Enhanced Condensate Recovery Assessment Using Experimental Design Approach

1
2

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
VOLUME 4 AUGUST 2014 NUMBER 4 ISSN-1597-488X

Blended Learning Versus Conventional Learning Approach in Teaching
Science Schools in Owerri Municipal Council, Imo State, Nigeria
Obasedo Roseline A. Nwaeze U.C.; Mba O. Mba; Ibe
C. O.; and Mbadiugha C.N.
Evaluat ion of the Nutrient Content of Avocado Seed (Persea Americana)
Okere C.S.; Ogwo V.; Okorie A., Osuoha V., Ukpai
Kalu U; and Azoro A.V.
Natural Petroleum: Chemistry and Valuable Products Fractions
Azunna I.B. Ekejiuba
Effects of Aqueous Extracts of Capsicum. Fruitensce, Azadirachta.
Indica, Zingiber Off icinale, Eucalyptus Spp, and Venonia. Amygdalina,
On Some Important Insect Pests of Cowpea Vigna Unguiculata, (L) Walp.
Isika P.I, Azuike P. and Okoro L.
New Model Standoff Casing Pipes and Liner Pipes For High-angle, Hor izontal,
Mult ilateral and Tie-back Wells.
Study of Water Cement Ratio Influence on Strength Characteristics
of Millet Stem Ash (MSA) Concrete
Oseni Olumide Waheed
Identification of Gifted Children in Basic Sciences for Early Training
and Harnessing of the Potentials in Niger ia.
Ikwuanusi, E.N andOzioko, S.U
Ipomea Batatas (Sweet Potatoes): A Sustainable Source of Food and Ethanol for
the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals.
Ogbuneke R. U., Ngwu S. U., and Okonkwo S. I.
Information Communication Technology (Ict): A Value Added Imperative
For Library Operation And Services In The 21
st
Century Nigerian Library
Oti Ifeanyichukwu
Microbial Evaluation of Frozen Fish Sold in Makurdi Metropolis in Nigeria
Nwachukwu, C.N; Igyor, M, A and Okorie, S.U.
A Review of Demand side Managemtn and Climate Change Mitigation
on Electrical Energy
Lawal Abdur-Raheem Olasupo; and Adeoti, J. Adeshina
Cumulat ive Potential Petroleum Deposit in the Provincial Geology of Nigeria
Compressive Strength Properties of Millet Stem Ash Concrete in Structures
Oseni, Olumide Waheed
Models Developed For Leak Locating Estimat ion in Oil Pipelines
Obibuike Ubanozie Julian, Anyadiegwu C.I. and Abonyi Chukwunonso
3

Development of Gas Utilisation Model in Nigeria
Obibuike U. J., Anyadiegwu C.I.C, Ogwo, O. J and Ekeh O. Cynthia
Enhanced Recovery Assessment of a Gas Condensate System Using Experimental Design
Approach
Kevin Igwilo, Ogbunude Basil, Ubanatu Samuel,
Comparative Approach to Optimum Selection of Artificial Lift System
Igwilo Kevin Chinwuba, and Ubanatu Samuel,



Blended Learning Versus Conventional Learning Approach in Teaching
Science Schools in Owerri Municipal Council, Imo State, Nigeria 1-13

Evaluat ion of the Nutrient Content of Avocado Seed (Persea Americana) 14-21

Natural Petroleum: Chemistry and Valuable Products Fractions 22-53

Effects of Aqueous Extracts of Capsicum. Fruitensce, Azadirachta.
Indica, Zingiber Off icinale, Eucalyptus Spp, and Venonia. Amygdalina,
On Some Important Insect Pests of Cowpea Vigna Unguiculata, (L) Walp. 54-66

New Model Standoff Casing Pipes and Liner Pipes For High-angle,
Hor izontal, Mult ilateral and Tie-back Wells. 67-89
Study of Water Cement Ratio Influence on Strength Characteristics
of Millet Stem Ash (MSA) Concrete. 90-106
and Harnessing of the Potentials in Niger ia. 107-
113
Ipomea Batatas (Sweet Potatoes): A Sustainable Source of Food and
Ethanol for the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals. 114-
119

Information Communication Technology (Ict): A Value Added Imperative
For Library Operation And Services In The 21
st
Century Nigerian Library 120-
129
4

Microbial Evaluation of Frozen Fish Sold in Makurdi Metropolis in Nigeria 130-
137

A Review of Demand side Managemtn and Climate Change Mitigation
on Electrical Energy 138-
148
Cumulat ive Potential Petroleum Deposit in the Provincial Geology
of Nigeria 149-
172
Compressive Strength Properties of Millet Stem Ash Concrete in Structures 173-
191
Models Developed For Leak Locating Estimat ion in Oil Pipelines 192-
203
Development of Gas Utilisation Model in Nigeria 204-
226
Enhanced Recovery Assessment of a Gas Condensate System Using Experimental
Design Approach 227
240
Comparative Approach to Optimum Selection of Artificial Lift System 241-
255

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INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY


NOTE OF CONTRIBUTORS

OBASEDO, R.A; NWAEZE, U.C.; AND MBA O. MBA are Senior Lectures;
Department of Integrated Science while Ibe C. O; and Mbadiugha, C.N. are Principal
Lectures, Department of Chemistry, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education
Owerri Nigeria.
OKERE.; OGWO V. O.; OSUOHA, V; UKPAI KALU AND AZORO, A. V. are
Lecturers, Department of Biology, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education while
Okerie, A is Lecturer, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State University
Owerri, Nigeria.
AZUNNA I.B. EKEJIUBA a Chartered Engineer is Senior Lecturer, Department of
Petroleum Engineering Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria.
P.I. Isika; P. Azuike and L. Okoro are Lecturers, Imo Polytechnic, Umuagwu,
Owerri Nigeria.
OSENI OLUMIDE WAHEED is Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Abuja, Nigeria.
IKEWUANUSI, E.N. AND OZIOKO, S.U. are Lecturers; Department of Integrated
Science Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria.
R.U. OGBUNEKE is Principal Lecturer and S. U. Ngwu is Lecturer, Department of
Chemistry, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri while S. I. Okonkwo is
Senior Lecture; Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Anambra State
University, Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria.
OTI IFEANYICHUKWU is a Chief Librarian, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri,
Nigeria.
C. N NWACHUKWU is Adjunct Assistant Lecturer, S. U OKORIE is Senior
Lecturer, Department of Food Science and Technology, Imo State University while
M. A. IGYOR is Associate Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of Agriculture, Markurdi, Benue State, Nigeria.
LAWAL ABDUR-RAHEEM OLASUPO and ADEOTI, J. ADESHINA are
Lecturers, Department of Electrical/ Electronic Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic,
Ilorin, Nigeria.
OSENI OLUMIDE WAHEED is Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Abuja, Nigeria.
OBIBUIKE UBANOZIE JULIAN AND ABONYI CHUKWUNONSO are
Lecturers while ANYADIEGWU is Senior Lecturer and Head, Department
Petroleum Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria.
8

OBIBUIKE UBANOZI E JULIAN is Lecturer and ANYADIEGWU C.I.C is Senior
Lecturer; Department of Petroleum Engineering, Federal University of Technology
Owerri Nigeria while OGWO OBIKE JONES is Staff of Department of Petroleum
Resources Nigeria while EKEH OGOCHUKWU CYNTHIA is Lecturer, Imo State
University Owerri, Nigeria.
KEVIN IGWILO IS LECTURER, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Federal
University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria while OGBUNULE BADIL and
UBANATU SAMUEL are of Society of Petroleum Engineers Nigeria.

9

Blended Learning Versus Conventional Learning Approach
in Teaching Science Schools in Owerri Municipal
Council, Imo State, Nigeria

Obasedo Roseline A. Nwaeze U.C.; Mba O. Mba; Ibe C. O.;
and Mbadiugha C.N.

The study examined effect of blended learning versus convectional learning approach on
secondary school students academic performance in integrated science. The researchers
employed quasi-experimental design. The population consists of ten (10) secondary schools,
in Owerri Zone. Two (2) secondary schools were randomly selected for the study. These
instruments were validated using the blue print & item analysis, also by experts in science
education. A group of 30 students from each school received conventional instruction
(group1), while another group of 30 students for another class were encouraged to learn the
same content from a computer assisted instruction (software) with convectional instruction
(Group2). The pre and post test scores of these two groups of students were compared.
Fifteen (15) students from group 2 were interviewed for their comments on the different
teaching and learning approaches. Findings revealed that; students taught with blended
learning approach performed better than their counterparts exposed to only conventional
classroom instruction (z-cal=- 2.99 < z-crit =+1.96, p =0.05) and they felt the teaching
process was more interesting as they were motivated to study more. Recommendations
include the need for science teachers to encourage blended instruction as these have been
found to encourage more favorable scientific attitudes, improved students achievement than
only conventional instructional approach.

INTRODUCTION
In the past, the most trusted way of learning was by going to school, or
employing a t eacher to teach the student. That is what we call traditional learning.
The main advantages are that; the classes are individualized and built around the
students needs, level, speed of progress and more. However, this requires students
and teachers to be present in the same place at the same time, with the
disadvantage of commuting for both the teacher and student, physical space
management (which is often a very large expense for schools) and location
constraints since a student can only choose what is offered nearby and you can
only study during times close to bus iness hours. Also, students are distanced from
their homes/ workplaces.

Obasedo, R.A; Nwaeze, U.C.; and Mba O. Mba are Senior Lectures; Department of Integrated Science while Ibe C. O; and Mbadiugha,
C.N. are Principal Lectures, Department of Chemistry, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education Owerri Nigeria.
2012 R. Durson Associates, @ http://www. rdursonassociates. com
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4:1- 13
10

On the other side is the asynchronous learning which could be the book
bought audio lessons, text books, audio or mult imedia and more. This learning can
be done anytime, anywhere, at the students own pace. One of the largest problems
with the asynchronous learning is that, it is not individualized or personalized, as
its built to suit a large mass of students. It lacks the critical interaction between
students and teachers. To solve this trade- off between individualizat ion and
convenience, educators have tried to combine both offering students face to face
lessons and using one of the asynchronous learning resources for self study. We
have all learned this way by going to schools, universit ies and always having at
least one textbook for every class. The new generations now are even lucky to have
e-books and avoid those memories of back pains and hunch back. As Broadband
and Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) penetration keep increasing, the internet
brings new solutions that were previously not possible in the area of education and
e- learning, fully integrat ing the tradit ional and asynchronous learning into a New
Blended Learning. There are many different approaches to blended learning,
depending on the teachers and learners involved. Currently, there is no single
agreed-upon definit ion for blended learning. The terms blended. Hybrid and
mixed-mode are used interchangeably in current research literature. In 2003, the
Amer ican society for training and development ident ified blended learning as one
of the ten trends to emerge in the knowledge deliver ing industry, Rooney (2003) in
Graham, (2004).

What is Blended Learning?
The term Blended Learning ( BL) refers to a mixing of different learning
environments. It combines traditional face to face classroom methods with more
modern computer-mediated activities. For instance, consider a traditional class
meeting schedule course from 1pm-3pm. If the institution were to apply a blended
approach, the course may change, so that it meets once per week instead of the
usual three session format. Learning activit ies that otherwise would have taken
place during classroom time can be moved online. In other circumstance, a greater
reliance on technology within the classroom may occur. Activit ies may be
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4
11

structured around access to online resources, communication via social media or
interaction with distance learners in other classroom or other learning environment.

Singh (2003) described blended learning as a much richer set of learning strategies
or dimensions that can be blended in ways such as: offline with online, self-paled
with live, collaborative structured with instructed custom content with off- the
shelf and so on. Thus, Blended Learning ( BL) combines Information
Communication Technology (ICT) instructional packages with one or more
instructional approaches to promote the achievement of setting aims, goals, and
objectives in teaching/learning a part icular course/discipline. To an individual or
group of students. Blended learning emphasizes the need to assist learners to
maximally benefit from the resources of teaching. The goal is to ensure that a
student acquires sufficient knowledge, skills and attitudes that he subsequently
uses for his benefit and that of the society. To achieve this objective the content to
learn, resource use and learning environment is important to assist the teacher and
students.

Importance of Blended Learning
Good mix of technologies and interactions-Blended learning provides a good
mix of technologies and interactions, resulting in a socially supported
constructive learning experience.

Pacing and attendance- In most blended learning classrooms, there is the ability
to study whenever the student chooses to do so. If a student is absent, he/she
may view some of the missed materials at the same time that the rest of the
class does, even though the student cannot be physically in the classroom. This
helps students stay on track and not fall behind, which is especially helpful for
students with prolonged sicknesses or injuries that prevent them from attending
school. These self-study modules also allow learners to view certain content
at any time for help in understanding a concept or to work ahead for those
students who learn at a faster pace.

Obasedo, Nwaeze, Mba, Ibe and Mbadiugha
12

Blended learning helps to harmonize ideas

Cost effectiveness for both the accrediting learning institut ion and the learner,
accessibility to a post-secondary education and flexibility in scheduling and
time tabling of course work.

It is connected with different instruction custom-designing instruction based
on student need.

Blended learning can fit into a number of areas.

A study was carried out in Turkish educational system in 2009, to find out the
effect of blended learning on developing administrator leadership skills.
Questionnaires were applied to 72 school administrators who were selected from
33 primary schools in 11 regions of Ankara, capital city. The school administrators
were separated into 3 groups as Computer Based Learning (CBL), Blended
Learning (BL) and Traditional Learning (TL). These groups were observed
separately within the three different environments, the results of pretest, posttest
achievement scores means were observed, and BL groups score was the highest
when compared to TL and CBL groups. Also in terms of achievements and
effectiveness, BL was found to be the most effective learning environment when
compared to the others.
Another study in New Zealand schools by Sue, Pinelopi and Niki (2011)
examined online Learning Management System (LMS) as part of home economics
course in a New Zealand high school. Data collected include the observations of
online and face to face learning environments plus interviews with the teacher and
selected students. The positive outcomes of the blended course implementat ion in
this case study included opportunit ies for extended and flexible learning,
development of ICT confidence and skills, enhanced interactions, independent
learning with increased self- management and higher order thinking skills, a
variety of authentic resource and the teachers professional growth. Challenges
included students limited access to ICT. Confidence, ability to self-direct their

13

learning and interacting online, the teachers lack blended teaching experience and
limited school support and infrastructure.
Supporting others views, Chan Meiwai and Sue (2011), investigated the
effect of computer-assisted teaching and learning in the religious education of
secondary students in Hong Kong. In the study, a group of 20 students from a class
received the traditional teaching method while another group of 20 students from
another class was encouraged to learn the same content from a computer-based
simulat ion game (my young Bible Stories). The pre and posttest scores of these
two groups of students were compared. Three students from each group were also
interviewed for their comments on the different teaching and learning methods.
The results showed that students who learnt from the software obtained
signif icantly the better scores in the test and felt the learning process was more
interesting and they were motivated to student more.
According to Davis (2008); Wright (2010); Davis and Fletcher (2010)
preparing students for learning in the 21
st
century should enable them to become
autonomous lifelong learners and being proficient e-learners, as many information
sources will be accessed digitally.
Educational providers globally are adopting online education, either with
fully online taught courses that replace face to face instruction or blended courses,
where traditional instruction is enhanced with online content.
To Cavanaugh et al, (2009), enhancing student motivation, expending
educational access, providing high quality learning opportunit ies and improving
student outcomes and skill are among the benefits of online education. Some
scholars argue that blended approaches, are more suitable for school students
compared to fully online taught courses, due to the enhanced onsite support and
face to face interaction opportunities within the classroom that facilitate students to
engage more easily in self-directed learning.
Survey made by Kynog and Curtis, (2006) on the future of online teaching
and learning in higher education concluded that more emphas is expected on
blended learning instruction that combines face to face with online offerings than
on fully online courses. In addition the institut ions of higher education need to

14

consider whether they are ready to meet growing learner demands in the coming
years. Respondents agreed that blended learning would have greater signif icances
in higher education in the future. Although some institut ions have already
embraced blended learning, many others are slower at adopting it for various
reasons. Blended learning increases the options for greater quality and quant ity of
human interaction in learning environment Blended learning offers learners the
opportunity to be both together and apart.
Several online opt ions, in addition to tradit ional classroom training actually
increased what students learned. Also, studies showed that students interaction
and satisfaction improved with students learning more in courses that incorporated
blended learning. Currently in most Nigerian classrooms, whether primary,
secondary and tertiary institutions, learning tends to resemble a one- person show
with a captive but often comatose audience. Classes are usually driven by teacher-
talk and depend heavily on textbooks for the structure of the course. There is the
idea, that there is a fixed world of knowledge which is divided into parts and builds
into a whole concept. Teachers serve as pipelines and seek to transfer their
thoughts and meaning to the passive students. There is litt le room for student
init iated questions, independent thought or interaction between students. Research
reports revealed that negat ive att itude towards integrated science is caused majorly
by teachers conventional method of teaching int egrated science, Oludipe and
Oludipe, (2010). Teachers as sole information givers to passive students appears
outdated.

The research questions are:
Will there be difference in pretest and post test scores performance of students
taught with blended and conventional learning approach?
Will there be difference in the post test scores performance of students taught
with blended and conventional learning approach?

Do students enjoy blended learning lessons more than conventional learning
approach?


15

Does blended learning help to understand course content better than
conventional learning?

Are students more motivat ed during blended learning than during conventional
learning

The research Hypotheses are:
Ho
1
: There is no signif icant difference in the pretest and post test scores
performance of students taught with blended and conventional approach.

Ho
2
:

There is no signif icant difference in the pretest and post test scores
performance of students taught with blended approach.

Ho
3
: There is no significant difference in the post test scores performance of
students taught with blended and conventional learning approach?

Ho
4
: Students have negative attitude towards blended learning approach with
respect to, learning experience, understanding course content, and
motivat ion.

This study was carried out to determine the comparative effect of the use of
blended learning approach and conventional learning approach on the academic
performance of Integrated Science students of secondary schools in Owerri
Municipal zone, Imo State, Nigeria during their third term 2010/2011 academic
session.
This research design was a quasi- experimental design, the pretest posttest
non- randomized control group designs carried out in some randomly selected
secondary schools in Owerri Municipal Imo State Nigeria.
The population comprised 10 secondary schools in Owerri zone. Two (2)
schools were randomly sampled from 10 secondary schools in Owerri zone, Imo
State. Intact classes of Junior Secondary School (JSSII) from the sampled school
were assigned to 2 groups (blended and conventional). The JSSII students in each
sampled schools were 90 (arm A, B and C) of which 30 students from each school

16

were randomly selected for the study by assigning Nos 1, 2, and 3. All students
with No 3 made up group1, taught without computer software (conventional
learning approach). While all students with no 1 in the other school made up group
2, taught with conventional and computer software packages (blended learning
approach).
The independent var iables in the study are the use of blended and
conventional methods of teaching. The dependent variable in the students scores
was obtained from a research designed performance test.
Instruments used were the interview and researcher designed Performance
Test in Integrated Science (PTISC). The PTISC contained 40 items, 4 option
mult iple choice objective test developed in the units used in the study. The students
were made to select the correct answer from four options. The PTISC was used to
measure the performance of students in both pre-test and posttest. Some
intervening variables extraneous to the study such as teacher effect were controlled
by the presence of the researcher and the subject teacher in the schools.
The instrument was subjected to face and content validation using test blue
print and item analysis. The test items were carefully drawn to ensure that the
items fell within the scope of the JSSII syllabus and the specific area that was
selected for the purpose of the study. The items were referred to experts in science
education for criticisms and their observation influenced some modifications on
the instrument.
The mean, standard deviation, percentage, chi-square and the Z-test
statistical analyses were used. Scores of the different groups were computed and
used in test ing the hypotheses. The level of the significance adopted for the
analys is was p = 0.05. This level of signif icance formed the basis for
rejecting/accepting each of the hypotheses.

FINDI NGS
Five research questions were raised in this study and three null hypotheses
were formulated and tested to provide answers to the research questions. Analys is
of the pretest and post test data collected by means of students taught with blended

17

and conventional learning approach was used to answer the questions using the
three null hypotheses as guide. Mean, Standard deviat ions and the Z test were
employed in analyzing the pretest and post test data while chi-square (X
2
) and
percentage (%) were employed in Ho
3.

Summary of the data analyses and results are presented below:

Table 1: There is no Significant Difference in the Pretest and Post Test
Scores Performance of Students Taught with Conventional Approach.

Variable N X S.D Std. Error *Z cal **Zcrit Remark

Pre-test 30 4.60 1.50 0.89 4.64 +1.96

Post-test 30 8.73 4.61 Reject

Significant at 0.05

The result in Table 1 indicates that there is significant difference at 0.05 level of
signif icance between the pre and posttest mean scores of students taught with
conventional method.

Table 2: There is no Significant Difference in the Pretest and Post Test Scores
Performance of Students Taught with Blended Approach


Pre-test 30 6.20 1.42 0.89 0.84 +1.96

Post-test 30 12.2 4.37

Significant at 0.05

In table 2, result revealed that Z cal = 7. 14 is greater than Z crit +1.96 so, we reject
the null hypothesis and conclude that the pre-test mean score was signif icantly
different from the posttest mean score with regards to blended learning.
18

Table 3: There is no Significant Difference in the Post Scores Performance of
Students Taught with Conventional and Blended Learning Approach


Post GP1 30 8.73 1.35 1.35 -2.99 +1.96 Reject
Post Gp2 30 12.20

The result of Z-test analysis in table 3 shows that there was significant difference,
since Z Cal = -2.99 > +1.96. This implies that the there is significant difference
between GP1 and GP2.

Table 4: Students Attitude towards Blended Learning Approach With
Respect to Learning Experience, Understanding Course Contests and
Motivation.

Enjoy Blended Leaning Lessons

Not at all A Little A lot X
2
Cal

Observed 0.00 2.00 13.00

Expected 5.00 5.00 5.00

% 0.00 13.30 86.67

Understanding Content More Than Taught Conventionally

2
Cal

Observed 0.00 2.00 13.00

Expected 5.00 5.00 5.00

% 0.00 13.3 86.67


19

Motivation
Understanding Content More Than Taught Conventionally

2
Cal

Observed 0.00 1.00 14.00

Expected 5.00 5.00 5.00

% 0.00 6.67 93.33 63.60

Significant at 0.05

Table 4 shows that students have positive attitude toward blended learning
approach with respect to learning exper ience, understanding course contents and
motivat ion. The percentages of students who enjoy blended learning lesson is
86.67% while the percentage of students who enjoy it a litt le is 13.30%, similar ly
86.67% of students understand Blended Learning content more than taught
conventionally while 13.300% understands a litt le of the content, also 93.33% of
students were motivated using blended approach and 6.67% were motivated a
little. Therefore, we can conclude that students have pos itive att itude to blended
learning.
Supporting this notion, Cavanaugh e t al (2009), said some scholars argue
that blended approaches, are more suitable for the school students compared to
fully online tough courses, due to the enhanced onsite and face to face interactions
opportunities within the classroom that facilitate students to engage more easily in
self-directed learning. Moreso, study by Sue, Prinelopi and Niki in Newzeland
Schools (2011) revealed that the posit ive outcome of blended learning exist as;
opportunities for extended and flexible learning, development of ICT confidence
and skills, enhanced int eractions, independent learning with increased self-
management, higher order thinking skills, a variety of authent ic resource and the
teachers professional growth.

20

Again, students preferred the blended learning to conventional learning
approach. To Cavanaugh (2009), online education enhances student motivat ion,
expending educat ional access, providing high quality learning opportunit ies and
improving students outcomes and skills.

CONCLUSION
The study investigated whether blended learning/teaching could be a better
pedagogy to conventional learning/reaching that is currently the norm in teaching
Integrated Science in Nigerian schools. Literature on this study revealed that
blended learning mot ivates students to learn more. The pretest and post test scores
of students taught with blended and conventional learning approach where
compared statistically. The result revealed that students taught with blended
approach (conventional method and computer software packages) performed better
then their counterparts taught with only conventional method. The implication of
using blended learning/ teaching approach is shift in paradigms in the roles of
teachers and students. For example, the teacher is seen as a facilitator not an
instructor while the learner is interactive not passive.

RECOMMENDATION
In consideration of the findings and implicat ions, the researchers made the
following recommendations:

* Specialist subject teachers should venture into electronic publishing.
* Parents and guardians of school children should be encouraged to finance
the purchase of ICT materials.
* There should be provision for electricity in schools. The government should
make effort to supply schools with low capacity generating sets.
* Finally, it is very necessary that Educational Resource Centers be
established in every secondary school to house facilit ies such as Computers,
Television Monitors; packs of Video Compact Disc (VCD), videotaped, as
well as the electric generating sets.
21

REFERENCES

Cavanaugh C.S., Barbour M.K. and Clark T. (2009) Research and Practice in
K-12 Online Learning. A Review of Open Access Literature, International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10 (1), 1-22.

Davis, N.E. (2008). How May Teachers Learning Be Promoted for Educational
Renewal with Its Models and Theories of it Diffusion. In J. Voogt and G. J
Knezek (Eds.), International Handbook of Information Technology in
Primary and Secondary Education (PP.507-519). New York: Springer.

Davis N.E. and Fletcher, J. (2010),E-learning for Adult Literacy, Language and
Numeracy: Summary Report Wellington: Ministry of Education. Retr ieved
February 10, 2011 from htt/www.education/7697.

Kynog and Cufrtis (2006), The Future of Online Teaching and Learning in
Higher Education: A Survey Substant iates Some Ideas About Online
Learning and Refutes Others.

Oludipe and Oludipe (2010) Effect of Constructivist Based Teaching Strategy
on Academic Performance of Students in Integrated Science at the Junior
Secondary Level.

Singh H. (2003). Building Effective Blended Learning Programs, Educational
Technology 2003:44 (1); 5-27.

Sue.P. Pineio Z., Niki D. (2011), The First Blended or Hybrid Online Course in
New Zealand Secondary School, Computer in New Zealand Schools Vol.23
N0 1 (2011).

Sue, T. and Chan Mei Wai B. (2011) Using A Computer Base Simulat ion
Game to Enhance Secondary Students Learning of Christian Education.

Wright, N. (2010). E- Learning and Implications for NewZealand Schools; A
Lit erature Review, Wllington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
Retrieved August 6, August 6, 2010, from http://www. education counts
go.nz/publicat ions/ict/77614 Vol. 23, (2011).


22

Evaluation of the Nutrient Content of Avocado
Seed (Persea Americana)
Okere C.S.; Ogwo V.; Okorie A., Osuoha V., Ukpai
Kalu U; and Azoro A. V.

The evaluation of the nutrient content of avocado seed was studied The
purpose was to evaluate the nutrients, acceptability of the products and
using different processing methods to know the significant difference
between the processed avocado seeds. The seeds were boiled, fermented,
roasted and sundried. There was a significant difference (P 0.05) in the
energy content of the processed avocado seeds but non in the other
nutrients.The energy content was highest (333.94 314.45 kcal) followed
by the carbohydrate (8062-75.59%), moisture (11.60 -9.90%) crude fibre
(6.16-3.86%), ash (6.15-2.30%), Fat (1.24 0.58%) and protein (1.23-
0.35%). The boiling and fermentation process had the highest effect on
the avocado seed composition followed by roasting and sun drying which
was seen in the result. The boiled (6 hrs) + fermented avocado seed was
the most accepted

INTRODUCTION
The avacado (Persea Americana) is a tree nat ive to central mexico,
classified in the f lowering plant family as Laurancea. They are commercially
valuable and are cult ivated in tropical and Mediterranean climat es throughout the
world.
It is estimated that Mexico is the largest producer (1,040.3901 metric tones)
with Ethiopia having the smallest quantity (81, 50610 metric tones), and Niger ias
quantity is (170,100 metric tones) as one of the producers of avocado seed in
Africa World Bank, (2009).
Cultivars of avocado include Hass, Gwen, Lula, pinkerton, Reed, Fuerts,
Sharwil, etc with the Hass cultivar as the most common in Nigeria and worldwide
Lu et al, (2005). It produces fruit year round and accounts for 80% of cultivated
avocados in the world. Hass trees have medium sized (150 250g) ovate fruits
with black, pebbled skin. The flesh has a nutt ing, rich flavour with 19% oil while
the seed has a crude fat of 18.63%, Lu et al (2005).

Okere. ; Ogwo V. O. ; Osuoha, V; Ukpai Kaluand Azoro, A. V. areLecturers, Department of Biology, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education while Okerie, A
is Lecturer, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics , Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria.
2014 R. Durson Associates @http://www. rdurson associates. com.
n Associates, @ http://www. rdursonassociates. com

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4:14-21

23


Once the edible pulp is separated, the skin and seed are left as residues. The seed
has lower lipid content than pulp, therefore, lipids are not considered important in
processes such as the obtaining of oil, Lee (1981).
In addition, enzymes and substances with antibiotic and antimicrobial
characteristics maybe found in the stone. The seeds maybe used to extract tannins
and pigments. Furthermost avocado stones may have some compounds that avoid
the browning of the Fruit Canto (1980).
In the present study, the Nutrient proximate composition of processed
avocado seeds. From Hass cultivar were evaluated

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was carried out at the research centre Michael Okpara
University of Agriculture Umudike. The avocado seed variety used in this study
were bought form Owerri main market Imo State. Proximate analys is was carried
out as indicated below.

Proximate Composition
Determinat ion of Moisture content
This was done by the gravimetric method AOAC (2005). A measured weight of
sample 2.0g was weighted into a previously weighed moisture can. The sample in
the can was dried in the oven at 105
o
C for 3hrs. It was cooled in a desicator and
weighed. It was then returned to the oven for further drying.
Drying, cooling and weighing were done repeatedly at hour ly (one hour)
internal until there was no further demination in weight (ie content weight was
obtained).
The weight of moisture loss was calculated and expressed as a percentage of
the weight of sample analyzed. It was given by the expression below
% Moisture = 100 x w2 w
3

1 w
2
w
1

24

Okere, Ogwo, Okorie, Osuoha, Ukpai and Azoro

where w
1
= weight of empty can
W
2
= weight of empty can + sample before drying
W
3
= weight of can + sample dried to constant weight

Determination of Protein.
This was done by Kjeldahi method described by Change, (2003). The total
Nitrogen (N
2
) was determined and mult iplied with factor 6.25 to obtain the protein
content. One gram of the sample was mixed with 10mls of conc H
2
SO
4
in a
digestion flask.
A tablet of Selenium catalyst was added to it before it was heated under
fumed cupboard until a clear solut ion was obtained ( ie the digest). The digest was
distilled to 100mls in a volumetric flask and used for the analysis 100mls of the
digest was with mixed equal volume of 45% NAOH solut ion in a kjeldahi
distillat ion apparatus. The mixture was distilled into 10mls of 4% buric acid
containing 3 drops of mixed indicator (methyl red). A total of 50mls of distillate
was collected and titrated against 0.2 EDTA from green to deep red and end point.
A blank reagent was digested & titrated. The nitrogen content and hence the
protein content was calculated using the formular below.
1ml of IN H
2
SO
4
= 14mg N
2

% protein = % N
2
x 6.25
% N
2
= (100 x Nx1.4 x vt) T xB
w 1000 va
where
w = Weight of Sample (1g)
N = Normality of titrent (0.02 N, H
2
SO
4
)
vt = Total digest volume (100mls)
T = Sample titre value
B = Blank t itre value
Va = Volume of digest analyzed (10mls)

25

Determination of Fat
This was determined by the continuous solvent extraction in a soxhlet
apparatus. 2g of the sample was wrapped in a weighed absorbent paper (whatman
No 1. filt er). The wrapped sample was put in a soxhlet ref lux flask. The flask was
mounted unto an oil extraction flask containing 30mls petroleum ether. The upper
of the reflux flask was connected to a condenser. The ether in the flask was heated
by means of hot plate and boiling ether vapour condenses with the reflux flask
thereby vapour condenses with the reflux flask thereby covering wrapped sample
completely the sample was thus immersed in the ether unt il the f lask filled up and
siphoned over hereby carrying the extracted oil (fat) down to the boiling flask. The
process was allowed to continue for up to 4 hrs. The defatted wrapped sample was
carefully removed, dr ied in the oven at 105
o
C for an hour and weighted after
cooling in a desicator. The fat content was calculated as shown below.

% flat = w
2
w
3
x 100
w
2
w
1
1
where w
1
= weight of empty filter paper
W
2
= weight of filter paper + sample before defatting
W
3
= weight of filter paper + sample after defatting.
The defatted sample was reserved for crude fibre analysis.

Determination of Ash
This was done by the furnaces inceneration gravimetric method James,
(1995). Two grams (2g) of the processed sample was measured into a previously
weighed porcelain crucible. The sample was burnt to ashes in a muffle furnace at
550
o
C. When it has become completely ashed, it was cooled in a dissector and
weighed. The weight of ash obtained was calculated by difference and expressed as
a percentage of the weight of sample analyszed as shown below.

% ash = 100 x w
2
w
1

1 wt of sample
where
W
1
= weight of empty crucible
W
2
= weight of crucible + ash

26

Okere, Ogwo, Okorie, Osuoha, Ukpai and Azoro
Determination of Crude Fibre
The wend method (James 1995) was employed 2.0g of the processed sample
was boiled in 150mls of 1.25% H
2
SO
4
solution for 30 minutes under reflux. The
boiled sample was washed in several portions of hot water using a two fold
muslim cloth to wrap the partic les. It was returned to the flask and boiled again in
150mls of 1.25% NAOH for another 30 minutes under same condition. After
washing, the several portion of hot water, the sample was allowed to drain dry
before being transferred quantitatively to a weighted crucible where it was dried in
the oven at 105
o
C to a constant weight. It was therefore taken to a muffle furnace
in which it was burnt until only ash was left in it.
By difference, the weight of fibre was obtained and expressed a percentages
of the weight of sample analyzed as shown below

Where
% crude fibre = 100(w
2
-w
3
)
Wt of Sample
W
2
= weight of crucible + sample after boiling, washing and drying
W
3
= Weight of crucible + samples ash

Determination of Carbohydrate and Energy.
Total carbohydrate was determined by difference (total carbohydrate = 100 -
(protein + % ash + % moisture + % fat)
Energy = % crude protein x 4 + % fat x 9 + % carbohydrate x 4.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
From the table below there was no significant difference at ( 0.05) in the
samples, in terms of their moisture, ash, protein, fat, carbohydrate, energy and
crude fibre but a significant difference exists between some of the samples in terms
of their energy value. The moisture content of the various samples ranged from
9.0% - 11.60%. The moisture content of the boiled (6hrs) + fermented (9.90%) was

27


the least with that of boiled only (11.16%) as the highest, followed by that of the
sundried (11.20%), boiled (3 hrs) + fermented (10.80%) and roasted (10.75%). the
ash content of the sundried avocado seed (6.15%) is the highest and the boiled
(3hrs) + fermented avocado seed (2.3%) as the least. The roasted avocado seed
(0.58%) had the least fat content with that of the boiled (6hrs) + fermented (1.24%)
as the highest. The protein content of the boiled avocado seed (1.23%) was highest
with that of the boiled (6hrs) + fermented avocado seed (0.35%) as the least. The
carbohydrate content of the boiled (3hrs) + fermented (80.62%) was the highest
with that of the sundried avocado seed (75.59%) as the least. The energy (kcal)
content is highest in the boiled 3hrs fermented avocado seed (333.94kcal) with the
sundreid avocado seed (314.45 kcal) as the least. Then the crude fibre content was
highest in the roasted avocado seed with that of the boiled (6hrs) + fermented
avocado seed (3.86%) as the least. The energy (kcal) content is very high in all the
processed avocado seeds (333.94 314.45kcal). Processed avocado seeds had a
very how protein content.

28

Okere, Ogwo , Okorie, Osuoha, Ukpai and Azoro
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF PROCESSED AVOCADO SEED
Sample Moisture Ash Protein Fat Carbohydrate Energy
(Kcal)
Crude Fibre
Boiled (6hrs) fermented
Avocado Seed
9.900.1
4
a

4.450.
20
a

0.350.
00
a

1.240.
01
a

80.210.36
a
333.241.50
a
3.860.
01
a

Boiled (3hrs) fermented
Avocado Seed
10.800.
28
a

2.300.
14
a

0.530.
53
a

1.040.
01
a

80.210.13
a
333.940.60
a
4.720.
01
a

Sundried Avocado Seed 11.201.
39
a

6.150.
08
a

0.000.
24
a

1.030.
12
a

75.590.92
a
314.454.87
a
z

5.230.
01
a

Roasted Avocado Seed 10.750.
20
a

3.600.
00
a

0.700.
00
a

0.580.
01
a

78.220.23
a
320.840.87
a

6.160.
01
a

Boiled Avocado Seed 11.600.
24
a

3.750.
07
a

0.232.
24
a

1.100.
14
77.720.87
a
325.681.24
a
b

4.610.
01
a

Note: Samples with different superscripts indicate signif icant difference at 0.05 confidence level from each other
21


REFERENCE
AOAC (2005): Official Methods of Analysis Association of Official analytical
Chemists, Washington DC Hornworts wand Latin G.W. 18
th
Edition. PP. 14.

Change, S.M.K (2003): Protein Analysis in Food Analysis. 3
rd
Edition Kluwet
Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.

James C.S. (1995): The Analytical Chemistry of Foods. Chapman and Hale, New
York.

Lee S (1981) Methods for Percent Oil Analysis of Avocado fruit. Calif. Avoc. Soc.
Yearb. 65:133-141
LU Q.Y Arteage J.R, Zhang Q, Huertas, GO V.L and Herber D (2005). Inhibition of
Prostrate Cancer Cell Growth by an Avocado Seed Extract. Role of lipid
Soluble Bioactive Substances. Journal of Nutrition and Biochemistry 166: 23-
30.

World Bank (2009): World Development Indicators (Database).

22
Natural Petroleum: Chemistry and Valuable
Products Fractions


Petroleum exist in all three physical states of nature; gas, liquid, semisolid or solid.
Thus, we distinguish between gaseous petroleum Natural gas, liquid petroleum: Crude
Oil, semisolid and solid petroleum Coal tar, Bitumen, Asphalt etc. Therefore, no two
petroleum occurring in different reservoirs are exactly alike, for each consists of mixtures
of countries different hydrocarbons, each has different characters and qualities in the basic
elements. Subsequently, the chemistry of petroleums a part of organic chemistry (generally
divided into two class: aromatic and aliphatic), since the bulk of the compounds found in
most petroleum are hydrocarbons; which are grouped in families known as homologous
series, such that if the behavior of one member of the series is known in detail, it is possible
to predict with remarkable accuracy the probable behavior of any other member. Liquid
petroleum is called crude oil to distinguish it from refined oil. Although it is hardly ever
possible to use petroleum (crude oil or nature gas) as such, the liquids and gases of which
they are composed are very useful indeed, for they are the products we use and depend
upon. The various liquids that together make up crude oil are known as fractions, and the
process of distillation results in various fractions which boil at different temperatures.
Since the composition of the various crude oil from different parts of the world and
different reservoirs various, the compositions of the fractions thus collected also vary
according to the source, but usually it follows the broad pattern illustrated on figure 5 and
tables 7 & 8. Similarly, due to the variety of natural gas constituents, it finds wide
application as wither an energy source or as feed stock to the chemical / petrochemical
industries. Generally, this process of linking together many similar simple units (or bricks)
to form larger more complex molecules is known as Polymerization, the product being
known as a polymer and the simple units as monomers; table 9. Thus petroleum, apart
from serving the traditional purposes, is now the chief source of raw materials of the
manufacture of chemicals especially organic chemicals, such as textiles, artificial fibres,
plastics of all descriptions, rubber, nitrogen fertilizers, dyestuffs, detergents and
pharmaceuticals.

INTRODUCTION

Collectively, petroleum (natural gas or crude oil) is a mixture of naturally
occurring hydrocarbons which may exist in the solid, liquid, or gaseous states,
based on pressure and temperature it is subjected to, on the earth.


Azunna I.B. Ekejiuba a Chartered Engineer is SeniorLecturer, Department of Petroleum Engineering Federal University of Technology
Owerri, Nigeria
2011 R. Durson Associates, @http://www. rdursonassociates. com

23

Virtually all petroleum is produced from the earth in either gaseous or liquid form,
although it could exits also in the semisolid or solid such as hydrates, bitumen and
asphalt. Thus petroleum generally refers to crude oil and natural gas;
In the early days, around 1859, when Colonel Edwin Drake drilled the first
well, crude oil was the material most sought after of these naturally occurring
hydrocarbons, while natural gas was considered to be a nuisance and was burned at the
well site. Then also, the main aim of refining the crude oil was to produce lubricants
and illuminating fuel (kerosene for lamp oil), while gasoline was flared off.
Precisely, beginning with the Industrial Revolution of the early nineteenth
century, due to the development of internal-combustion engines and other devices, the
use of petroleum for fuel (gasoline) became increasingly important. Gasoline later
became the essential ingredient of twentieth century life. Subsequently, with the
advent of transcontinental transmission lines and petrochemical industries, during the
late twentieth and the early twenty-first (21st) century the demand for natural gas as a
fuel and a raw material for many modern industries such as paints, plastics, rubber
etc., increased the value of natural gas; to the point where it is now regarded as the
fastest growing primary energy source and the fuel of the twenty-first (21
st
) century.
No two petroleum (natural gas or crude oil) occurring in different reservoirs are
exactly alike, for each consists of mixtures of countless different hydrocarbons, each
has different characters and qualities in the basic elements.
The typical chemical analysis, however, of crude oil, Natural gas and natural
asphalt are rather uniform and fall within a general pattern.

Table 1: Typical Chemical Analysis of Crude Oil, Natural Gas and
Asphalt

Element Crude of %
wt.
Asphalt %
wt.
Natural gas %
wt.
Carbon 82.2-87.1 80-85 65-80
Hydrogen 11.7-14.7 8.5 -11 1-25
Sulfur 0.1-5.5 2-8 Trace-0.2
Nitrogen 0.1-1.5 0-2 1-15
Oxygen 0.1-4.5 - -

Therefore, crude petroleum is an extremely complex mixture of Hydrogen and Carbon, with
minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur etc as impurities. Thus, the molecular constitution of
crude oils differs widely (about 18 series of hydrocarbons have been recognized in crude petroleum).
For example, natural gas is composed largely of the lower-molecular weight hydrocarbons of the
paraffin series. Methane and ethane frequently comprise 80 to 90 per cent by volume of a natural gas
while other hydrocarbons (propane to decane), together with impurities such as carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide, helium, other inert rare gases compose the remaining percentage.

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO. 4

24

RAW PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY
The chemistry of petroleum is a part of organic chemistry, since the bulk of the compounds found
in most petroleum are hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons can be classified into essentially four categories
depending on the structural formula. Two of the categories refer to the structural arrangement of the
carbon atoms in the molecule. These are:

Open chain and
Ring or cyclic compounds.

The remaining two categories refer to the bonds between the carbon atoms. These are;

* Saturated or single bond and
* Unsaturated or multiple-bond compounds.

(a) The saturated hydrocarbons, that is, those that have all the carbon atoms linked to each other
by single electron-pair bonds.

(b) The unsaturated hydrocarbons, that is, those that contain one or more carbon carbon
multiple bonds.

Furthermore, hydrocarbons are grouped in families known as Homologous series, such that all the
members have formulae which fit the general formula of the series, thus they have very similar
general physical and chemical properties which vary more or less regularly from member to member.
For instance, the boiling and melting points increase as we go up the series, while solubility in a
particular solvent may either increase or decrease progressively depending on the nature of the
solvent, and the same type of gradation is noted in their reaction towards reagents etc.
Usually, if the behaviour of one member of the series is known in detail, it is possible to
predict with remarkable accuracy the probable behaviour of any other member.

Table 2:Boiling and Melting Points of Hydrocarbon
o
C

Compound Molecular Boiling Melting
Weight Point Point

Methane 16 -161.5 -184
Ethane 30 -88.3 -172
Propane 44 -42.7 -189
Benzene 78 80 5
Cyclohexane 84 81.4 6.5
Naphthalene (C
10
H
8
) 128 217.9 80.2

The Principal homologous series of hydrocarbons are shown in the table belo

Ekejiuba
25

Table 3: Homologous Series

Name Formula Familiar Member
Alkane or Paraffin C
n
H
2n+2
Methane CH
4
(predominant)

Ethane C
2
H
6

Propane C
3
H
8

Butane C
4
H
10

Octane C
8
H
18

C
5
H
12
Pentane
C
6
H
14
Hexane
C
7
H
16
Heptane

Olefine or Alkene C
n
H
2n
Ethylene C
2
H
4

C
3
H
6
Propene
C
4
H
8
Butene
Acetylene or Alkyne C
n
H
2n-2
Acetylene C
2
H
2
Cycloparaffin or naphthenes CnH
2
n Cyclopentane C
5
H
10
Benzene C
n
H
2n-6
Benzene C
6
H
6

Toluene - C
6
H
5
CH
3

Generally, Cycli c or Ri ng Hydrocarbons are of three kinds: naphtheni c, aromatic, and xylene
hydrocarbons.

Naphthenic hydrocarbons are saturated cyclic hydrocarbons with formula C
2
H
2n

C
3
H
6
Cyclopropane
C
4
H
8
Cyclobutane
C
5
H
10
Cyclopentane
C
6
H
12
Cyclohexane

Aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons

- Benzene
- Toluene (Methyl benzene)
- Ethyl benzene

Xylenes are hydrocarbons in which two or more methyl groups or side chains are
attached to the benzene ring. There are three isomers:

- Orthoxylene
- Metaxylene
- Paraxylene

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO4.
26

Single Double Triple
H H
| |
H H H C = C
| \ / / \
H C H C C H C C H
| / \ \\ //
H H H C C
| |
H H

Methane Ethylene Acetylene Benzene
CH
4
C
2
H
4
C
2
H
2
C
6
H
6

Cycloalkanes are alkanes that have rings e. g.

Cyclopentane Cyclohexane Cyclopropane
C
5
H
10
C
6
H
12
C
3
H
6

The International Union of Chemistry established names of individual hydrocarbons of
the paraffin series with word endings and prefixes designating the group to which the
compound belongs. The word ending ane designates saturated hydrocarbons while
ene designates unsaturated hydrocarbons that have double bonds between carbon
atoms.
If more than one double bond exists in unsaturated hydrocarbons, the ending is
modified to indicate the number of double bonds; thus, two double bonds are
designated by diene, three double bonds by triene, etc.
Ring or cyclic compounds are designated by adding the prefix cyclo to the
name of the compound as derived from the above rules. However, the cyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, benzenes, retain the customary names except that the ending ene is
used rather than the older forms, benzol, etc.
Although the alkene and cycloparaffin series have the same formula, they
behave chemically quite differently. In the alkene series there is a double bond double
bond present between two carbon atoms which greatly increases the chemical
reactivity of these hydrocarbons. In the cycloparaffin series the carbon atoms are
joined to each other forming a ring (such a structure is relatively inert).
Both the paraffin and the cycloparaffin series are said to be saturated because they
contain only single bonds. The other series are unsaturated because they contain either
double or triple bonds.

H C C H
Ekejiuba
27

Because alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons) contain no polar gps, they are generally
unreactive towards common reagents under normal conditions. They are called
paraffines (from latin Parvum = little and affins = affinity or attraction).
Alkenes, alternatively known as Olefins, are series of compounds of carbon and
hydrogen only having one unsaturated carbon to carbon double bond.
Alkyne is the systematic name for unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one
carbon-to-carbon triple bond. This homologous series is usually named after the first
member of the series acetylene. Thus they are usually called acetylenes.
Generally, the compounds of organic chemistry may be divided into two
classes; aromatic and aliphatic:

Aromatic Compounds: all contain a molecular structure consisting of one or more
benzene rings, that is, its six carbon atoms are arranged in a hexagon with alternate
single and double bonds between them. One hydrogen atom is bonded to each carbon
atom.

Aliphatic compounds: include all organic compounds which do not posses a benzene
ring. Their basic structure involves chains of carbon atoms which are likely to be
straight, puckered or coiled, or branched.
The carbon atoms may also be arranged in rings which are different from the
benzene rings. Such compounds are called alicyclic compounds.

Note
In both, other functional groups such as (alcohol OH, ether O, Chloro CL,
methyl CH
3
etc) may replace the hydrogen atoms to form an almost endless variety
of either aromatic or aliphatic compounds.
From the point of view of composition, the most common organic compounds
fall into the following classes:

Hydrocarbons
Ethers
Carbohydrates
Esters
Oxidation products of hydrocarbons, including alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones, and acids
Derivatives, which are basically hydrocarbons which have one or more
hydrogen atoms replaced by functional groups.

Sources of Petroleum Organic Compounds
The basic organic compounds which serve as raw materials for the preparation
of the many specific synthetic compounds are obtained from three sources:

28
Plant Life: Plants form the principal source of carbohydrates: sugar, starch, and
cellulose, as well as some special hydrocarbons, such as turpentine and natural rubber.

Coal Tar: When coal tar is heated in the absence of air (destructive distillation) in
huge ovens to form coke, all of the volatile matter escapes from the coal. It is collected
and condensed to a black tarry liquid called coal tar. This is the chief source of
aromatic hydrocarbons.

Petroleum (Crude Oil and Natural Gas): Crude oil is a mixture of principally
aliphatic hydrocarbons. Many of these are liquid at ordinary temperatures, and these in
turn serve as solvents for low-molecular-weight compounds which would otherwise be
gases, and high-molecular-weight compounds which would otherwise be solids.
Natural gas consists of the very light hydrocarbons which have escaped from the crude
oil solution. Petroleum is thus the chief source of aliphatic hydrocarbons.

The four hydrocarbon series that comprise most of the naturally occurring petroleum
are the:-
- normal paraffin (or alkane) series
- the isoparaffin series (or branched chain paraffins)
- the naphthene (cycloparaffin) series, and
- the aromatic (or benzene) series

In addition, we also have the asphalt type.
Asphalts are solid to semisolids with high boiling point and high molecular
weight. They are made up of cyclic hydrocarbons with substantial amount of sulfur,
nitrogen and oxygen contents.
Petroleum in its natural state is generally a brownish-green to black liquid
consisted principally of a mixture of thousands of hydrocarbons of differing molecular
weight and structure which can be divided into four groups according to their
percentage of hydrocarbons of the three series (paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatic).

The paraffin base crude usually possesses low percentage of sulphur
Naphthenic base crudes (Nigerian, Venezuela, etc) are often rich in sulphur
Aromatic base crude are quite scarce with respect to the other types, but are
produced in certain areas of Iran, Russia and Mexico
Mixed base crude represent about 75% of the total production in the world;
among them are the majority of the middle East crudes.

Ekejiuba
29

The molecular weight or number of carbon atoms present, determines the phase of the
petroleum.
C
1
- C
4
: gaseous phase
C
5
- C
40
: liquid phase
Above C
40
: solid / semisolid phase

Gaseous and solid hydrocarbons are paraffinic, while the liquid form is complex and
belong to paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics. Liquid petroleum is called crude oil to
distinguish it from refined oil. Usually, hydrocarbon is a term often used
interchangeably with Petroleum for any of its forms. Thus it stands for the generic
name for hydrocarbon. This is not strictly correct, since hydrocarbon consist only
Hydrogen and carbons, whereas petroleum contains many impurities as defined
earlier.
Hydrocarbons of the paraffin series are the most common constituents of
petroleum (e.g. crudes from Nigeria and Pennsylvania) Naphthenes are similar to the
paraffins in their chemical characteristics and they are second in importance as
constituents of petroleum.

PARAFFINIC
NAPHTHENIC
ARPMATIC ASPHALTIC
Grozny
(USSR)

Pennsylvania
Rumania
(Meot ic)
Poland
(Boryslaw)
Borneo
(Koet oi)
Rumania
(Dacic)
Japan
No. Calif.
Barneo (USSR)
Mid-Continent
Borneo (Miri)
Mexico
Gulf
Coast

Figure 1: The Relations of Constituents of Various Crude Oils.

30
Olefins are present in only small quantities in crude oil. Aromatics comprise a
large percentage of some crudes from California and Indonesia. Aromatic oils are
more easily oxidized than paraffinic or naphthenic oils.
Natural gas is composed predominantly
the lower-molecular weight hydrocarbons of the paraffin series. Compositional
analyses of natural gases are readily obtained by low-temperature distillation,
chromatography, or mass spectrometry. Volume or mole percentages of the individual
components present are ordinarily reported through heptanes plus. The heptanes-plus
fraction includes heptane and all heavier hydrocarbons.
On the other hand, crude oil are commonly analyzed, on refining by distillation,
which separates it into many useful fractions, differing in boiling points.

Table4: Composition (In Mole Percent) of Typical Reservoir Hydrocarbons

Reservoir type Dry
gas
High-
Pressure gas
High- Pressure
Oil
Low-Pressure
Oil
Methane 91.00 72.00 56.00 14.00
Ethane 5.00 8.00 6.00 8.00
Propane 3.00 5.00 6.00 8.00
Butanes 1.00 4.00 5.00 8.00
Pentanes Trace 2.00 4.00 5.00
Hexanes Trace 2.00 3.00 5.00
Heptanes plus
(heptanes and
heavier)
- 7.00 2.00 53.00

Figure 2: An overview of Petroleum Processing from Nature to Products

OR
Exploration team
Petroleum
Productio
n
Engineer
Petroleum
Process
Engineer

Petroleum
Reservoir
Engineer

Petroleum
Drilling
Engineer

Flowstation
wellhead
Refinery
Reservoir
Ekejiuba
31

Field Processing of Petroleum (Natural Gas or Crude Oil)

Oil and gas having been produced through the well head pass into the flowline
which carry them to the flow-stations where they are separated into different
components from undesirable elements.
They are then passed on to the terminals where they are loaded for sale or for
further refining processes.

Fig. 3: Schematic Flow Diagram Illustrating Process Route and Ultimate Products of
Produced Oil and Gas (Courtesy Carl Gatlin)

CRUDE OIL REFINING

The Refining of Oil
Crude oil (petroleum) is not a simple substance but a mixture of many different
kinds of liquid (complex hydrocarbons). Although it is hardly ever possible to use
crude oil as such, the liquids of which it is composed are very useful indeed, for they
are the products we all use and depend upon.
These useful liquids must be separated, and the separation process known as
distillation is the first job of the oil refinery. Distillation is what happens when a
Plus many
other
products
derived
from
petroleum
Methane
Natural gasoline
LPG (Butane and propane)
Gasoline
P
L
A
N
T
R
E
F
I
N
E
R
Y
Gas to gasoline
Oil to
refinery
WELL
Plant
oil + gas
kerozen
Diesel fuels
Lube oils
Wax
Fuel oils
Well
Head
Separator
Gas Injection, flaring, generators, LNG

Oil Meter [tank farms or storage tank] Tankers $

Water treat dispose

32
liquid is boiled, becomes a vapour, and is then condensed (or turned back into a
liquid) by cooling it. The various liquids that together make up crude oil are known
as fractions, and the process of distillation takes place in a tall steel tower called a
fractionating column or tower. In this process, crude oil can be separated into
fractions or groups of similar compounds that fall within a certain range of boiling
points. These fractions can be differentiated from one another by their different
volatility, odour, texture and their relative ease to ignition and burning. The
fractions are collected in horizontal trays at different heights on the column,
redistilled to improve purity and then further treated to obtain different liquid fuels
and petrochemicals.

Process Description
The fractionating column is divided into several compartments by perforated
plates called trays, each of which is maintained within a specified range of
temperature. Its temperature ranges from 400
o
C at the bottom and 40
o
C at the top.
The crude oil is first heated to about 400
o
C so that all the components are vapourised.
The vapour is then passed into the tower at the bottom, and it cools as it rises up the
column. The fractions condense to liquids at their various boiling points. Thus those
with high boiling points will not move far up the column, whereas those with low
boiling points will move towards the top, before cooling considerably for
condensation.

Figure 4: Schematic Showing Fractionating Column or Tower
The hot crude is sent into the fractionators. It enters the fractionating column at
the flash zone very close to the bottom of the column. Low pressure

steam is passed into the main column at a point below the flash zone, to strip the
hydrocarbon products as the vapour passes through the trays of the column.
Crude oil
Light lubricating oil (fuel oil)

Diesel oil

Petrol (gasoline)

Kerosene

Natural or cooking gas

Ekejiuba


33
The heavier hydrocarbon condenses as the hydrocarbons vapour passes
through the trays depending on their boiling points. Provisions are made at suitable
points on the trays for the withdrawal of condensed hydrocarbons as products.
The very lightest fraction, taken off at the top of the column, is refinery gas,
which remains a vapour and is used as a fuel in the refinery and for other purposes.
Other light fractions are liquefied petroleum gases, gasoline (petrol), and naphtha
(used in the chemical industry). A slightly heavier fraction is kerosene (paraffin oil).
Heavier again is gas oil, which is used as a fuel for diesel engines and for central
heating. From the base of the fractionating column is drawn off the residue, which
contains the heaviest fractions of all and includes fuel oil and bitumen, both very
important oil products (e.g. raw material for lubricating oil).

The fractions obtained are summarized as follows:

Fuel Gas
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
Regular and Premium gasoline RMS (Regular motor spirit-super petrol)
and PMS (Premium motor spirit).
Kerosene (DPK dual purpose kerosene) i.e. illuminating kerosene
and ATK Aviation treatment kerosene
Light Gas oil (AGO Automotive gas oil diesel)
Heavy Gas oil and lubricating oil (LPFO low Pour fuel oil)
Residue

Note
Fuel gas It is a gas generally not marketable, used as fuel for refinery heaters or
furnances
LPG It is a mixture of propane (C
3
) and Butane (C
4
) containing small amounts
of methane (C
1
) Ethane (C
2
) and sulphur.

In order to have a marketable product, the LPG is processed as follows:
De-ethanization: to get rid of light components (C
1
& C
2
)
Spitting: to obtain the separation between C
3
and C
4

Caustic washing: of C
3
to get rid of sulphur compounds

The distillation of crude oil results in various fractions which boil at different
temperatures.
The lowest boiling fractions which is collected from Room temperature up to about
160
0
F (or 71
0
C) consists largely of Hydrocarbons in the range from C
5
to C
6
. It is
known as petroleum ether or ligroin and is used as a solvent.


34
The fraction which boils from 160
0
F to 400
o
F (or 71
0
C to 204
0
C) is known
as gasoline. It consists of Hydrocarbons containing from C
7
to C
11
.
Kerosene is the next fraction which boils in the range 400
o
F to 575
o
F (or 204
0

C to 301
0
C).
The lubricating oils and fuel oils consist of hydrocarbons which boil above 575
o
F (or
301
0
C).
If the residue which remains after distillation is a wax-like solid consisting
largely of paraffin hydrocarbons the crude is designated as paraffin base.
If the residue is a black pitch-like solid the crude is called asphalt base. Often a
clear-cut distinction cannot be made and the crude is described as being mixed base
oil.

Figure 5: Petroleum Product Fractions Composition

Ekejiuba
35

Valuable Distillation Fractions (Products)

Natural or Cooking Gas: This consists of C
1
-C
4
hydrocarbons that distil around
20
o
C. That is methane, ethane, propane and butane. While the C
1
and C
2
are usually
burnt as fuel, C
3
and C
4
are liquefied and sold in high pressure gas cylinders or tanks
for lighting and heating purposes in homes and in science laboratories. They are also
used for synthesizing large number of compounds e.g. methanol, butadiene etc.

Petrol or Gasoline: This is a complex mixture containing C
6
-C
4
volatile
hydrocarbons such as hexane, heptane, octane and nonane, distilling off between
50
o
C-200
o
C. They are used to run cars and as solvent for grease, paints and stains.

Kerosene or Paraffin Oil: This consists of the C
10
-C
16
hydrocarbons boiling between
170
o
C-250
o
C. It is used in kerosene lamps and stove, and as fuel in jet engines,
aeroplanes and tractors.

Diesel Oil: This comprises the C
14
-C
18
hydrocarbons boiling between 300
o
C-360
o
C.
It is used in diesel engines of trains, lorries, tractors, raw material in the cracking
process.

Lubricating Oil, Grease and Wax: This is a mixture of long hydrocarbons with more
than 20 carbon atoms per molecule (C
20
+
); used as lubricant for moving parts of
machine and engines and also for making Vaseline or petroleum jelly, grease
ointments, cosmetics and creams. The paraffin wax is used for making candles and
polish.

Bitumen or Asphalt: This is a complex mixture of non-soluble solids made of
polycyclic hydrocarbons. It is used as a roofing material and in road surfacing as a
protective coating.
Since petrol is only a small portion of the straight-run product and since the
demand for it is so great, other steps are introduced into the refining process to
increase the yield of petrol. The two basic steps are, cracking and reforming
(polymerization).
Distillation is the basic process in oil refining, but simple distillation in a
fractionating column is only the beginning. Some of the fractions need to be
separated more exactly and may be distilled a second time. Many must be freed of
impurities or blended with other substances. By re-distilling in another column under
vacuum, the residue from the bottom of the fractionating column forms the raw
material for lubricating oils, catalytic cracking and bitumen.

CRACKING
Distillation alone could not produce enough petrol (gasoline) to satisfy the
enormous demand made by modern motoring. So chemists have found ways of
changing the chemical structure of the large surplus heavier less volatile fractions,
like kerosene and diesel oil (which make up three quarters of the products obtained
by distilling crude oil) to convert part of them into gasoline. One process they

36
invented is known as cracking, by which heavy fractions are broken up into a
mixture of light and heavy fractions. Simply put, cracking is the process by which a
heavier hydrocarbon is split into two or more lighter hydrocarbon molecules. There
are two types of cracking in use in the petroleum industry the thermal and the
catalytic.
In this process the large molecules from the products beyond the petrol range
are broken apart to fit the petrol range either by heat or by catalytic action
Thus the yield of gasoline from a crude can be increased by subjecting the less
volatile constituents to a thermal decomposition so that they are broken down into
smaller more volatile products. The reactions which occur are complex and
exceedingly varied but the following may be taken as typical

750-1300
0
F (or 399 721
0
C )
C
14
H
30
C
7
H
16
+ C
7
H
14

This reaction indicates the decomposition of tetra decane, a constituent of kerosene
into heptane and heptene.
Cracking is now one of the most important activities of oil refineries. The
heavy fractions can be cracked by applying great heat and adding a catalyst (such as
silica-alumina or zeolite), a substance which helps to bring about a chemical change
without itself changing. This is catalytic cracking, often called cat cracking for
short. On the other hand, thermal cracking involves vapourizing the fraction and
heating for a short time, to a temperature of around 600
o
C, under very high pressure
of about 300 atmospheres.
Not only is additional gasoline obtained by cracking, but its quality is higher
than that of most gasoline produced by simple distillation. Cracked gasoline is thus
valuable for blending with other gasolines, in order to raise the quality to the high
standard which the modern motor car engine requires.

The overall benefits of the cracking process are:

* It increases the yield of petrol from crude petroleum
* It provides a petrol mixture rich in branched chain hydrocarbon with an
attendant increase in the octane number.
* It yields as by-products large quantities of ethene, propene, butane etc
used for making plastics, synthetic rubber, detergents and many important
chemicals like ethanol and phenol.

Ekejiuba
37

REFORMING
Another method of improving gasoline quality is reforming, whereby the
chemical structure of low grade gasoline is changed, by heating under pressure and in
the presence of catalyst such as oxides of silicaon and aluminium at about 600
o
C to
produce premium grade gasoline (with increased octane number). The advantage of
reforming is that it is no longer necessary to use heavy fractions to make the best
quality petrol. This is important, because nowadays premium grade petrol and fuel
oil are both in very heavy demand. In this process molecules containing less than the
proper number of atoms of carbon for petrol are caused to be linked together to form
larger molecules which fit into the petrol range under the influence of proper catalysts.
Cracking is a breaking down process, while reforming is an isomerization
process (i.e. changing a compound into its isomers).

Octane Number
The octane number or octane rating of petrol is a measure of the proportion of
branched chain hydrocarbons to the straight chain hydrocarbons in a given blend of
gasoline. Usually, the C
6
-C
10
hydrocarbons of the gasoline blend are present in their
straight chain or branched chain isomers.

Octane, C
8
H
10
: This compound has 18 isomers, one of which, (CH
3
)
3
, C CH
2
CH
(CH
3
)
2
, iso-octane, is the reference compound for rating the Octane number of
petrol.
By definition, the octane number of a petrol is the percentage of iso-octane
which must be added to n-heptane, C
7
H
16
, to cause a standard engine to operate with
the same characteristics as the petrol being tested.
It has been shown that straight chain hydrocarbons (e.g n-heptane) burn too
rapidly in a car engine thus, causing irregular motion of the piston which results in
rattling noise known as knocking. It has also been shown that 2,2,4-trimethyl
pentane (i.e. iso-octane) burns very smoothly in engines.
Thus, heptane is assigned a value of zero while 2,2,4-trimethyl pentane is
assigned a value of 100.
Pure iso-octane has a rating of 100. High-grade automotive petrols have Octane
numbers between 90 and 98. Aviation spirits have octane numbers above 100, which
simply means that they give better performance in the standard engine than pure iso-
octane.
Therefore Octane number is used to measure the performance of the fuel in
engines based on the percentage ratio of iso-octane to straight chain hydrocarbons
present. For example, a gasoline with octane rating of 92 is understood to contain 92%
iso-octane and 8% straight chain heptane.


38

Table: 5 Crude Oil Fractions

Name Boiling range (
o
C)
Solvent fraction 20-120
Petrol (motor fuel) 70-200
Kerosene (paraffin oil) 200-300
Lubricating oil, grease, and waxes above 300

The products formed by the initial distillation of crude petroleum are known as
straight run products. The table below gives the main products formed, together with
other pertinent information about them.

Table: 6 Petroleum Products

Name Boiling Range
O
c No of Carbon Atoms
present
Natural Gas Below 32 1-4
Petrol 40-200 4-12
Naphthas (benzine) 50-200 7-12
Kerosene 175-275 12-15
Fuel oil 200-300 15-18
Lubricating oil Above 300 16-20
Wax Above 300 20-34
Asphalt esidue Large

Note
That benzine is another term for the liquid naphthas which are used as cleaning fluids.
Thus should not be confused with the aromatic hydrocarbon benzene, C
6
H
6
.

Ekejiuba
39
Table 7: Constituents of Petroleum

Basically commercial petroleum products are prepared from crude oil refining by
fractional distillation during which dissolved gases and liquid distillates are collected
over appropriate ranges of temperatures.
Since the compositions of the various crude oil from different parts of the world
and different reservoirs varies, the compositions of the fractions thus collected also
vary according to the source, but usually it follow the broad pattern illustrated below:

Source: Introductory Organic Chemistry by T.O. Bamkole and L. Ogunkoya.
Name Formula Normal
Boiling
Point,
0
F
Products of Commerce
Containing Constituent
Methane CH
4
-259 Natural gas
Ethane C
2
H
6
-128 Natural gas
Propane C
3
H
8
-44 Natural gas, Propane
i-butane i-C
4
H
10
+11 Natural gasoline, butane
n-butane n-C
4
H
10
34 Natural gasoline, butane,
Motor fuel
Pentanes C
5
H
12
90 Natural gasoline. Motor fuel
Hexanes C
6
H
14
Heptanes C
7
H
16
Octanes C
8
H
18
Decanes C
10
H
22
345 Motor fuel
Tetra
decane
C
14
H
30
490 Kerozine, light furnace oil
Hexadecane C
16
H
34s
549 Mineral seal oil, furnace
Triacontane C
30
H
62
855 Light lubricating oil, heavy
fuel oil
Tetracontan
e
C
40
H
82
1,012 Lubricating oil, heavy fuel oil
Asphaltene C
80
H
162
+ 1,200+ Asphalt, road oil, bunker fuel
oil
B.P. range
0
C Product Approx.
composition
Use
Below 20
0
Gaseous
compounds

C
1
to C
4

Raw material for
chemical industry
20-90 Light petroleum C
5
to C
6
Solvent
90-120 Ligroin C
6
to C
7
Solvent
100-200 Petrol (gasoline) C
5
to C
10
Fuel (automobiles)
200-300 Paraffin
(kerosene)
C
12
to C
18
Fuel (lamps and
stoves)
300-400 Diesel oil C
15
to C
25
Fuel (locomotives)
Lubricating oil C
20
to C
24
Lubricant
Above 400 Paraffin wax C
21
to C
30
Various

40

After this preliminary refining, the various fractions are then subjected to one or more
of the following operations: further fractional distillation, solvent extraction, selective
adsorption and absorption, fractional crystallization and catalytic cracking.
In general, catalytic cracking means the degradation of large hydrocarbons into
smaller simple ones (especially ethene and the other C
1
to C
4
hydrocarbons) by the
combined action of high temperature and catalysts. This process is also one of the
many used to reform (i.e. upgrade the quality of) petrol samples.
During the refining of crude petroleum, considerable quantities of gases
consisting mainly of hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethene, propane, propene, the
butanes, and the butenes are produced. The gases are technically called refinery gases.
These simple hydrocarbons, especially the alkenes, constitute most of the
essential raw materials for the petrochemical industry. Additional supplies of the
simple hydrocarbon raw materials especially the alkenes are also obtained by the
catalytic cracking of the C
5
C
25
liquid hydrocarbon fractions.
Another very important source of raw materials for the chemical industry is
natural gas, which consists mainly of methane together with smaller quantities of other
alkanes like ethane, propane and the butanes.
In fact, liquefied propane and butane from these sources are used under the
name of bottled gas as a domestic and industrial fuel. Catalytic cracking of natural
gas provides ethene, ethyne and propene for use as raw materials for the chemical
industry.

Note
Pyrolysis: - decomposition of compound by the action of heat alone, when applied to
petroleum is called Thermal cracking (usually at high temperature in presence of
catalyst and absence of 0
2
and air). Cracking of petroleum is important because of fuel
and it also produces C
1
- C
4
hydrocarbons, such as ethene, propene and butene. Thus a
vital elimination reaction, responsible for the industrial preparation of alkenes is
cracking reaction.
Ethane, at temperatures of over 800
0
C, cracks to ethylene and hydrogen

CH
3
CH
3
CH
2
= CH
2
+ H
2

Propane, in a similar reaction, yields propene and hydrogen

CH
3
CH
2
CH
3
CH
3
CH

= CH
2
+ H
2

In a different reaction, involving the elimination of methane, propane also yields
ethylene.
CH
3
CH
2
CH
3
CH
2 =
CH
2
+ CH
4
Massive quantities of alkenes are produced in this way in North America where
natural gas is rich in ethane and propane (wet). European natural gas consists mainly
of methane (is dry) and is virtually useless for ethylene production.
Cracking of petroleum fractions containing ethane and higher alkanes also
yields alkenes, as well as aromatic hydrocarbons, on an industrial scale.
Ekejiuba
41
In another development, often referred to as catalytic hydrogenatron, hydrogen
molecules split apart and add across the double bond of an alkene, converting it to an
alkane:

CH
3
CH =

CH
2
+ CH
4
CH
3
CH
2
CH
3

This is the basis of the process for hardening vegetable oils into edible fats, e.g.
margarine production. This synthetic butter has the advantage that it does not
contain those factors hazardous to health (such as choleterol) which are present in
most animal fats. Thus in presence of suitable catalyst such as nickel, palladium, or
platinum, hydrogenation of alkenes converts it to fully saturated alkanes.

NATURAL GAS PREPARATION

Unlike crude oil, natural gas does not need to be refined. After a simple
treatment to remove impurities it is ready for use, in the same way and for the same
purposes as the town gas, which is burned in homes and factories.
Natural gas is usually found near crude oil, and like oil, it is found under ground
and under the ocean floor. Generally, natural gas is a naturally occurring gaseous
mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases found in underground rock
reservoirs either on its own as a free gas, or in association with crude oil. Virtually
hundreds of different compounds may be present in natural gas in varying amounts.
Even two wells producing from the same reservoir may produce gases of different
composition as the reservoir is depleted. Also, each gas stream produced from a
natural gas reservoir can change composition as the reservoir is depleted. Thus, there
is no one composition or mixture that can be referred to as the natural gas since each
stream produced has its own composition. Wells are drilled to tap into natural gas
reservoirs just like drilling for oil. Once a drill has hit an area that contains natural gas,
it can be brought to the surface through pipes. It is pumped from below ground and
travel in pipelines to storage areas.
Natural gas usually has no odor and you cant see it. Before it is sent to the
pipelines and storage tanks, it is mixed with a chemical that gives a storage odor. The
odor smells almost like rotten eggs. The odor makes it easy to smell if there is a leak.
This gas is highly flammable and should not be confused with gasoline which is
called gas for short in the U.S.A.
It is lighter than air and is mostly made up of a gas called methane, with a
simple chemical compound that is made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Its
chemical formula is CH
4
one atom of carbon combined with four hydrogen atoms.
The major component sin most natural gases are paraffin hydrocarbons with smaller
amounts usually only trace of Olefin hydrocarbons, naphthenic hydrocarbons,
mercaptans, and non-hydrocarbon compounds.

N
i
catalyst

42

Non-hydrocarbons components of natural gas are

Nitrogen N
2

Carbon dioxide CO
2

Hydrogen sulfide H
2
S
Helium H
e

Water vapour H
2
O
Carbonyl sulfide COS
Carbon disulfide CS
2

Sulfur S
Mercaptans RSH
(R represents radical group)

Methyl mercaptan and ethyl mercaptan are the two mercaptan compounds most
commonly found in natural gas.

Note
Since most of the trace components of natural gas are insignificant, the common
analyses do not report them, however, the presence of traces can be of extreme
significance in process design.
The other hydrocarbon gases normally found in natural gas include ethane,
propane, pentane and small amounts of hexane, heptane, octane and heavier
hydrocarbons.
Usually, the propane and heavier fractions (Natural gas liquids) are removed for
additional processing because of their high market value as gasoline blending stock
and chemical/petrochemical plant raw feedstock.

- Methane }
- Ethane }
- Propane }
- Butane }
- Pentane }
hexane plus }
- Nitrogen
- Water Vapour
- Carbon Dioxide }
- Hydrogen Sulphide }
-

Some of the pipelines that brings natural gas from the gas fields are two feet wide.
Natural gas is sent in this larger pipelines to power plants to make electricity or to
factories because they use lots of gas. Bakeries use natural gas to heat ovens to bake

LPG
LNG
Natural Gasoline
.. Acid Gases
Ekejiuba
43

bread, pies, pastries and cookies. Other businesses use natural gas for heating their
buildings or heating water.
From larger pipelines, the gas goes through smaller and smaller pipes to homes
and small businesses. The natural gas must first pass through a meter, which measures
the amount of fuel going into the building (a gas company worker reads the meter).
Similarly the gas that is often made when oil is refined or bottled gas can also
be used, instead of natural gas.
The Proven Natural gas reserves amount to roughly 141 trillion cubic meters,
and almost 60% of these reserves can be categorized as remote or stranded natural gas
(associated gas that is flared or vented).
The Worlds Natural gas reserves are increasing as the rate of new discovery is
greater than the rate of consumption. Thus, monetization of these gas reserves is an
important factor for nations and companies.
Basically, there is high demand (high market size) for liquid fuel; but low demand
(low market size) for gaseous fuels, hence the high necessity for Gas to liquid
(GTL) conversion. This brings the non-ready market natural gas to market; thereby
expanding the domestic utilization of natural gas, reducing or eliminating flaring and
re-injection of natural gas, as well as reduce the negative environmental impact of
flaring. According to industry source, about 1.5 billion barrels of fuels per year (i.e.
about 4.1. million barrels per day) could be produced if the flared natural gas were to
be converted into synthetic fuels.
Initially, synthetic fuel basically refer to the production of fuel from combination
of Hydrogen (H) and carbon monoxide ( CO) ,e.g. from coal, using coal to oil
plants. But now, synthetic fuels (syn fuel) from natural gas refer to refined liquid
petroleum products (diesel, kerosene, gasoline and naptha) produced from natural gas
or the flared natural gas.
To liquefy natural gas impurities that would freeze and some of the heavier
hydrocarbons are removed. Liquefying natural gas is relatively simple in principle.
Basically, natural gas is cleaned, dried and cooled down. As the gas cools to a
temperature of about 259 degrees F or 162 degrees C, it becomes liquid natural gas.
This liquefaction reduces the volume of natural gas by 600 times, and because of this
substantial reduction, it can be transported economically by ship.
Propane is also called LPG or liquefied Petroleum gas (is made up of propane in
a mixture with other gases like butane). Propane turns to a liquid when it is placed
under slight pressure. For regular natural gas to turn into a liquid, it has to be made
extremely very cold.
LNG or liquefied Natural Gas, being predominantly methane, has to be cooled
to (- 161
o
C) in order to achieve liquefication. To accomplish this, raw gas most first
be conditioned this involves the removal of water, acidic gases (i.e. CO
2
, H
2
S),
higher molecular weight hydrocarbons and other impurities which might be present.

44

The gas is then pre-cooled in a heat exchanger. The coolant or refrigerant is
usually the heavy molecular weight hydrocarbons present in a fractionator. The
Natural gas earlier cooled in the precool heat exchanger is further cooled in a main
cryogenic box to 161
0
C and consequently transferred to LNG storage tanks.
1m
3
(one cubic meter) of natural occupies 1/600 of its gaseous volume as a
liquid this unique characteristic enables transportation of large volumes of gas in
liquid form.
Until recently, Natural gas was liquefied only for the purpose of transporting it
over long distances to areas where the market exists and cannot be economically
piped. On reaching the distination, it is subsequently regasified and piped via
transmission and/or distribution line for use.

Note: - LPG (otherwise known as cooking gas) is a mixture of propane and butane and
it is liquefied at room temperature under slight pressure; while LNG is essentially
methane, liquefied at 161
0
C

Natural Gas Liquefaction/Conversion to liquid Processes
Natural Gas could be liquefied or converted to liquid in any of the following
ways:

- LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
- LNG Liquefied Natural Gas or conversion to liquid fuel products:
- GTL Gas to liquid conversion and conversion to olefins
- GTO Gas to Olefins, or further to polymers
- GTP Gas to Polymers.

Other alternatives for use of large amount of natural gas include:

- MTO methanol to Olefins
- GTH Gas to Hydrates (gas to solids technology referred to as natural gas
hydrates NGH) and
- Gas to electricity (gas to power)

Both Gas liquefaction and Gas Conversion to liquids are viable processes to
monetize isolated or stranded gas that serve different end markets. The Gas
conversion e.g. GTL process chemically converts natural gas (methane) molecules
into other liquid compounds at 259
0
F or 162
0
C. Once converted, these liquids are
stable and will remain in the liquid state.
On the other hand, the Gas liquefaction e.g. LNG process, is only a temporary
change of state that is gaseous methane is cryogenically chilled and changed into
liquid at 260
0
F (or -162
0
C). It is still methane and will return to gaseous phase if
allowed to warm up to ambient conditions.

Ekejiuba
45

And

Ammonia
H
2

LNG
Olefins
GTO Methanol
F-T
Liquids
Natural or
Associated
Gas
Fuel
Electricity
Petrochemical
Wax
Other chemical
products
DME Hydrogen
F-T
products
Methanol

LNG
Natural or
Associated Gas

Syngas (CO, H
2
)
Gas sales

Power Generation
Re-injection
Acetic
Acid
Ammonia
Urea
Refineries
Fuel cell
Clean fuels
Lubricants
Wax
Alpha olefins
Power
Generation
Fuel cells
Formaidchyde
Solvents, MTBE
Clean fuels
Fuel cells
Olefins
FIGURE 6: Options for Utilization of Natural Gas
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO4.

46

Note
Chemical conversion to ammonia, methane and refinery hydrogen is widely
practiced, but although there are large markets for these base chemicals, in terms of
gas consumption it represents only approx. 5% of global annual gas consumption.
Alternatives for use of large amounts of natural gas include LNG, LPG, GTL, GTO,
GTP, MTO, Electricity (gas to power) etc.
The major GTL, synthetic fuels products are diesel, kerosene, gasoline and
naphtha. MTO, represents a gas utilization technology through the GTO concept, the
major Olefin products are ethylene and propylene. GTP represents a fully integrated
complex producing polyethylene and polypropylene pellets from natural gas.
GTL is not new. It started with the combined efforts of Paul Sabatier and John
Senderens in 1902, which resulted to, creating methane from Hydrogen (H) and
carbon monoxide (H + CO = syn gas). Next, in 1923, Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch
further developed the synthesis to mainly oxygenated products and liquid
hydrocarbons. Hence the plants are usually referred to as Fischer Tropsch (F-T)
process or F-T synthesis.
Some F-T process involves the use of motten wax reactors and precipitated iron
catalyst to convert gases and solids carbon-bearing material into straight chain
hydrocarbon liquids (e.g. methanol plant).
Precisely, GTL is an application of the basic F-T process, where synthesis gas
(or syngas, H + Co) is reacted in the presence of an iron or cabalt catalyst.
End products are determined by the length of the hydrocarbon chain which, in
turn, is determined by catalyst selectivity and reaction conditions. Possible end
products include kerosene, naphtha, methanol, dimethyl ether, alcohols, waxes,
synthetic diesel and gasoline, with water or carbon dioxide produced as a byproduct.
Natural gas or coal can be the raw feedstock. As an alternative to fuel, the waxy
portion could be converted to lubricants, drilling fluids, waxes and other high value
speciality products.
GTL conversion (or Gas to oil), typically refers to a 3 step plant process that
converts natural gas (primarily methane) into distillates (primarily diesel, kerosene,
gasoline and naphtha) which is free of sulphur and hence environmentally friendly.
Some plants aim at producing gasoline, while others aim at maximizing yields
of middle distillates, notably kerosene and gas oil.
The process consists of 3 steps; the production of syngas with a H
2
: Co ratio
of 2 : 1; syngas conversion to high molecular weight hydrocarbon via using high
performance catalyst; hydrocracking and hydroisomerisation to maximize the middle
distillate yield.
The appeal of these liquid products which would be straight chain hydrocarbon
is that they would be free from sulphur, aromatics and metals that can help refiners to
meet new guidelines for very low sulphur fuels and general environmental standards.
The naphtha however would be low in Octane and requires isomerising or reforming
if used as a fuel but represents a good petrochemical feedstock. The diesel will have
a very high Octane number and be a premium blending product.

Ekejiuba
47

For reasons of their purity, these synthetic fuels could also be used for Fuel
Cells instead of methanol.
The most significant breakthrough is in syngas for other chemical processes and
industries. Syngas (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) is the building block for many
petrochemicals, i.e. methanol, ammonia or urea etc.

Fig 7: Three Basic Steps are in the FT Process

* Creation of synthesis gas
* Reaction in FT process over catalyst to form various hydrocarbon chains
* Raw products upgrading.

The hydrocarbons are synthesized by a chain-growth process, with chain length
determined by catalyst selectivity and reaction conditions. Hundreds of modifications
and patents have been applied to this complex, energy-intensive process, and further
developments continue to the present day. The most recent modification generally
involve lowering capital expenditures and the overall energy required for processing,
especially through the use of proprietary catalysts and the manner in which oxygen is
added to the system. The GTL process is also very exothermic that is it generates
excess heat. The process can be configured to produce electricity, steam, or
desalinated water if they are desired locally.

MAIN USES OF NATURAL GAS
Due to the variety of natural gas constituents, it finds wide application as either an
energy source or as feedstock to the chemical/Petrochemical industries.

As an energy source, natural gas competes with petroleum products, notably:
fuel oil, diesel and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). It is less expensive, burns
cleaner and more abundant than the other fuels.

+
Methane (CH4)

Hydrogen (H2)
Crude
hydrocarbon
n (-H2-) wax
Steam (H
2
O)
Oxygen (O
2
)
Carbon
Monoxide (CO)
Heavier H/C
+
+
Syngas
Conversion (catalyst)
Syngas
Production
Production
Upgrading

48
As a feedstock to chemical and petrochemical industries, natural gas and natural
gas liquids are used to manufacture a gamut of intermediate chemicals and
finished products such as ammonia, oxalcohols, chloromethanes methanol,
fertilizer etc.

As a residential fuel In temperate countries, because of the climatic
conditions, a sizeable gas market exists in the distribution of natural gas for
domestic heating and cooking, and for refrigeration and air conditioning.

Natural gas can be used in the ceramics and glass industries e.g for firing kilns
to make plates and glass.

Natural gas can be used in the paints, printing and textile industries, e.g fabric
tendering and glazing, etc.

Natural gas can be used in the chemical industry, e.g. to manufacture carbon
black and acetylene.
Natural gas can be used in the automotive industry, e.g. as compressed
natural gas (CNG) and LPG.

Cars and trucks can also use natural gas as a transportation fuel, but they must carry
special cylinder-like tanks to hold the fuel.
When natural gas combines with oxygen (the process of combustion burned to
make heat or burned in a cars engine), it produces carbon dioxide and water vapour,
plus the energy thats released in the heat and light. Some impurities are contained in
all natural gas, these include sulpur and butane and other chemicals. When burned,
those impurities can create pollution. The amount of pollution is less than burning a
more complex fuel like gasoline.
Because of their widespread and important uses, some of the hydrocarbons
deserve special mention.

* Methane, CH
4
: This gaseous compound is the chief ingredient of natural gas. It is
the gas which escapes from coal and has been responsible for many disastrous mine
explosions. It is highly combustible and is an excellent fuel. Like all of the other basic
hydrocarbons, it is an important raw material for the manufacture of synthetic organic
chemicals.

Ethane, C
2
H
6
: This gas makes up about 10% of natural gas. Its uses are similar
to those of methane.

Ekejiuba
49

* Propane C
2
H
8
: This is one of the commonly used ingredients in bottled gas. It is
also used as a high-pressure solvent.
* Butane, C
4
H
10
: In addition to being useful as a bottled gas and as a solvent, butane
is used in the production of high grade petrol.
Actually there are two butanes, normal butane containing a straight chain of carbon
atoms, and isobutane which has a branched carbon chain. It is this isomer which is
used in making special petrol. The prefix normal (n-) always refers to a straight
chain of carbon atoms. The prefix iso- always refers to a branched chain of carbon
atoms. The structures of the isomers of butane are as follows:

H H H H H H H
| | | | | | |
H C C C C H H C C C H
| | | | | | |
H H H H H H
H-C-H iso-butane
|
H

While alkanes are generally unreactive to common reagents at normal conditions,
unsaturated (alkenes) molecules usually add to themselves to form very long chain
molecules under the influence of certain catalysts (e.g. concentrated sulphuric acid).
This process of linking together many similar simple units (or bricks) to form
larger, more complex molecules is known as Polymerization, the product being
known as a polymer and the simple units as monomers.
For example, when a gas like ethylene is subjected to high pressures and
temperatures and is brought into contact with the right sort of catalyst, a very
involatile, tough material is produced which contains carbon and hydrogen only and
has a very high molecular weight.

CH
2
= CH
2
+ CH
2
= CH
2
+ CH
2
= CH
2
+ CH
2
= CH
2

- CH
2
- CH
2
- CH
2
- CH
2
- CH
2
- CH
2
- CH
2
- CH
2
-

The molecular weight of these chains may be as high as several hundreds of
thousands.
Polyethylene or its abbreviation Polythene, is the name of the material derived
from ethylene.


50

By varying the polymerization conditions, the amount of chain branching and
the length of the chains can be varied, hence we are familiar today with a whole range
of polythenes with somewhat differing physical properties.
Low-density polythene (familiar as washing up bowls, toys, etc) melt at about
105
0
C and has highly branched molecules, whereas high density polythene has
straight-chain molecules and melts at about 135
o
C. The straight chains can pack more
closely together and more regularly than can the branched-chain molecules, and the
van der Waals forces can be expected to be greater therefore.
By using variously substituted ethylenes a much larger range of polyalkene
plastics can be made, as shown on the table below:

Table 9: List of a Number of Alkene Monomers, which on Polymerization
give Some Familiar Plastics Monomer

Systematic
Name
Common Name Formula Polymer
Chloroethene Vinyl chloride CH
2
= CHCL PolyVinyl Chloride
PVC
Ethenyl ethanoate Vinyl acetate CH
2
=
CHOCOCH
3

PolyVinyl acetate

Phenylethene Styrene CH
2
=
CHC
6
H
5

Polystyrene

Propene Propylene CH
2
= CH-
CH
3

Polypropylene

Tetrafluoroethene Tetrafluoroethylene F
2
C = CF
2
Telfon
(Polytetrafluoroethylene)

The importance of polymerization lies in the fact that, through it, compounds with
certain desired chemical and mechanical properties such as deformability,
mouldability, high resistance to acids, alkalis and other chemicals, etc, are produced.
The extent to which these properties are developed in a particular polymer
depends on the degree and manner of polymerization, i.e. on the number of recurring
units in the molecule. There is usually a critical molecular weight range in which most
properties or some particular desirable property is optimum.
Common examples of polymers are plastics like polythene, and fibres like
terylene and nylon.

Synthetic Rubber
Another important class of polymers consists of those derived by the
polymerization of substituted butadienes (i.e. .polymers of dienes) such as
chlorobutadiene, methylbutadiene, which still contain double bonds and make the
diene polymers inefficiently packed together and the van der Waals forces are low.

Ekejiuba
51

When subjected to tension, the molecules are pulled more nearly straight, but
spring back again when released. They are elastic. Such polymers are called
elastomers.
Thus, these polymerizations result in polymers which have properties very
similar to those of natural rubber and so are generally classified as synthetic rubber.
Similarly, unsaturated alkyne (e.g. ethyne) are used to obtain Vinyl chloride,
vinyl acetate, chloroprene and acrylonitrile all of which are used for the manufacture
of various types of plastics. Acrylonitrile is also used in the textile industry for the
manufacture of acrylic fibres such as orlon and acrilon. Ethanal is also obtained from
the hydration of ethyne.
Example of the main chemical reaction involved in all these processes is as
follows.
Hydrochlorination of ethyne, at 100-180
0
at atmospheric pressure in the
presence of mercury (II) chloride on charcoal as catalyst, gives vinyl chloride which is
then polymerized to polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

HC

= CH + HCL CH
2
= CHCL PVC

PVC is used in the manufacture of sheeting, flooring material etc.

Petroleum and the Chemical Industry
In fact, practically all the petroleum processed up to about 1920 was used as
fuel. But since, then, it has been a source of energy for heating, lighting and
locomotion especially, it has provided the most convenient of all fuels for the internal
combustion engine.
Similarly, prior to about 1920, the chemical industry had to rely on coal,
molasses, fats, oils, salt, ores, water and the atmosphere as sources of raw materials for
its manufacturing processes. But from about 1920, petroleum emerged as an important
source of raw materials for the chemical industry, and since then, its importance in this
field has had a phenomenal growth.
For example, in the United States, in 1940, 18 percent of the total organic
chemical production was based on petroleum raw materials; by 1948 the proportion
had risen to 38 percent, by 1956 to 76 percent and by 1960 to 85 percent. Statistics
from other highly industrialized countries have shown similar trends.
Thus petroleum, apart from serving the traditional purpose of providing fuels
for various purposes, is now the chief source of raw materials for the manufacture of
chemicals especially organic chemicals.
52
Consequently, it is making a very significant impact on secondary heavy
industries which rely mainly on the chemical industry for their raw materials. Such
secondary industries include those manufacturing textiles, especially the artificial
fibres, plastics of all descriptions, rubber, nitrogen fertilizers, dyestuffs, detergents and
pharmaceuticals.

CONCLUSION
Clearly no two petroleum (natural gas or crude oil) occurring in different
reservoirs are exactly alike, for each consists of mixtures of countless different
hydrocarbons, each has different characters and qualities in the basic elements.

Since the bulk of the compounds found in most petroleum are hydrocarbons, the
chemistry of petroleum is a part of organic chemistry, and presently, about 18
series of hydrocarbons have been recognized in crude petroleum.

Notably, if the behaviour of one member of the series is known in detail, it is
possible to predict with remarkable accuracy the probable behaviour of any
other member.

Usually, the boiling and melting points increases ad we go up the series while
solubility in a particular solvent may with increase or decrease progressively
depending on the nature of the solvent etc.

Petroleum exist in all the three physical states of nature; gaseous and solid
hydrocarbons are paraffinic, while the liquid for is complex and belong to
paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics i.e. crude oil is a mixture of principally
aliphatic hydrocarbons.

Compositional analyses of natural gases are readily obtained by low-
temperature distillation, chromatography, or mass spectrometry while crude oil
are commonly analyzed, on refining by distillation, which separates it into many
useful fractions, differing in boiling points.

During distillation, the very lightest fractions is taken off at the top of the
column, while from the base of the fractionating column is drawn of the residue,
which contains the heaviest fractions.

Since the compositions of the various crude oil from different parts of the world
and different reservoirs caries, the compositions of the fractions thus collected
also vary according to the source.

Even two gas wells producing from the same reservoir may produce gases of
different composition as the reservoir is depleted. And also, each gas stream
produced from a gas reservoir can change composition as the reservoir is
depleted, therefore, there is no one composition or mixture that can be referred
to as the natural gas since each stream produced has its own composition.

To increase the yield of petrol fraction in oil refining process two other steps are
introduced i.e. cracking and reforming (polymerization).

Ekejiuba
53
Generally, after the preliminary refining, the various fractions are then subjected
to one or more of the following operations: further fractional distillation, solvent
extraction, selective adsorption and absorption, fractional crystallization and
catalytic cracking. Catalytic cracking of natural gas provides ethene, ethyne and
propene for use as raw materials for the chemical conversion to liquids are
viable processes to monetize isolated or stranded gas.

Basically, there is high demand (high market size) for liquid fuel; but low
demand (low market size) for gaseous fuels, hence the high necessity for Gas
to liquid (GTL) conversion. This brings the non-ready market natural gas to
market; thereby expanding the domestic utilization of natural gas, reducing or
eliminating flaring and re-injection of natural gas, as well as reduce the negative
environmental impact of flaring. According to industry source, about 1.5 billion
barrels of fuels per year (i.e. about 4.1. million barrels per day) could be
produced if the flared natural gas were to be converted into synthetic fuels.

REFERENCES

Bamkole T.O. and Ogunkoya L (1998) Introductory Organic Chemistry,
Daystar press, Ibadan.

Fred C. Hess (1980) Chemistry made Simple, The Chaucer Press, Ltd, Bungay,
Suffolk.

Kneen W.R., Rogers M.J.W., and Simpson P. (1981) Chemistry Facts, Patterns
and Principles, Addison-Wesley Publishers Limited, London.

James W. Amyx; Daniel M. Bass, Jr.; Robert L. Whiting (1960) Petroleum
Reservoir Engineering (Physical Properties), Mc Graw-Hill Book Inc, New York.

Levorsen A.I. (1967) Geology of Petroleum, W.H. Freeman and Company, san
Francisco

Carl Gatlin (1960) Petroleum Engineering (Drilling and well Completions),
Prentice-Hill, Inc, Englewood-cliffs, N.J.

Donnelly W.R and Stelzner K.L (1982) Project Development for Gas
Processing Plants and Facilities, the University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
Texas.

Chi U. Ikoku (1980) Natural Gas Engineering (A Systems Approach), PennWell
Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Katz D.L. et al (1959), Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.

54
Effects of Aqueous Extracts of Capsicum. Fruitensce,
Azadirachta. Indica, Zingiber Officinale, Eucalyptus Spp,
and Venonia. Amygdalina, On Some Important Insect Pests
of Cowpea Vigna Unguiculata, (L) Walp.

Isika P.I
1
, Azuike P
2
, and Okoro L
2
.

Field experiment was conducted at the Students Research Farm of Agricultural
Technology Department , in Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo Ohaji, Owerri,
Nigeria, during late cropping seasons, (September-December) in 2009 and 2010.
The objectives of the study were to evaluate the efficacy of five plant extracts
(Chilli pepper, garlic, neem, and eucalyptus and bitter leaf) against the insect
pests of cowpea (variety IAR- 48) and their effects on yield. The experiment was
laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. The
extracts were applied at 10% (w/v) and sprayed every week for 4weeks, and the
level of control was assessed by calculating percentage control of each
treatment. Results of the experiments showed that all the plant extract treatments
were significantly better than untreated control plots. Similarly, yield results
corresponded positively with the effectiveness of the treatments. However the
synthetic insecticide, cypermethrin (10g ai/ha) incorporated for comparison was
superior in efficacy to various aqueous plant extracts. Results of the present
finding therefore, suggest the use of all the tested plant extracts particularly
neem, chilli pepper and garlic as they were found to be very promising
Biopesticides in the control of cowpea insect pests in Umuagwo Ohaji, Owerri -
Nigeria. This technology is cheap, safe, environmentally friendly and easy to
adopt by resource poor farmers.

INTRODUCTION
Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. is one of the most important
leguminous crops that is widely grown throughout the tropics, especially in the
savanna zone of West Africa and other parts of the world Singh, (1990).
Cowpea is highly palatable, very nutritious and relatively free of anti
metabolites. The dried seed provides an inexpensive source of protein in many
diets in the tropics and sub-tropics Kay, (1979). The analysis of the grain
shows that it contains 23-33% protein, 60-66% carbohydrate, 5-6% fibre,
4.4-3.7% ash and 1.1-3.0% oil Bressani, (1985). In Africa, cowpea is
consumed in different forms, Bressani, (1985). The residual plant material is
used for feeding livestock, Kay, (1979). However, in spite of the high
nutritional values and usefulness of cowpea, the plant is attacked by a wide
range of insect pests, which significantly reduce the yield Booker, (1965);

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL.4. NO.4:54-66

P.I. Isika; P. Azui ke and L. Okoro are Lecturers, Imo Polytechnic, Umuagwu, Owerri Nigeria.

55
Saxena, (1978). Over 130 species of insect pests have been recorded on
cowpea in West Africa and they attacked virtually every part of the crop
including the roots, leaves, flowers and pods Kayumbo, (1975); Kumar,
(1984); Singh, (1985); Apeji, (1992). A loss of 45- 52% has been
recorded on cowpea in northern Nigeria during the flowering stage, followed
by 21-26% during pod formation, 7-9% during pre-flowering and 2-3 % in the
establishment stage Raheja, (1976). Singh and Singh (1976) also
reported that in Africa grain yield of cowpea is very low at peasant level and
ranges from 240 to 300kg/ha. However, grain yield of between 1,000 to
4,000kg/ha is possible under optimal condition if fields are protected against
insect pests attack, Booker, (1965); Jackai and Singh, (1984). To obtain
reasonable cowpea yield therefore, regular application of pesticides to the
crop in the field is very essential, Taylor, (1968). However, chemical
insecticides have over the years proved to be toxic to our health and they
pollute our environment, besides, they are very expensive. This situation
coupled with the current economic hardship in the country which led to the
removal of various subsidies formerly enjoyed by farmers have made possible
the search for alternative sources of insecticide that would become a
component of socio-economically sustainable and environmentally friendly
crop protection strategies, Jackai and Oyediran, (1991). It is against this
background and neglect of research for searching alternative methods of
controlling the insect pests of cowpea that the present research was initiated
to determine the efficacy of the six selected plant products in controlling
insect pests and yield of the cowpea plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Dried fruits of Chilli pepper (C. annuum), neem leaves (A. indica), garlic,
eucalyptus spp, and bitter leaf (V. amygdalina), were further dried in an oven
at 80C for 24 h and milled separately in an electric hammer mill to obtain fine
powders. 500 g of each sample were soaked in 3 liter of distilled water, in
plastic buckets for 24hr. The extracts were filtered with a muslin cloth, 10ml
liquid starch and 5ml soap solutions were added to the extracts. The contents
of the buckets were vigorously stirred to obtain a thorough mixture. A spray
volume of 200 l/ha was used in all cases. There were four spray applications
at weekly intervals, beginning with the flower bud formation stage. The tests
56
were performed in 2009 and 2010. Seeds of the cowpea variety IAR 48 used
in the trials were purchased from the National Seed Service in Umudike,
Umuahia. The seeds were dressed with Apron -Plus at the rate of one satchet
per 2 kg seeds, and planted at 25cm on flat 0.75m apart. The field layout was
a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting of seven treatments
(five plant extracts, a synthetic insecticide check and an untreated check) and
each treatment was replicated three times. Each plot was 6.0 5.0 m in size
and surrounded by unplanted areas of 1.5 m on all sides. Fertilizer NPK
(15:15:15) applied at 200 kg/ha was used for top-dressing the seedlings at 4
weeks after sowing. The plants were thinned to two seedlings per stand, at 2
weeks after emergence. Manual weeding was also carried out at 56 weeks
after planting to ensure clean plots. Cypermethrin 250 g a.i /l was applied
four times at weekly interval at the rate of 10kg a.i/ha.
Maruca vitrata and Clavigralla tomentosicollis were sampled before each
spraying for 4 weeks beginning at flower bud initiation. The flower thrip M.
sjostedti were assessed by collecting 20 flowers at random from each plot,
before anthesis. The flowers were put in a bottle containing 30% aqueous
solution of ethanol and the flowers thrips were later counted with the aid of a
hand lens, in a petri-dish.
The damages due to M. vitrata and hemipteran complex were expressed
at harvest by collecting 100 pods per plot as reported by, Taylor (1968).
Plants were examined for phytotoxicity effects (discoloration, burning,
wilting and terminal bud stunting) by a random sampling of 20 plants in each
plot. Pod damage (shriveling, twisting, stunting, constriction) was assessed by
examining 20 pods randomly selected per plant on ten plants per plot. Yields
were recorded from each plot after harvesting and threshing.
Data obtained were compared after square root transformation (for insects
sampling) and analysed using analysis of variance, while Student Newmans
Keuls (P < 0.05) test was applied to separate treatment means.

RESULTS
The results indicated that all the extracts significantly (P < 0.05)
reduced the number of flowering insect pests (M. sjostedti) legume pod borer
Isika, Azuike and Okoro
57
(M. vitrata) and pod sucking bugs (C. tomentosicollis) compared wi th the
untreated control during the two cropping seasons, 2009 and 2010. Results in
figure 1 and 2, indicated that the mean numbers of M. sjostedti, M. vitrta and
C. tomentosicolis in A.indica, C. fruitensce and A. sativum extracts were lower
than the values in Eucalyptus spp and Vernonia spp extracts. Although, the
insecticidal check, Cypermethrin treatment recorded the lowest number of
thrips in both seasons, the figures did not significantly differ from neem and
chilli pepper extracts. All the plant extract treatments had significantly (P <
0.05) lower thrips numbers than the untreated control (figures 1and 2). M.
vitrata, thrips and clavigralla mean values were lower in cypermethrin treated
plots but did not significantly differ from plots treated with plant extracts.
However, all the treated plots had significantly lower mean values of M.
vitrata, and C. tomentosicolis than in the untreated check, in both seasons.
Cypermethrin recorded the highest reduction in pod sucking bugs infestation
but did not perform better than plant extracts. However, the number of pod
sucking bugs in garlic bulb, neem, chilli pepper, Eucalyptus spp and Vernonia
spp extracts were significantly lower compared with the untreated control in
both seasons (fig1 and 2). Generally, higher pod density was obtained per
plant in all the treated plots compared with the untreated plots. Cypermethrin
treatment recorded the highest (P<0.05) pod density per plant compared with
plant extract treatments. Neem and chilli pepper extracts gave higher pod
density than the other three plants extract.
The extent of damage caused by hemipteran insects on cowpea pods
sprayed with different plant extracts are presented in figures 2 and 3. The
highest reductions of pod damage among plant extracts were observed on
plots treated with neem which were significantly (P < 0.05) lower than other
plant extracts, chilli pepper, garlic, Vernonia spp and Eucalyptus spp sprayed
plots respectively.
Cypermethrin sprayed plots recorded the least pod damage of all the
treated plots while the untreated control had the highest (P <0.05) pod
damage in the two seasons. Grain yields substantially increased (P <0.05)
over the untreated control following the application of plant extracts (figure
5). Yields obtained from plots sprayed with neem (720 & 710 kg/ha) and chilli
58
pepper (690 & 680 kg/ha) extracts significantly differed (P < 0.05) from those
sprayed with garlic, Eucalyptus spp and Vernonia spp. However, plots sprayed
with Cypermethrin recorded the highest (P < 0.05) grain yields compared to
the plant extract treatments in the two seasons.

DISCUSSION
Statistical analysis of the result shows that application of plant extracts
on cowpea plants at post flowering/podding stage of the plant significantly
(p<0.05) reduced the population of the insect pests when compared with
control. This result agrees with the findings of Amatobi (2000) who reported
that crude extracts of cashew leaves and nuts at 10, 15 and 20% killed A.
craccivora, C. tomentosicollis, A. curvipes and M. vitrata , and reduced their
population by about 70% compared to untreated control treatment.
Furthermore, the result obtained during the experimental period showed that
the plots treated with neem, chilli pepper, garlic, Eucalyptus spp, and Vernonia
spp extracts gave significant (p<0.05) control of M. sjostedti, C.
tomentosicollis, and M. vitrata, than control treatments. This result agrees
with Mong and Sudderuddin (1978) who reported that neem, sweetsop and
tobacco leaves extracts have been found to be toxic to M. vitrata, C.
tomentosicollis and Z. variegatus. Plant extracts are known to possess toxic
organic poison that is effective in reducing insect pest population including
pod borer, William and Ambridge, (1996); Fuglie, (1998); Gaby,
(2000). However, several authors have shown the efficacy of different plant
materials as biopesticides for the control of different pest of cowpea
Oparaeke et al., (2000); Okech et al., (1997); Oparaeke, (2004).
Neem, West African black pepper, garlic bulb and African nutmeg, Lippia
adoensis Hoschst have been reported to be effective against some crop pests
species Jackai and Oyediran, (1991); Oparaeke et al., (2000). This result
is in line with the findings of Stoll (1988) and Panhwar (2002) who
independently reported that ginger, chilli pepper and garlic bulb are good
biocontrol agents of some insect pests of cowpea. Result of the present
investigation clearly shows that, neem,chilli pepper and garlic were more
59
effective in controlling cowpea insect pests at podding stage than the other
plant extracts. Neem, chilli pepper and garlic extracts contain insecticidal
properties that are lethal to a wide range of insects including Maruca vitrata,
M. sjostedti, Clavigralla tomentosicollis and O. phaseoli Stoll, (1988);
Ostermanni, (1979); Oparaeke, (2007); Panhwar (2002) also reported
that good aqueous solution of garlic, ginger and neem will effectively control
worms, beetles and thrips in cowpea. Eucalyptus spp and Vernonia spp were
found to be less effective than neem, chilli pepper and garlic extract in
reducing cowpea pest population at podding growth stage.
The yields obtained from plant extracts treated plots were significantly
(p<0.05) higher than untreated control plots. This was in line with Panhwar
(2002) and Fuglie (1998) who reported that plant extracts applied on field
cowpea plants increased flower production per plant. The experiments also
showed that yield on plots treated with neem and chilli pepper extracts was
found to be significantly (p<0.05) better than garlic, Eucalyptus spp, and
Vernonia spp treated plots. These results correspond positively with the earlier
work conducted by previous researchers which showed that plant extracts
increase the yield of vegetables and pea plants by protecting them from insect
pests, Stoll, (1988); Panhwar, (2002); William and Ambridge, (1996).
Similarly, Gaby (1988) showed that, application of plant extracts in powder
or solution form significantly increased the yield of cowpea plants.
Fuglie, (1998), showed that a timely application of the tobacco
solution especially at the onset of flowering and pod formation prevented an
initial build up of infestation pressure and consequently increases the yield of
the crops. Grain yield losses were lower in plots treated with plant extracts
(tobacco, sweetsop and garlic) when compared with control. This is possible
because plant extracts were most effective against post flowering insect pests
of cowpea plant. Panhwar, (2002) reported that plant extracts application
at flowering and pod formation stages reduced the level of infestation of
insect pests and increased yield of plants. The results also supported the
views of Stoll (1988) and Panhwar (2002) who independently reported
that the effect of plant extracts on crops yield and yield component is
dependent on the effectiveness of the individual plant extract. It would be
desirable that economic threshold of the cowpea insect pests at flowering and
60
podding stages be determined in order to make better use of plant extracts
Jackai et al., (1992). Field observations indicated that none of the extracts
used in this study produce any phototoxic on cowpea leaf. This contrast with
the observation made by Olaifa and Adenuga (1998). They reported that
neem products caused yellowing and subsequent shedding of leaves. The
effectiveness of plant-based insecticidal application may be enhanced if it is
sprayed either in early morning or in late evening Oparaeke et al., (2003).
Result of the experiment showed that all the tested plant extracts have
potential value to substitute synthetic insecticides in pest management,
because, they were found to be promising in controlling the insect pests of
cowpea. Although, the result strongly recommend the use of the entire tested
plant extracts especially neem, chilli pepper and garlic, extensive work on the
appropriate concentration/dosage need to be worked out. One desirable
advantage neem, and chilli pepper may have over synthetic insecticides in-
spite of their relatively lower yield as recorded in this investigation, is that they
are readily available locally, have simple, inexpensive extraction methods
which can easily be adopted by limited resource farmers. The admixture of
50% (w/v) solution of bar soap (as an emulsifier) and starch to the extracts
enhances uniform distribution of the spray liquid and its persistency on the
surface of leaves and other plant parts. This would reduce the problem of
searching for botanical emulsifiers that may be difficult to obtain in some
geographical ecologies.
Further studies are necessary to elucidate the effect of various
concentrations and optimum spraying conditions for neem and chilli pepper
extracts to find the most effective combination of concentration and spraying
that would offer adequate protection to cowpea pods. Field observations
revealed that none of the extracts used in this study produced any phytotoxic
effect (leaf yellowing and shedding) on cowpea leaves. This contrasts with the
observation made by Olaifa & Adenuga (1988) about some yellowing and
subsequent shedding of leaves within 5 days of application of neem oil
emulsifiable concentrate. In another study the phytotoxic effects of neem-
treated eggplants at the pre-flowering stage caused the edges of some leaves
to lose their green coloration Cobbinah & Osei-Owusu (1998).

61
CONCLUSION
The results presented in this study have shown that extracts of neem
and chilli pepper have great potentials as biopesticides and could provide
suitable alternatives for pest control on field crops of small scale and low-input
agriculture as commonly practiced in tropical countries without degrading the
environment. In Nigeria, these plants are readily available in our environment
and the local markets all the year round for farmers to use and protect their
crops. They are safe, cheap, easily biodegradable, and environmentally
friendly. They could provide valuable alternatives to the synthetic insecticides
in the management of post flowering insect pests of cowpea to resource poor
farmers. Further studies are required to ascertain their optimum concentration
and spraying schedules for optimum grain yield.

62

63

64

REFERENCES

Amatobi, C. I.;(2000) Cashew Plant Crude Extract as a Promising Aphicide in
Cowpea Insect Pest Management; Abstracts of Paper and Poster
Presentations, World Cowpea Research Conference 111, 4 - 7
September 2000, Ibadan, Nigeria . 11.

Booker, R.H. (1965b). Notes on the Pest Complex of Cowpea in Northern
Nigeria and Possible Method of Control. Proceeding of First Nigerian
Grain Legume Conference, Samaru, Nigeria 12pp.

Cobbinah J.R., Osei-Owusu K. (1998): Effects of Neem Seed Extracts on
Insect Pests of Eggplant, Okra and Cowpea. Insect Science and Its
Application, 9: 601607.

Fuglie, S.L. (1998). Producing Food Without Pesticides: Local Solution to Crops
Pest Control in West Africa. Church-World Service, Dakar, Senegal,
140pp

Gaby, S. (1995). Natural Crop Protection in the Tropics. Margraf Verlag, Press,
152 pp.

Gaby, S. (2000). Natural Crop Protection in the Tropics. 2
nd
Enlarged and
Revised Edition. Margraf Verlag Press 502 pp.
Jackai, L.E.N. and Oyediran I.O. (1991). The Potential of Neem Azadirachta
Indica A. Juss. For Controlling Post Flowering Pests of Cowpea Vigna
Unguiculata (L.) Walp. The Pod Borer, Maruca Vitratas. Insect Science
and Its Application, 9: 267-276.

Jackai L.E.N., Oyediran I.O. (1991): The Potential of Neem Azadirachta Indica
A. Juss for Controlling Post Flowering pests of cowpea, Vigna
Unguiculata (L.) Walp- 1. Thepodborer, Maruca Vitrata. Insect Science
and its Application, 12: 103109.

Jackai, L.E.N., Inang, E.E. and Nwobi, P. (1992). The Potential for Controlling
Post Flowering Pest of Cowpea, Vigna Unguiculata (L.) Walp. Using
Neem, Azadirachta Indica A. Juss. Tropical Pest Management. 38 (1): 56
60.

Kay, D.E. (1979). Food Legumes. In: Crop and Product Digest. Tropical
Product Institute, London. 46 pp.


65
Kayumbo, H.Y. (1975). Insect Pest Population in Mixed Crop Ecosystem.
Tropical Grain Legume Bulletin, 8:24-27.

Kumar, R. (1984). Insect Pests Control with Special Reference to African
Agriculture. Edward Arnond Press, 176.pp.

Mong, T.T. and Sudderuddin, K.F. (1978). Effects of Neem Tree (Azadirachta
Indica) Extract on Diamondbock Moth (Plutella Xylostella L.) Horti
science, 7: 1-6.

Okech, S.H.O., Kaposhi, C.K.M., Chisembun K. and Mundia, M.P. (1997).
Potential of Tephrosia Volgelii Water Extract for Controlling the Maize
Stalk Borer, Chilo Partellus. African Journal of Plant Science, 7: 17-25.

Olaifa J.I., Adenuga A.O. (1988): Neem Products for Protecting Field Cassava
from Grasshopper Damage. Insect Science and Its Application, 9: 267
276.
Oparaeke, A.M., Dike, M.C. And Amatobi, C.I. (2000a). Field Trial of Botanical
Extract for Insect Pests Control on Cowpea, Vigna Unguiculata (L.) Walp.
Poster Presentation, World Cowpea Research Conference Iii. 2000
September 4-7, Iita. Ibadan, Nigeria.

Oparaeke, A.M., Dike, M.C. and Amatobi, C.I. (2000b). Insecticidal Potential of
Extracts of Garlic, Allium Sativum L. Bulb and African Nutmeg, Monodora
Myristica (Gaertn) Dunal Seed for Insect Pests Control On Cowpea. Esn
Occasional Publication. 32: 169-174.

Oparaeke A.M, Dike M. C, Amatobi C. I (2000): Bio-Efficacy of Extracts of
Garlic Bulb and African Nutmeg for Control of Field Pests of Cowpea.
Occasion Publication, Entomological Society of Nigeria, 32: 9099.

Oparaeke A.M., Dike M.C., Amatobi C.I. (2002): Preliminary Investigation of
Clove, Syzygium Aromaticum (L.) Merr & Perr. As a Source of Valuable
Insecticide for Field Pest Control on Cowpea. Nigerian Journal of
Agriculture Extention. 13: 178181.

Oparaeke, A.M. Dike, M.C. and Amatobi, C.I. (2003). Preliminary Study on
Clove, Syzigium Aromaticum Gaertun and Eugenia
Caryophyllata Thunb. (Myrtaceae) as a Source of Insecticide. Nigerian
Journal of Agricultural Extension, 13: 73-80.

66

Oparaeke, A. M. (2004); Collection, Identification and Screening of Indigenous
Herbal Extracts and Waste Matter for Control of Insect Pests of Cowpea;
Ph.D. Thesis; Ahmadu Bello University; Zaria, Nigeria.

Oparaeke, A. M. And Bunmi, J. O. (2004); Insecticidal Potential of Cashew,
Anacardium Occidentale L.P Owder Products for Control of
Callosobruchus Subinnotatus (Pic.) On Bambarra Groundnut; Nigerian
Journal of Agric. Extension; In Press.

Oparaeke, A. M. And Daria, V. (2004); Toxicity of Herbal Powders to
Emphcallosobruchus Maculatus (Fab.) on Stored Cowpea Grains;
Nigerian Journal of Entomology; In Press.

Oparaeke, A.M. (2007). Toxicity and Spraying Schedules of a Biopesticide
Prepared from Piper Guineense Against Two Cowpea Pests. Plant
Protection Sciences, 43: 103108.

Ostermanni, T.U. (1976). Plant Materials for Pest Control New Zealand Journal
of Entomology, 6:44-49

Panhwar, S.B. (2002). Farmers Adoption of Plant Materials for Insects Control.
International Service for National Agricultural Research. Haque,
Netherland. 4 :61-68.

Saxena, R.C. (1983). Naturally Occurring Pesticides and their Potentials.
Pergamon Press, New York. 210 pp.

Singh, S.R and Jackai, L.E.N. (1985). Insect Pests of Cowpea in Africa their
Life Cycle, Economic Importance and Potential for Control. In: Cowpea
Research Production and Utilization (Singh, S.R. and Rachie, K.O. Eds.),
John Wiley and Sons. 431 pp.

Singh, S.R. (1990). Insect Pests of Tropical Food Crops. International Institute
of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. John Wiley and Son Ltd. 43 Pp.

Stoll, G. (1988); Natural Crop Protection in the Tropics; Agrecol, Margraf
Publishers;188 Pp

William, A. and Ambridge, L. (1996). Guide to Insect Pests of Nigerian Crops.
Identification: Biology and Control. Natural Resource Institute/Overseas
Development Administration. 253 pp.


67
New Model Standoff Casing Pipes and Liner Pipes
For High-angle, Horizontal, Multilateral and
Tie-back Wells


Oil and gas drilling started with making of vertical holes, resulting in design
of most drilling and completion components for that purpose. Since the advent
of the directional drilling technique, which progressed to extended reach
drilling, and to longer horizontal sections, the practice has been to manage
most of these components e.g., the casing pipes, casing liners, casing shoes
etc, to accomplish these extended deviation technology. This work presents a
new model casing and liner pipes, for the extended deviation operations such
as the horizontal multilateral wells. Different modifications of the traditional
casing and liner pipes for the oil and gas cementing operations was
investigated. The model used protruding blades, studs, etc, systematically
distributed around the outer surface of the casing and liner pipes. The
advantage and convenience of this approach eliminates the use of centralizers
and scratchers as conventional mechanical devices.

INTRODUCTION
At its beginning, directional drilling referred to wells purposely deviated or
slanted from the vertical, to reach predetermined underground targets or locations,
where it was impossible to set up the drill rig directly below locations, such as
reservoirs located under mountains, highly populated cities, overhanging cap of salt
domes, relief-well etc. These applications mostly, used the extended-reach drilling
technique, from the kick-off point to reach the actual targets.
An extended-reach well is one which the ratio of the measured depth (MD)
versus the true vertical depth (TVD) is at least 2.0 (Mitchell, R. F.). This implies that
the extension of the well from the kick-off point is at least two times the length of the
vertical section of the well.
Usually, for most deviation tools, the build-up rates (given in degrees per 100ft)
can range from 1-3 , and this determines the resultant curvature, building up at a
constant rate of inclination (say 3 /100ft or 0.98/10m). On the other hand, high angle
wells are those drilled through the producing interval at hole angles of 85 to 88.

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4: 67-89

Azunna I.B. Ekejiuba a Chartered Engineer is SeniorLecturer, Department of Petroleum Engineering Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria

68
In contrast with an extended-reach well, which is an high angle directional well
drilled to intersect a target point, the horizontal wells are high-angle wells drilled to
enhance reservoir performance by placing a long wellbore section within the reservoir.
Most horizontal wells are considered to be completed at angles 90
0
to the vertical. A
major difference between deviated wells and modern horizontal wells is that the
deviated wells may take 2,000ft or more to bend from vertical to horizontal, whereas
todays horizontal may make a 90 turn in a very few feet. Horizontal wells are
normally characterized by their build up rates and are broadly classified into three
groups that dictate the drilling and completion practices required as shown in the table
below:

Table 1: Horizontal-Well Classification

One of the short coming of the horizontal well technology is the drilling cost
(casing and cementation inclusive) which at times is about two times or more than
those for vertical wells.
This is due to the necessity of drilling more holes. For instance, a well may have
a total vertical depth of only 2000ft, but the bottom of the hole may be 4000ft away
from the vertical portion of the well.
Possibly, the high drilling cost could be reduced by evolving horizontal drilling
components rather than the current practice of using components originally designed
for vertical wells to accomplish horizontal well drilling.
Multilateral wells are new evolution of horizontal wells in which several
wellbore branches radiate from the main wellbore. The branching could be from
vertical, directional or horizontal applications. (Figure 1 and 2)
Initially, laterals branching out from the wellbore were not cased and tied back,
which meant when workovers or cleanouts were required, re-entry was difficult and
completions were virtually impossible. Recently, proven technology allows multiple
laterals to be cased and tied back Larry Comean et al (1995).
The Sperry-sun drilling services, a Dresser Industries Inc. company, the
proprietary lateral Tie- back system (LTBS), designed and developed the LTBS, to
accommodate the complex inter connection of the individual production liners,
thereby creating total wellbore integrity. With the LTBS, one surface hole installation
can now incorporate an integral casing drainage system that takes the wellbore to the
Well Type Build Rate
(ft)
Radius(m) Radius(ft)
Long radius 2m to 6/100ft 900 to 290 3,000 to 1000
Medium
radius
6 to 35/100ft 290 to 50 1,000 to 160
Short radius 5 to 10/3ft 12 to 6 40 to 20
69
hydro-carbons in place, thereby minimizing the distance hydrocarbons must travel to
the wellbore.
In general, all wells drilled for the purpose of oil and gas production or for
injecting materials into underground formations must be cased with pipes of sufficient
strength and functionality. There are seven basic types of casing strings; conductor
casing, structural casing, surface casing, intermediate casing, production casing, liner
and Tie-back string.
One of the problem Keller et al (1983) that affect casing cementing in deviated
(high-angle horizontal/multilateral) well arise from pipe eccentricity (figure 3) i.e. the
axis of the pipe are not placed centrally. A casing that is poorly centralized can
contribute to differential sticking in highly permeable formations, increased drag and
excessive torque values due to increased contact with wellbore (figure 4).
Casing centralization is also severally affected by gravity by allowing the casing
to sag between the centralizers. This not only provides a no-uniform annular geometry
which complicates flow mechanics from a solids removal standpoint, but also
complicates mud removal during cementing operations i.e. in sections with poor pipe
standoff, the cement displays strong tendency to by pass mud. Centralizers improve
pipe standoff thereby equalizing the distribution of forces exerted by the cement slurry
as it flows through the annulus, otherwise, cement tends to follow the path of least
resistance, that is the wide side of the annulus. Therefore, to enhance displacement of
drilling fluid, we require the pipe to be properly centralized, that is, with adequate
stand off for providing the best chance for drilling fluid removal from the most narrow
clearance in the wellbore.
It has been established Wilson (1989) that at less than 60% standoff, even high
flow rates (e.g. pump rate of about 7bpm) do not solve the problem of mud channeling
on the narrow side of the wellbore, while when the standoff was greater than 60%, the
mud channel was removed in most cases even when the pump rates were low (e.g.
2bpm). Thus, the minimum recommended stand off should be 60%, however, it is
preferable to design for a minimum of 70% stand off to maximize the possibility of
attaining a competent cement sheath around the entire circumference of the casing.
The normal recommended spacing of centralizers in relatively straight holes is 90ft in
area to be covered by cement. But for crooked or directional drilled hole such as
horizontal and multilateral wells, the spacing depends on the hole conditions. It varies
between 19ft to 110ft depending on the deviation degrees and hole size (table 2).

Ekejiuba
70

Table 2: Recommended Spacing of Centralizes in Deviated Holes Spacing of
Centralizers Spacing of Centralizers on
On 5 - in Casing, ft 7-in, Casing, ft
Deviation Degrees 7 In
Hole
8-In
Hole
8 - In Hole 9 In Hole

2 92 102 62 110
4 78 88 50 91
6 71 78 43 82
8 66 72 38 75
10 62 68 35 70
20 52 56 26 55
30 46 50 22 45
40 42 47 19 43

Calculated on the basis of a minimum radial, annular clearance of ~ -in, Craft et
al, 1962.

Owing to the fear of increased drag caused by the large number of centralizers
in high-angle horizontal and multilateral wells, most operators are overly conservative
in the use of centralizers. Many times, the number of centralizers is decreased, or
centralizers may even be eliminated.
Mainly, this work designed special casing pipes and liners with protrusions
much like studs, blades, pads, etc., specifically for high-angle horizontal and
multilateral well cementation exercise, to obtain a centralized string completion, with
proper cement sheath / bond around the string.

THEORY OF CASING AND LINER MANUFACTURING (BACKGROUND)

Almost without exception, casing is manufactured of mild (0.3 carbon) steel
normalized with small amounts of Mangenese Mitchell R.F. The strength can also be
increased with quenching and tempering.

71
On the other hand, API liners are manufactured only of grade J-55 steel,
however, any grade, weight and type of casing may be used as liner.
In general, casing and liners are classified according to five properties: the outer
diameter, the wall thickness, the grade of the material of construction (steel grade), the
type of joint and the length range. The outside diameter and the wall thickness
determine a sixth property, i.e., unit weight .For convenience, most frequently, they
are classified by a nominal weight, which is a weight adjusted from the true unit
weight to compensate for threaded ends and couplings, since individual lengths of
casing are usually joined by means of threaded couplings, made with the same
material as the casing.
When casing is furnished with the threads and couplings, the length is taken to
be the overall length of pipe plus attached couplings, i.e., the length as measured from
the uncoupled end of the pipe to the outer face of the coupling at the opposite end,
with the coupling made up power tight.
For the discussion of casing weight, we differentiate between plain-end, average
weight with threads and couplings, and nominal weight of casing.
The plain-end weight of casing is the weight of the casing without threads and
couplings. It can be calculated readily by assuming the casing to be a cylindrical tube
of uniform wall thickness, which in fact it is if we eliminate all consideration of upset
casing(upset tubular goods are those which have an increased wall thickness at the
ends to compensate for the reduced strength which would otherwise result from the
presence of threads).
Also, since liners are manufactured with square-cut plain ends, they can be
calculated in the case of plain end casing as follows:
If the diameter of the casing is d
e
inches and the wall thickness is t inches, then
the internal diameter is d
e
-2t inches and the mean diameter is

0.5[d
e
+ (d
e
-2t)] = d
e
-t (1)

Then the mean circumference of the casing wall is
x mean diameter
=
(d
e
- t).(2)

and the cross-sectional wall area will be the product of wall thickness and mean
circumference,

A = + t (d
e
- t).(3)

Ekejiuba
72

Considering one linear foot of casing, the volume in cubic inches is

V = 12 + (d
e
t).(4)

Taking the density of steel to be 0.2833lb per cubic inches, the plain end-weight, W
p

in pounds per linear foot is

W
p
= 0.2833 x 12 + (d
e
- t) = 10.68t (de t).(5)

Design specifications
The major consideration for a complete specification basically involves dimensioning
of:

the length range
the outside diameter
the wall thickness

API standard 5A establishes three length ranges with limits and tolerances as shown in
table 4 belo

Table 3: Length ranges of casing (API, specification for Casing, Tubing and Drill
Pipe 1958).

Ran
ge
Length Range
(Ft)

Minimum
Length *(ft)
Minimum
Variation *(ft)
1 16 25 18 6
2 25 34 28 5
3 Over 34 36 6

73

* Tolerance given are for 96 percent or more car load when shipment from mill to
final destination is entirely by rail.
API standard 5A designated casing with varying outside diameter from 4.5in
20in. That is 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.625, 7, 7.625, 8.625, 9.625, 10.75, 11.75, 13.625, 16, 20.
API standard 5A also designated casing varying with wall thickness from 0.205-
in to 0.595-in, and varying nominal weight from 9.50 to 94.00lb (ft).
The API recognizes five grades of casing on the basis of its minimum yield
strength as listed in the table 4 below:

Table 4: Grades of Casing Based on Minimum Yield Strength

Casing Grade Minimum Yield Strength, Psi
F 25 25,000
H-40 40,000
J- 55 55,000
N-80 80,000
P-110 110,000

The yield strength, for these purposes, is defined as the tensile stress required to
produce a total elongation of 0.5 % of the length (except in the case of grade p 110
casing, where yield point is defined as the tensile stress required to produce a total
elongation of 0.6% of the length).

New Model Standoff Casing Pipes and Liners
The concept of manufacturing new types of various pipes and liners with
various geometrical protrusions, specifically for high-angle horizontal and multilateral
wells, was conceived from the conventional use of centralizers or turbulators and
scratchers arrangement for centralizing casings / liners and wall-cleaning respectively.
In horizontal and multilateral wells, casing and liners that are poorly centralized
can contribute to differential sticking, increased drag and excessive torque values due
to increased contact of the pipe bottom with the low side of the wellbore.
It was noticed that the most common problem associated with centralizers is the
excessive amount of drag that is caused by the centralizers. Basically, if this new
design concept is properly installed, it will permit equal hydrostatic pressure in the
annulus, thereby preventing differential-pressure sticking, eliminate the tendency of
Ekejiuba
74
hydraulic fracturing slurries to deposit solids on the pipe bottom, as well as a host of
other problems associated with horizontal and multilateral well cementation.

Protrusion Dimensions
Table 5: Types of Model Protrusion Configuration

Natural of Protrusion

Shape of Protrusion

Dimensional Range

Square Studs 2in -2.5in

Equitriangular Studs 2in -2.5 in

Pads 3in by 2in -4in by 2in

Blades

Above 6i by 2in

This work proposed the above four basic model configurations with both spaced and
full length arrangements:

The square studs

The equitriangular studs

The rectangular pads and

The blades.

Basically these protrusions are aligned around the casing/liner pipes as follows:

Linearly along the casing / liner pipes (figure 5)
Inclined round the casing / liner pipes at a deviated angle of 4
0
(figure 6).
Spirally round the casing / liner pipes

Design Diagrams
Figure 5 is a sample of the dimensioned space design, while figure 6 is a sample
of the deviated full length design.

The following 15 possible designs are envisaged.
(i) Linearly positioned multi-square studs design (Fig. 7)
(ii) Deviated multi -square studs design (Fig. 8)

75
(iii) Spirally positioned multi-square studs design (Fig. 9)
(iv) Linearly positioned multi- equitriangular studs design (Fig. 10)
(v) Deviated multi - equitriangular studs design (Fig. 11)
(vi) Spirally positioned multi- equitriangular studs design (Fig. 12)
(vii) Linearly positioned multi- rectangular Blades design (Fig.13)
(viii) Deviated multi - rectangular Blades design (Fig. 14)
(ix) Spirally positioned multi- rectangular Blades design (Fig. 15)
(x) Full length linear blades design (Fig. 16)
(xi) Spaced linear blades design (Fig. 17)
(xii) Full length deviated blades design (Fig 18)
(xiii) Spaced deviated blades design (Fig. 19)
(xiv) Full length spiral blades design (Fig. 20)
(xv) Spaced spiral blades design (Fig. 21)

The figures 22 and 23 shows the casing string design model in a typical horizontal
configuration.

Discussion of the Design
The above design features (i.e. multi-square studs, multi-equitriangular studs,
multi-rectangular pads, and multi-blades); with the various design arrangements
(linear, deviated, and spiral); together with the design patterns (full length or spaced)
are applicable to the casing pipes, casing liners, and casing shoes.

Discussion of the Application
The design of casing pipes with protrusions, such as studs, pads, and blades, is
proposed specifically for the high-angle horizontal and multilateral well application.
This is aimed at eliminating completely, the tendency of the casing pipe to lay laterally
along the lower side (bottom) of the horizontal wellbore.
The calculated spacing of the protrusions, eliminated sagging of the casing
pipes throughout the entire length of the horizontal wellbore. The protrusions also,
performed the functions of both the centraliers and the scratchers, in ensuring proper
hole centralization and adequate hole cleaning for good cement wellbore bonding.

Results
The general relationship for computing standoff (figure 24) is

Standoff =
C
A-B
Ekejiuba
76
Where; A = Radius of the stipulated borehole, in inches

B = Outside radius of the casing pipe, in inches

C = The least cemented thickness, in inches

Table 6: Sample Result of the Eccentric Case Standoff

Hole Size
In
Hole
Radius
in (A)
Casing
Size
in
Casing
Radius
In (B)
Least
Cemented
Thickness,
in (C)
Stand
Off
%
6.25 3.125 4.50 2.25 0.75 86
6.25 3.125 5.00 2.50 0.50 80
6.25 3.125 5.50 2.50 0.50 80
6.25 3.125 5.50 2.75 0.25 67
8.50 4.25 6.50 3.25 0.875 88
8.50 4.25 7.00 3.50 0.625 90
8.50 4.25 7.50 3.75 0.375 75
8.50 4.25 8.00 4.00 0.125 50
12.25 6.125 9.625 4.8175 1.1875 90
12.25 6.125 10.75 5.375 0.625 90
12.25 6.125 11.75 5.875 0.125 50
77

Table 7: Sample Result of the Concentric Case Standoff

DISCUSSION OF RESULT
In all, the height of the protrusions varied between 0.125-in to1.1875-in. Also,
the height of the protrusions gives the fully eccentric position, thus, the least cemented
thickness is the protrusion height. For the eccentric case, the computed stand-off
ranged between 50% to 90%. This means that the least cemented thickness will occur
when about 50% of the lower annular space is cemented.
And for the concentric case, if the casing pipes are properly centered, the
computered stand-off is 100%. Therefore, the least cemented radius is the difference
the simulated borehole radius and the outside radius of the casing pipes.

Hole Size
in
Hole
Radius
in (A)
Casing Size
(in)
Casing Radius
in (B)
Least
Cemented
Thickness, in (C)
Standoff
%
6.25 3.125 4.50 2.25 0.875 100
6.25 3.125 5.00 2.50 0.625 100
6.25 3.125 5.50 2.75 0.375 100
8.50 4.25 6.50 3.25 1.000 100
8.50 4.25 7.00 3.50 0.75 100
8.50 4.25 7.50 3.75 0.50 100
8.50 4.25 8.00 4.00 0.25 100
12.25 6.125 9.625 4.8125 1.3125 100
12.25 6.125 10.75 5.375 0.75 100
12.25 6.125 11.75 5.875 0.25 100
Ekejiuba
78
CONLUSIONS
This work aimed at eliminating the various problems associated with improper
centering of the orthodox (conventional) plain casing pipes and the use of mechanical
devices such as centralizers and scratchers in high-angle horizontal and multilateral
wellbore cementation. The study has shown that it is possible to design special casing
pipes, shoes and liners with protrusions such as studs, pads, and blades, specifically
for the high angle and multilateral well cementation.

This process is envisaged to be simpler and less expensive since

The protrusions also performs the functions of both the centralizers and
scratchers, the design eliminates the labour of making-up joints of the
centralizers and scratchers, the costs of centralizers and sratchers etc,because
we only need to make-up joints of the designed pipes during horizontal and
multilateral well bore cementation exercise.
It ensures automatic proper hole centralization and adequate hole cleaning
for good cement wellbore bonding. Thus the design achieves perfect
uniform annular clearance, since for any pipe specification, there is an
automatic hole / casing relationship, which allow better displacement
efficiency.
It completely eliminates the tendency of the casing pipes to lay laterally
along the lower side (bottom) of the horizontal wellbore, because, the
calculated spacing of the protrusions, eliminated sagging of the casing pipes
throughout the entire length of the horizontal wellbore.
The design also reduces the effect of the drag due to placement of many
centralizers and scratchers, since it needs fewer numbers of protrusions
obstructing flow in the annulus. Thus difficulty of pipe movement in
horizontal wells caused by drag force will be minimized.
Based on the stronger nature of the protrusions (studs, pads, blades) normal
movement (rotating or reciprocating) of the string during cementing
operations will achieve better and easier break-up of areas with gelled
pockets of mud, as well as dislodged cuttings trapped in

79
combination with mud filter cake, from the walls of the wellbore. This allows
for better bonding of the formation face and casing, and also eliminates the
frequent occurrence of wall cleaners failure, since none will be attached.

Ekejiuba
80


81

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82


83

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84


85

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86


87

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88


89

REFERENCES

Ayo-Aloko, J.A.; Fischer, S.P.; Osselburn, J. and Lee, D. (1998). Africas First
Dual Horizontal/Dual Completion Multilateral Well. SPE Proceedings of the 2
nd

Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition, SPE-NAICE98
Lagos, Nigeria.

Bruce, D. T. and Wei, P.Y. (1991).How Industry Completes Wells in Offshore
Environments. Ocean Industry 20-28.

Craft, B. C.; Holden, W.R. and Craves, E.D. Jr. (1962). Well Design, Drilling
and Production. PrenticeHall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

Cress, L.A. and Miller, S.W. (1993). Dual Horizontal Extension Drilling Using
Retrievable Whipstock.

World Oil 41-48.

Ekejiuba, A.I.B. (2002). A New Technique of Horizontal Well Cement Flow
Distribution PhD These, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Gilman, J.R. and Jargon, J.R. (1992). Evaluating Horizontal vs. Vertical Well
Performance. World Oil

Kettle, F.C.; Edwards, M.G. and Covington, R.L. (1993). Practical Horizontal
Cementing Today. SPE Proceeding of 8
th
Middle East Oil Show and Conference
Manama, Barbrain, Vol.1.

Keller, S. R.; Crooh, R.J.; Hout, R.C. and Kulakofesky, D.S. (1983). Problems
Associated with Deviated-Wellbore Cementing. Paper SPE11979 Presented at
the 58
th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in San Francisca.

Mitchel, R.F. (2006). Volume 11: Drilling engineering Petroleum Engineering
Handbook Larry Comean (1995) world oil, July

Lee, H. K.; Smith, R.C. and Tighe, R. E. (1986). Optimum Spacing for Casing
Centralizers. SPE Drilling Engineering

Perry, .H. (1992). Field Development Technology: Where it is, Where Its
Going. Ocean Industry 19-24. Steve, B. (1993). Proper Completion Technique
Crucial to Horizontal Well Productivity. Petroleum Engineering International
17-23.

Ekejiuba
90
Study of Water Cement Ratio Influence on Strength
Characteristics of Millet Stem
Ash (MSA) Concrete

Oseni Olumide Waheed

The influence of water cement ratio on the compressive strength properties of concrete are
substantial factors in the design and construction of concrete structures. Compressive strength
directly affects the degree to which the concrete can be able to carry load over time. These
changes are complemented by deflections, cracks etc. in concrete structural elements. The
purpose of this research was to measure the effect of water cement ratio on properties such as
compressive strength, slump, flow and workability properties of Millet Stem Ash (MSA) mixes
with OPC at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% to form concrete and to evaluate whether they are
acceptable for use in concrete structural elements. A normal concrete mix with cement at
100% (i.e. MSA at 0%) with concrete grade C25/30 that will attain an average strength of
30N/mm2 at 28days was used as a control at design water/cement ratios of 0.60 and increased
to 0.65 and aggregate grading of (0.5-32) mm from fine to coarse was tested for: (1)
Compressive Strength,(2) Slump and Flow Test The results and observations showed that the
concrete mixes from MSA at 5% - 25% ratios exhibit: Pozzolanic properties and MSA could be
used as a partial replacement to cement at these percentage mix ratio compared with the
control concrete, an increase in the water cement ratio showed a significant decrease in the
compressive strength and an increase in workability. Therefore, it is important that all
concrete mixes exude acceptable design water-cement ratio for compressive strength
characteristics for use in structures, water cement ratio is a significant factor.

INTRODUCTION

The deployment of viable waste materials in concrete manufacture
provide a satisfactory solution to some of the environmental concerns and
problems associated with waste management in every country of the world
Nigeria not an exception. Therefore the need to study the behaviour and/or
properties of sustainable waste material such as Millet Stem Ash (MSA)
concrete for building construction cannot be overemphasised. The
performance of the entire building structure is a function of the quality of each
material that constitutes the building. Consequence to the importation of most
materials, the high cost of building materials both local and imported has
made the ownership of house beyond the reach of most Nigerians Madedor,
(1992). This has resulted in the shortage of accommodation in every urban
settlement of


Oseni Olumide Waheed is Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Abuja, Nigeria.

91

the country with the attendant high cost of rent. Consequently, the use of
locally produced building materials, agricultural and industrial wastes and
products to construct houses has to be investigated and encouraged. The
assessment for substitute uses and economic exploitation of naturally
occurring local materials and agricultural or industrial wastes and products
remains an important area of research interest in the drive towards the overall
development of any nation. The current challenge facing the governments of
most developing nations like Nigeria is how to provide good accommodation
for the growing population at relatively low cost. For this research basic
concrete mix of grade C25/30 and design water cement ratio of 0.60 and an
increment to 0.65 was examined for:
0% MSA, 100% Cement, (0.5-32) mm fine- coarse aggregate mix concrete
(Control),
5% MSA, 95% Cement, (0.5-32) mm fine-coarse aggregate mix concrete,
10% MSA, 90% Cement, (0.5-32) mm fine/coarse aggregate mix concrete,
25% MSA, 75% Cement, (0.5-32) mm fine-coarse aggregate mix concrete.

METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
The material, experiments and laboratory works carried out to
accomplishing the objective of this research is as follows:

Materials
The materials used in the production of the concrete cubes are sand,
gravels, cement, millet stem ash and water.

Sand
The was obtained at Gwagwalada-Abuja-FCT environs and transported
to JULIUS BERGER PLC (JBN PLC), QUALITY ASSURANCE & CONTROL (QA&C)
LABORATORY, Mpape-Abuja, FCT, for preliminary analysis for suitability for
use in concrete.

92
Gravel
The coarse aggregate was obtained within Gwagwalada-Abuja-FCT and
transported to JBN PLC, QA&C LABORATORY, Mpape-Abuja, FCT. The
aggregate was washed and allowed to dry naturally, to free it from dirt and
impurities according to BS 812, 1975.

Cement
The cement used was Dangote cement obtained at Gwagwalada-Abuja-
FCT. The cement obtained is ordinary Portland cement and as such found
applicable in most construction works. It was stored in a place with no direct
contact with floor and wall. Grain size analysis of the cement was carried out
to know its suitability for the work

Millet Stem Ash
Millet Stem is a waste product in millet farms in rural areas of FCT, Niger
State and Kaduna State. Millet Stem obtained was sorted into sacks to avoid
mixing with already decayed once and also from moisture or rain and
transported to the JBN PLC, QA&C LABORATORY, Mpape-Abuja FCT. The
burning of Millet Stem was done at the Laboratory using the oven.

Water
The source of water used for this work is the borehole water situated in
the JBN PLC, QA&C LABORATORY, Mpape-Abuja, FCT. The water is portable
and clean, which therefore satisfies the required specification for making
concrete as describe in BS 3148 and is therefore suitable for concrete
production.

Experimental Procedures
The study commence with the collection of Millet Stem from farms
around Abuja -Niger-Kaduna-Zaria. The Millet Stem burnt and its ash
collected. The ash was allowed to pass through sieve 0.63 millimetres to the
same fineness of cement and was followed by preliminary investigation of the
constituent material of the ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and the millet
stem ash (MSA).

Oseni
93
Laboratory Works Tests
The following preliminary analysis tests were conducted on the materials
in accordance with the various codes, to determine their suitability for
concrete making: Specific Gravity Test; Aggregate impact Value Test; Silt
Content Test; Moisture Content Test and Sieve Analysis Test.

Batching
Material was batched by weight; measurement was done normally using
head pan and a balance.

Mix Design
The concrete mix was designed in accordance with the British design
mix BS 8110. The method gives proportion in terms of qualities of materials
per unit volume of concrete. Mixing was done using rotary concrete mixer.
The fine and coarse aggregate, cement, millet husk ash was mixed all
together in the concrete mixer thoroughly to achieve the final uniformity. The
required quantity of water to cement ratio of 0.60 and 0.65 was added.

Slump /Flow Test
This test was carried out to determine the workability of the concrete.
The slum cone was placed on a flat non-porous surface and held down by the
foot. The mould was then filled in three layers. Each layer was compacted.
After the third layer has been tampered, the slump cone was removed
immediately by raising it up vertically. The height of the slump cone was
determined. The measurement was taken from the top of the slump cone to
the top of the concrete. The slump was measured as the difference between
the heights of the cone to the height of the slump concrete.

94

Fig A: Slump Test

Fig B: Flow Test

Placing and Compacting
Cubes of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm was used for the casting. The
concrete was placed in three layers and each layer was tampered. The surface
of the concrete was smoothen with a steel float and then covered with a sack
and left for 24 hrs.

Curing
The cubes in mould were placed in the laboratory for 24 hrs. The
concrete cubes were then strike out and placed immediately in moist curing
tanks for 7, 21, 28 and >56days. After each of the stated days, the cubes was
removed from the tank and allowed to dry in open air before being subjected
to compressive strength.

Oseni
95

Compressive Strength Test
The compressive strength of the cube sample was determined in
accordance with the standard procedure given in BS 2080 (BSI, 1970). The
weights of the sample were always taken before the compressive strength
was concluded. Three cubes samples was crushed in the 7
th
, 21
st
, 28
th
and
>56
th
day respectively. The maximum load carried by the specimen before
failure occurs was recorded. The compressive strength can be calculated using
this formula
Compressive strength =
Where F = Failure load (N) and A = Cross-sectional area (mm
2
).

Fig C: Cubes samples for trial mixes at different % ratio replacements

Fig D: Compressive Strength Test Machine

96

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The quality of concrete made from MSA was achieved by carrying out
the preliminary tests, carrying out mix design and choosing the design water-
cement ratio of 0.60 and increasing the water-cement ratio to 0.65 to see the
effect on the property of the fresh concrete and the hardened concrete. The
following results and observations were obtained.

FRESH CONCRETE PROPERTIES: (Slump, Flow and Workability of
MSA Concrete).
The higher the percentage presence of MSA in the mix there is a change
of concrete colour from ash colour to dark ash, decrease in slump and flow,
hence an increase in workability as shown in the table and graph.

Table 1: Slump Test (Mm) and Flow Test (Mm) Vs % Replacement
at Water Cement Ratio of 0.60 and Concrete Grade C25/30

% Replacement
at water cement
ratio of 0.60 and
concrete grade
C25/30
Slump Test
(mm)
Flow Test
(mm)
100%OPC, 0%
MSA
75 430
95%OPC, 5%
MSA
64 360
90%OPC, 10%
MSA
15 260
85%OPC, 15%
MSA
27 320
80%OPC, 20%
MSA
20 280
75%OPC, 25%
MSA
20 300
70%OPC, 30%
MSA
10 100
65%OPC, 35%
MSA
5 50

Oseni
97

Table 2: Slump Test (mm) and Flow Test (mm) VS % Replacement
at water cement ratio of 0.65 and concrete grade C25/30.

% Replacement
at water cement
ratio of 0.65 and
concrete grade
C25/30
Slump
Test
(mm)
Flow
Test
(mm)
100%OPC, 0%
MSA
145 430
95%OPC, 5%
MSA
195 510
90%OPC, 10%
MSA
62 350
80%OPC, 20%
MSA
110 420
75%OPC, 25%
MSA
90 400

Hardened Concrete Properties
Compressive Strength of MSA Concrete.
The compressive strength of the concrete decreases as % replacement
of MSA increases from 5% - 25% compared with the 0% MSA. The
compressive strength drops by (20%-30%) with the increase in water cement
ratio as shown in the table and graph:


98

Table 3: Compressive Strength (N/mm2) VS % Replacement at Water
Cement Ratio of 0.60 and Concrete Grade C25/30

Compressive Strength
(N/mm2)
%
Replacement
at water
cement ratio
of 0.60 and
concrete
grade C25/30
7
days
21
days
28
Days
>56
days
100%OPC,
0% MSA
29.8 34.4 34.2 38.2
95%OPC, 5%
MSA
28.9 35.8 35.1 36.4
90%OPC,
10% MSA
20.9 23.8 23.8 27.6
85%OPC,
15% MSA
16 20.2 20.4 22.2
80%OPC,
20% MSA
14.4 17.3 18.2 17.8
75%OPC,
25% MSA
15.6 18.9 19.6 20.8
70%OPC,
30% MSA
65%OPC,
35% MSA
Collapsed and failed during
curing in the curing tank

Oseni
99

Table 4: Compressive Strength (N/MM
2
) VS % Replacement at Water
Compressive Strength (N/mm2) %
Replacement
At Water
Cement Ratio
Of 0.65 And
Concrete
Grade C25/30
7
Days
21
Days
28
Days
>56
Days
100%OPC,
0% MSA
23.3 28.9 28.2 30.7
95%OPC, 5%
MSA
20.4 23.8 23.3 24.9
90%OPC,
10% MSA
13.6 15.1 17.1 17.8
80%OPC,
20% MSA
12.2 13.6 14.2 14.2
75%OPC,
25% MSA
12.7 14.0 14.7 14.7

Weight and Density of MSA Concrete
The weight (kg) and density (kg/m
3
) is as tabulated below for various
percentage replacement ratios at 7, 21 and 28 days of

crushing.


100

Table 5: Weight (kg), Density (kg/m3) VS % Replacement at Water

%
Replacement
at water
cement ratio
of 0.60 and
concrete
grade
C25/30
Crushing
Days
Weight
(kg)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
7 7.961 2359
21 7.959 2358
28 8.090 2397
>56 8.014 2375
0%
Average 8.006 2372
7 7.980 2364
21 8.026 2378
28 8.015 2375
>56 7.968 2361
5%
Average 7.997 2370
7 7.866 2331
21 7.889 2337
28 7.926 2348
>56 7.880 2335
10%
Average 7.890 2338

7 7.971 2362
21 7.983 2365
28 7.995 2369
>56 7.991 2344
15%
Average 7.985 2360
7 7.833 2321
21 7.871 2332
28 7.890 2338
>56 7.873 2333
20%
Average 7.867 2331
7 7.953 2356
21 7.953 2356
28 7.926 2348
>56 7.883 2336
25%

Average 7.929 2349

Oseni
101


102

Table 6: Weight (kg), Density (kg/m3) VS % Replacement at
Water cement ratio of 0.65 and Concrete Grade C25/30

%
Replacement
at Water
Cement
Ratio of 0.65
and
Concrete
Grade
C25/30
Crushing
Days
Weight
(kg)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
7 7.889 2337
21 7.869 2331
28 7.916 2345
>56 7.874 2333
0%
Average 7.887 2337
7 7.942 2353
21 7.974 2363
28 7.916 2345
>56 7.882 2335
5%
Average 7.929 2349
7 7.836 2320
21 7.827 2319
28 7.882 2335
>56 7.866 2331
10%
Average 7.853 2326
7 7.955 2357
21 7.926 2348
28 7.923 2348
>56 7.959 2358

20%

Average 7.941 2353
7 7.790 2308
21 7.765 2301
28 7.806 2313
>56 7.717 2287
25%
Average 7.770 2302

Oseni
103

CONCLUSION

The result from this research in progress (WIP) shows that:
* MSA concrete can be used for replacement of Portland cement in
concrete
* The compressive strength shows that the mechanical property for the
concrete even at 28days is 20N/mm2 for 25% MSA concrete and it is
influenced by the increase in water cement ratio, it reduced the
compressive strength significantly.

104

* The density of MSA concrete is very comparable with the normal
concrete at 0% MSA even with the increase in water cement ratio.

* The workability of the concrete decreases as the percentage of MSA
increases but still workable at 25% MSA replacement.

LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
Since this work is in progress the following has not been achieved:
* Chemical characterisation of the Millet Stem Ash
* Morphology and microstructure of the concrete made from MSA
concrete.
* Influence of Initial and final set time of MSA concrete.
* The shrinkage and creep test to determine the long term suitability of
MSA concrete for structural elements in structures is still in progress.

RECOMMENDATIONS
All samples MSA concrete evaluated for C25/30 and water cement ratio
revealed that:
MSA concrete could be used for concrete at 15% replacement at water
cement ratio of 0.60 and 5% at water cement ratio of 0.65.
The MSA concrete is of the same weight and density with normal
concrete at 0% but decreases as % MSA increases.
The workability of the MSA concrete decreases as the % MSA increases
becoming unworkable at water cement ratio of 0.60 but more workable
at 0.65 water cement ratio..

REFERENCES

American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM (1981). C618, Specification
for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolana for Use as
Mineral/Admixture in Portland cement.

Oseni
105

American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM C-157 Standard Test
Method or Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and
Concrete.

American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM C-512 Standard Test
Method for Creep in Compression.

ASTM C 33. Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, 1994.

ASTM C 109. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Hydraulic Cement Mortars, 1993.

ASTM C 512. Standard Test Method for Creep of Concrete in
Compression, 1992.

Bamidele, I. and Dahunsi, O. (2002), Properties of Periwinkle-Granite
Concrete. Journal of Civil Engineering, JKUAT. Vol.8, 2002. pp. 27-36.

British Standard Institution (1973). BS12, Ordinary and Rapidly
Hardening Portland cement.

British Standard Institution (1995). BS812, Testing Aggregates.

British Standard Institution (1997). BS5328, Method of Specifying
Concrete Mixes.
Duna S. and Mofoke A.L.E (2004). Evaluation of some Engineering
Properties of Laterite blocks made with extracts of locust beans.
Nigerian Journal of Engineering Research and Development. Vol.3 No. 1
pg 18.

Elinwa A.U and Awari I.A (2001). Groundnut Hush Ash concrete.
Nigerian Journal of Engineering Management. Vol.12 No 1 pp 8-15.


106

El-Sayed M.A and El-Sanmi T.M (2006). Physical and Chemical
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Falade, F. A. and Ikponmwosa, E. E. (2006), Scope of Bamboo
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Ikponmwosa, E. and Falade F. (2006), A Study on the Properties of
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Vol.3, No.1. p46-55.

Okafor, F. O. (1988), Palm Kernel Shell as a Lightweight Aggregate in
Concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 18/6.0, 901-910.

Okpala O.C (1987). Rice Husk Ash as a Partial Replacement of Cement
in Concrete. Proceedings of Annual Conference. Nigerian Society of
Engineers.

Olanipekun, E. A., Olusola, K. O. and Ata, O. (2006), A Comparative
Study of Concrete Properties Using Coconut Shell and Palm Kernel Shell
as Coarse Aggregate. Building and Environment, Vol.41/3, 297-301.

Oluyemi-Ayibiowu B.D and Aderinola O.S (2007). Evaluation of kernel
Shells as Construction Materials for Low Cost Houses. Nigerian Journal of
Engineering Management. Vol. 8 No 3 pg 10.

Oseni
107

and Harnessing of the Potentials in Nigeria

Ikwuanusi, E.N and Ozioko, S.U

Gifted children can help this country in many ways. This is why
Plato advocated for their proper training for ruling the country in
his state. Identifying gifted children is an important task, since a
gifted child has to be identified before considering the training to be
given to him. The work used test items constructed by the
researchers and identified a gifted child in Owerri North LGA of
Imo state. The finding proved that there are gifted children one out
of every forty) in the primary schools; also that they could be
identified using individual constructed tests.

INTRODUCTION
Many authors have defined giftedness in different ways depending on the
dimension one wants to view it. Chauhan (1996) looked at giftedness from
psychological view: -as individuals with 1Q of 110 to 140 and upward;
Social potentiality view: -as children whose performance is consistently remarkable in
music, art, social leadership and other forms of expression;
Statistically view: - as those who fall in the top 2 percent to 4 percent of intelligence.
Another scholar categorized gifted children into classes:
- A child whose ability as indicated by an intelligent test is within the range of
upper 2 percent to 3 percent of the population.
- A child having outstanding ability in a specific area of knowledge as art and
science. Luceto noted that not only that gifted children have high intellectual
power but that they could be future problem solvers, innovators and evaluators
of the culture if adequate educational experiences are provided to them.


Ikwuanusi, E.N and Ozioko, S.U are Lecturers; Department of Integrated Science . Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri , Nigeria
(c) 2012 R.Durson Associates @http:// www.rdursonassociates.com
108

Characteristics of Gifted children
There are various traits that are exhibited by gifted children. Sir Francis Galtan was
the first scientific writer to furnished both a comprehensive and description of traits of
gifted children. Terman and Oden also carried out the first full time longitudinal
study of gifted individuals from earliest childhood to maturity. Some of the attributes
of gifted children commonly listed by specialists include:
- Abstract thinking, reasoning, persistence, alertness and keenness of observation,
initiative, critical judgement and desire to be of service. Dunlap (1967) in
Chauhan (1996) included positive and negative observable characteristics in
his definition of gifted children thus:
- Children of high mental ability, learn rapidly and easily
- Retain what they learn without much drill.
- Show much curiosity as indicated by the kinds, depth, scope and frequency of
their questions marked by originality of thought and expression.
- Have rich vocabularies marked by originality of thought and expression
- Show interest in words and ideas as demonstrated by their frequent use of
dictionaries, encyclopaedias and other resource books.
- Reason things out.
- Think clearly and precisely.
- Comprehend quickly.
- Have the ability to generalize to see relationships and make logical association.
- Examine, tabulate, classify, collect and keep records.
- Know and appreciate many things of which other children are unaware.
- Are interested at an early age in the nature of man and his universe.
- Seek older companion among children enjoy adults.
- Possess a good sense of humour.
- Are cheerful.
- Have a strong desire to excel.
109

The Negative Characteristics Include:
- They are often restless, inattentive and disturbing or annoying to people around
them.
- Poor in spelling, careless in hand writing or inaccurate in arithmetic because
they are inpatient with details requiring rote learning and drill.
- Indifferent towards class work when uninterested.
- Outspokenly critical both of themselves and of others. (Encyclopaedia of
Education).

IDENTIFICATION OF GIFTED CHILDREN
Gifted children need to be identified before they can be helped Kirk 1958 noted that
In every generation many gifted children pass through school unidentified and
uncultivated children from low socioeconomic or foreign cultures whose lack of
verbal ability conceals their merit; those who have dropped out of school for economic
reasons; those from minority group and those with emotional problems are often not
detected as potentially gifted.

Methods that can be used in identifying giftedness include Individual intelligence
test, group intelligence test, Achievement test batteries, teacher observation and
records. Depending on the criterion for identifying them and the type of community
being studied, these methods have their limitations. No one method provides adequate
identification of all children with high mental ability. Teachers judgments based on
individual characteristics and classroom attainment need to be enforced by group
intelligence and achievement tests and all findings substantiated by individual test.
Kirk (1958); Dunlap (1967) and Chauhan (1996) noted that the subjective
evaluation, such as the teachers or parents referral, needs to be checked by more
objective measurement of ability such as standardized tests.

Ikwuanusi, and Ozioko

110
Research Hypotheses
Two research hypotheses were formulated and used to guide the research.

H0
1
- There are no gifted persons / pupils in some of the primary Schools in Nigeria.
H0
2
Test items constructed by individuals may not be used to identify gifted children
in primary schools in Nigeria.

Sample
The researcher used 40 primary six pupils from four public primary schools in Owerri
North LGAof Imo State. These schools were randomly selected. The first ten pupils in
the class (i.e position on third term result of primary five) from each school were used
for the study.

Instrument
Based on the primary five work in Mathematics, Agricultural Science, Basic Science
and Basic technology and bearing in mind the attributes expected of a gifted child,
the researcher constructed 50 test items of various types (objectives, fill in the words,
choose the correct options, calculating, rearrangement of words, recalling of events,
using common words, sorting into likes , true or false etc). The test was given to
experts for validation.

Data Collection
With the help of some of the school teachers the test was administered to the sampled
10 pupils from each school (ie 40 pupils). The answered papers were collected. The
papers were marked and scored.

Data Analysis
The scores were grouped and subjected to stanine standardization.


111

Result
Table 1 Stanine Corresponding % and Score Groups
Stanine
points
Stanine
corresponding
percentage
Score
point
approximate
score points
Score
point
cum
Score
group
9 4 1.6 1 1 -1
8 7 2.8 3 4 2-4
7 12 4.8 5 9 5-9
6 17 6.8 7 16 10-16
5 20 8.0 8 24 17-24
4 17 6.8 7 31 25-31
3 12 4.8 5 36 32-36
2 7 2.8 3 39 37-39
1 4 1.6 1 40 40-

Ikwuanusi, and Ozioko

112

TABLE 2
Raw Scores and The Corresponding Staine Group
Pupils Scores Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
Stanine Group
8 1 1 9
10
11
2
1
3
4
8
12
14
17
2
2
1
6
8
9
7
18
19
21
22
2
2
1
1
11
13
14
15
6
23
24
25
3
4
2
18
22
24
5
26
27
28
3
2
2
27
29
31
4
31
34
2
3
33
36
3
35
36
37
1
1
1
37
38
39
2
38 1 40 1

From the test scores on Stanine Scores, the researchers found out that those students
who scored 38 and above fall in the Stanine 1 and therefore are termed the gifted
children.

DISCUSSION
It was noted that only one pupil out of the 40 children tested was found under the
group that scored 38 and above. This means 2.5 percent of the sampled pupils.
Therefore only one pupil said to be gifted in the primary six pupils of the schools


113

sampled. This finding corresponds with the definition of (Cheuhan 1996) that gifted
childs score ranges from2percent to 3 percent of the population in an intelligent test.

The research hypotheses 1 and 2 were therefore rejected because there are gifted
children in the primary schools and individually constructed tests can be used to
identify such gifted children in primary schools.

RECOMMENDATION
Examination bodies should use tests of different types to identify gifted children
before they enter secondary school, so that such children should be given appropriate
education to develop his their potentials.

REFERENCES
Chauhan, S.S (1996). Advanced Educational psychology Sixth Revised Ed. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD

Encyclopaedia of Education.Vol.4 Macmillan free Press.

Kirk S.A ( 1958).Educating Exceptional Children.
NSSE, Part 11.Education for the gifted.

Ikwuanusi, and Ozioko,

114

Ipomea Batatas (Sweet Potatoes):
A Sustainable Source of Food and Ethanol for the
Achievement of Millennium Development Goals.

Ogbuneke R. U., Ngwu S. U., and Okonkwo S. I.

In order to address the problem of extreme poverty and hunger in
rural communities, a less known feeding stuff IPOMEA BATATA,
herbaceous creeping plant, that grows luxuriantly within the tropics,
but not widely cultivated nor popularly eaten by the local people of
Imo State, Nigeria, was investigated for its food qualities and its
potential as a sustainable source for the preparation of ethanol for
the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals 1 and 7, as
well as driving Nigerias Seven Point Agenda 1,2 and 3. Analysis of
the two varieties showed Ipomea batatas contains moisture 58.50 &
67.50%; crude protein 2.15 & 1.45%; crude fat 0.65 & 0.40%; dietary
fibre 4.56 & 3.2%; ash 5.35 & 3.45% and total carbohydrate 29.10 &
24.00% respectively. The calorific value of each was a well calculated
using the Atwater factors. Conversion to alcohol yielded one hundred
and fifty (150) cm3 of ethanol boiling point 78
o
C per three kg of
meal. Hence Ipomea batatas cultivation in the rural communities of
Nigeria would provide gainful employment; increase food sufficiency
by relieving stress on conventional foods; reducing hunger as well as
providing alternative sustainable source of alcohol for bio-fuel
production to ensure environmental sustainability required in the
Millennium Development Goals.

INTRODUCTION
Ipomea batatas is herbaceous creeping plant that grows luxuriantly in the tropics. It is
not widely cultivated, nor properly eaten by Nigerians when compared with other
tubers like yams (Dioscorea spp); cocoyams (Xanthesoma spp, Colocasia spp),
cassava (Manihot spp); cereals like maize, guinea corn, millets and other starchy
foods. Its propagation is simply by the creeping stem though the tuber is capable of
producing buds as it is infact an underground stem. The life cycle is vey short (four to
five months) and the yield is high. The cultivation is not labour intensive and does not
require much input. People use it as cover crop to ward off weeds. There are two
varieties viz the red skinned and the white (yellow) skinned. When cooked it is sweet
and infact sugary.

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4 NO: 114-119
R. U. Ogbuneke is Principal Lecturer and S. U. Ngwu is Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri while S. I. Okonkwo is
Senior Lecture; Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Anambra State University, Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria.
2012 R. DursonAssociates@http://www. rdursonassociates. com.

115
Literature is replete with the nutritional properties of Ipomea batatas. Ogbuneke
(2005) pointed out that Ipomea batatas contains ascorbic acid to the extent of 10.57
mg/100g meal, while Oyenuga (1968) put it as 26.2mg. This work therefore, on the
first instance extends the knowledge on the nutritional values of Ipomea batatas.

The production of alcohol from renewable sources is witnessing a surge in recent
times . This is as a result of energy and climatic challenges that have come to the fore
front of public concern that gave rise to the Seventh Goal of the Millennium
Development Goals. Consequently ethanol production from cassava is growing on an
international scale with production being explored in Thailand and more recently in
Ghana and Nigeria Agro 2, (2010). Production of ethanol from cassava if vigorously
pursued would impose stress on this staple feeding stuff and aggravate hunger. Hence
it will be beneficial to look for less known and less favourite feeding stuff as a
sustainable source of feed stock for the production of alcohol. This is the second focus
of this paper. Ipomea batatas (sweet potatoes) has been noted as having great
potential as feed stock for the production of ethanol Comis, (2008); Zimmerman,
(2011).

MATERIALS AND METHOD
Source of Samples
Red skinned and white (yellow) skinned sweet potatoes were purchased from
Ekeonunwa Market in Owerri, Imo State.

Analyses of Samples
The tubers were pulverized in a mini blender into a fine meal. The recommended
methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC, (2000) were used
to determine moisture content, crude protein, crude fat, ash, crude fibre, and total
carbohydrate. The moisture content was obtained by heating 2.0g sample in an oven at
105
o
C to a constant weight. The ash was obtained by incinerating 2.0g in a muffle
furnace at 500
o
C for three hours. Crude fat was obtained by exhaustively extracting
5.0g sample, previously dried in a hot air over at 60
o
C for two days, using a soxhlet
apparatus with petroleum either boiling point 40 60
o
C. Crude fibre was determined
by the acid and alkaline digestion method. Total carbohydrate was obtained by the
difference method. Each determination was in triplicate. The calorific value was
calculated by multiplying the mean values of crude protein, crude fat and total
carbohydrate by the Atwater factors of 4, 9, 4 respectively and obtaining the sum of
the products and expressing the result in kilocalories per 100g of sample.

Conversion of Ethanol
Exactly 3.0kg of the pulverized tuber (meal) of the white (yellow) skinned variety was
used. 2dm
3
of water was added to the meal to give a yellowish-brown colloidal
suspension. The mixture was stirred for two minutes for the suspension to settle. 10g
sodium metabisulphite (Na
2
S
2
O
3
) were carefully weighed out and dissolved in the
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL. 4. NO 4
116
suspension for preservation. This mixture was allowed to stand for five minutes. The
potato-water mixture was drained through a white calico cloth into a bucket. Further
1dm
3
of water was added to the residue in the calico and then hand pressed to drain
out all the starch. The process was repeated two more times. The mixture was
gelatinized; and allowed to cool.

Yeast Culture
200cm
3
distilled water was heated to 40
o
C in a beaker and 20g of yeast added. The
solution was stirred for five minutes and allowed to stand for two hours.

Diastate Enzyme
This was prepared by soaking two cups of maize in water overnight and allowing it to
germinate for five days. The plumule and radical were laboriously collected and
ground into a fine paste and used as source of the diastatic enzyme.

Fermentation
To the potato-solution was added the diastatic enzymes as well as the yeast culture.
The mixture was stirred for two minutes and set aside in fermentation bottles. At the
end of the fermentation (ten days), ethanol was extracted from the fermented wort by
distillation. Rectification of obtained ethanol was carried out to give a boiling range of
78
o
C.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results for analysis for the food quality of the sweet potatoes are given in table
one.

Ogbuneke, Ngwu and Okonkwo
117
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL. 4 NO 4

Table 1 Proximate Composition of Sweet Potato (Ipomea batatas)
Red Skinned White (yellow) Skinned
Moisture Content 67.50 + 0.11 58.50 + 0.05
Crude Protein 1.45 + 0.20 2.15 + 0.25
Crude Fat 0.40 + 0.25 0.65 + 0.25
Dietary Fibre 3.20 + 0.50 4.56 + 1.13
Ash Content 3.45 + 0.15 5.35 + 0.13
Total Carbohydrate 24.00 + 0.24 29.10 + 0.41
Calorific Value kcal/100g 105.40 136.85

The moisture content 58.50 6.50% was very high. This may be due to the fact that
the tubers were freshly harvested and were pulverized. The crude protein was low,
1.45 3.15%, this implies that this feeding stuff cannot contribute significantly to the
daily protein requirement of 23 to 56g as recommended by the National Research
Council (1974). Crude fat was relatively low 0.40 0.65%. This food therefore may
very well serve those who are required to avoid fatty food. Dietary fibre of 3.20
4.46% is not all that low and may be of nutritional benefit to humans. Ash content was
high 3.45 5.35%. The high level of ash may be an indication that Ipomea batatas
could be good source of mineral elements that are important for metabolic enzymes.

The total carbohydrate was low (24.00 29.10%). This value may have been affected
by the relatively high value of moisture content, since the carbohydrate was obtained
by difference. Considering the calorific values (105.40 136.85 kcal/100g), though
they are low for a carbohydrate food, however, since Ipomea batatas is not a favorite,
its cost is low and a low income earner. Consuming 600 800g of stuff would satisfy
the daily recommended value of 800 1,200kcal per day, FAO, (1973). The reduction
of hunger and poverty is one of the critical human rights areas identified by the United
Nations and captured in the Millennium Development Goal One (1). Cultivation and
utilization of Ipomea batatas (sweet potato) will go a long way to address this goal.
This is in line with Nigerias Seven Point Agenda 2 and 3 which are focused on
agricultural sector and the benefits derived there from.

118
The process of converting sweet potato into ethanol yields 150cm
3
of the alcohol from
three 3kg of the meal in a laboratory scale. The main features in the scheme for this
production is outlined in fig 1 below

Fig 1. Flow chart for the production of ethanol from sweet potato

Automation of this process would engender demand for sweet potato and radical
production of the sweet potato, and radical production of bio fuels which is
environmentally friendly. Nigerias Seven Point Agenda number one (1) is on power
and energy reforms. Nigerias ability to develop as a modern economy and industrial
nation would require her removal of over dependence on non-renewable source (oil)
for energy. There is need to diversify and pay heed, not lip service, to agrarian
revolution which is one of the implications of this paper.

CONCLUSION

The proximate analysis of Ipomea batatas was carried out. The two varieties of
Ipomea batatas are sources of carbohydrate, ash and fibre, Energy from Ipomea
batatas is low, however, it is not as low as not to serve as food.

Sweet Potato
Pulverize 3kg + water
Sweet
Potato fluid
Enzyme
Yeast
Solution
Fermenter
CO
2
out
Distillation
Feed Recovery
Ethanol

Ogbuneke, Ngwu, Okonkwo

119
This feeding stuff was converted into ethanol. Therefore Ipomea batatas can serve as
a sustainable source for the production of ethanol for bio-fuel production. Perhaps, it
may be the low food qualities of sweet potatoes that led Zimmerman (2011) to call
do not eat sweet potatoes so as to have enough for ethanol production and save our
cassava, maize, corn and other conventional and favourite carbohydrate food stuff.

REFERENCES

Agro 2, S.A (2010) Ethanol From Cassava .http-www. academicjour

AOAC (2000) Official Methods of Analysis. 17
th
edn. Association of Official
Analytical chemists. USA. AOAC International.

Comis D. (2008) Sweet Potato Out Yields Corn in Ethanol Production
Study. News and Events. Agricultural Research Services: US Department of
Agriculture. httpwww.academicjour.

FAO(1973) Energy and Protein Requirement. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO
ad hoc Expert Committee. FAO Nutrition Meeting Report Series. No 53. Rome.

National Research Council (1974) Recommended Dietary Allowance.
Nutr. Revs. 31 (12) 373 395

Ogbuneke R. U. (2005) An Evaluation of the Vitamin Contents of Four
Common Starch Crops of Imo State. Alvana Journal of Science 2(1) 13-16

Oyenuga V. A (1968) Nigerian Foods and Feeding Stuff, Their Chemistry
and Nutritive Values. Ibadan University Press.

Zimmerman C (2008) Ethanol Potential In Giant Sweet Potatoes.
Zimmcomm New Media, LLC. Http-www.academicjour.


120

Information Communication Technology (Ict): A Value Added Imperative For
Library Operation And Services In The 21
st
Century Nigerian Library

Oti Ifeanyichukwu

The paper discusses the history of IT in Nigeria and in libraries in a nutshell and
explains the highlights of the key house-keeping function in the library system
putting across the value added roles of the application of information
communication technologies in the services of the library ranging from the
acquisition subsystems the cataloging subsystem the circulation subsystem to the
serials as well the readers services subsystems. The CD-Rom searching and the
networks value addition roles to the function in the library occupies a substantial
part of the paper. It highlights the management strategies of planning IT in our
libraries and stresses the need for thorough feasibility studies of the library need to
conduct before embarking on IT for library use. Basic hardware and software for IT
are listed and concludes on the limitless of IT in the library.

INTRODUCTION
The primary assignment of any library are to collect, organize, preserve and
disseminate information top their particular users. Presentation of information to the
users are usually done in printed text, graphics, sound animation or still pictures.
Values are added to the presentation, when appropriate information technologies are
applied. If application to information service delivery in the library are easier when
relevant applications are made.
Modem technologies in the libraries create opportunity for greater global access
to information. The trusty of this paper is to focus the aspects of the library of the
present day library operation where performance could be significantly enhanced
through the application of appropriate it which emphasizes the need or in library
services delivery.
The different types of libraries we have performers various types of functions to
there parent bodies. At the center of the library operation, in them is one of providing
information to meet the needs of the users.

Academic library for instance, complements the teaching, research and
educational function of the institution they serve special library support
practicssioners at work with information they need to make decisions to further their
enterprise and achieve professional advancement, public libraries provides books and
related materials to members of the public for study purposes, for vocational, cultural
and recreational use.

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL. 4 NO 4:120-129

Oti Ifeanyichukwu i s a Chief Librarian, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Nigeria
2011 R. Durson Associates @ http://www.rdurson associates.com
121
Information technology (IT) in relation to the library, includes all the electronic
facilities and infrastructure deployed in the library to add value to the operations and
functions of the library thereby improving the efficiency of the services offered by
these libraries. Such electronic facilities are broadly mentioned as hardware's, software
and communication links between the service outlets of the same library and similar
outlets' of different libraries to facilitate the sharing of common resources, e.g. Library
networks.

IT IMPLEMENTATION IN NIGERIAN LIBRARIES IN A NUT SHELL
The earliest time when IT was introduced in Nigeria was in 1980 and by 1984
IT introduction to the library became noticeable. The first institution that embraced IT
in the libraries was with international institutes of tropical agriculture (IITA) library
and documentation center.
The libraries card catalogue was converted to an electronic format to create
information system named ALYSTRA. (Ayo, (2000). Further revealed that this project
was followed closely by federal institutes of industrial research Oshodi in 1988. Since
then, the application of information Technology has spread in the Nigerian Libraries.
Academic libraries in institution of higher learning were equipped with TINLIB
software in the early 1990's. Today, so many new software's are in use in these
institutions. Some government, parastatals and research institutes were introduced to
computerized documentation system/interpreted set of information systems micro
CDS/ISIS) software's as early as 1988. The National Library of Nigeria' (NLN)
followed immediately and want wheel to orange training on CDS/ISIS softwares.
Nwosu (2000) findings revealed that n less than 8 of the 17 federal polytechnics
then have computerized / introduced library systems. Many more are at different
stages of automation and computerization projects. The rate at which organizations
and institutions clamour for IT presence shows how important the roles are in the
services of the libraries.
Some libraries according to Ayo (2000) are using kin formation and
communication technology (ICT) for data base management, internet search, website
management and general online service for their users.
For whatever purpose and intent the involvement of IT in the libraries has changed the
operational landscape of libraries in Nigeria. Ononogbo and Ugocha (2012) posit that
in every respect information and telecommunication technologies have
revolutionalised our libraries and institutions and the ways we render services to the
users.
From the forgoing the future of library and information services in Nigeria and
all over the world is bound up closely with the development of IT. Value has been
Oti
122
added to as many of their activities and services as possible. Also many services have
developed using suitable IT in an appropriate way.
Four major areas of library operations are particularly amenable to the
applications users service, CD-ROM, are networking.
The extent to which IT application into this areas will now be described in some
details

ICT IN LIBRARIES OF 21
st
CENTURY IN NIGERIA
Information communication technology (ICT) according to Madu (2000) Oni
2008. Ononogbo and Ugochi 2012 is applied to the operation of accurate, precious
and relevant.

House Keeping Functions
House keeping functions are classified into four subsystems, namely,
acquisition, cataloguing circulation and serials.

Acquisition Subs stems
This section concerns itself with the selection and acquisition of books and non-
book materials by direct purchase, gift exchange donations and other means. Most of
the functions of acquisition section are repetitive.
Complications may result from repetitions in ordering of the same material or multiple
pay for the same material. With the application of computers based acquisition such
problems and complications are eliminated. The computer can easily print order ships,
produce reminders or cancellation of notices as well as financial reports even at short
notice. Madu (2001), Oni 2004

Cataloguing Subsystems
Cataloguing is one of the most important library operation well as the most time
consuming technical functions in libraries. The end produces of cataloguing provide
the much needed access of library collections according to Oni (2004) citing
Oketunyi (2001) automating the cataloguing section can facilitate the following:
Establishment and maintenance of catalogue database, names authority files,
subject file and local authority lists.
Online but the access catalogues (OPAC)
Inventory control, establishment of shelf list control record added copy control
and inventory statistics.
On line outline access catalogue (OPAC) is one of the computer devices that has
added value to library operations especially in an automated library environment.
Ajero (2001) explains that (OPAC) is a detailed holding of a particular library or
Oti

123
group of libraries or a database and to which users have direct access. OPAC gives any
user the library's outline an opportunity to search freely the catalogue database in
order to see if the library holds a particular work to be, informed of its location and if
the catalogue system is integrated with other household keeping operations to be
whether or not the item is currently on loan. Since the systems is currently on loan.
Since the systems are user friendly, OPAC have encouraged user of library resources.
The automation of cataloguing process has been enhanced by the use of
machine readable catalogue (MARC) which has been in use since 1968 by libraries.
"Using MARC standard of cataloguing enables libraries to make use of commercially
available library automation systems to manage library operations. It also allows
libraries to replace one system with another with the assurance that their data will still
be compatible. The problem of the back-log is eliminated by these automated
cataloguing systems instead of having plenty books waiting to be catalogued or
waiting for catalogue cards to be made ready. Human errors are eliminated. Oni
(2008); Madu (2000).

Circulation subsystem
The work expectorations in the circulation are involving. There are several of
them, which the applications of computers have helped to eliminate the respective
nature of the manual operations. Examples are:
Charging and discharging of books
Writing of overdue notices.
Reservation of book and compilation of accusation list of new arrivals.
Recording of lines and keeping statistics of use libraries with the use of computer,
these job are performed faster and with higher level of accuracy. The boredom
resulting from repetition of routine work is also eliminated Madu (2000) Oni (2008).

Serials sub-system
Serials section handle publications issued in successive parts at regular and irregular
intervals. Maintaining the operation of this section is a manual system or environment
can be cumbersome. The situation is totally different in a fully automated system. It
enhances the following.
Subscription
Information storage and retrieval
Which entails selective dissemination of information (SDI) services.
Management functions which might cover areas like management of work
performance or user service. Oni (2008) Oketunji(2001)


124

Services to user
At the heart of any library operation is services. Information communication
technology (ICT) has added value, is adding value and will continue to add value in
the delivery of quality service to users with all amount of accuracy and timeless. Some
of the service which have been revolutionalise through the use of ICT are.

Borrowing of Books
The changes occurring in the library at this points notices when a book is checked out.
Nar codes and laser scanned have replaced hand stamped, date-due stamp and patron
files are stored in a data base no longer in file drawers.

Home Service
Advancement in technology has made the provision of home services a pleasant
reality to library users. Patrons with a terminal and modern is their home or place of
business are able to search on-line catalogue for a book, place a book on hold or on
reserve, and request an inter-library loan.
France's government supported Minitel system in a pioneering effort in this
realm. It provides in-house services across the nations allowing telephone access to
regional libraries from any equipped home (international encyclopedia of
communications).

CD-ROM searching
The compact disc-read only memory CD-ROM has great potential for libraries.
Its potential lies in storage capacity, compactness, portability reduced, compactness,
portability reduced shelf space and durability.
The CD-ROM has the capacity for storing information over reasonable length of
time or period. CD-ROM combines text, graphics; audio and moving images and these
can be accessed using multimedia faculties.
Exciting features of CD-ROM are its ability to play a wide repertoire of materials such
as books, journals, directories, movies, games, video and education materials. Data
base on CD-ROM are durable, have huge storage capacity and retrieval is easy,
borrowable and fast.
CD-ROM will continue to be relevant in our libraries because of its cheap
production and maintenance cost. Oni (2008)
CD-writable
CD writable accessories have played vital role in solving the problem database
creation in libraries. It is now possible to write directly to CD. This has great potential

Oti

125

for storing archival materials. Newspaper database can be created in the library
thereby reducing the space occupied by the lack issues of newspapers.

Networks
Oni (2008) defines network as a way of connecting computers so that they can
communicate with each other and share resources like printers and storage space, and
went ahead to state that, the internet is the biggest global computer network.
Uhegbu 2007 quoting Sawyer and Wiliams (2003) describe internet as
commercial, non-project and military establishment and even individuals of computers
linked together by telephones lines world wide. Oni (2008) adds that the internet
offers a wide range of services which added value to library operation, there include
electronic mail, electronic commerce electronic banking, file transfer remote logging
www(the world wide web.)
Teleconferencing, video conferencing, bibliographic services etc.

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
Electronic mail is a simple way of sending text message to other people who
have internet access. it is a fast easy and inexpensive way to communicate with other
internet users around the world Oketuji,1997,e-mail is an important tool in the library
,inter library loan services can be provided with it.

E Commerce
Good and services are advertised or purchased through the internet or libraries
are supposed to provide this services to their clients. Acquisition of library materials
can be done on the internet.

E Banking:
Money can either be sent or received at the internet speed allover the world. This will
improve the payment of materials purchased overseas.

Bibliographic Services.
These are libraries on disk, there are also known as information utilities. Oni (2008)
citing Mejabi (1992) explains that bibliographic services are available virtually round
the clock from any place where there is a computer with a modem. This is unlike the
outline libraries which may be located some distance away any open only on a certain
number of hours per week. Through bibliographic services hundreds of client can use
the same materials at the same time.

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES VOL. 4 NO 4

126
The World Wide Web (www) what drives the intern wet today is www. It
accommodates and allows all kinds of documents containing tests, video sound and
dynamic graphics or pictures to be hyperlinked together. The entire collection of these
documents, stored in computer system (called web sites) around the world is what is
known as the www (woheren 11) Oni (2008) quoting Oketunji (1996) confirms the
effect of www access on libraries is enormous, when he states that.
One can now search and dis, play record from 18different LC files, including
the names and subject authority files by using the library of congress catalogue web
page. One can also view the public access catalogue of other libraries from this site.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The basic function of the internet is to transfer files from one machine to another
nomatter where in the word. FTP enables us the users to be able to receive files from
the network. Giant electronic libraries of computer files are provided by the FTP
certain computers on the net act as FTP sites log onto, to use file which the FTP site
would then send to them.

Video Conferencing.
Littrnan (1995) explains that Video conferencing can enhance the quality and
intensity of communication, engender a sense of responsibility and involvement
among individual, who could not otherwise meet with each other of policy goals and
objectives through consensual decision making.
It can also enhance remote collaboration, which has traditionally been limited by voice
only telephone or text only (e-mail) interactions video conferencing according to
Littman (1995).

..as a communication facilitator in an academic
library can enable librarians to hold interactive
sessions, regardless of location on such topic as
internet access and use, computer security,
personal information and privacy, intellectual
freedom and copyright.

The value additions associated with the incorporation of video conferencing in
librarians especially academic are numerous. Oni (2008) lists these specific
advantages.
Reduced Travel Expenses
Effective use of time
Flexible communications
Oti
127
Creation of virtual work shop is dispersed workgroup can be linked to
optimize collaboration on such subject as network services, user changes,
and the emerging role of the national information infrastructure.
Application sharing.
Littman (1995) further adds that high school students can be introduced to resources
in an academic library. Thus serving field trip and liability insurance costs. A
reference librarian can meet a student in a dormitory to review procedures of assessing
information on www.

Video conferencing reduces the isolation of librarians who telecommunicate to work
from home and optimize time spent learning. About new library development it also
support direct instruction in the use of online information retrieval strategies and
techniques to remote area so they can gain skills for conducting independent research.

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF IT IN OUR LIBRARIES
Some management issues need to be taken into consideration while incorporating ICT
into the library for effective services. Effective implementation of ICT involves.
Knowledge of recent technological trends.
A comprehensive analysis of library specification and requirement.
Identification of library goals and objectives
Clearly written policies and procedures
Management commitment and support
Ongoing use education etc.
A through feasibility study of the library need to be conducted before use. During
which some very important questions need to be asked. For instance questions like;
What are the ICT key capabilities ,advantages ,and limitations in terms of
library goals and objectives?
What are effective planning strategies and techniques?

What are technological requirements and alternatives?
Capabilities:
The major capabilities have to do with weighing the advantages against the limitation
to determine the final selection.

Planning:
Here the library managers should meet and determine the need for IT and prioritize
this needs for IT and prioritize this need with other needs in the library environment.
In addition they should determine.
Who will use the particular IT system

128
What are projected applications
What is the available budget
What are the merits and limitations of particular IT systems eg. (in video
conferencing system is it roll about or desktop in terms of library requirement.
What kinds of communication capabilities are required?
What reasons are needed to support this technology?
How will the system be interpreted into the existing library environment?
Feasibility study according to Oni (2008) quoting Littman (1995) can be carried out
with greater accuracy, the potential of the IT project and its likelihood of success. The
following additional questions can aid in carrying out the feasibility study.
What are total estimated costs for the system?
Are personnel skilled in implementing, operation ting and maintaining the it
system on staff?
Does the vendor provide materials for and actually conduct training
sessions?
Is support for the use of the particulars IT widespread or confined to a few
individuals?
Are staff and administration expectations concerning benefits of the IT
reasonable?
ICT fundamentals (software hardware) Basic IT equipment and accessories include:
Large storage hard disk
Overhead projection system
Video capture card
Scanner, digital camera and photocards
Laser disk
Video overlay card
Modem
Telephone line
To Connect To The Internet, A Library Needs:
A computer
A modem.
A digital telephone line.
An account with an internet provider (isp).

CONCLUSION
The benefit and value additions of ICT application in librarians are too many to
mention in few pages. It follows:

Oti
129
Accuracy, elimination of drudgery, speed improved communication, including e- mail,
computer faxing, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, provision of up to date
information, enhanced professional image.

However, the benefits of IT not withstanding, the instrument in ICT does not
guarantee successful operation in the library environment.

Effective implementation involve knowledge of recent technologies trends, an analysis
of library specifications and requirements clear identification of library goals and
objectives clearly written polices and procedures management commitment and
support and ongoing user education.

REFERENCES
Ajidero,M.I (2001) Internet Technology in the Academics; Implications Report
on Effective Management of Polytechnic Libraries 19
th
21
st
November

Ajileye,E.I (1996) Internet Technology in Academics. Implication for Libraries
in Nigeria in Workshop Report on Effective Management of Polytechnic
libraries 19
th
-21
st
November

Ayo, T. A (2001) Information and Communication Technologies and
Information professional in the Information Age: the Nigerian Perspectives, A
Compendium of papers Presented at the 39
th
Annual Conference and AGM at
Sam Mbakwe Hall, Imo Concord Hotel Owerri. 17
th
22
nd
June.
International Encyclopedia of Communication Vol.2 New York Oxford
University press 1989 (pp422-431)
Littman, M. K (1995) Videoconferencing as a Communication Enhancement.
The Journal of Academics Librarianship September.
Mbachi E. C. and Adeniran, T. N (2000) Information technology Uses and
Presentation of Resource in Libraries and Information Centers Odumatt Press
and Publisher, Oyo.

Nwosu, Olisa (2000) application of Information and Communication
Technology in Polytechnic Monotechnic Libraries in the 21
st
century. A paper
Presented at the National Workshop by NBTE Kaduna for polytechnic and
Monotechnic Librarians Nigeria 16
th
17
th
November Kaduna
Okentuny 1.(2001) Computer Application to Librarians and Libraries .making a
difference in the Knowledge Age. A Computer of Paper Presented at the 39
th

Annual Conference and AGM at Sam Mbakwe Hall, Imo Concord Hotel Owerri
17
th
22
nd
June.
Uhuegbu, A .N(2007) The Information User Issues and Themes, Whytem Print
Nig. Owerri.

130
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL. 4. No. 4 :130-137

Microbial Evaluation of Frozen Fish Sold in
Makurdi Metropolis in Nigeria.

This study was designed to investigate the microbiological quality of frozen
fish sold in Makurdi metropolis. The frozen fish samples; salmon (Salmo
spp.), sardine (Sardinella spp.), and Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) were
collected from cold rooms from three different locations in Makurdi
metropolis (High level, Wurukum, and Northbank) and analyzed using
standard methods. The temperature at the time of purchase was -18
o
C. Data
showed that the total bacterial count of the frozen fish samples from the three
locations was within the range (10
1 _
10
4
Cfu/g) specified by the International
Association of Microbiologists (IAM) for frozen fish with a mean microbial
load of 1.7 x 10
3
to 5.0 x 10
3
Cfu/g of samples. Total coliform per gram
ranged between 0 to 8.0 x 10 Cf/g, this also felled with the 11- 500 Cfu/g
specification of International Commission on Microbiological
Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) (1986). It was also observed that
microbial load of frozen fish samples from High-level were lower than others,
showing that they have the highest quality compared to the other samples.
The sanitary, storage and hygienic conditions in which the frozen fishes were
stored have a direct effect on the quality of frozen fish being sold at the cold
rooms.

INTRODUCTION
Fish is widely consumed as a staple food source and rich supply of protein
throughout the world Cooper, (2008). There is increasing demand of such good
protein over the last decade worldwide Nielson et al., (1994). Considering the food
habits of most Nigerians especially those living within Makurdi metropolis which is
made up of mostly starchy plant foods, most times the bodys protein requirement is
not met. Even the best plant protein is not as good as animal source, while animal
proteins are too expensive for the common consumers. However, animal sources like
fish if made affordable are the best option for combating Protein Energy Malnutrition
(PEM). Iced fish of different types are of great demand by the Nigerian consumers as a
relatively cheaper source of animal protein Whittle, (1997). Fish is an extremely

C. N Nwachukwu is Adjunct Assistant Lecturer, S. UOkorie isSenior Lecturer, Department of Food Science and Technology, Imo State University while M. A. Igyor is
Associate Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Markurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

2012, R. Durson Associates @http://www. rdursonassociates. com

Nwachukwu, C.N; Igyor, M, A and Okorie, S.U.

131
perishable food stuff, they are easy to deteriorate and the process is accelerated with
increasing temperature owing to a number of factors such as microbial metabolism,
oxidative reaction and enzymatic activity Gram and Huss, (1996); Koutsoumanis
and Nychas, (2000) Swertsvik et al., (2002); Giannini et al; (2007); Makarios-
Laham and Lee, (1993).
Seafood is prone to contamination at various stages of handling and processing
and the quality is a major concern to food processors and public health authorities
Gnanambal and Patterson, 2005. Fish is an excellent source of high quality protein;
however, it is susceptible to microbial load on the intestine and in the gills. The
degradation of fish is accelerated by microorganisms associated with aquatic
environments as well as contaminants during post-harvest handling. When fish dies,
microorganisms on the surface as well as gut and gills begin to utilize the fish protein
and food nutrients resulting in loss of nutritional value Ames, (1992). Rate of bacterial
spoilage is dependent on the initial microbial load, ambient temperature and improper
handling. Therefore, proper storage is critical in maintaining a high standard of safety
when processing fish Jay, (1992).
Although Makurdi metropolis which is in Benue State is a river town, the cost
of fresh fish is still too high for the common populance. Majority of the population
therefore resorts to eating frozen fish imported from abroad which is relatively
cheaper. There are several types of frozen fish and they include; sardine, white fish,
mackerel, cap fish, tuna, salmon, Karyadi et al., (2008). In Makurdi metropolis,
sardine, mackerel and salmon are the most commonly available frozen fish. The
microbiological quality and safety of these frozen fish have always been contentious.
As a result of this, the study was designed to evaluate the hygienic status and quality
of frozen fishes sold in Makurdi metropolis through microbiological tests. Frozen fish
from selected cold stores in Makurdi metropolis were analyzed for microbial load,
presence of indicator microorganisms and pathogenic bacteria using standard
microbiological methods.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sample Collection
Frozen fish samples; salmon (Salmo spp.), sardine (Sardinella spp.), and
Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) were purchased from cold stores from three selected
locations designated (W/M, N/B and H/L respectively) i.e. Wurukum, Northbank and
High-level respectively in Makurdi metropolis in Benue State and immediately
brought to the laboratory in iced condition by keeping in insulated boxes filled with
crushed ice for further processing.

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL. 4. NO. 4
132

Microbiological Quality Evaluation
About 10g of each of the samples was blended with 90ml of distilled water
using a laboratory blender to get a homogenous mixture.

ANALYSES
Estimation of Total Bacterial Count
Appropriate dilutions were prepared from the homogenate using physiological
saline and 1ml was inoculated in plate count agar by pour plate method as described
by Apha (2002). The petri dishes containing samples were incubated at 37
o
C for
48hrs. The colonies (30 300 colonies) developed on agar plates were counted and
calculated.

Total Bacterial Count (Cfu/g) = Average counts of colonies x Dilution factor.

Estimation of Escherichia coli
Appropriate dilution were prepared from the homogenate using physiological
saline solution and 1ml was plated by spread plate method on MacConkey agar
Collins et al., (2001)

Estimation of Staphylococcus Aureus.
Appropriate dilution were prepared from the homogenate using physiological
saline solution and 1ml was plated by spread plate method on Baird- parker Agar
(BPA) plate Collins et al., 2001). The plate was incubated at 37
o
C for 48hrs.

Identification of Fungal Isolates.
The fungal isolates were identified by visual observation of their growth on
Sabouraud Agar and also by microscopic examination and identification using
diagram and photographs by Frazier and Westhoff, (1978).

RESULTS
Table 1 shows the bacterial population of various species of frozen fish sold in
North bank, Wurukum and High level. It ranged from 1.7 x 10
3
to 5.0 x 10
3
with
frozen fish samples from North bank recording the highest count. Salmonella/Shigella
species were not detected in all the frozen fish samples. Escherichia coli was detected
in frozen fish samples from all the three locations with exception of salmon and
mackerel from North bank and High Level while Staphylococcus aureus was detected
in Sardine and Salmon from North bank.

Nwachukwu, Igyor and Okorie,
133

Table 2 shows the fungal isolates from the various species of frozen fish sold in
North bank, Wurukum and High Level. Mucor spp. was detected in frozen fish
samples from the three locations with exception of salmon from Wurukum where
Aspergillus niger was detected. All the frozen fish samples recorded fungal isolate
counts less than 30 Cfu/g.

Table 1: Bacterial Populations of the Various Species of Frozen Fish Sold in N/B,
W/M, and H/L

Fish Species TVC (Cfu/g) Escherichia coli (Cfu/g)

Locations Locations Locations
N/B W/M H/L N/B W/M H/L N/B W/M H/L

Sardine 5.0 x 10
3
3.2 x 10
3
2.5 x 10
3
1.6 x 10 1.1 x 10 7.0 x 10 5.0 x 10 N/B N/B

Salmon 4.8 x 10
3
3.4 x 10
3
2.4 x 10
3
N/B 1.5 x 10 N/B 7.0 x 10 N/B N/B

Mackerel 4.0 x 10
3
2.4 x 10
3
1.7 x 10
3
N/B 8.0 x 10 N/B N/B N/B N/B

Key
N/A- Not Available
N/B- North- Bank
W/M- Wurukum
H/L- High- Level
Cfu/g- Coliform forming unit per gramme

Staphyl ococcus aureus
(Cfu/g)


134
Table 2: Fungal Isolates Of The Various Species Of Frozen Fish Sold IN
N/B, W/M, And H/L

Location Fish Specie Isolate COUNT (Cfu/g)

Sardine Mucor spp. < 30

North bank Salmon Mucor spp. < 30

Mackerel Mucor spp. < 30

Sardine Aspergillus spp. < 30

Wurukum Salmon Mucor spp. < 30


Sardine Mucor spp. < 30

High level Salmon Mucor spp. < 30


Key
N/A- Not Available
N/B- North- Bank
W/M- Wurukum
H/L- High- Level
Cfu/g- Coliform forming unit per gramme

DISCUSSION
The frozen fish samples from North bank and Wurukum which recorded highest
bacterial counts of 5.0 x 10
3
and 3.4 x 10
3
respectively as shown in Table 1 would
have resulted from the fact that these products were not processed in these areas but
transported from High Level where they were actually first processed. Hence the low

135
count (1.7 x 10
3
) in this area against those from North bank and Wurukum. According
to Reij et al, (2004), poor hygiene and unsanitary handling of food are the causes of
contamination of food. This study has demonstrated that there were possibilities of
cross contamination that resulted from the improper handling of frozen fish sold in
North bank and Wurukum.The variation in bacterial count of the same type of fish
from different locations observed could be as a result of contamination during
distribution. This conforms as reported by Owhe- Ureghe et al. (1993), indicating that
most food products are contaminated during post process handling. It could also be as
a result of differences in storage conditions. The result obtained showed no indication
of decomposition of the fish sample.
The incidence of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in the samples is
of public health significance because coliforms grow rapidly at ambient temperatures
and spoil the fish in a short period of time, Geldreich and Clarke, (1966). Most of
all, biogenic amines such as putrescine, tyramine and histamine might also be
produced. These chemicals are responsible for various aliments in humans Tsaiyung
et al., (2002).Escherichia coli is an evidence of feacal contamination of the raw
material (fresh fish) which was inadequately processed or the utensils while
Staphylococcus aureus may be as a result of cross contamination. Nevertheless,
International Commission on Microbiological Specification for Foods (ICMSF)
(1986) recommended that total coliforms limits per gram for frozen fish should be
between 11 500 Cfu/g. In the study all the frozen fishes analyzed were within the
acceptable range.
The incidence of Mucor spp. and Aspergillus niger in some of the frozen fish
samples as showed in Table 2 could have resulted from contamination from air and
dust to which they are exposed during processing and handling as the mould spores are
known to circulate in the air (Frazier and Westhoff, 1978). However their count was
within the safe limit as specified by International Commission on Microbiology
Specification for Foods (ICMSF) (1986).

CONCLUSION
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the microbial quality of frozen
fish sold in Makurdi metropolis. The results obtained in the microbial counts showed
no indication of decomposition of the fish samples although there was presence of
pathogenic bacteria that are of health significance but were within ICMSF, (1986)
acceptable range of coliforms. Also the presence of Mucor spp. and Aspergillus niger
in the frozen fish samples shows is an indication of exposure to air and dust during
processing and storage. Although it was also observed that microbial load of frozen
fish samples from High-level were lower than others, showing that they have the
highest quality compared to the other samples. Overall microbiological quality of

136
frozen fish species in the different locations was acceptable although the results
constitute an indicator of bacteriological contamination. The work could be improved
upon by identifying the types of enterotoxins produced by these organisms and their
virulence at different levels at which they are produced in these frozen fishes.

REFERENCES
American Public Health Association (APHA). (2002): Compendium of Methods
for the Microbial Examination of Food, 3
rd
Edn. Washington
DC USA pp: 183-198.

Ames, G.R. (1992): The Kinds and Levels of Post-Harvest Losses in African Inland
Fisheries. Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome Italy.
CIFA Technical Paper 19.

Collins, C. H., Lyne, P.M. and Grange J. M. (2001):In Microbiological Methods,
Arnold, London p. 493.

Cooper, R.G. (2008):Are Fresh Water Fish Safe to Eat? Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol.
52(2): 209-210.

Frazier, W.C. and Westhoff, D.C. (1978): Food Microbiology 3
rd
ed.
Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Limited New YorkPp.243-255.

Gerdreich, E. E. and Clarke, N.A. (1966): Bacterial Pollution Indicators in the
Intestinal Tract of Fresh Water Fish. Applied Environmental
Microbiology 14(3): 429-437.

Giannini, D., Parin M., Gadaleta, L. and Carrizo, G. (2007): Influence of Raw Material
Quality on Quality of Iced and Frozen White Fish Products. J. Food Qual.
24(6): 527-538.

Gnanambal, K. and Patterson, J. (2005): Biochemical and Microbiological Quality of
Frozen Fishes Available in Tuticorin Supermarkets. Fishery Technology Vol.
42(1) pp. 83-84.

Gram, L. and Huss, H. (1996): Microbiological Spoilage of Fish Products. Int. J. Food
Microbial. 60: 171-184.


137
International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF)
(1986):Microorganisms in Foods 2. Sampling for Microbiological Analysis,
Principles and Specific Applications. University of Toronto Press, Tronto,
Canada (2
nd
Edition) pp. 22.

Jay, J. M. (1992): Modern Food Microbiology 4
th
Edition Chapman
and Hallpp. 199-233.

Koutsoumanis, K. and Nychas, G. (2000): Application of a Systematic
Experimental Procedure to Develop a Microbial Model for Rapid Fish
Shelf-life Predications. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 60: 171-184.

Makarios- Laham, K. and Lee, T. (1993): Protein Hydrolysis and
Quality Deterioration of Refrigerated and Frozen Seafood Due to Obligately
Psychrophilic Bacteria J. Food Sci. 58(2): 310-313.

Nielson, J., Boknaes, N. and Jessen, K. (1994): In Quality Index
Method for Frozen Fish. Proceedings of 24
th
Annual Meeting of Western
European Fish Technologists Association. Nantes, France. pp. 60- 62

Owhe-Ureghe, U.B., Ekundayo, A.O., Agbonlahor, D.E.,Oboh, P.A
and Orhue, P. (1993): Bacteriological Examination Of Some Ready To -
Eat Foods, Marketed In Ekpoma, Edo State of Nigeria. Nig. Food J. 11: 45-52

Reji, M. and Den Aantrekker, E. (2004): Recontamination as a
Source of Pathogens in Processed Foods. International Journal of Food
Microbiology 91: 1-11.

Swertsvik, M., Jeksrud, W. and Rosnes, J. (2002): A Review of
ModifieAtmosphere Packaging of Fish and Fishery Products- Significance of
Microbial Growth, Activities and Safety. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 37(2): 107-
127.

Tsaiyung, Y., Chang, S., Kung, H., Wei, C. and Hwang, D. (2002):Histamine
Production by E. aeregenes in Salifish and Milkfish
at Various Storage Temperatures. Journal of Food Protection 68(8): 1690-
1695.

Whittle, K. (1997): Opportunities for Improving the Quality of Fisheries Products.
Integrated Approach to Quality Proceedings of the International Seafood
Conference on the 25
th
Anniversary of WEFTA, Netherlands, 13
th
-16
th

November, 1995. Elsevier, Amsterdam pp. 549-560.

138
A Review of Demand side Managemtn and Climate Change
Mitigation on Electrical Energy

Lawal Abdur-Raheem Olasupo; and Adeoti, J. Adeshina

Climate change poses a great threat to the development and
maintenance of sustainable energy, particularly, electrical energy. Floods
and drought greatly affect electrical energy generation in this part of the
globe. This is due largely to overdependence on hydro-electric generating
system which accounts for more than 40%, and inefficient flood control
system. Fossil based energy accounts for more than 50% while small
renewables and low ghg emission types account for the rest. This paper
examined the contributions of Demand Side Management and other
climate change mitigation efforts on electrical energy. We discovered that
the United Nations protocol on climate change of 1997 is yielding positive
results. Europe has introduced many measures to dissuade member
states from releasing more greenhouse gases (ghg) into the atmosphere.
Renewable energy incentives, Feed-in Tariffs, Emission Taxes and permits
have been introduced in the United States and Europe to that effect.
Other measures on demand side management include distributed
generation, energy efficiency, load management, pricing initiative and
renewable generation. Nigeria is encouraging the use of Compact
Fluorescent Lamps (CFL). If Demand Side Management programs are
fully implemented, there will be effective utilization of generated energy
and the pressure on the generating capacities will be reduced. It was also
discovered that ghg emission will be drastically reduced. When 1kWh of
energy is saved, about 1Kg of CO
2
emission is removed from the
atmosphere.

INTRODUCTION
Climate Change as a Concept: Climate change, according to
Wikipedia is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of
weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It
may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of
weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather
events).


Lawal Abdur-Raheem Olasupo and Adeoti, J. Adeshina are Lecturers, Department of Electrical/ Electronic Engineering, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Nigeria.
2014 R. Durson Associates @http://www. rsursonassociates. com

139

Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes (such as
oceanic circulation), biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by
Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions, and human- induced alterations
of the natural world. The most general definition of climate change is a
change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered
over long periods of time, regardless of cause, IPCC, (2007), accordingly,
fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, do not represent
climate change.
The term sometimes is used to refer specifically to climate change
caused by human activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have
resulted as part of Earth's natural processes UN, 1997). In this sense,
especially in the context of environmental policy, the term climate change has
become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. Within scientific
journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while
climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing
greenhouse gas levels will affect NASA, (2008).
Climate Change Mitigation: This ishuman intervention meant to reduce
the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. It is also defined as
technological change and substitution that reduce resource inputs and
emissions per unit of output, FAO, (2008). According to IPCC (2001),
climate change mitigation means implementing policies to reduce GHG
emissions and a policy which enhances sinks. That is, an anthropogenic
intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.

Harmful Effects of Climate Change the Following Hazards are
usually Attributed to Climate Change.
Global Warming: Global warming is the long-term, cumulative effect
that greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide and methane, have on
Earth's temperature when they build up in the atmosphere and trap the
sun's heat. The average surface temperature of the Earth has increased by
1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degrees Celsius) in the last 130 years, and by
1
0
F (0.56
0
C) since 1975, National Geographic (2004).

TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO. 4
140

The effects of global warming are overwhelming. Other effects are off-
shoot of global warming. Some of them are discussed below:

Rising Sea Level: Global ice caps are melting at an alarming rate - since
1979, more than 20 percent of the global ice cap has disappeared. Sea
levels are rising, causing flooding and influencing catastrophic natural
disasters around the globe. This is linked to hotter global temperatures
(National Climatic Data Center).

Heat Waves: The deadly heat waves that swept across Europe in 2003,
killing an estimated 35,000 people, could be as a result of prolonged heat
due to climate change phenomenon. This has become a regular occurrence
in Australia. Extreme heat waves are happening two to four times more
often now, steadily rising over the last 50 to 100 years, and are projected
to be 100 times more likely over the next 40 years. Heat waves result into
heat-related illnesses such as severe sunburn, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and heat stroke Pasquotank/Camden/Elizabeth City
Emergency Mgt. (2013).

Storms Floods: Experts use climate models to project the impact of rising
global temperatures on precipitation. However, no modeling is needed to
see that severe storms are happening more frequently: In just 30 years the
occurrence of the strongest hurricanes (categories 4 and 5) has nearly
doubled. Recent studies have shown the relationship between
warm waters give hurricanes their strength, and scientists are correlating
the increase in ocean and atmospheric temperatures to the rate of violent
storms. During the last few years, both the United States and Britain have
experienced extreme storms and flooding, costing lives and billions of
dollars in damages. Christmas period in 2013 witnessed terrible floods
across UK, rendering thousands homeless and disrupting some essential
services. The town of Gloucestershire was reported to be under water for
hours in 2014, BBC News Feb 27, (2014). Between 1905 and 2005 the
frequency of hurricanes has been on a steady rise. Hurricane Sandy,
Lawal and Adeoti,
141
Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Katrina are examples. Devastating storm was
reported to blast South, and heading to the north of the country frequently
USA Today, Feb 27, (2014).
Drought: Drought is an extended period of months or years when a
region notes a deficiency in its water supply whether surface or
underground water. Generally, this occurs when a region receives
consistently below average precipitation (Wikipedia). It can have a
substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region.
Although droughts can persist for several years, even a short, intense
drought can cause significant reduction in power generation.

DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT
Demand Side Management surfaced in the energy market after the 1973
oil crisis. The United States of America and Europe were threatened by the
Middle East control of oil, which served as the major source of energy in the
world. In the electricity industry, the term demand-side management (DSM)
is used to refer to actions which change the electrical demand on the system,
Crossley, (2010). It is the implementation of policies and measures which
serve to control, influence and generally reduce electricity demand,
Bonneville, (2006). The author further described DSM as a major solution
to climate change. Brennan, (1998) says it refers to technologies, products,
and programs that involve reducing buyers demand for electricity by
substituting conservation on-site for fuel use.
A broad view of demand-side management according to Crossley includes the
following measures:
distributed generation, including standby generation and cogeneration;
energy storage;
energy efficiency;
fuel substitution;
power factor correction;
pricing initiatives, including time of use and demand-based tariffs;
green house gas emission reduction.


142

Demand Side Management Benefits
Reduces customer energy bills.
Reduces the need for power plant, transmission, and distribution
construction.
Stimulates economic development.
Creates long-term jobs that benefit the economy.

Increases the competitiveness of local enterprises.
Can reduce maintenance and equipment replacement costs.
Reduces local air pollution.
Reduces emissions that contribute to national and international
environmental problems such as acid rain and global warming
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON ELECTRICITY GENERATION

Energy Production
The IPCC reports states that climate change could erect energy
production and supply in the following ways: if extreme weather events
become more intense; where regions dependent on water supplies for
hydropower and/or thermal power plant cooling face reductions in water
supplies; where changed conditions aect facility siting decisions, and where
conditions change (positively or negatively) for biomass, wind power or solar
energy.

Energy Crisis
In 2001, drought caused energy crisis in the western part of USA. There
was high reduction of precipitation level (National Climatic Data Center);
hence, hydro and thermo-electric generation outputs were drastically reduced.
This resulted in tight electricity supplies and high energy prices A similar
occurrence was recorded in California and the Pacific South West. An increase
in drought conditions leads

Lawal and Adeoti
143

quickly to a shrinking water supply and a decrease in quality agricultural
production. A scenario in the Southwest of USA is shown in fig. 3.1

Fig 3.1: Percent Capacity Reduction in Hydro, Thermal and Other Capacity as
Affected by Drought Conditions in the Southwest of US. SOURCE: Google
images on fuel mix.
Despite the fact that hydro contribute less than 10% of energy mix (fig. 3.2),
its negative effect during flood is significant as illustrated in fig. 3.1


144

Fig 3.2. Installed Capacity Mix by Fuel Type in the US, SOURCE: Google images
on fuel mix.
Though, hydro accounts for only 7% generation, serious drought will affect
cooling systems installed in all other stations. This will gradually affect total
output.

The Ghana Experience
In the years 1983-4, 1997-98, 2003, 2006-2007 Ghana suffered from
serious electric power rationing due to serious hydrological droughts Bekoe
and Logah, (2013). 400MW out of 1180MW capacity was available.

MITIGATION ACTIVITIES
Use of Renewable Energy
Lawal and Adeoti
145
Small or large-scale use of renewable energy sources, such as solar,
wind or hydropower, is a popular project type that helps to reduce emissions.
Such projects help to fight land degradation by providing energy from
renewable sources. The decreased reliance on fossil fuels and fuel wood for
energy generation or heating reduces the pressure on forest resources.

Improved Energy Efficiency
This could be achieved by applying energy efficient measures which
improves the use of natural resources in order to reduce energy consumption.
This will indirectly reduce fossil fuels, thus reducing emissions and easing the
pressure on land resources. Several examples of such projects exist. Some of
them are discussed below:
In the medium-term, the mitigation options with the biggest mitigation
potential are:
Shifting to lower-carbon electricity generation options.
Significant up scaling of energy efficiency applications, especially industrial
energy efficiency and energy efficiency in public, commercial and residential
buildings and in transport.
Promoting transport-related interventions including transport modal shifts
(road to rail, private to public transport) and switching to alternative vehicles
(e.g. electric and hybrid vehicles) and lower-carbon fuels.

The Use of Solar Cooker: Solar cookers can replace biomass and kerosene-
fuelled cookers in rural areas, especially in Africa where average solar
irradiance is favourable. This will lead to reduction in emission of greenhouse
gases. One direct benefit is that the stress on other natural resources
traditionally used in stoves (e.g. wood) is reduced.
Demand Side Management Programs for Mitigation: Demand side
management relies on efficient technical equipment, efficient use of electricity
and better choice of equipment. DSM is usually a matter of
utilities(www.leonardo-energy.org). Distributed generation is another
important program.


146

Common Actions Recommended to Residential and Commercial End-
users
Check the adequacy between the need and the electrical standing
charge. This will translate to reduction in consumption and, eventually,
in saving.
All unnecessary light and appliances should be turned off.
All standby powered equipment should be turned off (TV sets,
microwave oven, etc. in house, computer, fax machines, printers, copy
etc. when not in use)
Try to install roof-top solar panels to help in reducing some kg of green
house gas annually.
Specific actions recommended to the residential sector

Reduce temperature of hot water (60 degree C instead of 80 degree C),
consumeless water (shower instead of baths).
Lids should be kept on when cooking.
Fridges door should not be left opened for longer than necessary (cold
air escapes), leading to energy wastage.
Hot or warm food should not be put straight into the fridge (need to
cool down first). The freezer should be regularly defrosted to keep it
running efficiently and cheaply. If it tends to frost up quickly, the door
seal should be checked. And if the fridge is next to a cooker or boiler, a
good gap should be left between them.
Washing machines and tumble dryers should always be used at full load
or with the economy programme. The low temperature programme
should always be used: washing powders are just as effective at lower
temperatures.
Closed curtains at dusk will stop heat escaping through windows in cold
regions while opened curtains will increase natural ventilation in hot
regions.
Reduced thermostat temperature by 1C can cut the heating bills by 7%.

Lawal and Adeoti
147
CONCLUSION
Much effort has been made on supply side management in form of
building more generating stations, transmission and distribution stations. Yet,
inefficiency in energy distribution administration has made the realization of
energy supply in Africa, particularly in Nigeria below 30%. Consumers are not
used to switching off unused appliances due to the estimated charge system
of the utilities company. This leads to colossal waste of precious energy.
If Demand Side Management programs are fully implemented, there will
be effective utilization of generated energy and the pressure on the
generating capacities will be reduced. When 1kWh of energy is saved, about
1Kg of CO
2
emission is removed from the atmosphere. Energy sustainability
will be guaranteed.

REFERENCES
British Broadcasting Corporation News (2014) Tewkesbury Flood
Grants for Small Business Owners.
Available:http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-gloucestershire-
26365462 Accessed: 27/02/2014.
Bekoe E.O, Logah, F.Y.,(2013) The Impact of Droughts and Climate
Change on Electricity Generation in Ghana.
Bonneville, E., (2006). DEMAND Side Management for Residential and
Commercial End-users. European Copper Institute, Brussels, Belgium p1.
Brenna, T.J., (1998) Demand Side Management Programs under Retail
Electricity Competition. Resource for the future, Washington D.C, p1
Crossley, D., (2010) Interaction between Demand Side Management and
Climate Change. IEA DSM Report, Australia. P1.
Food and Agricultural Organization, (2008) Climate Change Adaptation and
Mitigation Efforts in the Food and Agricultural sector: A Technical
Background Document from the Expert Consultation. Available:
http://www.dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/curiosity/topics/.Accessed:
04/07/2013.
Google Images (2014) Capacity mix by fuel type in South West of USA
Available:https://www.google.com.ng/search?q=capacity+mix
+by+fuel+type+in+south+west&sourceAccessed: 27/02/2014.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2001a) Climate change
2001: Synthesis Report.
A Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III, to the Third Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. NY, USA.
PP398.


148

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2007) Summary for Policy
Makers. In: Climate Change 2007).
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2008) What is in A Name?
Global Warming Versus Climate Change. Available:
(http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/climate_by_any_other_nam
e.html) Accessed: 06/07/2013.
National Geographic, (2004) Documentary Available:
(http://www.news.nationalgeographyc.com/news/2004/12) Accessed:
04/02/14.
National Geographic News (2011) Extreme Storms and Floods Concretely
Linked to Climate Change?
Available:http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110116-
climate-change-greenhouse-gas-floods-storms-water/Accessed:
04/02/2014.
National Climatic Data Center (2014) US Drought highlights
Available:(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/drought/2001/12) Accessed:
27/02/2014.

Pasquotank/Camden/Elizabeth City Emergency Mgt.( 2013) Extreme Heat
Available:http://www.pasquotankcamdenem.com/EMWebsite/index.php/
hazards, Accessed: 04/02/2014.
United Nations, (2007) Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Available:http://www.unfcc.int/essential_background/convention/backgr
ound/items/1349.php) USA Today, Feb 27, 2014 Available:
http://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2014/02/12/south-winter-
storm/5414119/ Accessed: 20/02/2014.

Lawal and Adeoti
149
Cumulative Potential Petroleum Deposit in the
Provincial Geology of Nigeria


Practically, in the industry today, petroleum refers to not only liquid
components (crude oil), but also natural gas-sometimes found with oil,
sometimes found with oil, sometimes alone and even solids and semi-solids like
bitumen, tar sands (oil shale and oil sands) which are the most prevalent form of
petroleum found in the world, with reserves more than 500 times as great as the
worlds combined proved reserves of crude oil. Nigeria is lucky to be
abundantly endowed with the three phases of petroleum in her Geological
province. For instance, Crude Oil is produced in Nigeria from about 500 fields,
ranging from the small ones of less than 50 million barrels each located onshore
and in the swamp/shallow water areas, to the elephant fields like Bonga and
Agbomi, which holds reserves in excess of one billion barrels located in ultra-
deep water areas. This is extended to the six blocks of the Joint Development
Zone (JDZ) oil between Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Sao tome and
principle in the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. The three structural and
sedimentary formations that have been recognized in the subsurface of the Niger
Delta Complex are, the Akata, Agbada and Benin formations, laid down under
marine, transitional and continental environments respectively. Almost all oil
and gas occurrences in the Niger Delta complex are located in the Agbada
formation sands. The porosities are often between 28 and 32 percent or up to 40
percent, while permeabilities are in darcies, usually 1-2 darcies. Many different
types of crude occur throughout the delta complex, ranging from heavy crude 16
API to light crudes 50 API. The oil found in the Agbada formation is a paraffin
type with very low sulphur and asphatene content. Ultimate recoveries in many
fields may be around 30 percent of the oil in place.

INTRODUCTION
The world Petroleum was first used by the German mineralogist Agricola who
described its discovery and refining in a treatise published in 1556. It was derived
from combining the Latin word for rock of stone, Petra, and the old Greek word for
oil, Oleum, thus literally it means rock oil.
Practically, in the industry today, petroleum refers to not only liquid
components (crude oil), but also natural gas-sometimes found with oil, sometimes
alone and even solids and semi-solids like bitumen. Usually, hydrocarbon is a term
often used interchangeably with Petroleum for any of its forms. But, this is not
strictly correct, since hydrocarbon consist only Hydrogen and carbons, whereas


Azunna I.B. Ekejiuba a Chartered Engineer is SeniorLecturer, Department of Petroleum Engineering Federal University of Technology Owerri,
Nigeria

150
petroleum also contains many impurities / trace elements such as oxygen, nitrogen,
sulful, phosphorous etc.

Well Fluids and their Characteristics
Generally, well fluids include.

Crude Oil
Distillate or condensate
Natural Gas and condensable vapours
Water

Crude Oil
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons produced in liquid form. The
AP1 gravity of crude oil may range from 6
o
to 50
o
, viscosity from 5.0cp to 75, 000 cp
at standard conditions. Colors vary through shades of green, yellow, brown and black.

Diatillate or Condensate
This is a hydrocarbon mixture that may exist in the producing formation either
as a liquid or as a condensable vapor. Liquefaction of gaseous components usually
occurs with reduction of well-fluid temperature to surface operating conditions.
Gravities of the condensed liquids may range from 50
o
to 120
o
AP1 and
viscosities from 2.0 cp to 6.0 cp at standard conditions. Color may be water-white,
light yellow, or blue.

Natural Gas and Condensable Vapors
A gas may be defined as a substance which has no shape or volume of its own. It will
completely fill any container in which it is placed and will take the shape of the
container.
Hydrocarbon gas associated with crude oil may be found as free gas or as
solution gas. Density (specific gravity) of natural gas may vary from 0.55 to 0.85,
viscosity from 0.011 to 0.024 cp at standard conditions.

Free Gas: Free gas is a hydrocarbon that exists in the gaseous phase when produced
under normal conditions. Free gas may refer to any gas at any pressure that is not in
solution or mechanically held in the liquid hydrocarbon.

Solution Gas: solution gas is gas that is homogeneously contained in oil at a given
pressure and temperature. A reduction in pressure and/or an increase in temperature
may cause the gas to be emitted from the oil, whereupon it assumes the characteristics
of free gas.

151
Condensable Vapors: These hydrocarbons exist as vapor at certain pressures and
temperatures and as liquid at other pressures and temperatures. In the vapor form, they
assume the general characteristics of natural gas. In the vapor phase, condensible
vapors vary in density (specific gravity) from 0.55 to 4.91 (air=1.0), and in viscosity
from 0.006 to 0.011 cp at standard conditions.

Water
Connate water was deposited simultaneously with the hydrocarbons in the
reservoir and can exist in both liquid and vapor form.
Water produced with crude oil and natural gas may be in the form of vapor or
liquid. The liquid water may be free or emulsified. Free water reaches the surface
separated from the liquid hydrocarbon. Emulsified water is dispersed in the liquid
hydrocarbon.
The molecular weight or number of carbon atoms present determines the phase
of the petroleum.
C
1
- C
4
: gaseous phase
C
5
- C
40
: liquid phase
Above C
40
: solid / semisolid phase

Thus, broadly, we distinguish between:

* Gaseous petroleum, referred to as natural gas or condensate gas.
* Liquid Petroleum referred to as crude oil and
* Semisolid and solid petroleum which include coal Tar, Asphalt, bitumen, Pitch
blende, gilsonite, albertite, grahamite etc.

Oil Shale and Oil Sands (also called tar sands) are the most prevalent form of
Petroleum found in the world. Reserves of these two sources are more than 500 times
as great as the worlds combined proved reserves of crude oil. Relatively, little of
these material was produced commercially until the early 2000s, because of the high
cost of converting oil-bearing Shale and Sands into useable petroleum products.

Ekejiuba
152

Table1: Relative Hydrocarbon Resource Size

Hydrocarbon Resource Estimated Total hydrocarbon in
Sedimentary Basin %
Conventional oil, (greater than)
>20
0
API
2 to 3
Heavy oil, (less than) < 20
0
API 5 to 7*
Natural Gas

4 to 6
Gas Hydrates **

10 to 30***
Kerogen and oil in Shales

30 to 50
Coal and lignite seams

20 o 30

*Mostly in unconsolidated sandstones (UCSS)
** Mostly subocean floor
*** Extremely uncertain because of poor and spotty data

Source: The New Petroleum Engineering Handbook, vol. V1, Chapter 5 by
Maurice B. Dusseaut.

On the other hand, natural gas may occur as:

Associated (solution) when it is dissolved in crude oil or water in the reservoir or as
free gas cap underlain by crude oil.
Non- associated when it occurs alone i.e. free gas underlain by water (natural gas
reservoirs) or as gas condensates reservoir.
- Natural gas reservoirs are those in which the contained hydrocarbon fluids exist
wholly as a vapour phase at pressure values, equal to or less than the initial
value, thus the natural gases do not undergo phase changes upon reduction in
reservoir pressure.

- Gas condensate reservoirs are those in which the contained hydrocarbon fluids
exist wholly as a vapour at initial reservoir pressure condition. Then the
reservoir fluid is withdrawn, the pressure in the entire reservoir is reduced, at a
point, liquid will be condensed from the reservoir fluid and a two-phase fluid
saturation will exist in the reservoir.
The techniques for exploring the different types of petroleum categories are different.


153
Table 2: The General Categories of Petroleum Reservoir Fluid Are:

Variable Heavy Oil Black
Oil
High
Shrinkage
Oil
Volatile
Oil
High gas
Condensate
Gas
Condensate
Dry
Gas
STO
colour
Black Brown
to
Dark
Green
Brown to
light
Green
Green to
orange
Yellow to
clear
clear
GOR
(Scf/bbl)
0-200 200-
700
600-1200 1200-3500 3500-8000 8000-50,000 100,
000

Volatile Oil: is oil that librates a lot of rich gas, even for a small pressure reduction.
Rich Gas: is a gas that, once expanded, is able to produce large amount of condensate
liquids.
Crude oil density ranges from oil heavier than water (5-7
0
API gravity), through
oil of 10-12
0
API gravity, up to the lightest crude oil called condensates with API
gravity of 57
0
API and above. Crude oils of from 27
0
to 35
0
API gravity are the most
common and constitutes the worlds production. Thus on the bases of these variations,
we have three major classes of crude oil.

* Heavy 10
0
-20
0
API
* Medium 20
0
-30
0
API
* Light 30
0
-45
0
API

Nigeria is very lucky to be abundantly endowed with the three phases of petroleum in
her Geological province.

For instance:
* Gaseous phase: currently Nigeria is producing gas from the following:
- Her very huge associated gas deposits both onshore and offshore including the
Shell Bonga filed.
- The Mobil producing Oso Gas condensate from Oso field in the Bright of Biafra
in Southeastern Nigeria, 3.5 miles offshore, west of Qua Iboe terminal, and near
the Cameroon border.
- The Totals Deepwater Akpo gas condensate field
- The Agips Kwale gas condensate field etc.
* Liquid phase: Crude Oil is produced in Nigeria from about 500 fields, ranging
from the small ones of less than 50 million barrels each located onshore and in
the swamp/shallow water areas, to the elephant fields like Bonga and Agbomi,
which holds reserves in excess of one billion barrels located in ultra-deep water
Ekejiuba
154
areas. This is extended to the six blocks of the Joint Development Zone (JDZ)
oil between Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Sao tome and principle in
the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean.

* The solid/semisolid phase (Tar Sands and Bitumen): Along the Nigeria border
with the republic of Benin and towards the north eastern fringe (the Okitipupa
structure) a band of tar sand (oil sand) and bitumen seepage occurs. It stretches
from just East of Ijebu-Ode town (Ogun State) to the banks of the tribulatries of
the Siluko River at Ofosu village in Edo State, an approximate distance of 110
km.

Also, Nigeria has Vast coal deposits. Coal occurs in several areas in Nigeria and it
ranges from bituminous to lignite.

LOCATION OF NIGERIA
On the world Map, Nigeria is located in West Africa about 10 degrees north of the
equator. Nigeria occupies an area of about 923,800 square kilometers (land area
910,768 square kilometer and water 13,000 square kilometer that is totally bounded 4,
047 kilometer by the peoples Republic of Benin (ex-Dahomey) on the West (773 km),
by the Republic of Niger (1,497 km0 and the Sahara (127 km) on the north, and by the
Republics of Chad (80 km) and Cameroon (1, 690 km) on the northeast and east
respectively, and facing the Atlantic ocean (Gulf of Guinea) on the south, it is bounded
by approximately 880 kilometers of the Atlantic Ocean from Badagry in the West to
the Rio del Rey in the east (figure 1).
Nigeria was British colony, but became an independent sovereign state in
October 1960. Presently Nigeria consists of 36 states and a federal capital Territory
Abuja, organized in a federation with a population of over 156 million (July 2006
census Estimate) and population growth rate of 3% (July 2006 Estimate). Thus
presently (2012) the population should be between 186 200 million. Largely because
of oil and gas, Nigeria has become one of Africas influential nations.

Geological Setting of Nigerian Provincial Petroleum
The general onshore/offshore petroleum and gas geology of Nigeria (figure 2) is
made up of seven major sedimentary basins and three subsidiary basins as follows:
Benue rift basin;
Anambra basin;
Bida or middle Niger basin;
Sokoto embayment of the lullemmeden basin;

155
Bornu-lake Chad sag rift basin
Dahomey miogeochinal basin; / Benin basin
Niger Delta complex (comprising Niger Delta and Deep offshore Niger Delta). and
Abakaliki rift basin;
Gongola rift basin;
Yola rift basin;

Nigerias Onshore consists of three areas of igneous and metamorphic rocks,
constituting the basement complex Precambrian and Early Palaeozoic. These Onshore
basins occupy about 178, 000 square miles, approximately half the total area of
Nigeria.
Precisely, the Nigerian sedimentary basins are part of the West African coastal
basins:
Several basins rim the Atlantic Margin of West Africa
These basins originated during the continental Drift that separated Africa
from South America. Based on the plate tectonic theory, the continents were, in
fact one over 500 million years, ago (fig. 3).
Similar basins are found on the other side of the Atlantic along the coast of
Brazil (fig. 4).
These sets of basins are believed to be analogues with a lot in common.

Nigeria owes its tremendous Suboil accumulation of oil and gas to the Niger Delta
complex (in the southern part of the country figures 5 and 6), whose sedimentary
basin, is one of the worlds most extensive oil traps. The Cenozoic Niger Delta
complex, onshore and offshore (shallow water) occupies an area of over 75, 000
square kilometers and is 12 kilometers thick in its central location. Less than 20
percent of this area is considered to be of prospective interest, while productive
acreage is, of course much less. The continental section of the Delta and its extension
into conventional offshore tracts are where 85% of the countrys current oil and gas
reserves are concentrated; the remaining 15% are buried in the deep offshore, under
water depths of more than 500 metres.
Thus, to date almost all Nigerias oil and gas are produced from this great Delta
complex, although gas and some oil has been found in the Anambra basin and oil has
been found in the Dahomey basin just across the frontier in the state of Benin. Again,
only hydrocarbon shows have been recorded from the other basins, however, due to
structural-stratigraphic analogies with the Chad Sag rift basin, where oil has been
found, the Nigerian Bornu sag rift basin is thought to have good prospects.
Ekejiuba
156
Niger Delta is a mature oil basin and is considered to be one of the most prolific
oil bearing sedimentary basins in the world. Its adjunct deep offshore basin was
opened in the 1991 (second) licensing round, and it is also proving to be just as
prolific.
The Niger Delta region covers an area of about 110, 000 square kilometers
(about 11% of Nigerias land mass). The estimated population of the region is well
over 40 million comprising: over forty different ethnic groups speaking 250 different
dialects across about 3000 communities. The percentage contribution of states to the
Nigerian oil revenue is shown in figure 7.
The three structural and sedimentary formations that have been recognized in
the subsurface of the Niger Delta complex are; the Akata formation, the Agbada
formation and the Benin formation. These three formations were laid down under
marine, transitional and continental environments respectively (Figure 8).
Thus generally, this Niger Delta basin, contains mainly Cenozoic formations
deposited in high energy constructive deltaic environments and differentiated into
continental Benin; Paralic Agbada; and pro-dada marine Akata facies.
The Benin formation, the uppermost units of the delta complex, consists of
mainly freshwater bearing massive continental sands and gravels deposited in an upper
deltaic-plain environment. The formation is up to 10, 000 ft thick and is 1000 ft thick
35 miles out from Bonny beach.
The sands and sandstones ranging from very coarse to fine, are poorly sorted.
To date little oil and gas has been found in the Benin formation which is generally
water bearing.
On the other hand the basal unit of the Cenozoic delta complex, the Akata
formation, is composed mainly of marine Shales deposited as the high energy delta
advanced into deep water. The Akata formation has been penetrated in most of the
onshore fields between 12, 000 and 18, 000 ft and in many of the offshore fields
between 5000 and 10, 000 ft. for practical prospecting purposes, the top of the Akata
formation is economic basement for oil. However, there may be potential for gas
dissolved in oilfield waters under high pressure in the deeper formations. The near
shore Akata pro-delta Shales were deposited on a shallow marine shelf and are rich in
benthonic foraminifera. Akata Shales also extend down on the continental slope and
rise in front of the delta complex as shown in the figure above.
At the centre of the Niger delta complex is the Agbada formation which consists of
alternations i.e. interbedded high energy deltaic sandstones, siltstones, sands and
Shales generated in numerous offlap rhythms, the sandy parts of which constitute the
very coarse to fine in grain size. Slightly consolidated sands with a calcareous matrix,

157
but the majority are unconsolidated, a property which has caused completion and
production problems. The sands are often poorly sorted, except where they grade into
Shale. Lignite streaks and limonite are common. Shell fragments and glauconite occur.
Shales are often hard and silty and contain mainly kaolinite and small amounts of
mixed layer illitemontmorillonite.
Almost all oil and gas occurrences in the Niger delta complex are located in the
Agbada formation sands and hydrocarbons are frequently trapped in dip closed Crestal
areas or against one or more faults especially on their up thrown side.
The most effective source rocks are the marine Akata Shales and the Shales
interbedded with the sandstones in the lower part of the Agbada sequence. The Shales
are denser at the base than higher in the column because of the normal process of
compaction. 12, 000 ft bulk Shale densities of 2.6 gm/cc can be expected. Shales
become silty and sandy upwards into the Benin formation and Shaliness increases
downwards and laterally into the Akata Shale.
The thickness ranges from 9600-14000 ft but will vary from place to place
dependent on the structural and depositional environment. The top of the Agbada is
drawn at the highest occurrence of Shale yielding a brackish or marine fauna;
consequently different tops may be picked in different places. Hence Reservoir quality
is closely dependent on depositional environment. The majority of oilfields have a
width perpendicular to the coastal trend of 1.2 miles and a length less than 5 miles.
The sand qualities have been described as almost uniformly excellent, even
though the sands are polygenetic. Agbada formation porostities and permeabilities are
generally high, and of excellent quality. The porosities are often between 28 and 32
percent or up to 40 percent, while permeabilities are in darcies, usually 1-2 darcies.
Thus permeabilities above 1 darcy are the rule rather than the exception.
Reservoir sands thickness fall within 50 ft, but sands thicker than 50 ft are
usually of a complex nature and consists of deposits laid down in different
sedimentary environments as part of transgressive and regressive rhythms. Wide
variations of hydrocarbon properties are known laterally and vertically within fields.
Due to the multiple natures of the many reservoirs, a relatively high number of
drainage points per field are required. In general the high sand/Shale ratio which
prevails in the Agbada formation allows for a large aquifer which produces the natural
efficient water drive that exists in many of the reservoirs. If no gas cap is present,
drainage wells are situated as high on the crest of each sand as possible.
Ultimate recoveries in many fields may be around 30 percent of the oil in place.

Ekejiuba
158

In most fields, the shut in bottom hole pressure range between 3000-4500 psi,
while in overpressured areas, these figures are greatly exceeded. Water salinities are
often very low at shallow depths. They increase with depth but rarely exceed 40, 000
ppm.
The oil found in the Agbada formation is a paraffin type with very low sulphur
and asphaltene content. The paraffin was content ranges from less than 1-12% and in
some reservoirs is up to 205. Many different types of crude occur throughout the delta
complex ranging from heavy crudes 16 API to light 50 API.

Niger Delta Crude Consist Of:
* A light crude which is characteristically paraffinic and waxy with pour points
ranging from 7 to 45
0
C.
* A medium crude about 26 API which is predominantly napthnic, non-waxy and
pour points less than 25
0
C.
It has been suggested that the heavy pour point crudes have been derived from light
crudes by bacterial degradation.
In Nigeria, hydrocarbons occur generally at a depth of between 1, 500 metres
and 3,000 metres below the earth surface. It is usually found in areas where there are
thick columns of sedimentary rocks (about 2,000 metres minimum thickness of sand,
sandstone, limestone, evaporates and shales of mostly marine origin).

Nigerian Natural Gas and Condensate Reserve Potential
Although light gas was notice at Ihuo near Owerri by Shell-BP in 1951, the first
substantial gas was discovered in Nigeria at Afam in 1956, the same year that the first
commercial oil discovery was made at Oloibiri in the present day Bayelsa State. Since
then, the trend of gas discoveries has been on the increase although operating
companies did not explore for gas prior to 1985.
Much of this is associated gas (i.e. produced during oil production), as many
Nigerian Oil fields are saturated, and have primary gas caps.
According to SPDC, on the average, about 1, 000 standard cubic feet (scf) of
gas is produced in Nigeria with every barrel of oil. Thus with 3.0 million barrels per
day (bpd), about 3.0 billion scf of associated gas is also produced gas caps.

159
From the 1960s, over 75% of this associated natural gas was flared (ignited) the
vented (unignited) until 1999 when the Bonny Nigerian liquefied Natural Gas (NLNG)
was commissioned for processing some of this associated gas into liquefied Natural
Gas (LNG) for export. The flared 75% associated gas was equivalent to about 500,
000 barrels of oil per day. Then also, about 9% was re-injected mainly by Nigerian
Agip Oil Company at both her Obiafu-obirikom and kwale-Okpai fields, while the rest
was used in the field for power generation. The gas recycling project involves the
separation of gas produced in associated with crude oil, compressing and injecting I t
into the gas cap of the same reservoir in order maintain the pressure at its former level.
Precisely, the Nigeria LNG project (at the forefront of the gas industry) was
established in March 1985 with the formation of an LNG working committee,
involving the FG, Shell, ELF (Total Fina ELF) and Agip, who signed the framework
agreement to exploit the gas reserves in Nigeria. Following the above agreement, by
1999 when the NLNG was commissioned, the feedstock comprised non-associated
from existing fields owned by Shell, ELF and Agip, transported through 217
kilometers of dedicated pipeline. The first two trains of the NLNG project was
expected to reduce gas flare in Nigeria by 50 percent, while the third train
commissioned in 2002 was expected to further reduce gas flare by 25 percent. To
accommodate the steady new non-associated gas discoveries especially in the deep
offshore, trains, 4 to 8 has been added to the NLNG project, from 2002 to 2008, and
about the same time plans for trains 9 and 10 started,. Total LNG production from the
10 trains is expected to be 40 million metric tons by 2015 excluding condensate,
Natural gas liquids (NGLs) and LPG production.

\

Ekejiuba
160

In a similar development, the Oso condensate, Nigerias first and largest condensate
field, owned by the NNPC/Mobil Joint venture and discovered in 1964 at Oso, 56
kilometers offshore Akwa Ibom with reservoir 183 metres below seabed, came into
production in 1992/1993 condensate is very light crude oil which exists in vapour
form in the ground, and it is usually not included in calculating any countrys quota in
OPEC, that is condensate output is outside OPEC quota and Oso field gas maintained
its initial rate of around 100, 000 barrels per day, with gravity 47, 40 API and sulfur
0.05%.
And on the other hand, total started production from her Nigerias deepwater
Akpo gas condensate field on 2009-03-09.
Nigerias proven abundant gas resources, made of associated and non-
associated gas stands at over 222 trillion standard cubic feet (tcf) of proven, and about
300 trillion undiscovered but recoverable scf of gas reserve. This represents 50% of
Africas gas reserves, thus placing Nigeria as the largest gas province in Africa, and
the 7
th
largest world gas province. It is expected that this reserve can go up to 600 tcf.
Thus, compared to Nigerias crude oil reserves, this huge gas reserves, estimated at 5,
000 billion cubic metres, represent a virtually untapped treasure. In specific terms
therefore, Nigeria is more of a gas province than an oil province because Nigerias gas
deposits out-weigh oil by far.

Nigeria Crude Oil Reserve Potential
Endowed with exceptional oil and gas resources, Nigeria is the largest oil
producer in Africa, the fifth largest in OPEC and the tenth producer of crude oil in the
world. The first attempt to search for hydrocarbon in Nigeria was in 1908 by a German
company the Nigerian Bitumen Corporation when oil seepages were seen at
Araromi area of the present Ondo State, 200 km East of Lagos.
The first deep-test well in Nigeria was spudded-in at Ihuo, ten miles north of
Owerri, in September 20, 1951 by Shell-BP. This well contained a little gas but no oil.
The first commercial discovery of oil was recovered at roughly 90 km west of
Port Harcourt at Oloibiri in 1956, in the present Bayelsa State. Actual Oil production
and exportation started in 1958 with a moderate rate of 5, 100 (4, 500) barrels per day
and this ushered Nigeria into the international oil arena. By the time Nigeria gained
independence in 1960, oil production had been established in the country and it was
exporting over 170, 000 barrels per day (bpd).


161
In a similar development, Gulf Oil Company first dug the nations number one off-
shore well in 1964 at Forcados. Following this development, the Nigerian Government
granted ten oil prospecting licences on the continental Shelf to five companies; Shell-
Bp, Mobile Exploration Nigeria Incorporated, Amoseas, Texaco mineral company and
Nigerian Guld oil. Each licence covered an area of 2,560 squeare kilometers and was
subject to the payment of N1, 000, 000. Thus began full scale On-shore and Off-shore
oil exploration in Nigeria. Oil was found at Afam, Imo-Rivers, Bomu, Umuechem,
kerokoro, okan, Okubie, Brass, Creek (i.e. northwest of Warri) etc.
Meanwhile, as part of its program to boost the countrys crude oil reserves, and
increase production capacity, the Federal Government of Nigeria, decided in 1990 to
offer for bidding, various deep offshore blocks in the Niger Delta. in 1993, a total of
eighteen deepwater offshore frontier blocks in water depths greater than 200 metres
but less than 1400 metres were awarded to thirteen oil companies, all under
production sharing contract (PSC) arrangements with the Nigerian National
Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) who are the license holder. The PSC provides for ten
years exploration activities and production license period of twenty years. Also some
of the blocks on offer were located in water depths of up to 3, 000 metres. Deepwater
exploration commenced early 1990s with high-speed three dimensional (3D)
visualization seismic method, and by the end of 2004 about ten deep offshore
discoveries has been made in Nigeria: Akpo, Bolia, Bonga South-West, Nwa / Doro,
Egina, Kuro, Ngolo, Ukot and Usan. Notably Shells field and the Texaco / statoil is
estimated to add about 600, 000 barrels to Nigerias daily oil production. Other
discoveries include; Erha, Bosi, Abo, Oyo, Amenam / kpono, Ime, Edikan, Afia,
Odudu, Ofon, Oso, Idoho, Agbami etc. The Chevrons Agbmi deepwater field is
about 133 kilometers (about 70 miles) offshore Nigeria, located in 4800 ft (1, 463
metres) of water (figure 9).
Subsequently, the quest to increase oil production took a new turn at the
beginning of the millennium when the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the
Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principle (her neighbor in the Atlantic sea
agreed to jointly exploit their Joint Development zone (JDZ), in the Gulf of Guinea
in the Atlantic Ocean (figure 10).
Based on the forgoing, a Joint Development Authority (JDZ) with head office
located in Abuja, was set up in February 2001 between the two countries to regulate
exploration and exploitation activities in the overlapping area of their respective
maritime boundary area of their respective maritime boundary claims, known as the
JDZ and it covered an area of 34, 000 square kilometers.
Ekejiuba
162
There are 23 exploration blocks in this JDZ and Chevron made the first commercial
discovery well, Obo-1, which lies under 1720 metres of water in block 1. The well
found at least 45 metres of hydrocarbon in several reservoirs. Potentially the 23
blocks could hold up to 14 billion barrels of oil reserves (figure 11).
As at 2006, Nigerias oil reserves stood at just over 36 billion barrels of
proven oil reserves, at roughly between two-to-three million barrels per day, and the
Nigerian government hoped to increase the reserves to 40 billion barrels and daily oil
production level to 4 million barrels per day by 2010. This target was later brought
forward to 2007.

Nigeria Crude Types
Nigeria has six export terminals including Forcados and Bonny (operated by
Shell), Escravos and Pennington (Chevron), Qua Iboe (Exxon Mobil), Brass (Agip),
and Bonny Island LNG (Nigeria LNG).

Table 4: The Different Nigerian Crude types

Nigerian Oilsands and Heavy Oil Deposits Potential

Nigeria is endowed with huge tar sands, as well as coal reserves. The band of tar sands
(oil sands) and bitumen seepages occurrences in the Benin (Dahomey) Basin are
restricted to the northern eastern portion of the basin (the Okitipupa structure).
Sub-surface occurrences of bituminous sands and heavy oils are known from
flows and shows in drilled and cored wells in the onshore, coasted and offshore areas
of the basin. Most of these wells penetrated horizons with highly viscous
hydrocarbons at relatively shallow depths.
Crude types Specific Gravity Sulphur
Content (%)
Bonny light (sweet) 0.8398 37 API 0.14
Qua Iboe 0.8398 37 API 0.14
Escravos blend 0.8448 36 API 0.14
Brass river 0.8063 44 API 0.28
Forcados 0.8708 31 API 0.2
Pennington Anfan 37 API

163
Exploration work on a 17 square kilometers area has allowed projection on possible
resource volume
Estimated probable reserves of bitumen by open cast mining method within
Ondo State in a 4.5 km x 55 km area is 16 billion barrels
Estimated probable reserves of bitumen and heavy oil (open cast mining and In-
situ techniques) within Ondo State in a 4.5 km x 55 km area are 42 billion
barrels.
Probable reserve of bitumen and heavy oil in the entire belt 110 km x 4.3 km is
expected to do that expected for Ondo State.

Some of the Properties Are
Bitumen content Average 10%
API gravity 14.6 to 5.3; Average 9.4
Specific Gravity 0.204 to 1.837; Average 0.968
Sulphur 1.3%
Molecular Weight 558667
Breaking Point (after Fraas) 10
0
C
Flash Point 89
0
F
Pour Point 20
0
F

Three potential project types (PPT) are envisaged for the tarsand resources.

- Small Scale Project: Asphalt concrete (strip mining) specifically, bitumen
production as a major component for road asphalt. Production level, 150, 000 metric
tons / year.

- Medium Sized Project: synthetic crude production (In-situ Mining). Mining at
depths below 150m using enhanced oil recovery technique (EOR). Projected
production 10, 000 bbls/day.

- Large-Size Project: Mega Mining Project (open Mining); focused on tarsands
activity within 30-50m of overburden. Processed by water / solvent extraction
method and expected to produce modules of 50, 000 bpd of synthetic crude.

Furthermore; Nigeria is richly blessed with numerous coal reserves. Occurrences in
Nigeria have been indicated in over 12 out of 36 States of the Federation; namely,
Nasarawa, Kogi, Imo, Anambra, Delta, Plateau. Kwara, Adamawa, Edo, Ebonyi,
Benue and Sokoto. Even the minor occurrences could be a pointer to larger and more
Ekejiuba
164
commercially viable reserves, which could be revealed by increased geoscientific
investigations.
Geologically speaking, the Nigerian coal is about 70 million years oil and it is in
sub-bituminous and lignite except for the Lafia-Obi bituminous coking coal. Nigeria
has the largest tignite deposit in Africa, with reserves of about 50 million tones. The
overall Nigerian coal reserves are over 2.75 billion tones (inferred), of which about
650 million tones are proven.
This coal can be processed to produce synthesis gas (SNG) or system liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) fuels. The following technologies exist:

Coal-to-liquid (CLT) technology Fischer-Tropsh (F-T), used to produce diesel
with low sulphur and aromatic, having high cetane number. Also, from the same
process, under high pressure and temperature, gasoline is produced while syn-
oil is obtained from coal hydrogenation.
Coal-to-gas technology. The coal gasification method changes coal into gas that
has the same heating value as natural gas.

CONCLUSION
The general onshore / offshore petroleum and gas geology of Nigeria is made up of
seven major sedimentary basins and three subsidiary basins.
The Nigerian sedimentary basins are part of the West African coastal basins
which originated during the continental drift, that separated Africa from South
America; based on the plate tectonic theory.
Nigeria owes its tremendous suboil accumulation of oil and gas to the Niger
Delta complex, whose sedimentary basin, is one of the worlds most extensive oil
traps with an area of over 75, 000 square kilometers. This basin is considered to be one
of the most prolific oil bearing sedimentary basin in the world, and currently it is
where 85 percent of the countrys oil and gas reserves are concentrated; the remaining
15 percent are buried in the deep offshore, under water depths of more than 500
metres.
Niger Delta crudes consists of both light crude (paraffinic and waxy) with pour
points ranging from 7 to 45
0
C and medium crude (napthnic and non-waxy) with pour
points less than 25
0
C.
Nigerian Petroleum reserve potential consists of crude oil, natural gas, oil Shale
and Oil sand.


165

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166


167

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169

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170


171

REFERENCES

James W. Amys; Daniel M. Bass, Jr.; Robert L. Whiting (1960) Petroleum
Reservoir Engineer ing (Physical Propert ies), Mc Graw-Hill Book Inc, New
York

Levorsen A.I. (1967) Geology of Petroleum, W.H Freeman and Company, san
Francisco

Carl Gat lin (1960) Petroleum Engineering (drilling and well complet ions), Prentice-
Hill, Inc, Englewood-cliffs, N.J.

Donnelly W.R. and Stelzner K.L. (1982) Project Development for Gas Processing
Plants and Facilit ies, the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas

Chi U. Ikoku (1980) Natural Gas Engineering (A system approach), PennWell
Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Katz D.L. et al (1959), Handbook of Natural Gas engineering, Mc Graw-Hill Book
Inc, New York

Ekejiuba
172

Niger ian Energy Digest Magazine, Vol. 8 No 219/220- June 30 July 13, (2008),
Landmark Goldlink limited, Ijora, Lagos.

SPE Petroleum Digest; The New Letter of the Society of Petroleum Engineers,
Niger ian Council, Vol. 3 No. 3, (2008).

Partnership, A quarterly Journal on sustainable Development by total E&P Niger ia
Ltd. No. 9 July-Sept. (2008)

Port Harcourt Petroleum Review Vol. 2 No. 1, Sept. (2009), Institute of Petroleum
Studies, Uniport, Niger ia. www.ipsng.org

Schlumberger (1985) Well Evaluat ion Conference Nigeria, Imprimerie modern du
Lion, Paris, France.

African Petrobusiness No. 3 June (2006) The Journal for West Africas Petroleum,
Petrochemicals and Solid Minerals Business, Energy Information Services Nigeria
limited. www.einigeria.com

Port Harcourt Petroleum Review Vol. 1 No. 1, July (2008) Institute of Petroleum
Studies, Uniport, Niger ia. www.ipsng.org

Shell Niger ia Annual Report (2005), the Shell Petroleum Development Company of
Niger ia Ltd, operator of the NNPC/Shell/Total/ Agip joint venture.

ENI in Niger ia, (2011), diary of the Nigerian Agip Explorat ion Limited

Bullet in (2011), Nigerias Deepwater offshore Frontier, Shell Niger ia Explorat ion
and Production Company Limited.


173

Compressive Strength Properties of Millet Stem Ash
Concrete in Structures

Oseni, Olumide Waheed,

Compressive Strength characteristics of concrete are substantial factors in the design
of concrete structures. Compressive Strength directly affects the degree to which the
concrete with stand load over time. These changes are complemented by deflections
in concrete structural elements. The focus of this research is to measure the
comprehensive strength of Millet Stem Ash (MSA) mixes with Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% and 35% to form concrete and to
evaluate whether they are acceptable for use in concrete structural elements. A
normal concrete mix with OPC at 100% (i.e. MSA at 0%) with concrete grade
C25/30 was used as a control at design water/cement ratios of 0.60. A MSA mix at
5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% and 35% of grade C25/30 and water/ cement ratios
of 0.60 and aggregate grading of (0.5-32) mm for fine and coarse was tested for
compressive strength, slump and flow test. The results and observations showed that
the concrete mixes from MSA at these % ratios exhibited: Pozzolanic properties and
MSA can be used as a partial replacement to OPC between (5-25) % mix ratio, the
weight/density is comparable to normal concrete and the workability decreases as
the percentage MSA increases.

INTRODUCTION
Sequel to the importation of most materials, the high cost of building
materials has made the ownership of house beyond the reach of most
Nigerians Madedor, (1992). This has resulted in shortage of
accommodation in every urban settlement of the country with the
attendant high cost of rent. Consequently, the use of locally produced
building materials, agricultural and industrial wastes and products to
construct houses has to be investigated and encouraged.
The objective of this research is to: Measure the compressive
strength of Millet Stem Ash a waste and sustainable material and deduce if
it has pozzolanic property and hence could be used as part ial replacement
to cement for building construction.
Until this time, most publications describe the performance of
agricultural products in cement pastes and mortars of rice husk ash,
sorghum husk ash etc as pozzolanic materials and compressive strength

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4 : 173-191

Oseni Olumide Waheed is Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Abuja, Nigeria.
2013 R. Durson Associates, @ http://www.rdursonassociates.com

174

properties invest igated, however, studies had not been performed on
MSAs pozzolanic properties and its compressive, properties has never been
investigated.
Basic concrete mix of grade C25/30 and design water cement ratio of 0.60
was examined for:
0% MSA/Cement, (0.5-32) mm aggregate mix concrete (Control)
5% MSA/Cement, (0.5-32) mm aggregate mix concrete
10% MSA/Cement, (0.5-32) mm aggregate mix concrete
15% MSA/Cement (0.5-32) mm aggregate mix concrete
35% MSA/Cement (0.5-32) mm aggregate mix concrete.
Each of the mixes was subjected to: Compressive Strength, Slump and
Flow Test.
Samples from the percentage rat io batches was obtained for the
concrete grade C25/30 at water-cement rat io of 0.60.

METHODOLOGY
The method, material and experiments and laboratory works carried
out to accomplishing the objective of this research was as follows:

Materials
The materials used in the production of the concrete cubes are sand,
gravels, cement, millet stem ash and water.

Sand
The sand was obtained at Gwagwalada-Abuja-FCT environs and
transported to Julius Berger PLC, Quality Control Laboratory, Mpape,
Abuja- FCT, for preliminary analysis for its suitability for use in
concrete.
175
Gravel
The coarse aggregate was obtained within Gwagwalada-Abuja-FCT
and transported to Julius Berger PLC, Quality Control Laboratory, Mpape-
FCT. The aggregate was washed and allowed to dry naturally, to free it
from dirt and impurities according to BS 812, 1975.

Cement
The cement used was Dangote cement obtained at Gwagwalada-
Abuja-FCT. The cement obtained is ordinary Portland cement and as such
found applicable in most construction works. It was stored in a place with
no direct contact with floor and wall. Grain size analysis of the cement was
carried out to know its suitability for the work.

Millet Stem Ash (MSA)
Millet Stem is a wast e product in millet farms in rural areas of
Gwagwalada-Abuja-Niger-Kaduna State. Millet Stem obtained was packed
into sacks to avoid mixing with already decayed once and also from
moisture or rain and transported to the Julius Berger PLC, Quality Control
Laboratory, Mpape-FCT. The burning of Millet Stem was done at the
Laboratory using the oven at 500-600
o
C.
Water
The source of water used for this work is the borehole water situated
in the Julius Berger PLC, Quality Control Laboratory, Mpape-FCT. The water
is potable and clean, which therefore sat isfies the required specificat ion for
making concrete as described in BS 3148 and is therefore suitable for
concrete production.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The study commenced with the collection of Millet Stem from farms
around Abuja -Niger-Kaduna-Zaria. The Millet Stem was burnt and its ash
Oseni
176
collected. The ash was allowed to pass through sieve 0.63 millimetres to
the same fineness of cement and was followed by preliminary invest igat ion
of the constituent material of the Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and the
Millet Stem Ash (MSA) to determine their suitability for concrete making.
Moisture Content Test
The water content of the materials was determined in the laboratory.
The weight of the different cans was noted using an electronic balance M
1

and small amount of samples was put into the can and weighed M
2
. The
concrete and its contents were heated in an oven for 24 hours. The dry
sample and can was finally measured M
3
. The moisture content was
calculated using the moisture content formula;

% M.C = M
2
M
3

*
100
M
3
M
1

Sieve Analysis Test
This test was conducted in accordance with BS 137712 by which
sieves used for the fine aggregate were 5.0mm, 3.5mm, 2.0mm, 1.18mm,
0.85mm, 0.60mm, 0.425mm, 0.30mm, 0.212mm, 0.150mm, 0.63mm and
the bottom pan. Sieves to be used for the concrete coarse aggregate are
as follows; 32.00mm, 20.00mm, 16.00mm, 14.00mm, 10.00mm, 6.36mm,
5.00mm and the bottom pan. The sieve mesh was cleaned using iron brush
to remove particles that they contain. The electronic balance was used to
weigh each of the sieves W
2
. The sieves were arranged and 1000g of
coarse aggregate W
1
poured in through the sieves and shake properly for
the finer material to pass through the sieves. The weight of the sieve and
its content were weighed W
3
and from this the weight of samples retained
was obtained W
4
using the formula.

Weight of samples retained: W
4
= W
3
- W
2
Percentage retained = W
3
W
2
* 100
W
1
177

Where;
W
1
= total weight of sample
W
2
= weight of sieve
W
3
= weight of sieve + sample retained
W
4
= weight of sample retained

Specific Gravity Test
Laboratory test was conducted to determine the specific gravity of
MHA, sand and gravel in accordance with (CP 100). The apparatus used
includes pycnometer, weighing balance, electric shakers, cylinder bottle,
dishwasher and spatula. 100g of oven dried was weighed and recorded.
Then water was added so that no part icle remains inside the dish washer.
The cylinder was dried and weighed to the nearest 0.1g (M
1
). The cylinder
and the sample was weighed on the weighing balance M
2
and the rubber
stopper was inserted into the cylinder jar; and immediately the cylinder jar
is connected to the electric shaker and it was shaken vigorously for 5
minutes until part icles were in suspension. The rubber stopper was then
removed carefully and any sample sticking to the stopper of the top of the
cylinder jar was washed carefully into the cylinder jar. This was added to
the cylinder jar unt il it reached the 100mm/mark. The sample was allowed
to settle for 3 minutes and the cylinder j ar was then weighed to the
nearest 0.1g (M
3
). The glass jar was washed thoroughly and filled
completely to the 100mm/mark with water. The cylinder was then dried
carefully on the outside and weighed to the nearest 0.1g (M
4
). The
experiment was repeat ed on the sample so that two values for specific
gravity were obtained in each case, the specific grav ity formula,

Gs = M
2
M
1
(M
4
M
1
) (M
3
M
2
)

Oseni
178
Aggregate Impact Value Test (AIV)
Generally the aggregate impact value gives a relat ive measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact, which in some
aggregate differ from its resistance to a slowly applied compressive load
with aggregate size longer than 14mm are not appropriate to the
aggregate impact test. The standard aggregate impact test is conducted
using aggregate passing sieve 14.0mm. If the standard sieve size is not
allowable, smaller sieve size may be used but owing to non-homogeneity of
the aggregate. The full detail of the method for use is described in BS 812.
Impact value was obtained using this formula,

% AIV = Weight of fine retained
*
100
Weight of aggregate
Where,
Weight of aggregate = (weight of penetrat ion + weight of pan +
aggregate) (weight of penetration).

Silt Content Test
This test was conducted in accordance with BS 812 (BS 11975). A
graduated cylinder of 500ml capacity was filled to about 50ml using salt
solut ion. The sand sample employed for this work was then poured into the
cylinder to a level of 100ml mark. More salt solution was added to reach
the 150ml mark. The content was corked and shaken thoroughly for about
15 min. The cylinder was placed on a surface and topped to level the sand.
The sample was left standing for up to 3 hrs. The amount of the
suspended material was noted. The volume of the sand layer V1 and the
silt layer V2 were recorded. Silt content of the sand was calculat ed using
the formula;
Content =

179
Batching
Material was batched by weight; measurement was done normally
using head pan and a balance. The empty weight of the head pan was
taken before pouring the sample into the pan; the weight of the pan was
added to the weight of the individual material to get required weight of the
specimen.

Mix Design
The concrete mix was designed in accordance with the Brit ish design
mix BS 8110. The method gives proportion in terms of qualit ies of
materials per unit volume of concrete. Care was taken in the select ion of
the design water-cement rat io of 0.60. Nominal mix of concrete grate
C25/30 was used in this research. The mixing was done thoroughly in a
rotary concrete mixing machine.

Slump Test
This test was carried out to determine the workability of the
concrete. The slum cone was placed on a flat non-porous surface and held
down by the foot. The mould was then filled in three layers. Each layer was
compacted 25 times with a tampering rod 16mm in diameter and 800 mm
long. After the third layer has been well-tempered, the slump cone was
removed immediately by raising it up vertically. The height of the slump
cone was determined. The measurement was taken from the top of the
slump cone to the top of the concrete. The slump was measured as the
difference between the heights of the cone to the height of the slump
concrete.

Placing and Compaction
Cubes of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm was used for the casting.
The concrete was placed in three layers and each layer was tampered 25
times with standard tamping rod. The top was levelled with the top of the
Oseni
180
mould. The surface of the concrete was smooth with a steel float and then
covered with a sack and left for 24 hrs.

Curing
The cubes in mould were placed in the laboratory for 24 hrs. The concrete
cubes were then strike out and placed immediately in moist curing tanks
for 7, 14, 21, 28, 90 and 356 days. After each of the stated days, the
cubes and was removed from the tank and allowed to dry in open air for 2
hours before being subjected to compressive strength, shrinkage and creep
tests respect ively.

Compressive Strength Test
The compressive strength of the cube sample was determined in
accordance with the standard procedure given in BS 2080 (BSI, 1970). The
weights of the sample were always taken before the compressive strength
was determined. Four cubes samples was crushed in the 7
th
, 14
th
, 21
st
, and
the 28
th
day respectively using the compressive strength machine The
compressive strength was calculated using this formula Compressive
strength = Where F = Failure load (N) and A = Cross-sectional area
(mm
2
).
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The quality of concrete made from MSA was achieved by carrying out
the preliminary tests, looking at the property of the fresh concrete and the
hardened concrete made from the materials the following results and
observations was obtained.

181

Properties of Fresh Concrete
The higher the percentage presence of MSA in the fresh concrete mix
there was a change of colour from ash colour to dark, decrease in slump
and flow and decrease in weight/density as shown in the table and graph.

Table I: % Replacement, Slump and Flow of Fresh Concrete

%
Replacement
Slump Test
(mm)
Flow Test
(mm)
100%OPC,
0% MSA
75 430
95%OPC,
5% MSA
64 360
85%OPC,
15% MSA
27 320
75%OPC,
25% MSA
20 300
70%OPC,
30% MSA
65%OPC,
35% MSA
Collapse and failed during
curing in the curing tank
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182

Fig I: Slump Vs %MSA for C25/30 W/C ratio of 0.60

Fig II: Flow Vs %MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

Properties of Hardened Concrete
The Compressive Strength of the MSA at 5% - 25% Decreases As Compared
With The 0% As Shown In the Table and Graph:

183

Table II: % Replacement and Compressive Strength of Hardened Concrete

Compressive Strength (N/mm2) %
Replacement
7days 14days 28days
100%OPC,
0% MSA
29.8 34.4 34.2
95%OPC,
5% MSA
28.9 35.8 35.1
85%OPC,
15% MSA
16 20.2 20.4
75%OPC,
25% MSA
15.6 18.9 19.6
70%OPC,
30% MSA
65%OPC,
35% MSA
Collapse and failed during curing in
the curing tank

Fig III: Strength Vs Days for 0%MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

Oseni
184

Fig IV: Fig III: Strength Vs Days for 5%MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

Fig V: Fig III: Strength Vs Days for 15%MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

185

Fig VII: Fig III: Strength Vs Days for 25%MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

Weight and Density of Hardened Concrete
The weight (kg) and density (kg/m
3
) is as tabulated below for various
percentage replacement rat ios and 7, 21 and 28 days of

crushing.

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186
Table III: % Replacement, Crushing Days, Weight and Density of
Hardened Concrete.

%
Replacement
Crushing
Days
Weight
(kg)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
7 7.961 2359
21 8.026 2358
28 8.090 2397
0%
Average 8.026 2378
7 7.980 2364
21 8.026 2364
28 8.015 2375
5%
Average 8007 2372
7 7.971 2362
21 7.983 2365
28 7.995 2369
15%
Average 7.983 2365
7 7.953 2356
21 7.953 2356
28 7.926 2348
25%

Average 7.944 2354

187

Fig VII: Weight Vs %MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

Fig VIII: Density Vs %MSA for C25/30, W/C ratio of 0.60

CONCLUSION
The following conclusions were drawn from he work:
SA can be used for replacement of OPC in concrete
The compressive strength shows that the mechanical property for the
concrete even at 28days is 20N/mm2 for 25% MSA concrete.
The density/weight of MSA concrete at (5 - 25)% is very comparable
with the normal concrete at 0% MSA
The workability of the concrete decreases as the percentage of MSA
increases but st ill workable at 25% MSA but not workable at all at
30% and 35% MSA replacement.

Oseni
188
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ASTM C-512, (1992). Standard Test Method for Creep in Compression.
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ASTM C 109, (1993). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
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ASTM C 512. (1992). Standard Test Method for Creep of Concrete in
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Constitutive Law and Mechanism // Mater. Sruct. Vol. 18. P. 120.

Bazant, Z.P. , Xi, Y.P. (1994). Drying Creep of Concrete: Constitutive Model
and New Experiments Separat ing its Mechanisms // Mat er. Struct.
Vol. 27, No. 165. P. 314.

Benboudjema, F., Meftah, F., Sellier, A., Torrent i, J. M., Heinfling, G.
(2001). on the Prediction of Delayed Strains for Concrete Subjected
to Drying and Loading Simultaneously // Proc. CONCREEP 6: Creep,
Shrinkage and Durability Mechanics of Concrete and Other Quasi-
Britt le Materials, Cambridge, USA, P. 245250.
Bamidele, I. and Dahunsi, O. (2002), Properties of Periwinkle-Granite
Concrete. Journal of Civil Engineering, JKUAT. Vol. 8, 2002. pp. 27-
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British Standard Inst itution, (1973). BS12, Ordinary and Rapidly Hardening
Portland cement.
Duna S. and Mofoke A.L.E (2004). Evaluat ion of Some Engineering.
Properties of Laterite blocks made with Extracts of Locust Beans.
Nigerian Journal of Engineering Research and Development. Vol. 3
No1 pg 18.

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Elinwa A.U and Awari I.A (2001). Groundnut Hush Ash Concrete.
Nigerian Journal of Engineering Management. Vol.12 No 1 pp 8-15.

El-Sayed M.A and El-Sanmi T.M (2006). Physical and Chemical Properties
of Rice Straw Ash and its Effect on the Cement Paste Produced from
Different Cement Types. J. King Saud University. Vol. 19, Eng.Sc
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Falade, F. A. and Ikponmwosa, E. E. (2006), Scope of Bamboo
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Ikponmwosa, E. and Falade F. (2006), A Study on the Properties of Fibre
Reinforced Laterized Concretes. Journal of Raw Materials Research,
Vol.3, No.1. p46-55.

Jorge, K. Y. (2000), An Evaluat ion of the Geological Potential of Pozzolanic
Materials in the State of Sao Paulo. A Project Report on Pozzolanas:
the map of the Mine, Pesquisa FAPESP Online Magazine, Vol.
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Ed. 60. http://www.revistapesquisa.fapesp.br/novo_site/extras/
Neville, A. M. (1983), Properties of Concrete.-Pitman Publishing Ltd.,
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Erdogan, T. (2003), Concrete. METU Press Publishing Company, Turkey,.
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Q.
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Relationship with Water-Cement Ratio. Internat ional Journal of
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Okafor, F. O. (1988), Palm Kernel Shell as a Lightweight Aggregat e in
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Concrete. Proceedings of Annual Conference. Nigerian Society of
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Olanipekun, E. A., Olusola, K. O. and Ata, O. (2006), A Comparative Study
of Concrete Properties Using Coconut Shell and Palm Kernel Shell as
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Oluyemi-Ayibiowu B.D and Aderinola O.S (2007). Evaluat ion of Kernel
Shells as Construction Materials for Low Cost Houses. Nigerian
Journal of Engineering Management. Vol. 8 No 3 pg 10.

Osayemwen, E.O. (1992), An Investigat ion of the Characterist ics of
Lightweight Concrete Made of Periwinkle Shells, Palm Kernel Shells,
Sand and Sawdust as Aggregates. Unpublished M.Sc. Dissertat ion,
department of Civil Engineering, University of Lagos, Nigeria. 1992.

Oymael, S. 1995.The Suitability of Oil Shale Ash as an Admixture in Cement
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Oymael, S., Durmus, A. 2006. Effects of Sulphates on Elast ic Modulus
of Concrete Samples Made from Blends of Cement with Oil Shale Ash
// Oil Shale. Vol. 23, No. 2. P. 125134.

Oymael, S. 2007. The Effect of Sulphate on Length Change of Concrete //
Oil Shale. Vol. 24, No. 4. P. 561571.

Postacolu, B. 1988. The Basics of Construction Material.- Matbaa
Teknisyenleri Basmevi, Istanbul.

Salau M.A and Ikponmwosa E.F (2008). Effects of Part ial Substitute of
Coarse Aggregate with Recycled Aggregate on Concrete Strength.
N.S.E Technical Transaction Vol. 43 No 2 pp 52-66.

Salau, M. A. (1997), Partial Replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement
with Pulverized Electric Arc Furnace Slag. Proceedings on
Conference of Structural Engineering & Modeling (SEAM 4),
Ghana, Vol. 1, 272-281.
Salau, M.A. and Ikponmwosa, E.E. (2008), Effect of Part ial Substitute of
Coarse Aggregate with Recycled Aggregate on Concrete Strength.
N.S.E. Technical Transact ions Vol. 43 No. 2 pp 52 - 66.

Salau, M.A and Balogun, L.A. (1988), Shear Resistance of Reinforced
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and Environmental, No.25 (1): p71-76.
Oseni
191

Salau M.A, Sadiq O.M. (2001), Oil Palm Fibre Strips as a Subst itute for
Steel Reinforcement in Concrete N.S.E Technical Transactions Vol.
36, No. 2, 2001pp. 1-9.

Salau, M.A. and Ikponmwosa, E.E. (2008), Performance of Oil Palm Fibre
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Internat ional Conference on Civil Engineering Design and
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University, Varna, Bulgaria.

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192
Models Developed For Leak Locating
Estimation in Oil Pipelines

Obibuike Ubanozie Julian, Anyadiegwu C.I.C
And Abonyi Chukwunonso

This paper presents various approaches to the location of leak in an oil
pipeline. However these approaches are based on the available input data
for the leak location study. The first approach is the hydraulic gradient
intersection approach using Pipesim and Excel worksheet. This method
relies on the expectation that a leak disturbance settles out eventually to a
new steady-state position. The second approach is the development of a
numerical model based on elementary physics of the velocity-distance-time
relationship. Equations resulting from the numerical model were solved
using Mathcad software with a well defined set of algorithms. The two
approaches vary in their input data requirements as mentioned before. Key
inputs to the former are the input and output flow conditions of temperature,
pressure and flow rate while the latter requires the time (shut-in time and
time of leak). Key outputs are the rate variation of flow rates against leak
location. Trend analysis performed on results gotten from the simulation
and previous work matched well with higher degree of accuracy.

INTRODUCTION
Occurrence of leak in an oil pipeline when undetected and located on time
will eventually turn out to become a spill causing more harm than good to the
environment. However recent pipeline leak incidents have shown that the cost is
much more than the associated downtime and clean-up expenses
1
. It is therefore
often necessary to install leak detection (and locating) systems (LDS), especially
due to legal regulat ions like the Code for Federal Regulations (CFR) Tit le 49 Part
195
2
, API 1130 2nd Ed.
3
, both for the USA, or the Technische Regeln fr
Fernleitungen (TRFL) (Technical Rules for Pipelines) in Germany
4
.
A number of models exist in the literature for leak location. This was
generally grouped into the External and the Internal based system by API 1130 2
nd

Ed.
3
.


Obibuike Ubanozie Julian and Abonyi Chukwunonso are lecturers while Anyadiegwu is Senior Lecturer and Head, Department Petroleum
Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria.
2014 R. Durson Associates, @ http://www. rdursonassociates. com

193
Externally based systems use local sensors, generating a leak alarm. System
costs and complexity of installat ion usually are high; applicat ions therefore are
limited to special high-risk areas, e.g. near rivers or nature protection areas.
Examples for such a type of LDS are acoustic emission detectors monitoring noise
levels and locat ion and vapor sensing cables, sensing gas or hydrocarbon vapor
near a leak.
Internally based systems utilize field sensors (e.g. for flow, pressure and fluid
temperature) to monitor internal pipeline parameters. These field signals are used
for inferring a leak. The classical line balance method balancing inlet and outlet
volume f low is an example. From a statistical point of view, leak det ection is a
detection problem, whereas leak location (and rate determinat ion) is an estimat ion
problem: Given the field data, the location (and the rate) of the leak has to be
established.
There are many possibilit ies to classify externally and internally based systems; we
want follow the API classification scheme
5
. Further analyses on the internal based
method include;

The Least Square Fit of Pressure Profile: Can be used in the manner described.
Once a leak is indicated either by an ident iable pattern of ow discrepancies or
deviat ions above mass balance thresholds, then a leak location search is init iat ed,
where a leak is imposed to the location search procedure and the resulting pressure
prole is checked against SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquis ition)
measurements.

Wave Propagation Analysis: If a sudden leak M
leak
& occurs at time t
leak
, a
negative pressure wave with wave front amplitude p can be observed propagating
with wave speed a through the pipeline with cross-sectional area A, downstream
and upstream with respect to the leak location x. Leak location frequently utilizes
the negative pressure wave method. This method has its limitat ion as it can only be
used during pumping operations. Further analysis on the wave propagation analys is
and leak locat ion in general can be seen in [6] and [7].
Presented here are two approaches to the leak location estimat ion in oil
pipelines. One is based on the hydraulic gradient analys is and the other on the
development of a numerical model based on elementary physics (velocity-distance-
194

time graph). The gradient method uses robust software, Pipesim to generate
gradient lines at a defined inlet f low rate for different outlet flow conditions during
a leak. Analysis of these gradient lines is done using Excel worksheet. This works
best when there is a considerable discrepancy between the inlet and out let flow
rates, therefore it is limited in application to small leaks.
The numerical model developed using the velocity-distance-time concept
incorporates the time of leak, shut-in time of the pipeline and upstream velocity at
the point of leak. Further details on the time of leak can be found in Paper 1XX.
The model was incorporated into Mathcad software for easy calculation.

METHODOLOGY
When a leak occurs, the resulting leak wave travel at sonic velocity of the
fluid
8
. The time lag between the instance when a leak is detected (shut-in time) and
when there is no leak is a measure of the time it takes the leak to occur. The
distance traveled is evaluat ed by multiplying this time lag with the upstream
velocity v. The leak size can be estimated from the magnitude of ow
discrepancies. The leak location can also be determined by two possible methods.
They are:
The velocity-distance-time approach (VDT) and
The PIP-XCEL Linear intersection method.

Derivation Of Basic Equation For The Estimation Of Location Of Leak
(X
l
) Based On The VDT Method.
The VDT concept for the determination of the leak location is based on
accurate calculation of t ime of leak. Idea behind this concept also extends to the
fact that oil transportation process in pipeline is a continuous process, this fact
further emphasizes on the need for accurate measure of time of leak. Necessary
parameters for the derivation of the location of leak can be seen in Fig.1;
From the diagram above leak locat ion strongly depends on
The length of the pipeline.
The time interval t
1
and t
2
required to transport liquid along the pipeline.
Obi buike, Anyadiegwu and Obike
195

The volumetric flow rate of the liquid been transported.
1. Velocity of the liquid flow.

Assumptions
- Time int erval between point 1 and 2 has been left in days (0-1day) to
minimize error in distance calculated (since oil transport is a continuous
process).
- Time at reference point 1(t
1
)

= 0, day and time at point 2 (t
2
) = 1day.

Consider A Pipeline A Transporting Crude Oil From Point 1 To Point 2
Without A Leak Event As Shown Below;

Let the time interval from t
1
to t
2
be t.

Where
Q = volumetric flow rate (given).
A = Area of the pipeline (calculated using the diameter of the pipeline).
v = velocity of flow (calculated by making V the subject of formula in the equation
above).

Where
Q = volumetric flow rate (given).
V = volume of the pipeline ( Area * length).

INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4
196

t = time required for transportation of liquid from point 1 to 2 in days.
Time gradient is thus calculated using the equation below

* Consider The Same Pipeline Transporting Crude Oil From Point 1 To
Point 2 With A Leak Event As Shown Below;

In the event of a leak just like connecting another pipe to an existing pipeline to
share gas or oil transmission, the flow rate increases thereby the time required to
deliver the oil to point 2 will also increase. This increase is characterized by the
time taken for the leak to occur, t
L
therefore time at point 2 as can be seen in the
diagram above becomes t
2
+ t
L
.

Relationship Between Time Of Leak, T
l
, Shut-In Time, T
s,
And Time
Of Leak Distance, T
ld
.
When a leak is detected (Q
1
not equal to Q
2
) the pipeline is shut in. This time
at which the pipeline is shut in is referred to as shut-in time of the pipeline denoted
t
s
. This simply tells you that before the pipeline was shut-in a leak has occurred and
the time taken for this leak to occur is known as time of leak denoted t
L
. Therefore
the actual time at which the leak started often referred to as the time of leak
distance, t
LD
is calculated by subtracting the t ime of leak from the shut in time all
in days thus stated below;
t
LD
= t
s
t
L
3.4.4
Knowing the actual t ime at which the leak occurred t
LD
the location of leak can be
evaluated with low boundary of uncertainty from the equation stated below;
Location of leak,
Obi buike Anyadiegwu and Obi ke
197

L = velocity * t
LD
........................3.4.5
Where
Velocity is calculated from the equation 3.4.1 and
t
LD
from equation 3.4.4.

PIP-XCEL Linear Intersection Method
This method uses a steady-state software package, Pipesim to establish the
expected pressure drop along the entire length of the pipeline for a particular f low
rate. The method as earlier introduced works well when there is a considerable
discrepancy between the inlet and out let flow rate. Simulations were run for the
same inlet flow rate and different outlet flow rate as envisaged in a leak scenario.
Governing Equation for pressure drop in liquid flow;

Where
d = pipe inside diameter, in
f = moody friction factor, dimensionless (calculated from Cole-brook white eqn).
L = length of pipe, ft
Q
L
= liquid flow rate, bbl/day
r
L
= specific gravity of liquid relative to water
dP = pressure drop, psi

Simulation results from pipesim are exported into Excel. The Excel work sheet is
used to generate correlat ions and linearly join the resulting out let f low rate as a
result of leak to the pressure drop line when there is no leak thereby locating the
leak distance and additionally pressure drop upstream and downstream of the leak
location. Pressure drop upstream the leak is calculated from the initial flow rate
pressure gradient line while pressure drop downstream is calculated from the final
flow rate pressure gradient line.


198

COMPUTER ANALYSIS
A computer program was written using Mathcad software to simulate the
ow and locate leak of uid in a pipeline system. Depending on the kind of data
available any of the two approaches discussed above can be effectively used to
estimate the locat ion of leak within a reasonable bound of uncertainty. The model
developed in section 2.1 is incorporated into the Mathcad software and a well
defined set of algorithm chosen for the solution.
Data supplied by pipeline operators was used to simulate the ow pressure
and velocity within some specied pipeline segment. A ow diagram of the
pipeline network as designed in Pipesim presented in Fig. 1. Figs. 2 and 3 show the
leak location with gradient intersection method and wave propagat ion analysis.
The leak and ow behavior of a crude petroleum hor izontal pipeline (50miles)
segment, of an operating pipeline network of an oil producing company in the
Niger Delta was studied. Detailed informat ion about the pipeline is given on Table.
1.0

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Simulations were run for different outlet f low rates in the event of a leak.
Inlet pressure was kept constant as the flow rate at the inlet was conserved by the
pump capacity and also no leak scenario at the inlet.

Plot Of Pressure Against Distance For Different Flow Rates.
Fig. 2 shows the pressure profile plot of a pipeline x. Pipeline data profile
used for this simulat ion is presented in table 1. Depicted in the plots are the
expected pressure drops at different outlet flow rates within the same distance.

Plot Of Leak Location Due To Discrepancy In Inlet And Outlet Flow Rates
Simulation result data when exported to excel were use to generate plots for
inlet and out let flow rates. Trend line opt ion in Excel was used to ident ify the line
of best fit as flow is turbulent. Linear intersection method was applied and leak
location identif ied. See fig. 3 below.

199

Fig. 4, 5 and 6 shows a pipeline schematic of the PIP-XCEL linear
intersection result and the two already available method of wave propagation
analys is and least square fit of pressure profile. Trend line opt ion was used as a
means of validation of the PIP-XCEL linear intersection method which showed a
good match as can be seen in Fig. 4, 5 and 6. In fig. 6 the thick lines represents the
pressure gradient line at no leak while the dotted lines represents leak at 12.5%
decrease in flow rate.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion two leak locating methods have been presented namely; the
PIP-XCEL Linear Interpolat ion method and the V-D-T based model approach. The
former has been successfully validated using available pipeline data and accuracy
compared with already existing method of wave propagation and best fit linear
regression, thus it performed well. Results and discussions show that accuracy of
this method is highly dependent on pressure and flow rate measurement at the inlet
and outlet condit ion. Limitations to this method can be found in its inability to
locate smaller leaks.
The latter ( V-D-T based model approach) has not yet been validated due to
lack of industry data but hypothetical analysis done with this model shows that it is
more robust and effective than the former and can locate smaller leaks due to its
large data inclusion.

REFERENCES
Stuart L. Scott & Maria A. Barrufet (2003): World Assessment of Industry Leak
Detection Capabilities for Single & Multiphase Pipelines, Project Report
Prepared for the Minerals Management Service, August 6, 2003, college
station, Texas.

49 CFR Part 195 (2002): Transportation of Hazardous Liquids by Pipeline. Code
for Federal Regulat ions Title 49 (January, 2002).

API 1130 (2002): Computational Pipeline Monitoring for Liquid Pipelines. 2
nd

Edit ion (November, 2002). American Petroleum Institute.
INTER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4. NO.4

200

TRFL (2003): Technische Regeln fr Fernleitungen (Technical Rules for
Pipelines).

Whaley R. S., et al (1992): Tutorial on Software Based Leak Detection
Techniques. PSIG Pipeline Simulat ion Interest Group, 1992.

Fuchs, H. V. (1991): One Year of Experience eith Leak Detection by Acoustic
Signal Analysis. Applied Acoustics 33 (1991), p.1-19.

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (1999): Technical Review of
Leak Detection Technologies, Volume 1.

E.W. Allister, Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook: A Manual for Quick, Accurate
Solutions to Everyday Pipeline problems, 2nd ed., Gulf Publishing House,
Houston, Texas, 1988.
Obibuike, Anyadiegwu and Obike
201

TABLES
Table 1-pipeline x profile data used for simulation
Parameter symbol SI US
Pipeline capacity Q 0.074 m
3
/s 1167 gpm
Length of pipeline L 80,470 m 264,000 ft
Diameter D 16 1.33 ft
Thickness d 0.311 0.026 ft
Mass density 885.7 kg/m
3
55.292 lb/ft
3
Velocity range v 3-5 m/s 9.84-16.4 ft/s

Figures

Figure 1 - leak locating dependent paramet ers.


202

Figure 2-simulation results of pressure profiles at different flow rates.
y = -0.078x + 20.74
R = 0.948
y = -0.061x + 20.74
R = 0.919
0
5
10
15
20
25
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
a
distance, mile
leak location at different flow rates
40,000bbl/day
35,000bbl/day
Li near (40,000bbl/day)
Li near (35,000bbl/day)

Figure 3-Result of Leak locating anal ysis in Excel.

203

Figure 4-leak locating with gradient intersection method.

Figure 5-leak locating with wave propagation anal ysis.

Figure 6-Leak locating with PIP-XCEL linear intersection method.
dp
dx

204

Development of Gas Utilisation
Model in Nigeria

Obibuike U. J., Anyadiegwu C.I.C, Ogwo, O. J
and Ekeh O. Cynthia

A gas Utili sati on Model i s to enhance opti mum al location of gas to the
strategi c sectors of the economy at affordable pri ces. Thi s i s to ensure that
a steady market i s granted to all the sectors of the domesti c demand. The
Model i s a set of many model s that incorporated materi al balance
equati ons. It i s designed to determi ne the vol ume of gas requi red by the
Strategi c sectors of the economy whi ch will be pull ed i n into a central hub
for di stribution to gas demand sectors at an affordabl e rate.

INTRODUCTION
The Nigerian Gas sector is relatively underdeveloped, with particularly
low level of domestic utilization. Historically, much of the associated Gas
produced in Nigeria has been flared as there has been inadequate
infrastructure to transport the Gas from the oil producing region to
consumers.
Over the last few years, the demand for natural Gas in Nigeria has
grown substantially from domestic, regional and export markets. Domestic
demand growth is driven principally by the needs of the power sector, but
also from industrial consumers and developers wishing to set up Gas based
industries such as fertilizer, methanol, etc. Regional growth is mainly from
the West African sub-region driven by the recently completed West African
Gas pipeline project. Global Gas demand continues to fuel additional LNG
demand on the export side. However, central to the ability to realize this
market potential is the need for a more robust, scalable Gas infrastructure, as
well as expedited access to the vast undiscovered Gas potential and a fairly
distribution of the gas to the strategic sectors of the economy at an affordable
rate; Ogwo, U.J.O, (2008).
Statistically, the domestic natural gas demand in Nigeria is increasing
and could reach 2bscf/d by the end of 2014 and further increase to nearly
3bscf/d by 2016. This is a significant increase over the 600mmscf/d of gas
supplied to the domestic market in 2008. In the longer term, demand is
projected to reach about 5.2bscf/d by 2020. Most of the growth in gas
demand in the near term is due to a proposed increase in gas for power
consumption, Okorie, G.A, (2009). Power generation makes up about 70

Obibuike Ubanozie Julian is Lecturer and Anyadiegwu C. I. C isSenior Lecturer; Department of Petroleum Engineering, Federal University of Technology Owerri Nigeria
while Ogwo Obike Jones is Staff of Department of Petroleum Resources Nigeria while Ekeh Ogochukwu Cynthia is Lecturer, Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria.

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percent of natural gas demand. Gas-based industries in Nigeria are also set to
experience significant growth, particularly with new methanol projects and
additional ammonia production for fertilizer manufacture. Gas-based
industries could be consuming 700mmscf/d by 2014 and by 2020, it is
anticipated that Nigeria will have formed an industrial hub, as a world scale
methanol producer and an exporter of ammonia and urea products.
Commercial gas consumption is also set to increase, reflecting the expected
growth in Nigerias GPD of 7.9% per annum on average between 2007 and
2011 (World Bank).

METHODOLOGY
The approach adopted shall aim at determination of a model to regulate the
domestic gas demand. This is achieved by considering:
- The strategic sectors of the economy and determining the network of
gas Utilisation chain.
- Development of Quantity, Price and Revenue Model for Gas
Utilisation

Strategic Sectors of the Economy
The gas sector will be broadly grouped into gas supply and gas
demand sector. The gas supply sector includes, the gas producing company.
Presently in Nigeria, the major gas producing companies are predominantly
the IOCs which include, SPDC, CNL, MPNU, NAOC, TOTAL, ADDAX
and NPDC/AENR. There is little indigenous participation in gas supply
sector and it has been one of the ingredients in the Petroleum Industrial Bill
to allow for their participation in gas production. There are too many gas
utilisation sectors in our economy and to ensure successful analysis of these
sectors, there is need for strategically grouping. The strategic demand sectors
shall be grouped into four The Power Sector, Manufacturing Sector,
Commercial Sector and Export Sector.

Power Sector
The power sector shall comprise of all the various power plants that
use gas for power generation. The major strategic intent for this sector is to

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ensure adequate supply of gas for the various gas turbines across the nation
so as to improve power supply which is very critical for the overall
development of the nation.
In Nigeria there are different power generating units; Federal
Government owned generating unit (Power Holding Company of Nigeria),
the state owned generating unit - the Niger Delta Power Company and
others, the National Integrated

Power Project (NIPP), Independent Power Project. All these units put
together at the moment could not generate the required power for domestic
use due to shortage in feedstock.

Manufacturing Sector
The manufacturing sector is strategically chosen as those industries
that use gas as feedstock in the creation of new product e.g. fertilizers,
methanol, GTL etc. Gas-based industries in Nigeria are also set to experience
significant growth, particularly with new methanol projects and additional
ammonia production for fertilizer manufacture coming online. Gas-based
industries could be consuming as much as 700 MMSCFD by 2014, forming
nearly a fifth of natural Gas demand. By 2020, it is anticipated that Nigeria
will have formed an industrial hub, as a world scale methanol producer and
an exporter of ammonia and urea products.

Commercial Sector
The commercial sector is strategically chosen to be those industries
that use gas as industrial fuel to power their plant e.g. Nig. Flour Mill, PZ,
Dangote etc. Commercial Gas consumption is also set to increase, reflecting
the expected growth in Nigerias GDP of 7.9% per annum on average
between 2007 and 2011 (World Bank). Nigeria has seen a strong growth in
construction materials, primarily cement. The commercial sector could
consume up to 500 MMSCFD by 2011, an almost five-fold increase from its
100 MMSCFD consumption in 2008.

Export Sector
The export sector comprises of the various LNG plants in the country
and its off less strategic to the domestic demands. Rising Gas prices in
Obi buike, Anyadiegwu, Ogwo and Ekeh.

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international markets however continues to create a preferential pull for
exports. Consequently, there is a disproportional focus by Gas suppliers in
the country for LNG projects. This is creating an anomaly in Nigeria where
there is now a significant shortfall in the availability of Gas for domestic
utilization. The continued shortfall directly threatens the economic aspiration
of the nation which if unchecked may result in Nigeria supporting the
development of the economies of the industrialized nations at the expense of
its own economy.

Development of Gas Utilisation Simulator
The model is designed to relatively and proportionally allocate the
aggregated gas to the domestic sectors. It ensures that a steady market is
granted to all the sectors of the domestic demand.
The Gas Utilisation Model is built with the mathematical theorems like the
similar sector theorem where necessary.
The input values of the simulator are: floor volumes and prices of the
sector, volume of gas supplied by the producers, supply price and the desired
profit percent. The output values of the simulator are: final prices, their
volumes, revenue from each sector, total revenue and the profit percent.
Fundamental Symbols for the Model Development
, Volume of gas demanded by the Export sector (floor volume), MSCF
, Volume of gas demanded by the Power sector (floor volume), MSCF
, Volume of gas demanded by the Manufacturing sector (floor volume),
MSCF
, Volume of gas demanded by the Commercial sector (floor volume),
MSCF
, Total volume of gas demanded by all the sectors (floor volume and
floor price), MSCF


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, Volume of gas supplied to the Export sector (simulated volume),
MSCF
, Volume of gas supplied to the Power sector (simulated volume),
MSCF
Volume of gas supplied to the Manufacturing sector (simulated
volume), MSCF
, Volume of gas supplied to the Commercial sector (simulated volume),
MSCF
, Total volume of gas supplied to all the sectors (Aggregated Volume),
MSCF
, Average price of gas supplied, $/MSCF
, Price of gas demanded by the Export sector (floor price), $/MSCF

, Price of gas demanded by the Manufacturing sector (floor price),
$/MSCF
, Price of gas demanded by the Power sector (floor price), $/MSCF
Price of gas demanded by the Commercial sector (floor price),
$/MSCF
, Price of gas simulated for the export, $/MSCF
, Price of gas simulated for the power sector, $/MSCF
, Price of gas simulated for manufacturing sector, $/MSCF
, Price of gas simulated for the commercial sector, $/MSCF
, Total revenue
Total revenue


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Total revenue acruing from all the sectors, after their volume and price
have been simulated, $
the cost from gas supply, $

Gas Utilisation Simulator - Volume Model
Gas Utilisation Model requires that the total volume of gas supplied by
the gas producers will be allocated fairly among the strategic sectors of the
economy. Initially, the consumers i.e the strategic sectors of the economy
have their demands. These volume of gas demanded, may be more than what
is supplied by the producers. It is now the work of the Gas Utilisation model
Volume model to simulate and distribute these volume of gas supplied by
the producers to the strategic sector. Consequently, the sectors may not get in
full the quantity of gas demanded. The simulator has to put into
consideration, government policies, consumers interest and the producers
interest to fairly allocate gas to the sectors. Government policies may give
preference to a certain sector over the other. The consumers interest will
always come from the quantity they require, the price they came afford and
nature of their products. The producers interest will always come from the
price they are willing to sell and the volume they have in stock.
Given that the volume of gas in Mscf demanded by the strategic
sectors, which includes the power, manufacturing, commercial and export
sectors are P, M, C and E, respectively; then the total volume of gas required
by these sectors will be, V, represented mathematically as;

......................... 1

And if the volume of gas in Mscf, that is supplied to each of the strategic
sectors, which includes the power, manufacturing, commercial and export
sectors are; respectively; then the total volume of gas that
will be supplied will become, S, represented mathematically as;
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.........................................................
.............. 2
Usually, are unknowns; finding solution to the
unknowns will result to the building of a gas utilisation volume simulator.

Determination of Volume of Gas in Mscf Supplied to the Strategic sectors,

We shall employ a mathematical theorem called Similar Sector
Theorem to assist in determining . We shall also make use
of the volume of gas demanded by the strategic sectors P, M, C and E; the
total volume of gas demanded by all the sectors, V, and total volume of gas
supplied to all the sectors, S.
If a main sector has a subsector and their are two main sectors; The
similar sector theorem states that the ratio of the two Main sectors is
proportional to the ratio of their subsectors.
In this case, If the two main sectors are V and S; and the subsectors are
P, M, C and E; and . Then, we apply Similar Theorem to
equation 1 and 2, we have:
is proportional to
is proportional to
is proportional to
is proportional to
is proportional to
Therefore, for each of the strategic sector:

Volume of gas in Mscf supplied to the Power sector,

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.................................................................................... 3

Vol
ume
of
gas in Mscf supplied to the Manufacturer sector,

....................................................................... 4

Volume of gas in Mscf supplied to the Commercial sector,

....................................................................... 5

Volume of gas in Mscf supplied to the Export sector,

...................................................................... 6

Gas Utilisation Simulator - Revenue Model
There is need to know the revenue acrue from gas allocation to the
strategic sectors of the economy. This will help in planning. The gas
producers/ suppliers are most interested in recuping back what they invested.
Their investment is supplying gas to the gas consumers at a rate. The gas
utilisation model will provide a platform for escrow management; where they

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dish out this gas to the consumers which are the strategic sectors at an
amount; inorder that they can recup the revenue for the payment of the gas.
The simulator - revenue model is a multi-variant material balance
equation that is regulated by price of gas in $/MSCF, volume of gas in
MSCF and profit percent, the average price of gas supplied in $/MSCF, total
volume of gas supplied to all the sectors (Aggregated Volume) in MSCF and
profit percent. The sectors compute its revenue as the product of the sectors
price and its sectors volume.
The revenue model is grouped into three,
Revenue, , is the total revenue acruing from all the sectors, at their
initial demands (floor volume and floor price), $.
The simulator computes it by putting into calculation: volume of gas
demanded (floor volume) by the strategic sectors in MSCF i.e
; which are known values and price of gas demanded (floor
price) by the strategic sectors, $/MSCF i.e which also
are known values; then , becomes :

................................................ 7

Revenue, , is the total revenue acruing at floor prices of the sectors
and simulated volumes of the sectors
The floor prices of the sectors are which are known
values and their simulated volumes are which are
unknown values; then, becomes:
..... 8a
To actually get the value of , we need to make use of the gas
utilisation simulator volumes model to calculate the simulated
volumes.

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Revenue, , is the total revenue acruing from the sum of the products
of simulated prices and volume of gas supplied to all the sectors.
The simulated prices are, , , , they are unknown values
and the simulated volumes are they are also unknown
values.
The revenue is computed as:
................... 9a
Equation 9 is made up of unknown values, therefore, computing will
pose serious problem.
To actually get the value of , firstly, we need to make use of the gas
utilisation simulator volumes model to calculate the simulated volumes and
secondly we need to design gas utilisation simulator price model in order to
calculate the simulated prices. The most efficient means of determining or
is by gas Utilisation simulator profit/loss percent.

Gas Utilisation Simulator Profit/loss Percent Model
Most atimes, the gas regulators like the Department of Petroleum
Resources, Nigeria who is managing the buying and selling of gas may need
to supply at a profit percent or even at a loss percent to creat incentives to
either the gas suppliers or consumers; the gas utilisation simulator will be
needed to design the simulated volume and prices for the sectors, such that
the profit/loss percent and revenue will be achieved.
The revenue can be or If the input profit or loss percent i.e the
desire profit or loss percent is known, the revenue can be determined from
profit/loss and cost equation:

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Cost + Profit/loss = Revenue
Cost + Cost Profit/loss Percent = Revenue
Cost (1 + % profit/loss) = Revenue; and therefore,
............................................ 10
, is the cost from gas supply, $ and is expressed mathematical as
....... 11
Where,
, the input profit or loss percent
, average price of gas supplied, $/MSCF and;
, total volume of gas supplied to all the sectors (Aggregated Volume),
MSCF
Gas Utilisation Simulator Price Model
The simulated price is the price of
gas at which it is sold to the strategic
sectors of the economy. It is usually negotiated. The knownledge of it will
help us determine the revenue acrue from gas supply. It also helps us to
regulate our domestic market and assures fairness to all gas stakeholders.
The design of the model shall put into account the floor prices, the
floor volumes, the simulated volumes, the total volume of gas supplied to the
sectors and the revenue. Also, the Similar theorem will be employed to do
the simulation.
The simulated prices are, , , , and the price model is to solve
the simulated price problems of revenue .
Price model of revenue

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For revenue the variables are at floor price, and
simulated volumes, and given as in equation 8;
.............................. 8b
Price model of revenue ,
For revenue , the variables are at simulated prices, , , , ;
and simulated volumes, and given as in equation 9;
... 9b
Combining i and ii equations above and applying similar theorem, we shall
have that:
is proportional to ;
is proportional to
is proportional to and

is
proportional to

Considering the different sectors, we have that:
The Power sector supply

........................................... 12
The Manufacturing sector supply

........................................... 13

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The Commercial sector supply
............................................. 14

The Export sector supply

............................................ 15

Hence, , , and are calculated.

RESULT
Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis using Digital Template
Before the start of analysis, the prices, total gas demand and constraint
of each sector must be inputted into the application. The essence of the input
data is that it regulates the output result. The higher the input volume, the
higher the output volume and likewise for the input price.
Below are the snapshots of Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis using Digital
Template;
the strategic sectors and their input values are displayed on the right
side of the digital template
the volume of gas supplied (supply volume) and the average price of
gas supplied (supply price) are displayed top centre of the digital
template
the stimulated volume and price is displayed in a tablular form. It is
directly under the supply volume and supply price at the top centre of
the digital template. It shows the stimulated volume, price and revenue
of the strategic sector.
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The cost of supply of gas, the revenue generated from the strategic
sectors and the profit made are displayed under the tabular form of the
result analysis.
The Graph displays the stimulated/ allocated volume of gas that goes
to each strategic sector. The green colour is for the power sector, the
pink colour is for the manufacturing sector, the purple colour is for
commercial sector, the yellow colour is for the export sector.

Fig 3.1; Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis using Digital Template

The Input Values of the Strategic Sectors
Power Sector
This sector comprises of the various power plants across the nation, the
standard demand represents the usual volume of gas consumed by this sector
daily and the constraint represents the daily fluctuations in demand (the
constraint can either be positive or negative depending on if there is an
addition or reduction form the normal daily demand of gas).

Data Summary


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Standard Demand: =2750MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf; Price:
0.1$/1000scf (0.1$/Mscf)

Manufacturing Sector
This sector comprises of the various power plants across the nation,
the standard demand represents the usual volume of gas consumed by this
sector daily and the constraint represents the daily fluctuations in demand
(the constraint can either be positive or negative depending on if there is an
addition or reduction from the normal daily demand of gas).

Data Summary:
Standard Demand: = 240MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf; Price:
1.0$/1000scf (1.0$/Mscf).

Commercial Sector
Data Summary:
Standard Demand: = 880MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf; Price:
3.5$/1000scf

Export Sector

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Data Summary
Standard Demand: =1130MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf; Price:
5.0$/1000scf
From the above configuration;
The domestic demand which is the sum of all the demands of the
power, manufacturing and commercial sectors is at 3870MMscf
and;
The total demand, 5000MMscf. These values are now at
base case and would not be altered throughout the analysis.
The gas utilisation simulators ensure that irrespective of the supply
volume of gas, each sector of the economy including the export would be
allocated gas at all times after which the prices would be varied to attain a
desired profit.

Summary of the Strategic Sector Input Values:
Power sector: standard Demand, =2750MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf;
Price: 0.1$/1000scf (0.1$/Mscf);
Manufacturing sector: standard Demand: = 240MMscf; Constraint: 0
MMscf; Price: 1.0$/1000scf (1.0$/Mscf)
Commercial sector: standard Demand: = 880MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf;
Price: 3.5$/1000scf
Export sector: standard Demand: =1130MMscf; Constraint: 0 MMscf;
Price: 5.0$/1000scf
Domestic demand: 3870MMscf
Total demand: 5000MMscf
This input values above will be the same for case one to four.

Case One
The Input values of case one analysis will comprise of input values of
the strategic sector as in sub topic 3.1.1.1 and the input values stated below.
The volume of gas supplied for allocation, 4000 MMSCF;
The average supply price, 1.5 $/MSCF.
The profit required by the government is 15%,


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Simulation Interface

Fig. 3.2, Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis (case one)

Results analysis
It would be seen that each of the strategic sector has simulated
volumes slightly below their standard demand (floor volume). This is
because the total volume of gas supplied is slightly less then what is
demanded, i.e, < 5000MMscf. The need for a fair
and equitable allocation among the sectors will arise. It is then that the
gas utilisation simulator volume model will provide the solution.
it would be seen that the strategic sector has simulated prices slightly
below their demand (floor prices). This favours the strategic sectors
because they have to pay less to have a given quantity of gas supplied
to them. The most interesting thing is that it is a win win situation;
even the gas suppliers gets back the amount they demand and
government still makes their desired profit of 15%.
The graphs shows that the power sector gets more volume of gas than
the other sectors, irrespective of the fact that they pay less than other
sectors. This is because the gas utilisation simulator captures
government interest in seeing that the energy sector is been rapidly
developed. Also, what the power sector pays has more direct impact to
our economy compare to the other sectors.


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Case Two
The input value includes:



Fig. 3.3, Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis (case two)

Result Analysis
Note that other parameters remained constant as in case one but the gas
supplied for allocation is varied to 3000 MMSCF.

It would be seen that each of the strategic sector has simulated
volumes significantly below their standard demand (floor volume).
This is because the total volume of gas supplied is far less then what is
demanded, i.e, < 5000MMscf. The need for a fair
and equitable allocation among the sectors will arise. It is then that the
gas utilisation simulator volume model will provide the solution for
the allocation of gas to these sectors.
The gas utilisation simulator for price model and profit model saw that
the simulated prices and the profit percent remained the same as in
case one.
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Case Three
The strategic sector has input values as in sub topic 3.1.1.1 above and
the input values below will form case three analysis.


Fig. 3.4, Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis (case three)

Result Analysis
Note that other parameters remained constant as in case two but the gas
supply price increased to 2.5 $/MSCF.
It would be seen that the gas utilisation simulator volume model
generated the same allocation of gas to the strategic sectors as in case
two. This is because the same volume of gas was supplied for
allocation and the same quantity of gas is demanded by the strategic
sectors
It would be seen that the gas utilisation simulator price model
generated prices that is higher than what each sector says they can pay
(floor prices). These allocated prices has to be higher because the
stimulator has to pay back the gas suppliers what they agreed and at


223

the same time make profit of 15 percent. Therefore the gas consumers
will be advised to pay the simulated amount or the government can
adjust their profit margin.

Case Four
The strategic sector has input values as in sub topic 3.1.1.1 and the
input values below will form case four analysis.


Fig. 3.5, Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis using Digital Template (case
four)

Result Analysis:
Note that other parameters remained constant as in case three but the profit
percent decreased to 10 percent.

It would be seen in this case four that the gas utilisation simulator
price model generated prices that is higher than what each sector says
they can pay (floor prices). Comparing it to case three, these prices are

224

slightly lower than the simulated prices of the strategic sectors. This is
because the profit percent feeded into the gas utilisation simulator
profit model was decreased from 15 percent to percent. This goes to
show you that the lower the profit percent the lower the simulated
prices the streategic sector would pay.
It is also of note to know that the gas utilisation simulator revenue
model generated a revenue of $8,250,001 in case four, which is
slightly lower than the revenue of $8,625,000 in case three this is also
as a result of change in profit percent.
Case Five
Retain other parameters in case 4 but varying the standard input of
power sector to 4750 MMSCF.


Fig. 3.6, Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis (case five)

Result Analysis
It would be observed that the output volume for the same power sector
increased while the other sector reduced and the modified prices increased in
the entire sector in other to achieve the desired profit.


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Case Six
Retain other parameters in case 5 but vary the base input price of the
power sector from 0.1$/MSCF to 2$/MMSCF.


Fig. 3.7, Gas Utilisation Simulator Analysis (case six)

Result Analysis:
It would be observed that the output volumes were the same but the
modified prices reduced except for the power sector that increased. This is in
other to achieve the desired profit. This shows that the base prices are heavy
indicator in determining the output prices.

CONCLUSION
From the entire result analysis, it is seen clearly that varying any of the
input gas prices, volume and profit percent affects the output result. Also,
varying the volume of gas supplied and the supply prices will affect the
output result. Therefore this model is a very vital tool for modelling gas
prices, volume, revenue and profit percent.
The Gas Uti lisation Model has proven to proffer solution to the
challenges facing the distribution of gas in the domestic gas sector of
Nigeria.
The model also made it possible for a sector to be favoured over the other.
This is based on the countrys need. Currently, the nation is laying more
emphasis on the power sector.


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REFERENCES

Ogwo A.E, PetroGas Ltd, (2010), Instruments for the Implementation of
Domestic Gas Supply Obligation A paper Presented at Gas
Stakeholders Forum in Lagos, 24
th
February.

Malcolm, B. ( 2004), The vital role Of Gas in A Sustainable Energy Future
Paper Presented At CERA Conference, Houston. 11th February, 2004.

Neeka, B.J, MPR Nigeria, (2010), Gas Aggregation and Allocation in the
Domestic Sector of the Economy A paper presented at Gas
Stakeholders Forum in Abuja, 15
th
February.

Okorie, G.A, (2009), Economic Sustainability of Gas for domestic growth
Publication on Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), 16
th
February.

Okparaojiaku, O.C, DPR Nigeria (2008), Domestic Gas Supply Obligation
Status A Paper Presented at Gas Stakeholders Forum in Lagos, 6
th
May.

Ogwo, U.J.O, DPR Nigeria, (2008), A Survey Of Existing Gas Prices and
Tariff Models in Nigeria A paper presented at Gas Stakeholders
Forum in Abuja, 26
th
November.

Ogwo, U.J.O, DPR Nigeria, (2007), Equivalent Gas Pricing Model SPE
111897, Presented at 31
st
Nigerian Annual International Conference
and Exhibition held in Abuja, Nigeria, 6
rd
8
th
August.

YarAdua, A. L. (2007), The Nigerian Gas Master-Plan A paper presented
at Gas Stakeholders Forum in Abuja, 26
th
November.


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Nomenclature
AG Associated Gas
NAG Non Associated Gas
ML Oil Mining Leases
PSC Production Sharing Contract
JV Joint Venture
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
NGL Natural Gas Liquids
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
GTL Gas-to-Liquid
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
CPF Central Processing Facility
SBP Special Boiling point
PMS Primum Motor spirit
NGC Nigerian Gas Company
PPP Public Private Partnership
NGMP Nigerian Gas Master Plan
WAGP West Africa gas Pipeline
ELPS Escravos-Lagos Pipeline system
EGGS Eastern Gas Gathering Scheme
DGSO Domestic Gas Supply Obligation
IOCs International Oil Companies
TSCf Trillion Standard Cubic Feet
BSCf Billion Standard Cubic Feet
MSCF Thousand Standard cubic Feet
SPDC Shell Petroleum Development Company
CNL Chevron Nigeria Limited
MPNU Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited
NAOC Nigerian Agip Oil Company
SNEPCO Shell Nigeria Exploration and Development Company
POOCN Pan Ocean Oil Corporation
TEPNG Total Exploration and Production Nigeria Limited
NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
NPDC Nigerian Petroleum Development Company
IPP Independent Power Plants


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Enhanced Recovery Assessment of a Gas Condensate
System Using Experimental Design Approach

Kevin Igwilo, Ogbunude Basil, Ubanatu Samuel,

The gas condensate reservoir systems are unique systems of
hydrocarbons that exhibit retrograde condensation below the dew
point leading to impaired reservoir productivity around the wellbore
as a result of reduced gas relative permeability at such regions. To
tackle this challenge, the concept of gas recycling was introduced in
the industry several years ago. However, during gas recycling
projects, it is uncertain the impact different injection parameters
would have on recovery of gas and condensate. Hence, this work
seeks to analyze the impact of different reservoir and injection
parameters on gas and condensate recovery using a statistical
approach using the design of experiments. Eleven factors were chosen
arbitrarily and sensitized on to determine their various impacts on the
responses. At the end of the analyses, it was discovered that only nine
of the eleven parameters had significant impact on the gas and
condensate recovery system.

INTRODUCTION
The gas condensate reservoir is ridden with the challenges of reduced
well productivity below the dew point pressure as a result of condensate
dropout. Below the dew point, the heavier valuable ends of the gas
condensate system drops out of the gas phase. Due to this, the exploitation of
the gas condensate will lead to a progressively high surface gas with
relatively low condensate recovery. This raises major concern with respect to
the loss of more economic fractions of the heavier hydrocarbon, together
with the associated damage this causes to the gas productivity around the
well bore. The retrograde condensates have remarkable advantages, which is
based on their high API gravity values making it more commercially
profitable than conventional crude oil based on equal volume. Considering


Kevin Igwilo is Lecturer, Department of Petroleum Engi neering, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria while Ogbunule
Badil and Ubanatu Samuel are of Society of Petroleum Engineers Nigeria.
229

the vital importance of condensate and the growing market demands, special
attention has been given to alleviate the challenges of these systems and to
recover the lost condensed liquid in the reservoir.
Historically, there are three main methods for gas condensate
recovery: natural depletion to the abandonment pressure, full pressure
maintenances by gas recycling and partial pressure maintenance by means of
gas recycling after previous natural depletion. It is important to understand
the reservoir and its behavior prior to full development to optimize fluid
recovery.
To optimize gas and condensate production from a gas condensate
reservoir, it is vital to have a good understanding of how the reservoir system
performs. As already mentioned, the reservoir productivity can be improved
using gas recycling. However, in the recycling process, it is important to
know the influence of different injection parameters on the overall recovery
efficiency. Knowledge of this will help in making better decisions on how
best to develop a gas condensate field.
Furthermore, understanding of the magnitude of influence certain
reservoir properties will have on the gas and condensate recovery will help to
advise the decision-making team whether to employ gas recycling or to look
for other improved recovery mechanisms when developing/optimizing
recovery from a gas condensate reservoir.
Hence, in this work, a statistical experimental approach will be taken
to study the influence of certain reservoir and injection parameters on gas
and condensate recovery using experimental design procedure.

Design of Experiments
Often, it is important to be able to draw valid and definitive
conclusions from available data with the minimum use of resources. Design
of experiments (DOE) is a structured and organized way of conducting and
analyzing controlled tests to evaluate the factors that are affecting a response
variable. It is a series of tests in which purposeful changes are made to the

230

input variables of a system or process and the effects on response variables
are measured. DOE techniques determine simultaneously the individual and
interactive effects if many factors that could affect the output results in any
design, thereby helping to pinpoint the sensitive parts and areas in designs
that contribute to the response of a project. Factorial experimental designs
investigate the effects of many different factors by varying them
simultaneously instead of changing only one factor at a time. Factorial
designs allow the estimation of the sensitivity to each factor and also to the
combined effect of two or more factors.
The main steps to implement an experimental deign are as follows;
State the objective of the study and the hypotheses to be tested.
Determine the response variables of interest that can be measures.
Determine the controllable factors of interest that might affect the
response variables and the levels of each factor to be used in the
experiment.
Determine the uncontrollable variables that might affect the response
variables, blocking the known nuisance variables and randomizing the
runs to protect against unknown nuisance variables.
Determine the total number of runs in the experiment, ideally using
estimates of variability, precision required, size of effects expected, etc.
Design the experiment remembering to randomize the runs.
Perform pro forma analysis with response variables as random variables
to check for estimability of the factor effects and precision of the
experiment.
Perform the experiment strictly according to the experimental design,
including the initial setup for each run in a physical experiment.
Analyze the data from the experiment using the analysis of variance
method.
Interpret the result and draw conclusions in terms of the subject matter.

Igwilo, Ogbunude and Ubanatu

231

Document and summarize results and conclusions in tabular and graphical
form, for the report or presentation on the study.
In line with this, an experimental design was made for a simple gas
condensate system by sensitizing on hypothetically generated dataset. This
was done using the Design Expert v7.0 commercial software. The tool
enables a studentized experimental design at different levels using different
optimization approaches with the aim of screening out insignificant factors
and identifying significant factors that would affect gas and condensate
recovery. This means that operators would no longer have to bother about
optimizing on the insignificant factors. In the sensitivity analysis, the
parameters which effects are being studied are called the factors, while the
gas and condensate production are the responses.

Figure 3.1: The Experimental Design Process
Arbitrarily, eleven factors were chosen to be studied using the Plackett-
Burman (PB) design. The PB design generates a set of saturated screening
designs based on the Plackett-Burman structures. PB designs are useful for
ruggedness testing (validation) where you hope to find little or no effect on

232

the response due to any factors. The Design-Expert tool offers a selection of
PB designs. In the design chosen, the number of factors allowed is up to one
less than the number of runs (that is 11 factor will yield 12 runs)

Table 3.1: Parameters of study and PB design levels
Parameter Uni ts Low Hi gh
Porosi ty Fracti on 0.1 0.38
Permeability Md 100 1000
Net-to-Gross Fracti on 0.4 0.9
Permeability Ratio Fracti on 0.01 0.1
Condensate gas Ratio stb/scf 50 240
Cri ti cal Condensate Saturation Fracti on 0.1 0.4
Injection Rate scf/day 2480 24800
Injection Pressure Psia 1400 7000
Pay Thi ckness Ft 40 200
Reservoi r Pressure Psia 3000 7000
Relati ve Permeability Fracti on 0.2 0.85

In this work, two levels for each factor were selected for the sensitivity
process as show in the table above. The responses were the gas production
(Mscf), and the condensate production (bbls). Using the PB design structure,
a mixture of different levels of the factors was developed as shown in the
table below including the expected responses.
To generate the responses, different dynamic models were built using
the stated parameters on each row of the design table.


233

Table 3.1: Experimental design table showing the different factors and responses
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor
3
Factor
4
Factor
5
Factor
6
Factor
7
Factor
8
Factor 9 Factor 10 Factor
11
Response1 Response2
Run A:POROSITY B:PERMEABILITY C:NTG D:Kv/Kh E:CGR F:Scc G:Qinj H:Plnj J:PAY
THICKNESS
K:RES
PRESSURE
L:Krog R1 Gas
Prod
R2 Cond
Prod
Fraction Md fraction fraction stb/scf fraction scf/day psia Ft psia fraction scf Bbl
1 0.38 1000 0.4 0.1 240 0.4 2480 1400 40 7000 0.2 133920000 977108
2 0.1 1000 0.9 0.1 50 0.1 2480 7000 40 7000 0.85 133920000 246885
3 0.1 100 0.9 0.01 240 0.4 2480 7000 200 7000 0.2 46802100 1087820
4 0.38 100 0.4 0.01 240 0.1 24800 7000 40 7000 0.85 55210800 108029
5 0.1 100 0.4 0.01 50 0.1 2480 1400 40 3000 0.2 133920000 1116650
6 0.38 100 0.9 0.1 50 0.4 24800 7000 40 3000 0.2 11421300 325379
7 0.38 100 0.9 0.1 240 0.1 2480 1400 200 3000 0.85 17666600 502709
8 0.1 1000 0.9 0.01 240 0.4 24800 1400 40 3000 0.85 98394300 2278330
9 0.38 1000 0.4 0.01 50 0.4 2480 7000 200 3000 0.85 133920000 4597470
10 0.38 1000 0.9 0.01 50 0.1 24800 1400 200 7000 0.2 133920000 722931
11 0.1 1000 0.4 0.1 240 0.1 24800 7000 200 3000 0.2 57017800 1641380
12 0.1 100 0.4 0.1 50 0.4 24800 1400 200 7000 0.85 133920000 1109720

Figure 3.2: Sample of 3D model as used in dynamic simulator
With the responses generated, the test on the different parameters on gas and
condensate production was performed using the various statistical tools

234

provided within the Design Expert package using three approaches; the half
normal probability plot, the normal probability plot, and the Pareto chart.

Procedure
To calculate for the effects of the different parameters on recovery,
Design-Expert calculated the model coefficients using regression estimates.
The sum of squares for each effect is calculated as the regression proceeds
sequentially. For general factorial, the sum of squares for each contrast is
summed to get the sum of squares for that model term. Design-Expert uses
the method of least squares in a hierarchical fashion to compute the
coefficients, building from a base that contains the intercept plus block
effects.

Normal Probability Plot
The normal probability plot can be used to choose significant effects.
It is a plot of ordered values of a normal percentage probability versus the
expected standardized effects from the true population. In this plot, the
parameters having an effect on the responses appear as outliers of an
approximately straight line. The plot is in such a way that the parameters
with positive influence/effects are separated from those with negative effects.
Figure 4.1: Graph of Normal % probability against standardized effects for Gas
Production
From the graph above, it can be seen that the different parameters under

235

study were designated with different letters, A-L. The parameters with the
blue color represent those having a negative influence on the performance of
gas recovery. The negative effects are the permeability, reservoir pressure
and the condensate gas ratio. The reservoir thickness, porosity, NTG, critical
condensate saturation, injection pressure, and injection rate are having
positive effects on the gas recovery. For the condensate production, it can be
seen that only two parameters have little or no significance on condensate
production. These are the parameters lying on the line (B and E). The rest
show either positive or negative significant impact on the response.
Figure 4.2: Normal % probability against standardized effects for condensate production

Half Normal Probability Plot
This plot can be used to choose significant effects. It follows the same
principle as the full normal probability plot, except the sign of the effect is
ignored in plotting. This means that the effects are regarded as neither
negative nor positive. Thus, large absolute values show up as outliers in the
upper right-hand section of the graph. When choosing effects from a
probability plot, it is important to note that the only effects that are clearly
off the line are chosen.


236

Figure 4.3: Half Normal % Probability plot vs absolute standardized effects for Gas
Production
The half normal plot shows virtually the same thing as the normal plot as can
be seen for both the condensate and the gas production plot below and above
respectively.
Figure 4.4: Half Normal % Probability against absolute standardized effects for Cond
Production


237

Pareto Chart
The Pareto chart is an additional graphic used to display the t values of
the effects. Using the Pareto chart gives a better viewing and quick analysis.
There are two different t limits on the Pareto chart. They are the Bonferroni
corrected t and a standard t. these limits are re-calculated and thus will
change as terms are added or removed from the model. These t-limits are
only approximations to the 5% risk level.
To use this process, the following steps are taken.
Select those effects that are obviously larger than the others.
Effects that are now above the Bonferroni limit are almost certainly
significant.
Effects that are now above the T-value limit are possibly significant and
should be added if they are not already selected.
Effects below the T-value limit are not likely to be significant.
With these, the Pareto chart was analyzed to identify the significant
parameters.

238

Figure 4.5: Pareto chart for Gas production showing injection rate as the most significant
parameter

Figure 4.6: Pareto chart for Cond Prod, showing NTG as the most significant parameter

It is very clear from the results above that the effects plot for the gas
and condensate recovery tell us how much there is variability due to the
parameters. The operator of the field will then focus his/her efforts in
reducing the variations due to the highest significant parameter.

239

The table below shows a summary of the different results of the impact of the
different parameters on the gas and condensate recovery. With these results,
one can decide to further performance the analysis of variance.

Table 4.1: Summary of the influence of parameters on gas and condensate production
Parameter Si gni ficant Gas
Production
Si gni ficant Cond Production
Porosi ty Yes Yes
Permeability Yes No
Net-to-Gross Yes Yes
Permeability Ratio No Yes
Condensate gas Ratio Yes Yes
Cri ti cal Condensate Saturation Yes No
Injection Rate Yes Yes
Injection Pressure Yes Yes
Pay Thi ckness Yes Yes
Reservoi r Pressure Yes Yes
Krog No Yes

CONCLUSION
The gas condensate reservoirs are peculiar reservoirs with complex
characteristics. They have the popular problem of having condensate
blockage and reduced well productivity problems. To take care of this, there
have been proposals over the years, one of which include the use of produced
gas as an injection fluid to vaporize and produce the condensed liquid, and
maintain pressure at the same time. This process is commonly known as the
gas recycling process.
Even in injection processes, it is important to understand the impact of
the different parameters (both injection and reservoir parameters) on the
recovery of gas and condensate. This work looked into the use of statistical
approach to evaluate the impact of the eleven arbitrarily chosen parameters
on the recovery system. Design of Experiment was applied to achieve this.
The design of experiments technique enables designers to determine


240

simultaneously the individual and interactive effects of many factors that
could affect the output results in any design.
Of the eleven parameters studied, the nine of them had significant
effects on the gas and condensate recovery.

RECOMMENDATION
It is the opinion of the authors that before the gas recycling project is
initiated, an experimental design technique should be used to study the
effects of the different injection and reservoir parameters on the expected
responses (gas and condensate recovery) based on the numerous parameters
contributing to the reservoir performance. This will help to screen out
unwanted nuisance variables and thus yield a robust development plan.

REFERENCES
Adepoju, O., Olufemi, O., and Djuro N., (2009), Improving Production
Forecasts through the Application of Design of Experiments and
Probabilistic Analysis: A Case Study from Chevron, Nigeria., Paper
SPE 128605.
Afidick, D., Kaczorowski, N.J., Srivinas, B. (1994), Production performance
of a Retrograde Gas Reservoir: A Case Study of the Arun field, Paper
SPE 28749.
Ali, J.K., McGauley, P.J. and Wilson, C.J. (1997), Experimental Studies And
Modeling of Gas Condensate Flow Near the Wellbore, Paper Spe
39053.
Amini, S., Aminshahidy, B., Afshar, M., (2011), Simulation Study of
Enhanced Condensate Recovery in a Gas-Condensate Reservoir.
Iranian Journal of Chemical Engineering Vol. 8, No. 1 (Winter), 2011,
IAChE.

Ayala, L.F., and Ertekin T., (2005), Analysis of Gas Cycling Performance in
Gas/Condensate Reservoirs Using Neuro- Simulation. SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas.



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Barnum, R.S., Brinkman, F.P., Richardson, T.W. and Spillette, A.G. (1995):
Gas Condensate Reservoir Behaviour: Productivity and Recovery
Reduction Due to Condensation, Paper SPE 30767.
Carreras, P.E., Johnson, S.G., and Turner, S.E., (2006), Tahiti: Assessment of
Uncertainty in a Deepwater Reservoir Using Design of Experiments.
Paper SPE 10292988.
Economides, M.J., Schlumberger, D., Dehghani, K., Ogbe, D.O., and
Ostermann, R.D. (1987), Hysteresis Effects for Gas Condensate
Wells Undergoing Buildup Tests Below the Dew Point Pressure,
Paper SPE 16748.

Fevang, O. and Whitson, C.H. (1995), Modeling Gas Condensate Well
Deliverability, Paper SPE 30714 presented at the 1995 SPE Annual
Technical conference and Exhibition, Dallas.

Furcht, L., Palfi, S. and Dobos, T. (2010): Laboratory Modeling on
Enhanced Gas and Condensate Recovery. Development 1 2010/3
MOL Group, pp. 38 42.
Mounir B. and Djaouid, B. (2007), Effect of Gas Cycling on the
Enhancement of Condensate Recovery, Case Study: Hassi Rmel
Field, Algeria. Joint Seminar; Improved Oil Recovery (IOR)
Techniques and Their Role in Boosting the Recovery Factor, France.

Morel, D.C., Nectour A., and Danguigny J., (1997), Experimental
Determination of the Mobility of Hydrocarbon Liquids During Gas
Condensate Reservoir Depletion: Three Actual Cases. Paper SPE
38922, presented at the 1997 SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition Texas.
Li, B. and Friedmann, F., (2005), Novel Multiple Resolutions Design of
Experiment/Response Surface Methodology for Uncertainty
Analysis of Reservoir Simulation Forecasts. Paper SPE 92853,
Presented at 2005 SPE Reservoir Simulation Symposium held in
Houston, Texas USA.
Schiltius, R.J., (1936), Active Oil and Reservoir Energy, Trans. AIME 148,
pp. 33- 52.
Sigmund, P. M., Dranchuk, P. M., Morrow, N. R. and Purvis, R. A., (1973),
Retrograde condensation in porous media, Paper SPE 3476.


242

Comparative Approach to Optimum Selection of
Artificial Lift System

Igwilo Kevin Chinwuba, and Ubanatu Samuel,

Artificial lift is used worldwide in approximately 85% of the wells, thus its
impact in overall efficiency and profitability of production operations cannot
be overemphasized. Selection of a particular lift method for a given application
is carried out, to a large extent, by production engineers utilizing the method
more readily available to them both in terms of their past experience and
current access to knowledge and technology. It has been recognized for a long
time, that this is a shortcoming of most engineering disciplines and results,
more often than not, in sub-optimal designs. The decision of which artificial lift
method to use is very important to the long-term profitability of the field. An
improper selection of artificial lift can reduce production and increase the
operating cost substantially. Once a decision has been made on the type to
install on a well, it can be rarely altered whether or not the method selected was
and still is the optimal for the existing conditions. This project presents the
screening criteria on the different artificial lift techniques and discusses why the
choice made is the most suitable techniques to be applied on Nigeria oil
formations. The project explains and studies the well and reservoir
characteristics, operational and designing characteristics, field location and
little economics behind each of the artificial lift system. A decision matrix table
was used to predict the percentage performance of each of the artificial lift
system. An economical evaluation for each case was then conducted taking into
considerations both capital and operating costs of each option.

INTRODUCTION
Fluids will naturally flow from reservoir to the surface when the well
is completed and reservoir pressure is sufficient to receive fluid from matrix,
transport it to the wellbore and lift it to the surface. During the reservoir
production life reservoir pressure will decline and this could cause increase
in water cut and decrease in gas fraction. These reasons decrease or even
may cause the fluid to stop flowing from the well. Some techniques must be
applied to prevent the production decline. Before artificial lift application,
the wells were being produced only naturally. Therefore, most of the brown
fields were abandoned as reservoir pressure depleted. Because wells were
produced under the natural flow regime and there wasnt any additional


Kevin Chinwuba Igwilo is Lecturer, Department of Petroleum Engi neering, Federal University of Technology Owerri Nigeria while
Ubanatu Samuel is of Society of Petroleum Engineers Nigeria.
243

energy to the well as bottom-hole pressure decreased. Additional energy
source must be added to the well in order to lift up the fluid to the surface. In
these cases, artificial lift techniques are applied to add energy to the produced
fluids. It increases production rate by reducing the bottom-hole pressure
referring to increase in drawdown. Artificial lift is a method used to lower
the bottom-hole pressure (BHP) on the formation in order to maintain
production and to obtain higher production rate from the well. It adds energy
to the well fluid which, when added to the available energy provided
naturally by the reservoir itself, allows the well to flow at a hopefully
economic production rate.
It has been estimated that in 1994 there was a world inventory of more
than 900,000 producing wells. Only 7% of these flowed naturally while the
remaining 93% required some forms of artificial lift. The average production
per well was less than 70bpd.
Artificial Lift is a method used to lower the producing bottom-hole
pressure (BHP) on the formation to obtain a higher production rate from the
well. As the well is produced, the potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy associated with the fluid movement. This dissipates the potential
energy of the reservoir, thereby causing the flow rate to decrease and the
flow to eventually cease. At this point in the life of the well, it may be
economical to maintain or even to increase the production rate by the use of
artificial lift to offset the dissipation of reservoir energy. The major types of
artificial lifting systems are: Gas Lift (GL), Electrical Submersible Pump
(ESP), Sucker Rod Pump (SRP), Progressive Cavity Pump (PCP), and
Hydraulic Pump (HP). Gas Lift (GL) is a type of artificial lifting system that
injects gas into the tubing string to lighten the fluid column and allow the
well to flow when it does not flow naturally. The injected gas is mixed with
produced fluid in order to decrease the flowing gradient in the production
string and thus lowers the bottom-hole flowing pressure.


244

The objectives of this study includes ;
To study and select the most appropriate artificial lift system based on
the conditions and limitations in reservoir well and surface.
To assure that the selected ALS will enable production of the desired
reservoir fluid(s) at the acceptable production rate.
To check the flexibility of the selected system for easy management of
some technical uncertainties.
Research Method
This work adopts the study of some criteria presented in the form of input
parameters in accessing and comparing the various types of artificial lift
systems mentioned.
These selection criteria are classified as follows:

Surface conditions
Field operating conditions
Reservoir Characteristics
Well considerations
Field location
Economics

Brief Description of the Selection Criteria
Surface considerations

Flow Rates

Flow rates are governed by wellhead pressures and backpressures in
surface production equipment (i.e., separators, chokes and flow lines).

Igwilo and Ubanatu

245

Flow line size and length
Flow line length and diameter determines wellhead pressure
requirements and affects the overall performance of the production system.

Fluid Contaminants
Scale, paraffin or salt can increase the backpressure on a well.

Power Sources
The availability of electricity or natural gas governs the type of
artificial lift selected. Diesel, propane or other sources may also be
considered.

Climate And Physical Environment
Affect the performance of surface equipment.

Field Operating Considerations

Long Range Recovery Plans
Field condition may change over time.

Pressure Maintenance Operations
Water or gas injection may change the artificial lift requirements for a field.

Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects
EOR processes may change fluid properties and require changes in the
artificial lift system.

Field Automation
If the surface control equipment will be electrically powered, an electrically
powered artificial lift system should be considered.
Availability of operating and service personnel and support services
Some artificial lift systems are relatively low-maintenance; others require
regular monitoring and adjustment. Servicing requirements (e.g., workover rig
versus wire line unit) should be considered. Familiarity of field personnel with
equipment should also be taken into account.

246

Well Considerations
Well Depth
The well depth dictates how much surface energy is needed to move fluids to the
surface and may place limits on sucker rods and other equipment.

Completion Type
Completion and perforation skin factors affect inflow performance.

Casing And Tubing Sizes
Small-diameter casing limits the production tubing size and constrains
multiple options. Small-diameter tubing will limit production rates, but larger
tubing may allow excessive fluid
Fallback.

Wellbore Deviation
Highly deviated wells may limit applications of beam pumping.

Reservoir Considerations IPR
A well inflow performance defines its production potential.

Liquid Production Rate
The anticipated production rate is a controlling factor in selecting artificial
lift system.

Water Cut
High water cut require a lift method that can move large volumes of fluid.

Gas- Liquid Ratio
A high GLR generally lowers the efficiency of pump-assisted lift.

Viscosity
Viscosities less than 10cp are generally not a factor in selecting a lift
system: high-viscosity fluids can cause difficulty in sucker rod pumping.

Igwilo and Ubanatu

247

Formation Volume Factor
Ratio of reservoir volume to surface volume determines how much total
fluid must be lifted to achieve desired surface production rate.

Other Reservoir Problems
Sand, paraffin or scale can cause plugging and/or abrasion. Presence of
H
2
O, CO
2
or salt water can cause corrosion, Down hole emulsions can increase
backpressure and reduce efficiency. High bottom hole temperature can affect
down hole equipment.

Field Location
Some factors that influence the selection of artificial lift system which depend
on the field location are:
Construction of offshore platform with maximum size and weight for
installation artificial lift facilities
Problem regarding to onshore field in remote location of the field that
causes insufficient supply of infrastructure.
The source of power for prime mover that is very important in
equipment design.

Economics
Economic factors that influence on selection an artificial lift type are:
Capital Expenses (CAPEX)
Operating Expenses (OPEX) per month
Life of installed equipment
Supplement of equipment
Well production life
Work over costs

248

Number of wells that require artificial lift installation
Number of employers needed for equipment control
<

Fig. 3.1 Full life cycle Economics of ALS
Initial capital expenses play important role in installation of required
artificial lift types. But operating expenses are more important than initial
capital expenses through life cycle of the well (see Figure 3.1). From the figure
it could be seen that initial capital investment contains only 1% of the total
project value. But operating costs contain 6% of total project costs. Therefore,
it is valuable to make sure that the installation of reliable equipment that
causes reduce in operating costs and increase in production costs is used. One
key issue that influences on operating costs is energy efficiency (additional gas
purchase) and reliability.
Work over costs is dependent on location of operating field (it requires
high costs for remote fields) and, also service company contract terms.
Igwilo and Ubanatu

249

Another key factor that will influence the operating cost is the number of
wells that require installation of artificial lift types. Number of employers that
will be needed for installation and equipment control will influence on
operating costs.

Analysis of Results
After a careful study of the selection criteria as shown in the table above,
a decision matrix was designed as shown in the figure below;
Table 4 Table 4.1 Decision Matrix for ArtLOp
Artificial Lift Systems
Parameters
Gas
Lift
ESP SRP
PCP
HP Total Probability
Production
Rate
0-1,000 5 100.00%
1,001-2,000 5 100.00%
2,001-3,000 5 100.00%
3,001-4,000 5 100.00%
4,001-5,000 4 80.00%
5,001-10,000 3 60.00%
10,001-15,000 2 40.00%
15,001-30,000 2 40.00%
30,001-45,000 2 40.00%
Above 45,000 1 20.00%
Well Depth
0-2,500 4 80.00%
2,501-5,000 4 80.00%
5,001-7,500 4 80.00%
7,501-10,000 4 80.00%
10,001-12,500 4 80.00%

250

Igwilo and Ubanatu
12,501-15,000 4 80.00%
15,001-17,500 2 40.00%
17,501-20,000 1 20.00%
Above 20,000 1 20.00%
Casing Size
4.500 2 40.00%
5.000 2 40.00%
5.500 5 100.00%
6.625 5 100.00%
7.000 5 100.00%
7.625 5 100.00%
8.625 5 100.00%
9.625 5 100.00%
10.625 5 100.00%
Above 10.625 5 100.00%
Wellbore
Deviation
0-10 5 100.00%
11-20 5 100.00%
21-30 5 100.00%
31-40 5 100.00%
41-50 5 100.00%
51-60 5 100.00%
61-70 5 100.00%
71-80 4 80.00%
81-90 1. 3 60.00%
Temperature
0-50 4 80.00%
51-100 4 80.00%
101-150 5 151-200
251

<
01-250 4 80.00%
251-300 3 60.00%
301-350 3 60.00%
351-400 3 60.00%
401-450 3 60.00%
451-500 3 60.00%
Above 500 2 40.00%
Flowing
Pressure

Less than
1,000 5 100.00%
Greater than
1,000
5 100.00%
Water Cut
0-10 5 100.00%
11-20 5 100.00%
21-30 5 100.00%
31-40 5 100.00%
41-50 5 100.00%
51-60 4 80.00%
61-70 4 80.00%
71-80 4 80.00%
81-90 3 60.00%
91-100 3 60.00%
Fluid
Viscosity
0-20 5 100.00%
21-40 4 80.00%
41-60 4 80.00%
61-80 4 80.00%

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Igwilo and Ubanatu

81-100 4 80.00%
Above 100 3 60.00%
Fluid Gravity
0-10 1 20.00%
11-20 3 80.00%
21-30 5 100.00%
31-40 5 100.00%
41-50 5 100.00%
Above 50 5 100.00%
GOR
0-100 5 100.00%
101-200 5 100.00%
201-300 5 100.00%
301-400 3 60.00%
401-500 1 20.00%
501-600 1 20.00%
Above 600 1 20.00%
Sands and
Abrasives
0-10 5 100.00%
11-20 3 60.00%
21-30 2 40.00%
31-40 2 40.00%
41-50 2 40.00%
Above 50 1 20.00%
Corrosion
Fluid Type
Carbon dioxide 2 40.00%
Hydrogen
Sulphide 2 40.00%
None 5 100.00%
Field Location
Onshore 5 100.00%
Offshore 4 80.00%
Power Source
Electricity 4 80.00%

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ITER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4 NO.4

Natural Gas 2 40.00%
Others 2 40.00%
Fluid
Contaminants
Scales 1 20.00%
Paraffin 1 20.00%
Salt 1 20.00%
None 5 100.00%
Pressure
Maintenance
Operations
Gas Injection 1 20.00%
Water
Injection 5 100.00%
Total 80 68 73 67 77
Probability 80% 68% 73% 67% 77%

Description of Decision Matrix
The decision matrix as shown above is designed using Microsoft Excel 2007.
Each option under each input parameter is represented on the matrix as it is
programmed on the software.
The bullets in each option for each input parameter signify that the
option satisfies the criteria for the corresponding artificial lift system as
interpreted from tables 4.1.1-4. For instance; the options under the input
parameter Production Rate. Looking at the bullets under the column for gas
lift, it fills the options in the column from 30,001-45,000 to 0-10,000. This
means that gas lift as an artificial lift system can only lift fluid volumes not
greater that 45,000bfpd. This same principle applies for the rest of the input
parameters and their options.

Calculations
To determine the probability that a particular option will be selected for
each artificial lift system: by dividing the total number of artificial lift system

254

Igwilo and Ubanatu

that satisfies that criteria to the total number of artificial lift system.
Mathematically;

Where;

For example, the probability that the option a fluid viscosity of 61-80cp is
chosen;

This calculation is repeated for all the options and the result is shown in the
last column of the decision matrix.

Next step is to estimate the probability that a particular artificial lift system is
selected amongst other artificial lift system. The calculation is done by
dividing the total number of options that a particular artificial lift system
satisfies by the total number of options. Mathematically;

Lets take for instance, the probability that gas lift as an artificial lift system is
selected amongst other artificial lift system.

This calculation is repeated for all the artificial lift systems and the results are
shown in the last row of the decision matrix.

CONCLUSION
In past years, the selection of artificial lift system which gives optimum
production and of economic benefit had been a great challenge in the
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ITER-WORLD JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VOL.4 NO.4

petroleum industry. This is why a better and more suitable technology known
as the Gas Lift has been discovered and established which has given rise to
better oil recovery results in production over time. Gas lift compares favorably
with Electric submersible pump and Hydraulic pumping in providing the most
flexible depth and rate range of all lift types. Gas lift also may be used to kick
off wells that flow naturally, to backflow water injection wells, and to unload
liquids from gas wells. The retrievability of valves by wire line makes it very
attractive anywhere expensive tubing jobs can be expected.
The electrical submersible pump historically has been associated with
high-volume fluid production, but the electrical pump requires too many stages
to handle the gas, and it loses efficiency.
The recovery factor in case of Gas lift is higher than that of ESP system,
the economical evaluation indicated that the capital cost of ESP is higher than
that of Gas Lift system. Operating cost for ESP is higher than that on Gas Lift
system.
Gas Lift has edge over other artificial lift because it is safer, flexible and
reliable.
It is 80% effective and efficient to give optimum production.
It is highly recommended that Gas Lift should be used in the petroleum
industry especially here in Nigeria to improve the production of crude oil to
meet the demands of the consumers. On the other hand, it will boost the
nations economy.

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Bello O., Rehman A., Soponsakulkaew N., Falcone G.(2011) A Generic
Model for Optimizing the Selection of Artificial Lift Method for Liquid
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Cam M. Mathews, Chpt 15, Production Operations Engineering, pg 625-660.

256

Igwilo and Ubanatu

Clegg J.D. (1988). High-rate Artificial Lift. J. Petroleum Technol. SPE#17638.

Clegg J.D., Bucaram S.M., Heln J. (1993). Recommendations and
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Espin D.A., Gasbarri S., Chacin J.E., Intevep S.A. (1994). Expert System for
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Gholinegad J. (2007). Artificial Lift. Sharif University of Technology
Workshop, Tehran, Iran.

Herald W. Winkler and Jack R. Blann, chpt 12, Production Operations
Engineering, pg 521-525.

Heinze L.R., Herald W., Lea J.F. (1995). Decision Tree for Selection of
Artificial Lift method. Oklahoma, SPE#26510.

Hwang C.L., Yoon K. (1981). Multiple Attribute Decision Making: a State of
the Art Survey. Springer-Verlog.

James Fretwell, chpt 14, Production Operations Engineering, pg 713-715

Jiang W., Zhong X., Chen K., Zhang S. (2007). TOPSIS Model as a Data
Classifier. Fourth International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and
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Khasanov M.M., Khabibullin R. A., Pashali A. A.(2010) Approach to Selection
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Neely B., Gipson F., Capps B., Clegg J., Wilson P. (1981). Selection of
Artificial Lift method. Dallas, Texas, SPE#10337.

257

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