
Negative 2est Result
(or RisD :actor
>sent)
:N
2N :NF2N
2otals
2&F:N
:&F2N
2&F:&F:NF2
N
Cisease
&resent
Cisease
>sent
2otals
&ositive 2est Result
(or RisD :actor
&resent)
a aF
Negative 2est Result
(or RisD :actor
>sent)
c
d cFd
2otals
aFc
Fd
aFFcF
d
Sensiti&it# + 31 rate + 4 5N rate + 316(3175N* + a6(a7c*
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P9f 4ou have a disease# !hat ) of the time !ill 4our test e
positive[P