Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
A First Course
Textbook in Problems
O. Y. Viro, O. A. Ivanov,
N. Y. Netsvetaev, V. M. Kharlamov
Foreword
Genre, Contents and Style of the Book
The
ore of the book is the material usually in
luded in the Topology part
of the two year Geometry le
ture
ourse at the Mathemati
al Department
of St. Petersburg University. It was
omposed by Vladimir Abramovi
h
Rokhlin in the sixties and has almost not
hanged sin
e then.
We believe this is the minimum topology that must be mastered by any
student who has de
ided to be
ome a mathemati
ian. Students with
resear
h interests in topology and related elds will surely need to go
beyond this book, but it may serve as a starting point. The book in
ludes basi
material on general topology, introdu
es algebrai
topology
via its most
lassi
al and elementary part, the theory of the fundamental group and
overing spa
es, and provides a ba
kground on topologi
al
and smooth manifolds. It is written mainly for students with a limited
experien
e in mathemati
s, but who are determined to study the subje
t
a
tively.
The
ore material is presented in a
on
ise form; proofs are omitted. Theorems, however, are formulated in detail. We present them as problems
and expe
t the reader to treat them as problems. Most of the theorems
are easy to nd elsewhere with
omplete proofs. We believe that a serious
attempt to prove a theorem must be the rst rea
tion to its formulation.
It should pre
ede looking for a book where the theorem is proved.
On the other hand, we want to emphasize the role of formulations. In
the early stages of studying mathemati
s it is espe
ially important to
take ea
h formulation seriously. We intentionally for
e a reader to think
about ea
h simple statement. We hope that this will make the book
in
onvenient for mere skimming.
The
ore material is enhan
ed by many problems of various sorts and
additional pie
es of theory. Although they are
losely related to the
main material, they
an be (and usually are) kept outside of the standard
le
ture
ourse. These enhan
ements
an be re
ognized by wider margins,
as the next paragraph.
iii
FOREWORD
iv
The problems, whi
h do not
omprise separate topi
s and are intended ex
lusively to be exer
ises, are typeset with small fa
e. Some of them are very easy
and in
luded just to provide additional examples. Few problems are di
ult.
They are to indi
ate relations with other parts of mathemati
s, show possible
dire
tions of development of the subje
t, or just satisfy an ambitious reader.
Problems, whose solutions seem to be the most di
ult (from the authors'
viewpoint), are marked with a star, as in many other books.
Therefore the book looks like a Russian folklore doll, matreshka
omposed of several dolls sitting inside ea
h other. We apologize for being
non
onventional in this and hope that it may help some readers and does
not irritate the others too mu
h.
FOREWORD
We assume that the reader is familiar with naive set theory, but anti
ipate
that this familiarity may be super
ial. Therefore at points where set
theory is espe
ially
ru
ial we make set-theoreti
digressions maintained
in the same style as the rest of the book.
FOREWORD
vi
Contents
Foreword
iii
iii
v
2. Bases
Denition of Base
Bases for Plane
When a Colle
tion of Sets is a Base
Subbases
Innity of the Set of Prime Numbers
Hierar
hy of Topologies
3. Metri Spa es
3
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
CONTENTS
4. Subspa es
Relativity of Openness
Agreement on Notations of Topologi
al Spa
es
7. Continuous Maps
8. Homeomorphisms
viii
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
19
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
22
22
23
24
24
25
25
25
25
26
26
27
27
28
28
29
30
31
31
32
32
32
32
33
34
37
37
CONTENTS
Paths
Path-Conne
ted Spa
es
Path-Conne
ted Sets
Path-Conne
ted Components
Path-Conne
tedness Versus Conne
tedness
Polygon-Conne
tedness
Hausdor Axiom
Limits of Sequen
e
Coin
iden
e Set and Fixed Point Set
Hereditary Properties
The First Separation Axiom
The Third Separation Axiom
The Fourth Separation Axiom
Niemytski's Spa
e
Urysohn Lemma and Tietze Theorem
ix
38
38
39
40
40
40
40
41
41
42
42
42
43
44
44
44
45
46
46
46
47
47
48
49
49
50
50
50
51
51
52
52
53
53
54
54
55
56
56
56
57
57
58
58
58
CONTENTS
59
59
59
60
60
61
62
62
62
62
63
64
64
65
65
65
66
66
66
66
67
67
68
68
69
69
72
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
77
78
78
79
79
79
80
80
CONTENTS
xi
80
81
83
83
83
84
84
85
85
85
85
86
87
19. Proje
tive Spa
es
88
Real Proje
tive Spa
e of Dimension n
88
Complex Proje
tive Spa
e of Dimension n
89
Quaternion Proje
tive Spa
es and Cayley Plane
89
20. Topologi
al Groups
89
Algebrai
Digression. Groups
89
Topologi
al Groups
90
Self-Homeomorphisms Making a Topologi
al Group Homogeneous 91
Neighborhoods
92
Separaion Axioms
92
Countability Axioms
93
Subgroups
93
Normal Subgroups
94
Homomorphisms
95
Lo
al Isomorphisms
95
Dire
t Produ
ts
96
21. A
tions of Topologi
al Groups
97
A
tions of Group in Set
97
Continuous A
tions
97
Orbit Spa
es
97
Homogeneous Spa
es
98
22. Spa
es of Continuous Maps
98
Sets of Continuous Mappings
98
Topologi
al Stru
tures on Set of Continuous Mappings
98
Topologi
al Properties of Spa
es of Continuous Mappings
99
Metri
Case
99
Intera
tions With Other Constru
tions
100
Mappings X Y ! Z and X ! C (Y; Z )
101
102
103
104
CONTENTS
Denition
Lo
al Homeomorphisms Versus Coverings
Number of Sheets
More Examples
Universal Coverings
Theorems on Path Lifting
High-Dimensional Homotopy Groups of Covering Spa
e
xii
104
104
105
105
106
106
107
107
108
108
108
109
109
110
110
110
111
111
112
113
113
114
114
114
115
115
115
116
116
117
117
117
118
118
119
119
121
121
122
122
123
124
125
CONTENTS
Indu
ed Homomorphisms
Fundamental Theorem of High Algebra
Generalization of Intermediate Value Theorem
Winding Number
Borsuk-Ulam Theorem
30.
xiii
125
127
127
128
128
129
129
130
130
131
131
131
131
132
132
132
133
133
134
134
135
135
135
136
136
137
138
138
140
141
142
143
143
144
145
145
145
145
146
147
148
148
149
150
151
CONTENTS
Part 3. Manifolds
Chapter 6. Bare Manifolds
36. Lo
ally Eu
lidean Spa
es
37. Manifolds
Denition of Manifold
Components of Manifold
Making New Manifolds out of Old Ones
Double
Collars and Bites
38. Isotopy
Isotopy of Homeomorphisms
Isotopy of Embeddings and Sets
Isotopies and Atta
hing
Conne
ted Sums
Zero-Dimensional Manifolds
Redu
tion to Conne
ted Manifolds
Examples
Statements of Main Theorems
Lemma on 1-Manifold Covered with Two Lines
Without Boundary
With Boundary
Consequen
es of Classi
ation
Mapping Class Groups
Examples
Ends and Odds
Closed Surfa
es
Triangulations of Surfa
es
Two Properties of Triangulations of Surfa
es
S
heme of Triangulation
Examples
Families of Polygons
Operations on Family of Polygons
Topologi
al and Homotopy Classi
ation of Closed Surfa
es
Re
ognizing Closed Surfa
es
Orientations
More About Re
ognizing Closed Surfa
es
Compa
t Surfa
es with Boundary
xiv
151
152
154
156
156
156
157
157
159
159
160
160
161
161
162
162
162
164
164
164
164
165
165
165
166
166
167
167
167
167
167
168
169
170
170
171
172
172
173
174
175
175
176
176
CONTENTS
Genus of Surfa
e
Systems of disjoint
urves on a surfa
e
Polygonal Jordan and S
hon
ies Theorems
Polygonal Annulus Theorem
Dehn Twists
Coverings of Surfa
es
Bran
hed Coverings
Mapping Class Group of Torus
Braid Groups
xv
177
177
177
177
179
180
181
181
182
182
182
182
182
182
183
183
183
183
183
183
183
183
183
183
184
184
184
184
184
185
186
186
187
187
187
188
189
189
189
190
190
190
190
191
CONTENTS
Immersions
Dierentiable Embeddings
Immersions Versus Embeddings
Embeddability to Eu
lidean Spa
es
Coordinate Denition
Digression on Einstein Notations
Dierentiation of Fun
tions
Dierential of Map
Tangent Bundle
Tangent Ve
tors in Eu
lidean Spa
e
Ve
tors as Velo
ities
xvi
191
192
193
194
195
195
196
196
197
197
197
198
199
199
199
199
199
200
200
202
203
203
203
204
204
204
205
205
206
207
207
208
209
210
210
210
210
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
211
CONTENTS
Tautologi
al Bundles
Homotopy Classi
ation of Ve
tor Bundles
Low-Dimensional
51. Orientation
Sard Theorem
Transversality
Embedding to R 2n+1
Normal Bundle and Tubular Neighborhood
Pontryagin Constru
tion
Degree of Map
Linking Numbers
Hopf Invariant
Thom Constru
tion
Cobordisms
xvii
211
211
211
211
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212
Part 1
General Topology
Although it may seem unexpe
ted, the goal of this part of the book is to
tea
h the language of mathemati
s. More spe
i
ally, one of its most important
omponents: the language of set-theoreti
topology, whi
h treats
the basi
notions related to
ontinuity. The term general topology means:
this is the topology that is needed and used by most mathemati
ians.
As a resear
h eld, it was
ompleted a long time ago. Its permanent usage in the
apa
ity of a
ommon mathemati
al language has polished its
system of denitions and theorems. Nowadays studying general topology really resembles studying a language rather than mathemati
s: one
needs to learn a lot of new words, while proofs of all theorems are extremely simple. On the other hand, the theorems are numerous. It is
not surprising: they play the role of rules regulating usage of words.
We have to warn students, for whom this is one of the rst mathemati
al
subje
ts. Do not hurry to fall in love with it too seriously, do not let an
imprinting happen. This eld may seam to be
harming, but it is not
very a
tive. It hardly provides as mu
h room for ex
iting new resear
h
as most other elds.
CHAPTER 1
Generalities
1. Topology in a Set
Denition of Topologi
al Spa
e
Let X be a set. Let
be a
olle
tion of its subsets su
h that:
(a) the union of a family of sets, whi
h are elements of
, belongs to
;
(b) the interse
tion of a nite family of sets, whi
h are elements of
,
belongs to
;
(
) the empty set ? and the whole X belong to
.
Then
is
alled a topologi
al stru
ture or just a topology 1 in X ;
the pair (X;
) is
alled a topologi
al spa
e ;
an element of X is
alled a point of this topologi
al spa
e;
an element of
is
alled an open set of the topologi
al spa
e (X;
).
The
onditions in the denition above are
alled the axioms of topologi
al
stru
ture.
Simplest Examples
A dis
rete topologi
al spa
e is a set with the topologi
al stru
ture whi
h
onsists of all the subsets.
1.A. Che
k that this is a topologi
al spa
e, i.e., all axioms of topologi
al
stru
ture hold true.
An indis
rete topologi
al spa
e is the opposite example, in whi
h the
topologi
al stru
ture is the most meager. It
onsists only of X and ?.
1.B. This is a topologi
al stru
ture, is it not?
Here are less trivial examples.
1 Thus
is important: it is
alled by the same word as the whole bran
h of mathemati
s. Of
ourse, this does not mean that
oin
ides with the subje
t of topology,
but everything in this subje
t is related to
.
3
1. TOPOLOGY IN A SET
1.1.
The spa
e of 1.1 is
alled an arrow. We denote the spa
e of 1.3 (a) by 4pT .
It is a sort of toy spa
e made of 4 points. Both of these spa
es, as well as the
spa
e of 1.2, are not important, but provide good simple examples.
1.4.
The spa
e of 1.5 is denoted by RT1 and
alled the line with T1 -topology .
1.6. Let (X;
) be a topologi
al spa
e and Y be the set obtained from X by
adding a single element a. Is
ffag [ U : U 2
g [ f?g
a topologi
al stru
ture in Y ?
letter
stands for the letter O whi
h is the initial of the words with the same
meaning: Open in English, Otkrytyj in Russian, Oen in German, Ouvert in Fren
h.
1. TOPOLOGY IN A SET
1.D. Reformulate the axioms of topologi al stru ture using the words
Xr
(2)
Xr
[
2
\
2
A =
A =
\
2
[
2
(X r A )
(X r A ):
Formula (2) is dedu
ed from (1) in one step, is it not? These formulas are
nonsymmetri
ases of a single formulation, whi
h
ontains in a symmetri
way sets and their
omplements, unions and interse
tions.
1.7. Riddle. Find su
h a formulation.
(a) the interse
tion of any
olle
tion of
losed sets is
losed;
(b) union of any nite number of
losed sets is
losed;
(
) empty set and the whole spa
e (i.e., the underlying set of the topologi
al stru
ture) are
losed.
Noti
e that the property of being
losed is not a negation of the property
of being open.
1.G. Find examples of sets, whi
h
(a) are both open, and
losed simultaneously;
(b) are neither open, nor
losed.
1.8.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
1. TOPOLOGY IN A SET
Con
epts of
losed and open sets are similar in a number of ways. The
main dieren
e is that the interse
tion of an innite
olle
tion of open
sets does not have to be ne
essarily open, while the interse
tion of any
olle
tion of
losed sets is
losed. Along the same lines, the union of an
innite
olle
tion of
losed sets is not ne
essarily
losed, while the union
of any
olle
tion of open sets is open.
Prove that the half-open interval [0; 1) is neither open nor
losed in R,
but
an be presented as either the union of
losed sets or interse
tion of open
sets.
1.10. Prove that every open set of the real line is a union of disjoint open
intervals.
1
1
1.11. Prove that the set A = f0g [
is
losed in R.
n n=1
1.9.
Cantor Set
Let K be the set of real numbers whi
h
an be presented as sums of series
P
ak
of the form 1
k=1 3k with ak = 0 or 2. In other words, K is the set of
real numbers whi
h in the positional system with base 3 are presented
as 0:a1 a2 : : : ak : : : without digit 1.
1:A. Find a geometri
des
ription of K .
1:A:1. Prove that
(a) K is
ontained in [0; 1,
(b) K does not interse
t 31 ; 23 ,
3s+2 for any integers k and s.
(
) K does not interse
t 3s3+1
k ; 3k
1:A:2. Present K as [0; 1 with an innite family of open intervals
removed.
1:A:3. Try to draw K .
The set K is
alled the Cantor set. It has a lot of remarkable properties
and is involved in numerous problems below.
1:B. Prove that K is a
losed set in the real line.
2. BASES
Solving this problem, you probably are not able to avoid the following
ombinatorial theorem.
1.15 Van der Waerden's Theorem*. For every n 2 N there exists N 2
N su
h that for any A f1; 2; : : : ; N g, either A or f1; 2; : : : ; N g r A
ontains
Neighborhoods
By a neighborhood of a point one means any open set
ontaining this
point. Analysts and Fren
h mathemati
ians (following N. Bourbaki)
prefer a wider notion of neighborhood: they use this word for any set
ontaining a neighborhood in the sense above.
Give an expli
it des
ription of all neighborhoods of a point in
a dis
rete spa
e;
an indis
rete spa
e;
the arrow;
4pT .
1.16.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
2. Bases
Denition of Base
Usually the topologi
al stru
ture is presented by des
ribing its part,
whi
h is su
ient to re
over the whole stru
ture. A
olle
tion of open
sets is
alled a base for a topology if ea
h nonempty open set is a union
of sets of . For instan
e, all intervals form a base for the real line.
2.1.
Are there dierent topologi al stru tures with the same base?
2.2.
2.3.
Des ribe all topologi al stru tures having exa tly one base.
2. BASES
2 whi
h
onsists of all possible open disks (i.e., disks without its
boundary
ir
les);
1 whi
h
onsists of all possible open squares (i.e., squares without
their sides and verti
es) with sides parallel to the
oordinate axis;
1 whi
h
onsists of all possible open squares with sides parallel to the
bise
tors of the
oordinate angles.
(Squares of 1 and 1 are dened by inequalities maxfjx aj; jy bjg <
and jx aj + jy bj < respe
tively.)
2.5. Prove that every element of 2 is a union of elements of 1.
2.6.
of
1.
Prove that ea
h of the
olle
tions 2, 1, 1 is a base for some topologi
al stru
ture in R2 , and that the stru
tures dened by these
olle
tions
oin
ide.
2.7.
2.A.
A
olle
tion of open sets is a base for the topology, i for any
open set U and any point x 2 U there is a set V 2 su
h that x 2 V U .
2.B.
2.C. Show that the se ond ondition in 2.B (on interse tion) is equiva-
lent to the following: the interse
tion of any two sets of
ontains, together with any of its points, some set of
ontaining this point (
f. 2.A).
Subbases
Let (X;
) be a topologi
al spa
e. A
olle
tion of its open subsets is
alled
a subbase for
, provided the
olle
tion
= fV j V = \ki=1 Wi ; Wi 2 ; k 2 N g
of all nite interse
tions of sets belonging to is a base for
.
Prove that for any set X a
olle
tion of its subsets is a subbase of a
topology in X , i 6= ? and X = [W 2 W .
2.8.
3. METRIC SPACES
2.9.
Hierar
hy of Topologies
If
1 and
2 are topologi
al stru
tures in a set X su
h that
1
2 then
Bases dening the same topologi
al stru
ture are said to be equivalent.
2.D. Riddle. Formulate a ne
essary and su
ient
ondition for two
bases to be equivalent without expli
it mentioning of topologi
al stru
tures dened by the bases. (Cf. 2.7: bases 2, 1, and 1 must satisfy
the
ondition you are looking for.)
3. Metri
Spa
es
Denition and First Examples
A fun
tion : X X ! R + = f x 2 R j x 0 g is
alled a metri
(or
distan
e ) in X , if
(a) (x; y ) = 0, i x = y ;
(b) (x; y ) = (y; x) for every x; y 2 X ;
(
) (x; y ) (x; z ) + (z; y ) for every x; y; z 2 X .
The pair (X; ), where is a metri
in X , is
alled a metri
spa
e. The
ondition (
) is triangle inequality.
3.A. Prove that for any set X
(
0; if x = y ;
: X X ! R + : (x; y ) 7!
1; if x 6= y
3. METRIC SPACES
10
is a metri .
Further Examples
3.1.
3.2.
Prove that Rn Rn
(p)
3.3.
: (x; y) 7!
n
X
i=1
jxi yi
1
p
p
j ;
p 1:
x i yi
if xi ; yi 0, p; q > 0
n
X
p
xi
i=1
and p1
!1=p
n
X
q
i=1
yi
!1=q
+ 1q = 1.
Metri
of 3.C is (2), metri
of 3.2 is (1), and metri
of 3.1
an be denoted
by (1) and adjoined to the series sin
e
lim
p!+1
n
X
i=1
1
p
p
ai
= max ai ;
i=1
3. METRIC SPACES
11
3.8.
3. METRIC SPACES
12
3.9. What is the minimal number of points in the spa
e whi
h is required to
be
onstru
ted in 3.8.
3.10. Prove that in 3.8 the big radius does not ex
eed double the smaller
radius.
3. METRIC SPACES
13
Prove that every
onvex
losed bounded set in Rn , whi
h is symmetri
with respe
t to its
enter and is not
ontained in any ane spa
e ex
ept
Rn itself, is the unit ball with respe
t to some norm, and that this norm is
uniquely dened by this ball.
3.17*.
Metri Topology
3.G.
The
olle
tion of all open balls in the metri
spa
e is a base for
some topology (
f. 2.A, 2.B and 3.E).
3.I. A set is open in a metri
spa
e, i it
ontains together with any its
point a ball with
enter at this point.
3.19.
Prove that a losed ball is losed (with respe t to the metri topology).
3.20.
Find a losed ball, whi h is open (with respe t to the metri topology).
3.21.
Find an open ball, whi h is losed (with respe t to the metri topol-
3.22.
3.23.
ogy).
Equivalent Metri
s
Two metri
s in the same set are said to be equivalent if they indu
e the
same topology.
3. METRIC SPACES
14
3.25.
Z 1
f (x)
g(x)dx;
Ultrametri
A metri
is
alled an ultrametri
if it satises to ultrametri
triangle inequality :
(x; y) maxf(x; z ); (z; y)g
for any x; y, z .
A metri
spa
e (X; ) with ultrametri
is
alled an ultrametri
spa
e.
3.30. Che
k that only one metri
in 3.A{3.2 is ultrametri
. Whi
h one?
3.31. Prove that in an ultrametri
spa
e all triangles are isos
eles (i.e., for
any three points a, b,
two of the three distan
es (a; b), (b;
), (a;
) are
equal).
3.32. Prove that in a ultrametri
spa
e spheres are not only
losed (
f. 3.22)
but also open.
The most important example of ultrametri
is p-adi
metri
in the set Q of
all rational numbers. Let p be a prime number. For x; y 2 Q , present the
dieren
e x y as rs p , where r, s, and are integers, and r, s are relatively
prime with p. Put (x; y) = p .
3.33. Prove that this is an ultrametri
.
4 Indexes
3. METRIC SPACES
15
3.38.
4. SUBSPACES
16
4. Subspa
es
Let (X;
) be a topologi
al spa
e, and A X . Denote by
A the
olle
tion of sets A \ V , where V 2
.
4.A.
A is a topologi
al stru
ture in A.
The pair (A;
A ) is
alled a subspa
e of the spa
e (X;
). The
olle
tion
4.1. Riddle.
Sets, whi
h are open in the subspa
e, are not ne
essarily open in the
ambient spa
e.
4.D. The unique open set in R 1 , whi
h is also open in R 2 , is the empty
set ?.
However:
4.E. Open sets of an open subspa
e are open in the ambient spa
e, i.e.,
if A 2
then
A
.
The same relation holds true for
losed sets. Sets, whi
h are
losed in
the subspa
e, are not ne
essarily
losed in the ambient spa
e. However:
17
4.F. Closed sets of the
losed subspa
e are
losed in the ambient spa
e.
Prove that a set U is open in X , i every its point has a neighborhood
V in X su
h that U \ V is open in V .
4.4.
18
5.A.
Closure
The
losure of a set A is the minimal
losed set
ontaining A. It is
denoted Cl A or, going into details, ClX A.
5.E.
19
Frontier
The frontier of a set A is the set Cl A r Int A. It is denoted by Fr A or,
more pre
isely, FrX A.
5.4.
5.5. Prove that Fr A = Fr(X r A). Find a formula for Fr A, whi
h is symmetri
with respe
t to A and X r A.
5.6. The frontier of a set A equals the interse
tion of the
losure of A and
the
losure of the
omplement of A:
Fr A = Cl A \ Cl(X r A):
5.9.
(6)
(7)
20
Let A be a subset, and b be a point of the metri
spa
e (X; ). Re
all
(see Se
tion 3) that the distan
e (b; A) from the point b to the set A is
the inf f (b; a) j a 2 A g.
5.L. Prove that b 2 Cl A, i (b; A) = 0.
How many pairwise distin
t sets
an one
obtain out of a single set using operators Cl and Int?
5.21*.
Re
all that a set A Rn is said to be
onvex if together with any two points
it
ontains the whole interval
onne
ting them (i.e., for any x; y 2 A any
point z belonging to the segment [x; y belongs to A).
Let A be a
onvex set in Rn .
5.22. Prove that Cl A and Int A are
onvex.
5.23. Prove that A
ontains a ball, unless A is not
ontained in an (n
1)dimensional ane subspa
e of Rn .
5.24. When is Fr A
onvex?
21
Dense Sets
Let A and B be sets in a topologi
al spa
e X . A is said to be dense in
B if Cl A B , and everywhere dense if Cl A = X .
22
one.
ourse, the rule (as everything in the set theory) may be thought of as a set.
Namely, one
onsiders a set of ordered pairs (x; y) with x 2 X , y 2 Y su
h that the
rule assigns y to x. This set is
alled the graph of f . It is a subset of the set X Y
of all ordered pairs (x; y).
23
6.D. A map
f : X ! Y is an inje
tion, i for any B Y su
h that
f f 1 (B ) = B the preimage f 1 (B ) is the unique subset of X whose
image equals B .
Y:
(8)
(9)
(10)
f 1 (A [ B ) = f 1 (A) [ f 1(B );
f 1 (A \ B ) = f 1 (A) \ f 1(B );
f 1(Y r A) = X r f 1(A)?
6.2.
Y:
24
f (A [ B ) = f (A) [ f (B );
f (A \ B ) = f (A) \ f (B );
f (X r A) = Y r f (A)?
(11)
(12)
(13)
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
B \ f (A) = f f 1 (B ) \ A :
! Z is the mapping
! Z , and
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
25
Submappings
If A X and B Y then for every f : X ! Y su
h that f (A) B
there is mapping ab(f ) : A ! B dened by formula x 7! f (x) and
alled
an abbreviation of the mapping f to A; B , or submapping, or submap . If
B = Y then ab f : A ! Y is denoted by f A and
alled the restri
tion of
f to A. If B 6= Y then ab f : A ! B is denoted by f A;B or even simply
f j.
6.Q. The restri
tion of a map f : X ! Y to A X is the
omposition
of in
lusion in A :! X and f . In other words, f A = f in.
6.R. Any abbreviation (in
luding any restri
tion) of inje
tions is inje
tive.
6.S. If a restri
tion of a mapping is surje
tive then the original mapping
is surje
tive.
7. Continuous Maps
Denition and Main Properties of Continuous Maps
Let X , Y be topologi
al spa
es. A map f : X ! Y is said to be
ontinuous if the preimage of any open subset of Y is an open subset of
X.
7.A. A map is
ontinuous, i the preimage of any
losed set is
losed.
7.B. The identity map of any topologi
al spa
e is
ontinuous.
7.1. Let
1 ,
2 be topologi
al stru
tures in X . Prove that the identity
mapping of X
id : (X;
1 ) ! (X;
2 )
is
ontinuous, i
2
1 .
7.2. Let f : X ! Y be a
ontinuous map. Is it
ontinuous with respe
t to
(a) a ner topology in X and the same topology in Y ,
(b) a
oarser topology in X and the same topology in Y ,
(
) a ner topology in Y and the same topology in X ,
(d) a
oarser topology in Y and the same topology in X ?
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
26
7.3. Let X be a dis
rete spa
e and Y an arbitrary spa
e. Whi
h maps
X ! Y and Y ! X are
ontinuous?
7.4. Let X be an indis
rete spa
e and Y an arbitrary spa
e. Whi
h maps
X ! Y and Y ! X are
ontinuous?
7.5. Riddle. The statement 7.D admits a natural generalization with the
in
lusion map repla
ed by an arbitrary map f : A ! X of an arbitrary set
A. Find this generalization.
7.H. Any
onstant map (i.e., a map with image
onsisting of a single
point) is
ontinuous.
Reformulations of Denition
Prove that a mapping f : X ! Y is
ontinuous, i
Cl f 1 (A) f 1(Cl A)
for any A Y .
7.7. Formulate and prove similar
riteria of
ontinuity in terms of Int f 1 (A)
and f 1 (Int A). Do the same for Cl f (A) and f (Cl A).
7.8. Let be a base for topology in Y . Prove that a map f : X ! Y is
ontinuous, i f 1(U ) is open for any U 2 .
7.6.
More Examples
Is the mapping f : [0; 2 ! [0; 2 dened by formula
(
x;
if x 2 [0; 1);
f (x) =
3 x; if x 2 [1; 2
ontinuous (with respe
t to the topology indu
ed from the real line)?
7.10. Is the map f of segment [0; 2 (with the topology indu
ed by the topology of the real line) into the arrow (see Se
tion 1) dened by formula
(
x;
if x 2 [0; 1;
f (x) =
x + 1; if x 2 (1; 2
ontinuous?
7.11. Give an expli
it
hara
terization of
ontinuous mappings of RT1 (see
Se
tion 1) to R.
7.9.
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
7.12.
! RT
27
are ontinuous?
7.14.
;
f (x) = x
0;
if x 6= 0;
if x = 0:
7.15.
7.16. Is it true that the image of nowhere dense set under a
ontinuous map
is nowhere dense.
7.17*. Does there exist a nowhere dense set A of [0; 1 (with the topology
indu
ed out of the real line) and a
ontinuous map f : [0; 1 ! [0; 1 su
h that
f (A) = [0; 1?
Lo
al Continuity
A map f of a topologi
al spa
e X to a topologi
al spa
e Y is said to be
ontinuous at a point a 2 X if for every neighborhood U of f (a) there
exists a neighborhood V of a su
h that f (V ) U .
7.I.
A map f : X
of X .
!Y
7.J.
7.K.
Theorem 7.K means that
ontinuity introdu
ed above
oin
ides with the
one that is usually studied in Cal
ulus.
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
28
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
Real p q-matri
es
omprise a spa
e Mat(p q; R), whi
h diers from Rpq
only in the way of numeration of its natural
oordinates (they are numerated
by pairs of indi
es).
7.22. Let f : X ! Mat(p q; R) and g : X ! Mat(q r; R) be
ontinuous
maps. Prove that then
X ! Mat(p r; R) : x 7! g(x)f (x)
is a
ontinuous map.
Re
all that GL(n; R) is the subspa
e of Mat(n n; R)
onsisting of all the
invertible matri
es.
7.23. Let f : X ! GL(n; R) be a
ontinuous map. Prove that X !
GL(n; R) : x 7! (f (x)) 1 is
ontinuous.
7.L.
7.24.
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
29
A mapping f : X ! X of a metri
spa
e X is
alled
ontra
tive if there exists
2 (0; 1) su
h that f (a); f (b) (a; b) for every a, b 2 X .
7.25.
is ontinuous.
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
30
! I2
su
h that
(a) fk
onne
ts all
enters of the squares forming the obvious subdivision of I 2 into 4k equalpsquares with side 1=2k ;
(b) dist(fk (x); fk 1 (x)) 2=2k+1 for any x 2 I (here dist means the
metri
indu
ed on I 2 from the standard Eu
lidean metri
of R2 ).
7:G. Prove that any sequen
e of paths fk : I ! I 2 satisfying the
onditions of 7:F
onverges to a map f : I ! I 2 (i.e. for any x 2 I there
exists a limit f (x) = limk!1 fk (x)) and this map is
ontinuous and its
image is dense in I 2 .
surje tive.
7:I. Generalize 7:C { 7:E 7:F { 7:H to obtain a ontinuous surje tion of
I onto I n .
one.
7 Although
7. CONTINUOUS MAPS
31
Fundamental Covers
Consider a
over of a topologi
al spa
e X . Ea
h element of inherits
from X a topologi
al stru
ture. When are these stru
tures su
ient
for re
overing the topology of X ? In parti
ular, under what
onditions
on does
ontinuity of a map f : X ! Y follow from
ontinuity of
its restri
tions to elements of . To answer these questions, solve the
problems 7.28{7.29 and 7.Q{7.V.
Is this true for the following
overings:
(a) X = [0; 2, = f[0; 1; (1; 2g;
(b) X = [0; 2, = f[0; 1; [1; 2g;
(
) X = R, = fQ ; R r Q g;
(d) X = R, is a set of all one-point subsets of R?
7.29. A
over of a topologi
al spa
e
onsisting of one-point subsets has the
property des
ribed above, i the spa
e is dis
rete.
7.28.
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
32
7.V.
8. Homeomorphisms
Denition and Main Properties of Homeomorphisms
An invertible mapping is
alled a homeomorphism if both this mapping
and its inverse are
ontinuous.
8.A. Find an example of a
ontinuous bije
tion, whi
h is not a homeomorphism.
8.B. Find a
ontinuous bije
tion [0; 1) ! S 1, whi
h is not a homeomorphism.
8.C. The identity map of a topologi
al spa
e is a homeomorphism.
Homeomorphi
Spa
es
A topologi
al spa
e X is said to be homeomorphi
to spa
e Y if there
exists a homeomorphism X ! Y .
8.F. Being homeomorphi
is an equivalen
e relation. (Cf. 8.C{8.E.)
Role of Homeomorphisms
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
33
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
be
ame a kind of program. It was a sort of dissertation presented by Klein for getting
the position as a professor at Erlangen University.
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
34
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
35
The latter four problems show that angles are not essential in topology,
i.e., for a line or boundary of a domain the property of having angles is
not preserved by homeomorphism. And now two more problems on this.
Prove that every
losed simple (i.e., without self-interse
tions) polygon
in R2 (and in Rn with n > 2) is homeomorphi
to the
ir
le S 1 .
8.14. Prove that every non-
losed simple nite unit polyline in R2 (and in Rn
with n > 2) is homeomorphi
to the segment [0; 1.
8.13.
8.15.
8.16.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
8.17.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
36
8.18.
Figure 1
8.26. Prove that surfa
es shown in Figure 2 are homeomorphi
(they are
alled handles ).
8.27.
8.28*.
Prove that R3 r S 1
= R3 r R1 [ f(1; 1; 1)g .
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
37
Figure 2
Figure 3
8.29.
8.W. A dis
rete spa
e and an indis
rete spa
e (whi
h have more than
one point) are not homeomorphi
.
8.30. Prove that the spa
es Z, Q (with topology indu
ed from R), R, RT
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
38
the number of elements) of the set of points and the set of open sets (
f.
Problems 8.29 and 8.V). Less obvious examples are the main obje
t of
the next
hapter.
Embeddings
Continuous mapping f : X ! Y is
alled a (topologi
al ) embedding if
the submapping ab(f ) : X ! f (X ) is a homeomorphism.
fi ) does
For any dierentiable fun
tion f : Rn ! Rn whose Ja
obian det( x
j
not vanish at the origin 0 2 Rn there exists a neighborhood U of the origin
su
h that f jU : U ! Rn is an embedding and f (U ) is open.
8. HOMEOMORPHISMS
39
f2
?
?
hX y
is ommutative).
! Y?
?
yhY
!Y
are equivalent.
Information
There are nonequivalent knots. For instan
e,
and
CHAPTER 2
Topologi
al Properties
9. Conne
tedness
Denitions of Conne
tedness and First Examples
A topologi
al spa
e X is said to be
onne
ted if it has only two subsets
whi
h are both open and
losed: ? and the entire X .
A partition of a set is a
over of this set with pairwise disjoint sets. To
partition a set means to
onstru
t su
h a
over.
9.A.
Is an indis
rete spa
e
onne
ted? The same for the arrow and RT1 .
9.2. Des
ribe expli
itly all
onne
ted dis
rete spa
es.
9.3. Is the set Q of rational numbers (with the topology indu
ed from R)
onne
ted? The same about the set of irrational numbers.
9.4. Let
1 ,
2 be topologi
al stru
tures in a set X , and
2 be ner than
1 (i.e.,
1
2 ). If (X;
1 ) is
onne
ted, is (X;
2 )
onne
ted? If (X;
2 )
is
onne
ted, is (X;
1 )
onne
ted?
9.1.
9. CONNECTEDNESS
41
9.11. Find a topologi
al spa
e X and dis
onne
ted subset A X su
h that
for any disjoint open sets U and V , whi
h form a
over of X , either U A,
or V A.
n
9.12. Prove that for every dis
onne
ted set A in R there exist disjoint open
sets U and V su
h that A U [ V , U \ A 6= ?, and V \ A 6= ?.
9.B.
B
Cl A, then B is
9.C.
9.E.
9. CONNECTEDNESS
42
9.H.
Prove that two points are in the same
omponent, i they belong
to the same
onne
ted set.
9.19. Let x and y belong to the same
omponent. Prove that any set, whi
h
is
losed and open, either
ontains both x and y or does not
ontain either of
them (
f. 9.29).
9.20. Let a spa
e X has a group stru
ture, and the multipli
ation by an
element of the group is a
ontinuous map. Prove that the
omponent of
unity is a normal subgroup.
9.21.
9.K.
9. CONNECTEDNESS
43
9.M.
X ! S 0.
9.N.
There are several ways to prove 9.N. One is suggested by 9.M, but refers to
a famous Intermediate Value Theorem from
al
ulus, see 9.S. Basi
ally the
same proof as a
ombination of 9.M with a traditional proof of Intermidiate
Value Theorem is sket
hed in the following two problems. Cf. also 9.26
below.
9.N.1. Let U , V be subsets of I with V = U r V . Let a 2 U , b 2 V
and a > b. Prove that there exists a des
ending sequen
e an with a1 = a,
an 2 U and an as
ending sequen
e bn with b1 = b, bn 2 V su
h that both
an and bn have the same limit
.
9.N.2. If under assumptions of 9.N.1 U and V are open, then in whi
h of
them
an be
?
9.26. Prove that every open subset of the real line is a union of disjoint open
intervals (do not use 9.N). Dedu
e 9.N from this.
9.O. Prove that the set of
onne
ted
omponents of an open subset of
R is
ountable.
9.P. Prove that R1 is
onne
ted.
9.Q. Des
ribe expli
itly all
onne
ted subsets of the line.
9.R. Prove that every
onvex set in Rn is
onne
ted.
9.27.
r = exp
1
; with ' 0
1 + '2
(r; ' are the polar
oordinates) and
ir
le S 1 . Is this set
onne
ted? Would
the answer
hange, if the entire
ir
le was repla
ed by some its subset?
(Cf. 9.13)
Consider the subset of the plane R2
onsisting of points with both
oordinates rational or both
oordinates irrational. Is it
onne
ted?
9.28.
9.29.
9. CONNECTEDNESS
44
9. CONNECTEDNESS
45
For more appli
ations of indu
tion on
onne
tedness see 10.R, 10.14, 10.16
and 10.18.
9.43.
Re
all that there exist
ontinuous surje
tions of the segment onto square
and these maps are
alled Peano
urves, see Se
tion 7.
9.X. R 1 and R n are not homeomorphi
if n > 1.
Information. R p and R q are not homeomorphi
unless p = q . It follows, for instan
e, from the Lebesgue-Brower Theorem on invarian
e of
dimension (see, e.g., W. Hurewi
z and H. Wallman, Dimension Theory
Prin
eton, NJ, 1941).
9.45. The statement \Rp is not homeomorphi
to Rq unless p = q " implies
that S p is not homeomorphi
to S q unless p = q.
10. PATH-CONNECTEDNESS
46
uv (t) =
(20)
u(2t);
v (2t 1);
if t 2 [0; 12
if t 2 [ 12 ; 1:
10.1.
10. PATH-CONNECTEDNESS
47
(
) the arrow;
(d) RT1 ;
(e) 4pT ?
10.2.
10.3.
10.4. Prove that the set of plane
onvex polygons with topology dened by
the Hausdor metri
is path-
onne
ted.
10.F.
The union of a family of pairwise interse
ting path-
onne
ted sets
is path-
onne
ted.
Prove that if sets A and B are both
losed or both open and their union
and interse
tion are path-
onne
ted, then A and B are also path-
onne
ted.
10.5.
Prove that interior and frontier of a path-
onne
ted set may not be
path-
onne
ted and that
onne
tedness shares this property.
10.6.
10.7.
Prove that the same holds true for a subset of an arbitrary path onne ted spa e.
10.8.
10. PATH-CONNECTEDNESS
48
Unlike to the
ase of
onne
tedness, path-
onne
ted
omponents may be
non-
losed. (See 10.O,
f. 10.N, 10.P.)
10.J.
10.K.
Put
A = (x; y ) 2 R
1
: x > 0; y = sin
x
Draw A.
losed.
Prove that for any " > 0 an "-neighborhood of a
onne
ted subset of
Eu
lidean spa
e is path-
onne
ted.
10.12.
10.13.
49
Polygon-Conne
tedness
A subset A of Eu
lidean spa
e is said to be polygon-
onne
ted if any two
points of A
an be
onne
ted by a nite polygonal line
ontained in A.
10.14. Prove that for open subsets of Eu
lidean spa
e
onne
tedness is
equivalent to polygon-
onne
tedness.
10.16.
Let X C n be a union of a
ountable
olle
tion of algebrai
subsets (i.e., subsets dened by systems of algebrai
equations in the standard
oordinates of C n ) Prove that then C n r X is polygon-
onne
ted.
10.18.
Re
all, that real n n-matri
es
omprise a spa
e, whi
h diers from Rn only
in the way of enumeration of its natural
oordinates (they are numerated
by pairs of indi
es). The same relation holds between the set of
omplex
2
2
n n-matrix and C n (homeomorphi
to R2n ).
2
10.19. Find onne ted and path- onne ted omponents of the following subspa es of the spa e of real n n-matri es:
10.20. Find onne ted and path- onne ted omponents of the following subspa es of the spa e of omplex n n-matri es:
50
Hausdor Axiom
A lot of separation axioms are known. We restri
t ourselves to the most
important four of them. They are numerated and denoted by T1 , T2 ,
T3 , and T4 respe
tively. Let us start with the most important se
ond
axiom. Besides the notation T2 it has a name, the Hausdor axiom. A
topologi
al spa
e satisfying it is
alled a Hausdor spa
e. This axiom is
stated as follows: any two distin
t points possess disjoint neighborhoods.
11.A.
11.1.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
If the next problem holds you up even for a minute, we advise you to
think over all denitions and solve all simple problems.
11.B. Is the segment [0; 1 with the topology indu
ed from R a Hausdor
spa
e? Do the points 0 and 1 possess disjoint neighborhoods? Whi
h if
any?
Limits of Sequen
e
Let fan g be a sequen
e of points of a topologi
al spa
e X . A point b 2 X
is
alled its limit, if for any neighborhood U of b there exists a number
N su
h that an 2 U for any n > N . The sequen
e is said to
onverge or
tend to b as n tends to innity.
11.2. Explain the meaning of the statement \ b is not a limit of sequen
e
an " avoiding as mu
h as you
an negations (i.e., the words no, not, none,
et
..)
51
Hereditary Properties
A topologi
al property is
alled hereditary if it is
arried over from a
spa
e to its subspa
es, i.e. if a spa
e X possesses this property then any
subspa
e of X possesses it.
Whi
h of the following topologi
al properties are hereditary:
niteness of the set of points;
niteness of the topologi
al stru
ture;
inniteness of the set of points;
onne
tedness;
path-
onne
tedness?
11.9.
11.E.
11.10.
Find an example showing that the rst separation axiom does not
imply the Hausdor axiom.
11.12.
11.I. Show that R T1 meets the rst separation axiom, but is not a Haus-
11.J.
52
11.13. Prove that if for any two distin
t points a and b of a topologi
al
spa
e X there exists a
ontinuous map f of X to a spa
e with the rst
separation axiom su
h that f (a) 6= f (b) then X possesses the rst separation
axiom.
11.14. Prove that a
ontinuous mapping of an indis
rete spa
e to a spa
e
satisfying axiom T1 is
onstant.
11.15. Prove that in every set there exists a
oarsest topologi
al stru
ture
satisfying the rst separation axiom. Des
ribe this stru
ture.
iom.
Prove that a spa
e satises the third separation axiom, i any neighborhood of any point
ontains the
losure of some neighborhood of the same
point.
11.19. Prove that the third separation axiom is hereditary.
11.18.
11.M.
11.20.
axiom.
53
Find a spa e whi h satises the fourth, but not se ond separation
11.21.
11.P.
11.24.
Niemytski's Spa
e
Denote by H the open upper half-plane f(x; y) 2 R2 : y > 0g equipped with
the topology indu
ed by the Eu
lidean metri
. Denote by X the union of
H and its boundary line L = f(x; y) 2 R2 : y = 0g, but equip it with the
topology, whi
h is obtained by adjoining to the Eu
lidean topology the sets
of the form x [ D, where x 2 R1 and D is an open dis
in H whi
h is tangent
to L at the point x. This is the Niemytski spa
e. It
an be used to
larify
properties of the fourth separation axiom.
11.25. Prove that the Niemytski spa
e is Hausdor.
11.26. Prove that the Niemytski spa
e is regular.
11.27. What topologi
al stru
ture is indu
ed on L from X ?
11.28. Prove that the Niemytski spa
e is not normal.
11.29 Corollary. There exists a regular spa
e, whi
h is not normal.
11.30. Embed the Niemytski spa
e into a normal spa
e in su
h a way that
the
omplement of the image would be a single point.
11.31 Corollary. Theorem 11.22 does not extend to non-
losed subspa
es,
i.e., the property of being normal is not hereditary?
54
be a
ontinuous
fun
tion. Prove that there exists a
ontinuous fun
tion
g : X ! 13 ; 13 su
h that jf (x) g(x)j 32 for any x 2 A.
11:E. Prove that under the
onditions of 11:D for any " > 0 there exists
Rn ,
S 1 , or S 2 ?
55
12.J.
56
Bases at a Point
Let X be a topologi
al spa
e, and a its point. A neighborhood base at a
or just base of X at a is a
olle
tion of neighborhoods of a su
h that any
neighborhood of a
ontains a neighborhood from this
olle
tion.
12.11.
12.12.
spa es?
What are the minimal bases at a point in the dis rete and indis rete
First Countability
A topologi
al spa
e X is says to satisfy the rst axiom of
ountability or
to be a rst
ountable spa
e if it has a
ountable neighborhood base at
ea
h point.
12.13.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
57
Sequential Continuity
Consider now
ontinuity of maps along the same lines. A map f : X ! Y
is said to be sequentially
ontinuous if for any b 2 X and a sequen
e
an 2 X , whi
h
onverges to b, the sequen
e f (an )
onverges to f (b).
a sequentially
2 The
13. COMPACTNESS
58
12.14)
Terminology Remarks
Originally the word
ompa
tness was used for the following weaker property: any
ountable open
over
ontains a nite sub
over.
13.E. Prove that for a se
ond
ountable spa
e the original denition of
ompa
tness is equivalent to the modern one.
The modern notion of
ompa
tness was introdu
ed by P. S. Alexandro
(1896{1982) and P. S. Urysohn (1898{1924). They suggested for it the
term bi
ompa
tness. This notion appeared to be so su
essful that it
has displa
ed the original one and even took its name, i.e.
ompa
tness.
The term bi
ompa
tness is sometimes used (mainly by topologists of
Alexandro s
hool).
13. COMPACTNESS
59
Another deviation from the terminology used here
omes from Bourbaki:
we do not in
lude the Hausdor property into the denition of
ompa
tness, whi
h Bourbaki in
ludes. A
ording to our denition, R T1 is
ompa
t, a
ording to Bourbaki it is not.
13.G.
Compa
t Sets
By a
ompa
t set one means a subset of a topologi
al spa
e (the latter
must be
lear from the
ontext) provided it is
ompa
t as a spa
e with
the topology indu
ed from the ambient spa
e.
13.H. A subset A of a topologi
al spa
e X is
ompa
t, i any
over
whi
h
onsists of sets open in X
ontains a nite sub
over.
13.3. Is [1; 2) R
ompa
t?
13.4.
13.9.
13. COMPACTNESS
60
13.O.
13.Q.
13.S.
13.16.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
13. COMPACTNESS
61
13.T.
interval.
Prove that if f : I
!R
62
Norms in Rn
Prove that any norm Rn ! R (see Se
tion 3) is a
ontinuous fun
tion
(with respe
t to the standard topology of Rn ).
n
13.26. Prove that any two norms in R are equivalent (i.e. dene the same
topologi
al stru
ture). See 3.26,
f. 3.29.
n
13.27. Does the same hold true for metri
s in R ?
13.25.
Closed Maps
A
ontinuous map is said to be
losed if the image of any
losed set under
this map is
losed.
13.W.
losed.
13.X.
13.Y.
14 1.
63
(
) Rn ;
(d) a dis
rete spa
e?
: Find two lo
ally
ompa
t sets on the line su
h that their union
is not lo
ally
ompa
t.
14 2.
morphi to S 2 .
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
64
Proper Maps
A
ontinuous map f : X ! Y is said to be proper if the preimage of any
ompa
t subset of Y is
ompa
t.
Let X , Y be Hausdor spa
es. Any
ontinuous map f : X ! Y is
naturally extended to a map X ! Y dened by the following formula:
f (x) =
f (x);
Y r Y;
if x 2 X
otherwise, i.e., if x = X r X:
14 7.
ment.
14:R. Let fUi gi2N be a lo
ally nite open
over of Rn . Prove that there
exist an open
over fVi gi2N su
h that Cl Vi Ui for ea
h i 2 N .
65
14 8.
Y
is
14 10.
66
15.A.
15.B.
15.C.
For se ond ountable spa es ompa tness and sequential ompa tness are equivalent.
In Metri
Spa
e
A subset A of a metri
spa
e X is
alled an "-net (where " is a positive
number) if (x; A) < " for ea
h point x 2 X .
15.D. Prove that in any
ompa
t metri
spa
e for any " > 0 there exists
a nite "-net.
15.E. Prove that in any sequentially
ompa
t metri
spa
e for any " > 0
there exists a nite "-net.
67
are
15.1. Prove that a sequentially
ompa
t metri
spa
e is bounded. (Cf. 15.E
and 15.I.)
15.2. Prove that in any metri
spa
e for any " > 0 there exists
(a) a dis
rete "-net and even
(b) an "-net su
h that the distan
e between any two of its points is greater
than ".
68
p-Adi
Numbers
Fix a prime integer p. By Zp denote the set of series of the form a0 + a1 p +
with 0 an < p, an 2 N . For x; y 2 Zp put (x; y) = 0
if x = y and (x; y) = p m , if m is the smallest number su
h that the m-th
oe
ients in the series x and y dier.
+ an pn + : : :
15.7.
This metri
spa
e is
alled the spa
e of integer p-adi
numbers. There is an
inje
tion Z ! Zp assigning to a0 + a1 p + + an pn 2 Z with 0 ak < p the
series
a0 + a1 p + + an pn + 0pn+1 + 0pn+2 + 2 Zp
b0 + b1 p + + bn pn + (p 1)pn+1 + (p 1)pn+2 + : : : ;
where
b0 + b1 p + + bn pn = pn+1
(a0 + a1 p + + an pn ):
Cf. 3.33.
15.8.
15.9.
Is Zp a omplete spa e?
15.10.
Is Zp ompa t?
!R
is
This statement is one of the simplest appli
ations of a general prin
iple formulated below in 15.12. This prin
iple may be
alled indu
tion on
ompa
tness
(
f. indu
tion on
onne
tedness dis
ussed in Se
tion 9).
Let X be a topologi
al spa
e, C a property of subsets of X . We say that C
is additive if the union of any nite family of sets having C also has C . The
spa
e X is said to possess C lo
ally if ea
h point of X has a neighborhood
with property C .
15.12. Prove that a
ompa
t spa
e whi
h possesses lo
ally an additive property has this property itself.
15.13. Dedu
e from this prin
iple the statements of problems 13.Q, 15:E,
and 15:F.
69
If X is:
Has Y
the same
property, if:
Y X
70
nonnonse
ond
onne
ted Hausdor Hausdor separable
ompa
t
ompa
t
ountable
Y is open
subset of X
Y is
losed
subset of X
X is dense
in Y
Y is quotient
spa
e of X
Y = X as sets,
X
Y
Y is open
subset of Rn
Y is antidis
rete
Table 1
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
S 1 and R1 ,
I and I 2 ,
R and RT1
R and R+ = fx 2 R : x 0g.
If X is:
Has Y
the same
property, if:
X =Y Z
71
nonnonse
ond
onne
ted Hausdor Hausdor separable
ompa
t
ompa
t
ountable
Y =X Z
Y is open
dense in X
X is open
dense in Y
X is quotient
spa
e of Y
Y = X as sets,
X
Y
Y is
losed
and bounded
subset of Rn
Y is dis
rete
Table 2
CHAPTER 3
16.4.
is inje tive.
16.5.
72
16. MULTIPLICATION
73
Produ
t of Topologies
Let X and Y be topologi
al spa
es. If U is an open set of X and B is an
open set of Y , then we say that U V is an elementary set of X Y .
16.D.
Y
is a base of a topologi al
16.7.
16.8.
16.9.
16.10.
16.11.
16.12.
16.13.
16.F. The natural proje
tions prX and prY are
ontinuous.
16.G. Prove that the topology of produ
t is the
oarsest topology with
respe
t to whi
h prX and prY are
ontinuous.
16.H.
A ber of a produ
t is
anoni
ally homeomorphi
to the
orresponding fa
tor. The
anoni
al homeomorphism is the restri
tion to the
ber of the natural proje
tion of the produ
t onto the fa
tor.
16.16.
phism.
is a homeomor-
16. MULTIPLICATION
74
16. MULTIPLICATION
75
Prove that if f is onne ted and lo ally onne ted then f is ontin-
16.31.
uous.
ous.
16.32. Are some of assertions in problems 16.29 { 16.31 true for mappings
f : R2 ! R?
16.J.
16.34.
16.34.1. Prove that the set of real numbers with the topology dened by the base whi
h
onsists of all the rays [a; 1) is normal.
16.34.2. Prove that in the Cartesian square of the spa
e introdu
ed
in .1 the subspa
e f(x; y) : x = yg is
losed and dis
rete.
16.34.3. Find two disjoint subsets of f(x; y) : x = yg whi
h have
no disjoint neighborhoods in the Cartesian square of the spa
e of
.1.
16.35.
16.P. The produ
t of path-
onne
ted spa
es is path-
onne
ted.
16.Q. The produ
t of
ompa
t spa
es is
ompa
t.
16.36.
76
16.40.
1 Rk+1 .
x2k+1 + + x2n+1 g is
16.41.
16.42.
n(n+1)
2
, where
16.43.
16.T. Prove that the k-dimensional torus
an be topologi
ally embedded into R k+1 .
16.U. Find topologi
al embeddings of S 1 D2 , S 1 S 1 I , and S 2 I
into R 3 .
77
17.1. Riddle.
At rst glan
e, the denition of quotient set
ontradi
ts one of the very
profound prin
iples of the set theory whi
h states that a set is dened
by its elements. Indeed, a
ording to this prin
iple, X=S = S , sin
e S
and X=S have the same elements. Hen
e, there seems to be no need to
introdu
e X=S .
The real sense of the notion of quotient set is not in its literal set-theoreti
meaning, but in our way of thinking of elements of partitions. If we
remember that they are subsets of the original set and want to keep
tra
k of their internal stru
ture (at least, of their elements), we speak of
a partition. If we think of them as atoms, getting rid of their possible
internal stru
ture then we speak on the quotient set.
The set X=S is
alled also the set of equivalen
e
lasses for the equivalen
e relation
orresponding to the partition S .
The mapping X ! X=S that maps x 2 X to the element of S
ontaining this point is
alled a (
anoni
al) proje
tion and denoted by pr. A
subset of X whi
h is a union of elements of a partition is said to be saturated. The smallest saturated set
ontaining a subset A of X is
alled
the saturation of A.
17.2. Prove that A X is an element of a partition S of X , i A =
pr 1 (point) where pr : X ! X=S is the natural proje
tion.
17.C.
The olle tion of these sets is a topologi al stru ture in the quotient set X=S .
This topologi
al stru
ture is
alled the quotient topology. The set X=S
with this topology is
alled the quotient spa
e of the spa
e X by partition S .
17.3. Give an expli
it des
ription of the quotient spa
e of the segment [0; 1
by the partition
onsisting of [0; 13 , ( 31 ; 23 , ( 23 ; 1.
78
17.4.
not Hausdor.
17.M. The quotient spa
e of a topologi
al spa
e X by a partition S is
Hausdor, i any two elements of S possess disjoint saturated neighborhoods.
17.5. Formulate similar ne
essary and su
ient
onditions for a quotient
spa
e to satisfy other separation axioms and
ountability axioms.
17.6. Give an example showing that se
ond
ountability may get lost when
we go over to a quotient spa
e.
?
pr?
y
!Y
%g
X=S
Prove that su
h a map g
oin
ides with f=S .
79
More generally, if S and T are partitions of sets X and Y then every map
f : X ! Y , whi
h maps ea
h element of S into an element of T , gives
rise to a map X=S ! Y=T whi
h assigns to an element A of partition
S the element of partition T
ontaining f (A). This map is denoted by
f=S; T and
alled the quotient map or fa
tor map of f (with respe
t to
S and T ).
17.O. Formulate and prove for f=S; T a statement whi
h generalizes
17.N.
A map f : X ! Y denes a partition of the set X into nonempty
preimages of the elements of Y . This partition is denoted by S (f ).
17.P. The map f=S (f ) : X=S (f ) ! Y is inje
tive.
This map is
alled inje
tive fa
tor (or inje
tive quotient ) of the map f .
17.Q.
17.7.
17:A. The quotient spa
e of a topologi
al spa
e satisfying the rst separation axiom with respe
t to a
losed partition satises the rst separation axiom.
17:B. The quotient spa
e of a normal topologi
al spa
e with respe
t to
a
losed partition is normal.
80
Open Partitions
A partition S of a topologi
al spa
e X is
alled open, if the saturation of
ea
h open set is open.
: Prove that a partition is open i the
anoni
al proje
tion X !
X=S is an open map.
17:4. Prove that if a set A is saturated with respe
t to an open partition, then Int A and Cl A are also saturated.
17 3.
18.A. If f : X ! Y
18.B.
81
18.3.
82
Here the partition
onsisits of pairs of points f(0; t); (1; t)g where t 2 I ,
and one-point subsets of (0; 1) I .
Reformulation of 18.E: If we glue the side edges of a square identifying
points on the same hight, we get a
ylinder.
18.F.
18.G. Riddle. How are the problems 18.C, 18.E and 18.F related?
18.H. S 1 I=[(z; 0) (z; 1) for z 2 S 1 is homeomorphi
to S 1 S 1 .
Here the partition
onsists of one-point subsets of S 1 (0; 1), and pairs
of points of the basis
ir
les lying on the same generatrix of the
ylinder.
Reformulation of 18.H: If we glue the basis
ir
les of a
ylinder identifying
points on the same generatrix, then we get a torus.
18.I. I 2 =[(0; t) (1; t); (t; 0) (t; 1) is homeomorphi
to S 1 S 1 .
In 18.I the partition
onsists of
one-point subsets of the interior (0; 1) (0; 1) of the square,
pairs of points on the verti
al sides, whi
h are the same distan
e
from the bottom side (i.e., pairs f(0; t); (1; t)g with t 2 (0; 1)),
pairs of points on the horizontal sides whi
h lie on the same verti
al
line (i.e., pairs f(t; 0); (t; 1)g with t 2 (0; 1)),
the four verti
es of the square
83
Transitivity of Fa
torization
A solution of Problem 18.I
an be based on Problems 18.E and 18.H and
the following general theorem.
X , and let S 0 be a partition of the spa
e X=S . Then the quotient spa
e
(X=S )=S 0 is
anoni
ally homeomorphi
to X=T , where T is the partition of the spa
e X into preimages of elements of the partition S 0 under
proje
tion X ! X=S .
Mobius Strip
Mobius strip or Mobius band is I 2 =[(0; t) (1; 1 t). In other words,
this is the quotient spa
e of square I 2 by the partition into pairs of
points symmetri
with respe
t to the
enter of the square and lying on
the verti
al edges and one-point set whi
h do not lie on the verti
al
edges. Figuratively speaking, the Mobius strip is obtained by identifying
the verti
al sides of a square in su
h a way that the dire
tions shown on
them by arrows are superimposed.
18.K. Prove that the Mobius strip is homeomorphi
to the surfa
e swept
in R 3 by an interval, whi
h rotates in a halfplane around the middle point
while the halfplane rotates around its boundary line. The ratio of the
angular velo
ities of these rotations is su
h that rotation of the halfplane
by 360 takes the same time as rotation of the interval by 180. See
Figure 1.
Figure 1
84
Further Examples
18.8.
In 18.8 the partition
onsists of triples of points whi
h are verti
es of equilateral ins
ribed triangles.
18.9. Prove that the following quotient spa
es of disk D 2 are homeomorphi
to D2 :
(a) D2 =[(x; y) ( x; y),
(b) D2 =[(x; y) (x; y),
(
) D2 =[(x; y) ( y; x).
18.10. Find a generalization of 18.9 with D n substituted for D 2 .
18.11. Des
ribe expli
itly the quotient spa
e of line R1 by equivalen
e relation x y , x y 2 Z.
18.12. Present the M
obius strip as a quotient spa
e of
ylinder S 1 I .
Klein Bottle
Klein bottle is I 2 =[(t; 0) (t; 1); (0; t) (1; 1 t). In other words, this
is the quotient spa
e of square I 2 by the partition into
one-point subsets of its interior,
pairs of points (t; 0); (t; 1) on horizontal edges whi
h lie on the same
verti
al line,
pairs of points (0; t); (1; 1 t) symmetri
with respe
t to the
enter
of the square whi
h lie on the verti
al edges, and
the quadruple of verti
es.
85
86
Sums of Spa es
18.M. If fX`
g2A is a
olle
tion of topologi
al spa
es then the
olle
tion
of subsets of 2A X whose preimages under all in
lusions in ( 2 A)
The maps in : X ! 2A X`
are topologi
al embedding, and
their images are both open and
losed in 2A X .
18.18. Whi
h topologi
al properties are inherited from summands X by
`
the sum 2A X ? Whi
h are not?
18.17.
X qY
18.20.
r A)
! X [f Y
18.O. Prove that atta hing a ball Dn to its opy by the identity map of
18.21.
87
Basi
Surfa
es
A torus S 1 S 1 with the interior of an embedded disk deleted is
alled a
handle. A two-dimensional sphere with the interior of n disjoint embedded disks deleted is
alled a sphere with n holes.
18.R. A sphere with a hole is homeomorphi
to disk D2.
18.S. A sphere with two holes is homeomorphi
to
ylinder S 1 I .
A sphere with three holes has a spe
ial name. It is
alled pantaloons.
The result of atta
hing p
opies of a handle to a sphere with p holes
by embeddings of the boundary
ir
les of handles onto the boundary
ir
les of the holes (the boundaries of the holes) is
alled a sphere with
p handles, or, more
eremonial (and less understandable, for a while),
orientable
onne
ted
losed surfa
e of genus p.
18.30. Prove that a sphere with p handles is well-dened up to homeomorphism (i.e., the topologi
al type of the result of gluing does not depend on
the atta
hing embeddings).
A sphere with two handles is alled a pretzel. Sometimes this word denotes also a sphere with more handles.
88
The spa
e obtained from a sphere with q holes by atta
hing q
opies of
the Mobius strip by embeddings of the boundary
ir
les of the Mobius
strips onto the boundary
ir
les of the holes (the boundaries of the holes)
is
alled a sphere with q
ross
aps , or non-orientable
onne
ted
losed
surfa
e of genus q .
18.31. Prove that a sphere with q
ross
aps is well-dened up to homeomorphism (i.e., the topologi
al type of the result of gluing does not depend on
the atta
hing embeddings).
18.W. A sphere with two
ross
aps is homeomorphi
to the Klein bottle.
A sphere, spheres with handles, and spheres with
ross
aps are
alled
basi
surfa
es.
18.X. Prove that a sphere with p handles and q
ross
aps is homeomorphi
to a sphere with 2p + q
ross
aps (here q > 0).
18.32. Classify up to homeomorphisms topologi
al spa
es, whi
h
an be obtained by atta
hing to a sphere with 2p holes p
opies of S 1 I by embeddings
of the boundary
ir
les of the
ylinders onto the boundary
ir
les of the sphere
with holes.
89
A point of the spa
e R n+1 r f0g is a sequen
e of real numbers whi
h are
not all zeros. These numbers are
alled homogeneous
oordinates of the
orresponding point of R P n . The point with homogeneous
oordinates
x0 , x1 , : : : , xn is denoted by (x0 : x1 : : xn ). Homogeneous
oordinates
dene a point of R P n , but are not dened by this point: proportional
ve
tors of
oordinates (x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn ) and (x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn ) dene the
same point of R P n .
The spa
e R P n is
anoni
ally homeomorphi
to the metri
spa
e,
whose points are lines of R n+1 passing through the origin 0 = (0; : : : ; 0)
and the metri
is dened as the angle between lines (whi
h takes values
in [0; 2 ). Prove that this is really a metri
.
19.F.
C n+1
Hen
e, C P n
an be viewed as the spa
e of
omplex-proportional nonzero
omplex sequen
es (x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn ). Notation (x0 : x1 : : xn ) and
term homogeneous
oordinates introdu
ed for the real
ase are used in
the same way for the
omplex
ase.
19:E. The spa
e C P n is
anoni
ally homeomorphi
to the metri
spa
e,
whose points are the (
omplex) lines of the spa
e C n+1 passing through
the origin 0 and the metri
is dened to be the angle between lines (whi
h
takes values in [0; 2 ).
Must be written
90
20 1.
20 2.
The notations above are never used. (The only ex
eption may happen,
as here, if the denition of group is dis
ussed.) Instead, one uses either
multipli
ative or aditive notations.
Under multipli
ative notations the group operations is
alled multipli
ation and denoted as multipli
ation: (a; b) 7! ab. The neutral element
is
alled unity and denoted by 1. The element inverse to a is denoted
by a 1 . These notations are borrowed from the
ase, say, of group of
nonzero rational numbers with the usual multipli
ation.
Under additive notations the group operations is
alled addition and
denoted as addition: (a; b) 7! a + b. The neutral element is
alled zero
and denoted by 0. The element inverse to a is denoted by a. These
notations are borrowed from the
ase, say, of group of integer numbers
with the usual addition.
An operation ! : G G ! G is
ommutative provided that !(a; b) =
!(b; a) for all a; b 2 G. A group with
ommutative group operation is
alled
ommutative or abelian. Traditionally the additive notations are
used only in the
ase of
ommutative group, while the multipli
ative
notations are used both for
ommutative and non-
ommutative
ases.
Below we use mostly the multipli
ative notations.
:
20 3.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
91
Topologi
al Groups
A topologi
al group is a set G equipped with both topologi
al and group
stru
tures su
h that the maps G G ! G : (x; y) 7! xy and G ! G :
x 7! x 1 are
ontinuous.
20:4. Prove that if G is a group and a topologi
al spa
e then G
G ! G : (x; y) 7! xy and G ! G : x 7! x 1 are
ontinuous, i
G G ! G : (x; y) 7! x 1 y is
ontinuous.
20:5. Prove that for a topologi
al group G the inversion G ! G : x 7!
x 1 is a homeomorphism.
20:6. Let G be a topologi
al group, X a topologi
al spa
e, and f; g :
X ! G be maps
ontinuous at a point x0 2 X . Prove that maps
X ! G : x 7! f (x)g(x) and X ! G : x 7! (f (x)) 1 are
ontinuous at
x0 .
20:A. Any group equipped with the dis rete topologi al stru ture is a
topologi al group.
20 7.
20 8.
92
Neighborhoods
20:H. If is a neighborhood basis at the unity 1 in a topologi
al group
G then = faU : a 2 G; U 2 g is a basis for topology of G.
ity?
93
Separaion Axioms
20:L. A topologi
al group is Hausdor, i it satises the rst separation
Countability Axioms
20:O. If
Subgroups
Re
all that a subset H of a group G su
h that HH = H and H 1 = H
is
alled a subgroup of G. It is a group with the operation dened by the
group operation of G. If G is a topologi
al group, then H inherits also a
topologi
al stru
ture from G.
20:Q. If H is a subgroup of a topologi
al group G, then the topologi
al
and group stru
tures indu
ed from G make H a topologi
al group.
:
Prove that a subgroup of a topologi
al group is open, i it
ontains an interior point.
20:15. Prove that every open subgroup of a topologi
al group is also
losed.
20:16. Find an example of a subgroup of a topologi
al group, whi
h
(a) is
losed, but not open,
(b) is neither
losed, nor open.
20:17. Prove that a subgroup of a topologi
al group is dis
rete, i it
ontains an isolated point.
20:18. Prove that a subgroup H of a topologi
al group G is
losed,
i it is lo
ally
losed, i.e., there exists an open set U G su
h that
U \ H = U \ Cl H 6= ?.
20:19. Prove that if H is a non-
losed subgroup of a topologi
al group
G then Cl H r H is dense in Cl H .
20:20. Prove that the
losure of a subgroup of a topologi
al group is
a subgroup.
20 14.
94
:
Is it true that the interior of a subgroup of a topologi
al group
is a subgroup?
20 21.
of the unity.
20 24.
The set of left
osets of H in G is denoted by G=H , the set of right
osets
of H in G, by H r G. If G is a topologi
al group and H is its subgroup
then the sets G=H and H n G are provided with the quotient topology.
Equipped with these topologies, they are
alled spa
es of
osets.
20:S. For any topologi
al group G and its subgroup H , the natural
proje
tions G ! G=H and G ! H n G are open (i.e., the image of every
open set is open).
Normal Subgroups
Re
all that a subgroup H of a group G is said to be normal if a 1 ha 2 H
for all h 2 H and a 2 G. Normal subgroups are
alled also normal
divisors or invariant subgroups.
:
Prove that the
losure of a normal subgroup of a topologi
al
group is a normal subgroup.
20 26.
:
The
onne
ted
omponent of the unity of a topologi
al group
is a
losed normal subgroup.
20 27.
:
The path-
onne
ted
omponent of the unity of a topologi
al
group is a normal subgroup.
20 28.
95
Re
all that for a normal subgroup left
osets
oin
ide with right
osets
and the set of
osets is a group with the multipli
ation dened by formula
(aH )(bH ) = abH . The group of
osets of H in G is
alled the quotient
group or fa
tor group of G by H and denoted by G=H .
20:T. The quotient group of a topologi
al group is a topologi
al group
(provided that it is
onsidered with the quotient topology).
20:29. The natural proje
tion of a topologi
al group onto its quotient
group is open.
20:30. A quotient group of a rst (or se
ond)
ountable group is rst
(respe
tively, se
ond)
ountable.
20:31. The quotient group G=H of a topologi
al group G is regular,
i H is
losed.
20:32. Prove that if a normal subgroup H of a topologi
al group G is
open then the quotient group G=H is dis
rete.
20:33. Let G be a nite topologi
al group. Prove that there exists a
normal subgroup H of G su
h that a set U G is open, i it is a union
of several
osets of H in G.
Homomorphisms
Re
all that a map f of a group G to a group H is
alled a (group)
homomorphism if f (xy) = f (x)f (y) for all x; y 2 G. If G and H are
topologi
al groups then by a homomorphism G ! H one means a group
homomorphism whi
h is
ontinuous.
20:U. A group homomorphism of a topologi
al group to a topologi
al
group is
ontinuous, i it is
ontinuous at 1.
Besides similar modi
ations, whi
h
an be summarized by the following
prin
iple: everything is assumed to respe
t the topologi
al stru
tures , the
terminology of group theory passes over without
hanges. In parti
ular, the kernel Ker f of a homomorphism f : G ! H is dened as the
preimage of the unity of H . A homomorphism f is a monomorphism if
it is inje
tive. This is known to be equivalent to Ker f = 1. A homomorphism f : G ! H is an epimorphism if it is surje
tive, i.e, its image
Im f = f (G) is the whole H .
In group theory, an isomorphism is an invertible homomorphism. Its
inverse is a homomorphism (and hen
e an isomorphism) automati
ally.
In theory of topologi
al groups this must be in
luded in the denition
of isomorphism: an isomorphism of topologi
al groups is an invertible
homomorphism whose inverse is also a homomorphism. In other words,
an isomorphism of topologi
al groups is a map whi
h is both an algebrai
homomorphism and a homeomorphism. Cf. Se
tion 8.
:
An epimorphism f : G ! H is open, i its inje
tive fa
tor,
f=S (f ) : G= Ker f ! H , is an isomorphism.
20 34.
96
:
An epimorphism of a
ompa
t topologi
al group onto a topologi
al group with
losed unity is open.
20:36. Prove that the quotient group R=Z of the additive group of real
numbers by the subgroup of integers is isomorphi
to the multipli
ative
group S 1 = fz 2 C : jz j = 1g of
omplex numbers with absolute value
1.
20 35.
Lo
al Isomorphisms
Let G and H be topologi
al groups. A lo
al isomorphism of G to H is a
homeomorphism f of a neighborhood U of the unity of G to a neighborhood V of the unity of H su
h that
f (xy) = f (x)f (y) for every x; y 2 U su
h that xy 2 U ,
f 1(zt) = f 1(z)f 1(t) for every z; t 2 V su
h that zt 2 V .
Topologi
al groups G, H are said to be lo
ally isomorphi
if there exists
a lo
al isomorphism of G to H .
20:V. Isomorphi
topologi
al groups are lo
ally isomorphi
.
20:W. Additive group R of real numbers and multipli
ative group S 1 of
omplex numbers with absolute value 1 are lo
ally isomorphi
, but not
isomorphi
.
:
Prove that the relation of being lo
ally isomorphi
is an equivalen
e relation on the
lass of topologi
al groups.
20:38. Find neighborhoods of unities in R and S 1 and a homeomorphism between them, whi
h satises the rst
ondition from the denition of lo
al isomorphism, but does not satisfy the se
ond one.
20:39. Prove that for any homeomorphism between neighborhods of
unities of two topologi
al groups, whi
h satises the rst
ondition from
the denition of lo
al isomorphism, but does not satisfy the se
ond one,
there exists a submapping, whi
h is a lo
all isomorphsm between these
topologi
al groups.
20 37.
Dire
t Produ
ts
Let G and H be topologi
al groups. In group theory, the produ
t G H
is given a group stru
ture,1 in topology it is given a topologi
al stru
ture
(see Se
ion 16).
20:X. These two stru
tures are
ompatible: the group operations in
G H are
ontinuous with respe
t to the produ
t topology.
Thus, G H is a topologi
al group. It is
alled the dire
t produ
t of
the topologi
al groups G and H . There are
anoni
al homomorphisms
related with this: the in
lusions iG : G ! G H : x 7! (x; 1) and iH :
H ! G H : x 7! (1; x), whi
h are monomorphisms, and the proje
tions
pG : G H ! G : (x; y) 7! x and pH : G H ! H : (x; y) 7! y, whi
h
are epimorphisms.
1 Re
all
that the multipli ation in G H is dened by formula (x; u)(y; v) = (xy; uv).
97
:
Prove that the topologi
al groups G H=iH and G are isomorphi
.
20:41. The produ
t operation is both
ommutative and asso
iative:
G H is (
anoni
ally) isomorphi
to H G and G (H K ) is
anoni
ally isomorphi
to (G H ) K .
20 40.
Must be written!
98
Continuous A tions
Must be written!
Orbit Spa
es
Must be written!
Homogeneous Spa
es
Must be written!
22 1.
22 3. Riddle.
22 4.
22 5.
22:6. Let Y be a set of k points with dis
rete topology. Find ne
essary
and su
ient
ondition for the set C (X; Y )
ontain k2 elements.
99
22 7.
22 10.
:
pa
t?
22 11.
Metri
Case
22:E. If Y is metrizable and X is
ompa
t then C (X; Y ) is metrizable.
100
:
Prove that the spa
e C (R; I ) is metrizable.
22:13. Let Y be a bounded metri
spa
e and X a topologi
al spa
e
S
whi
h admits presentation X = 1
i=1 Xi , where Xi is
ompa
t and
Xi Int Xi+1 for i = 1; 2; : : : . Prove that C (X; Y ) is metrizable.
22 12.
Denote by Cb (X; Y ) the set of all
ontinuous bounded maps from a topologi
al spa
e X to a metri
spa
e Y . For maps f; g 2 Cb (X; Y ), put
d1 (f; g) = supf(f (x); g(x)) j x 2 X g:
22:I Metri
on Bounded Mappings. This is a metri
in Cb (X; Y ).
22:J d1 and Uniform Convergen
e. Let X be a topologi
al spa
e
and Y a metri
spa
e. A sequen
e fn of bounded maps X ! Y
onverges
to f : X ! Y in the topology dened by d1 , i fn uniformly
onverges
to f .
22:K When Uniform Is Not Compa
t-Open. Find X and Y su
h
that the topology dened by d1 on Cb (X; Y ) does not
oin
ide with the
ompa
t-open topology.
22 14.
C (X; Y ) !
n
Y
i=1
101
ompa
t spa
e X . Prove that for any topologi
al spa
e Y the mapping
C (X=S; Y ) ! C (X; Y )
is a topologi
al embedding.
:
22 15.
22 16.
Y ! Z be a
ontinuous map. Then the map
F : X ! C (Y; Z ) : F (x) : y 7! f (x; y);
is
ontinuous.
22:T. Let X , Z be topologi
al spa
es and Y a Hausdor lo
ally
ompa
t
spa
e. Let F : X ! C (Y; Z ) be a
ontinuous mapping. Then the mapping
f : X Y ! Z : (x; y) 7! F (x)(y) is
ontinuous.
22:U. Let X , Y and Z be topologi
al spa
es. Let the mapping
: C (X Y; Z ) ! C (X; C (Y; Z ))
be dened by the relation
(f )(x) : y 7! f (x; y):
Then
(a) is
ontinuous;
(b) if Y is lo
ally
ompa
t and Hausdor then is a homeomorphism.
22:S. Let X , Y and Z be topologi
al spa
es and f X
2 Re all
Part 2
Algebrai Topology
CHAPTER 4
103
23. HOMOTOPY
104
23. Homotopy
Continuous Deformations of Maps
0,
The identity map id : S 1 ! S 1 to the symmetry S 1 ! S 1 : x 7! x
(here x is
onsidered as a
omplex number, sin
e the
ir
le S 1 is
fx 2 C : jxj = 1g),
The identity map id : S 1 ! S 1 to the
onstant map S 1 ! S 1 : x 7!
1,
The identity map id : S 1 ! S 1 to the two-fold wrapping S 1 ! S 1 :
x 7! x2 ,
The in
lusion S 1 ! R 2 to a
onstant map,
The in
lusion S 1 ! R 2 r 0 to a
onstant map?
23.B. Riddle. When you (tried to) solve the previous problem, what
did you mean by \deform
ontinuously"?
23. HOMOTOPY
105
Homotopy as Relation
23.E.
Straight-Line Homotopy
23.F. Any two
ontinuous maps of the same spa
e to R n are homotopi
.
23.G. Solve the pre
eding problem by proving that for
ontinuous maps
f; g : X ! R n formula H (x; t) = (1 t)f (x) + tg (x) denes a homotopy
between f and g .
23. HOMOTOPY
106
Stationary Homotopy
Let A be a subset of X . A homotopy H : X I ! Y is said to be xed
or stationary on A, or, brie
y, to be an A-homotopy, if H (x; t) = H (x; 0)
for all x 2 A, t 2 I . Maps whi
h
an be
onne
ted by an A-homotopy
are said to be A-homotopi
.
Of
ourse, A-homotopi
maps
oin
ide on A. If one wants to emphasize
that a homotopy is not assumed to be xed, one says that it is free. If
one wants to emphasize the opposite (that it is xed), one says that the
homotopy is relative.
23. HOMOTOPY
107
Homotopy of Paths
23.R. Prove that any two paths in the same spa e X are freely homo-
topi
, i their images belong to the same pathwise
onne
ted
omponent
of X .
This shows that the notion of free homotopy in the
ase of paths is not
interesting. On the other hand, there is a sort of relative homotopy
playing a very important role. This is (0 [ 1)-homotopy. This
auses the
following
ommonly a
epted deviation from the terminology introdu
ed
above: homotopy of paths always means not a free homotopy, but a
homotopy xed on the end points of I (i.e. on 0 [ 1).
108
Asso iativity
24.F.
109
If you want to understand the essen
e of 24.F, you have to realize that
paths (uv )w and u(vw) have the same traje
tories and diers by time
spent in the fragments of the path. Therefore to nd a homotopy between
them one has to nd a
ontinuous way to
hange one s
hedule to the
other.
If there is still a trouble in a formal prove, re
all 24.E and solve the
following problem.
24.H. Prove that any path in I beginning in 0 and nishing in 1 is
homotopi
to id : I ! I .
Also, it may be useful to take into a
ount 23.I.
Unit
Let a be a point of a spa
e X . Denote by ea the path I ! X : t 7! a.
24.I. Is ea a unit for multipli
ation of paths?
The same question in more detailed form:
24.J. For a path u with u(0) = a is ea u = u? For a path v with v(1) = a
is vea = v ?
24.K.
Problems 24.I and 24.J are similar to 24.C and 24.D, respe
tively.
24.3. Riddle. Extending this analogy, formulate and solve problems similar
to 24.E.
24.4. Prove that ea u = u implies u = ea .
Inverse
Re
all that for a path u there is inverse path u 1 dened by u 1 (t) =
u(1 t) (see Se
tion 10).
24.L. Is the inverse path inverse with respe
t to multipli
ation of paths?
In other words:
24.M. For a path u beginning in a and nishing in b is uu
u 1 u = eb ?
= ea and
24.5.
24.N.
110
is inverse to the
We see that from the algebrai
viewpoint multipli
ation of paths is terrible, but it denes multipli
ation of homotopy
lasses of paths, whi
h
has ni
e algebrai
properties. The only unfortunate property is that the
multipli
ation of homotopy
lasses of paths is not dened for any two
lasses.
24.O. Riddle. How to sele
t a subset of the set of homotopy
lasses of
paths to obtain a group?
1 (X; x0 ) is
alled the fundamental group of the spa
e X with base point
x0 . It was introdu
ed by Poin
are and that is why it is
alled also
Poin
are group. The letter in its notation is also due to Poin
are.
Why Index 1?
The index 1 in the notation 1 (X; x0 ) appeared later than the letter
. It is related to one more name of the fundamental group: the rst
(or one-dimensional) homotopy group. There is an innite series of
groups r (X; x0 ) with r = 1; 2; 3; : : : and the fundamental group is one of
them. The higher-dimensional homotopy groups were dened by Witold
Hurewi
z in 1935, thirty years after the fundamental group was dened.
There is even a zero-dimensional homotopy group 0 (X; x0 ), but it is not
a group, as a rule. It is the set of path-wise
onne
ted
omponents of
X . Although there is no natural multipli
ation in 0 (X; x0 ) , unless X is
equipped with some spe
ial additional stru
tures, there is a natural unit
in 0 (X; x0 ). This is the
omponent
ontaining x0 .
111
1 Re all,
25.5.
112
25.E. Prove that 1 (Rn ; 0) is a trivial group (i.e., onsists of one element).
25.7.
Whether you have solved 25.G or not, we would re
ommend you
onsider
problems .1, .3, .4, .5 and .6 designed to give an approa
h to 25.G, warn
about a natural mistake and prepare an important tool for further
al
ulations of fundamental groups.
25.G.1. Prove that any loop s : I ! S n , whi
h does not ll the whole S n
(i.e., s(I ) 6= S n ) is homotopi
to the
onstant loop, provided n 2. (Cf.
Problem 23.6.)
Warning: for any n there exists a loop lling S n . See 7:I
25.G.2. Is a loop lling S 2 homotopi
to the
onstant loop?
25.G.3 Corollary of Lebesgue Lemma 13.V. Let s : I ! X be a path,
and be an open
overing of a topologi
al spa
e X . There exists a sequen
e
of points a1 ; : : : ; aN 2 I with 0 = a1 < a2 < < aN 1 < aN = 1 su
h
that s([ai ; ai+1 ) is
ontained in an element of for ea
h i.
25.G.4. Prove that if n 2 then for any path s : I ! S n there exists a
subdivision of I into a nite number of subintervals su
h that the restri
tion
of s to ea
h of the subintervals is homotopi
, via a homotopy xed on the
endpoints of the subinterval, to a map with nowhere dense image.
25.G.5. Prove that if n 2 then any loop in S n is homotopi
to a loop
whi
h is not surje
tive.
25.G.6. Dedu
e 25.G from .1 and .5. Find all the points of the proof of
25.G obtained in this way, where the
ondition n 2 is used.
113
Simply-Conne
tedness
A non-empty topologi
al spa
e X is said to be simply
onne
ted or one
onne
ted if it is path-
onne
ted and any loop in it is homotopi
to a
onstant map.
25.I. For a path-
onne
ted topologi
al spa
e X the following statements
are equivalent:
(a) X is simply
onne
ted,
(b) any
ontinuous map f : S 1 ! X is (freely) homotopi
to a
onstant
map,
(
) any
ontinuous map f : S 1 ! X
an be extended to a
ontinuous
map D2 ! X ,
(d) any two paths s1 ; s2 : I ! X
onne
ting the same points x0 and x1
are homotopi
.
25.10.
114
Sn,
a
onvex set,
a star
onvex set,
Rn r 0.
25.11. Prove that a topologi
al spa
e X , whi
h is presented as the union of
open simply
onne
ted sets U and V with simply
onne
ted U \ V , is simply
onne
ted.
25.12. Show that the assumption that U and V are open is ne
essary in
25.11.
25.13*. Let X be a topologi
al spa
e, U and V its open sets. Prove that if
U [ V and U \ V are simply
onne
ted, then U and V are simply
onne
ted,
too.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
115
Properties of Ts
26.A. Ts
! 1(X;
x1 )
?
?
Tuv &
yTv
1 (X; x0 )
Tu
1 (X; x2 )
is
ommutative.
26.C. If paths u and v are homotopi
then Tu = Tv .
Role of Path
116
Here is another form of the same question. We put it sin
e it
ontains in its
statement a greater pie
e of an answer.
26.4. Riddle. Given a path s : I ! X with s(0) = x0 and a spheroid
f : I r ! X at x0 , how to
ook up a spheroid at x1 = s(1) out of these?
r
26.5. Prove that for any path s : I ! X and a spheroid f : I ! X with
r
r
f (Fr I ) = s(0) there exists a homotopy H : I I ! X of f su
h that
H (Fr I r t) = s(t) for any t 2 I and that the spheroid obtained by su
h a
homotopy is unique up to homotopy and denes an element of r (X; s(1))
well-dened by the homotopy
lass of s and the element of r (X; s(0)) represented by f .
Of
ourse, a solution of 26.5 gives an answer to 26.4 and 26.3. The map
r (X; s(0)) ! r (X; s(1)) dened by 26.5 is denoted by Ts . By 26.2 this Ts
generalizes Ts dened in the beginning of the se
tion for the
ase r = 1.
26.6. Prove that the properties of Ts formulated in Problems 26.A { 26.G
hold true in all dimensions.
In Topologi
al Group
In a topologi
al group G there is another way to relate 1 (G; x0 ) with
1 (G; x1 ): there are homeomorphisms Lg : G ! G : x 7! xg and Rg :
G ! G : x 7! gx, so that there are the indu
ed isomorphisms (Lx0 1 x1 ) :
1 (G; x0 ) ! 1 (G; x1 ) and (Rx1 x0 1 ) : 1 (G; x0 ) ! 1 (G; x1 ).
26:A. Let G be a topologi
al group, s I ! G be a path. Prove that
Ts = (Ls(0) 1 s(1) ) = (Rs(1)s(0) 1 ) : 1 (G; s(0)) ! 1 (G; s(1)):
26:B. Dedu
e from 26:A that the fundamental group of a topologi
al
group is abelian (
f. 25:E).
26:1. Prove that the fundamental groups of the following spa
es are
ommutative:
(a) the spa
e of non-degenerate real n n matri
es GL(n; R) = fA j
det A 6= 0g;
(b) the spa
e of orthogonal real n n matri
es O(n; R) = fA j A
(t A) = 1g;
(
) the spa
e of spe
ial unitary
omplex n n matri
es SU (n) = fA j
A (t A) = 1; det A = 1g
(d) RP n ;
(e) Vk;n = Hom(Rk ; Rn );
117
that a map is said to be open if the image of any open set is open.
118
27.5. For whi
h subsets of R is the restri
tion of the map of Problem 27.C
a
overing.
27.6. Find nontrivial
overings X ! B with X homeomorphi
to B and
prove that they satisfy the denition of
overing.
Number of Sheets
Let p : X ! B be a
overing. The
ardinality (i.e., number of points)
of the preimage p 1 (a) of a point a 2 B is
alled the multipli
ity of the
overing at a or the number of sheets of the
overing over a.
27.D.
If the base of a
overing is
onne
ted then the multipli
ity of the
overing at a point does not depend on the point.
In the
ase of
overing with
onne
ted base the multipli
ity is
alled the
number of sheets of the
overing. If the number of sheets is n then the
overing is said to be n-sheeted and we talk about n-fold
overing. Of
ourse, unless the
overing is trivial, it is impossible to distinguish the
sheets of it, but this does not prevent us from speaking about the number
of sheets.
More Examples
27.7. Riddle.
27.8.
119
ing.
Universal Coverings
A
overing p : X ! B is said to be universal if X is simply
onne
ted.
The appearan
e of word universal in this
ontext will be explained below
in Se
tion 30.
27.M. Whi
h
overings of the problems stated above in this se
tion are
universal?
120
27.20.
121
Prove that if a pathwise
onne
ted spa
e B has a non trivial pathwise
onne
ted
overing spa
e, then the fundamental group of B is not trivial.
27.25. What
orollaries
an you dedu
e from 27.24 and the examples of
overings presented above in this Se
tion?
27.24.
28.1.
122
28.E Corollary of Theorem 28.B. The fundamental group of pun
tured plane R 2 r 0 is an innite
y
li
group.
28.3. Solve Problems 28.C { 28.E without referen
e to Theorems 28.B and
25.H, but using expli
it
onstru
tions of the
orresponding universal
overings.
123
is the only
ommon point for any two of them. The
ommon point is
alled the
enter of the bouquet.
Denote the bouquet of q
ir
les by Bq and its
enter by
. Let u1 , : : : ,
uq be loops in Bq starting at
and parametrizing the q
opies of
ir
le
omprising Bq . Denote the homotopy
lass of ui by i .
28.G. 1(Bq ;
) is a free group freely generated by 1, : : : , q .
28.H.
The number of free generators is
alled the rank of the free group. For a
standard representative of the isomorphism
lass of free groups of rank
q one
an take the group of words in alphabet of q letters a1 ; : : : ; aq and
their inverses a1 1 ; : : : ; aq 1 . Two words represent the same element of the
group, i they
an be obtained from ea
h other by a sequen
e of insertions
or deletions of fragments ai ai 1 and ai 1 ai . This group is denoted by
F (a1 ; : : : ; aq ), or just F q , when the notations for the generators are not
to be emphasized.
28.I. Ea
h element of F (a1 ; : : : ; aq ) has a unique shortest representative.
This is a word without fragments that
ould have been deleted.
28.J.
124
Sometimes Theorem 28.J is taken as a denition of free group. (A definition of this sort emphasizes relations among dierent groups, rather
than the internal stru
ture of a single group. Of
ourse, relations among
groups
an tell everything about internal aairs of ea
h group.)
Now we
an reformulate Theorem 28.G as follows:
28.K.
The homomorphism
F (a1 ; : : : ; aq ) ! 1 (Bq ; )
First, for the sake of simpli
ity let us agree to restri
t ourselves to the
ase of q = 2. It would allow us to avoid super
uous
ompli
ations in
notations and pi
tures. This is the simplest
ase, whi
h really represents
the general situation. The
ase q = 1 is too spe
ial.
To take advantages of this, let us
hange notations. Put B = B2 , u = u1 ,
v = u2 , = 1 , = 2 .
Now Theorem 28.K looks as follows:
The homomorphism F (a; b)
isomorphism.
is an
This theorem
an be proved like Theorems 28.B and 28.F, provided the
universal
overing of B is known.
125
onsists of 2 points (the end points of the
ross), where P is not even a
lo
al homeomorphism. To re
over, we may atta
h a
opy of K at ea
h of
the 4 end points of K and extend P in a natural way to the result. But
then new 12 end points, where the map is not a lo
al homeomorphism,
appear. Well, we repeat the tri
k and re
over the property of being a
lo
al homeomorphism at ea
h of the new 12 end points. Then we have to
do this at ea
h of the new 36 points, et
. But if we repeat this innitely
many times, all the bad points are turned to ni
e ones.4
28.L. Formalize the onstru tion of a overing for B des ribed above.
onne ting ( ; 1) with ( ; g ) and overing loop obtained from g by substituting a by u and b by v .
sounds like a story about a battle with a dragon, but the happy ending demonstrates that modern mathemati
ians have a magi
power of the sort that the heros
of tales
ould not dream of. Indeed, we meet a dragon K with 4 heads,
ut o all
the heads, but, a
ording to the old tradition of the genre, 3 new heads appear in
pla
e of ea
h of the original heads. We
ut o them, and the story repeats. We do
not even try to prevent this multipli
ation of heads. We just ght. But
ontrary to
the real heros of tales, we a
t outside of Time and hen
e have no time restri
tions.
Thus after innite repetitions of the exer
ise with an exponentially growing number
of heads we su
eed! No heads left! This is a typi
al story about an innite
onstru
tion in mathemati
s. Sometimes, as in our
ase, su
h a
onstru
tion
an be repla
ed
by a nite one, but whi
h deals with innite obje
ts. However, there are important
onstru
tions, in whi
h an innite fragment is unavoidable.
126
(g f ) = g f : 1 (X; x0 ) ! 1 (Z; z0 ):
29.D. Let f; g : (X; x0 ) ! (Y; y0) be
ontinuous maps homotopi
via a
homotopy xed at x0 . Then f = g .
29.E. Riddle. How to generalize Theorem 29.D to the
ase of freely
homotopi
f and g ?
29.F. Let f : X ! Y be a
ontinuous map, x0 and x1 points of X
onne
ted by a path s : I ! X . Denote f (x0 ) by y0 and f (x1 ) by y1 .
Then the diagram
1 (X; x0 )
?
?
Ts y
! 1 (Y;? y0)
f
?T
y f s
29.3.
29.4. Prove that the fundamental group of the spa
e GL(n; C ) of
omplex
n n-matri
es with non-zero determinant is innite.
127
! GL(n; C ) ! S 1, whose
Every polynomial
of a positive degree in one variable with
omplex
oe
ients has a
omplex root.
With more details:
Let p(z ) = z n + a1 z n 1 + + an be a polynomial of degree n > 0 in z
with
omplex
oe
ients. Then there exists a
omplex number w su
h
that p(w) = 0.
Although it is formulated in an algebrai
way and
alled \The Fundamental Theorem of High Algebra," it has no purely algebrai
proof. Its
proofs are based either on topologi
al arguments or use
omplex analysis.
This is be
ause the eld C of
omplex numbers
annot be des
ribed in
purely algebrai
terms: all its des
riptions involve a sort of
ompletion
onstru
tion,
f. Se
tion 15.
29.G.1 Redu
tion to Problem on a Map. Dedu
e Theorem 29.G from
the following statement:
For any
omplex polynomial p(z ) of a positive degree the zero belongs to
the image of the map C ! C : z 7! p(z ). In other words, the formula
z 7! p(z ) does not dene a map C ! C r 0.
29.G.2 Estimate of Reminder. Let p(z ) = z n + a1 z n 1 + + an be a
omplex polynomial, q(z ) = z n and r(z ) = p(z ) q(z ). Then there exists
a positive number R su
h that jr(z )j < jq(z )j = Rn for any z with jz j = R
29.G.3 Lemma on Lady with Doggy. (Cf. 23.10.) A lady q(z ) and her
dog p(z ) walk on pun
tured plane C r 0 periodi
ally (i.e., say, with z 2 S 1 ).
Prove that if the lady does not let the dog to run further than by jq(z )j
from her then the doggy loop S 1 ! C r 0 : z 7! p(z ) is homotopi
to the
lady loop S 1 ! C r 0 : z 7! q(z ).
29.G.4 Lemma for Dummies. (Cf. 23.11.) If f : X ! Y is a
ontinuous map and s : S 1 ! X is a loop homotopi
to the trivial one then
f s : S 1 ! Y is also homotopi
to trivial.
128
Let C be a smooth simple
losed
urve on the plane with two in
e
tion
points. Prove that there is a line interse
ting C in four points a, b,
, d with
segments [a; b, [b;
and [
; d of the same length.
29.8.
Winding Number
As we know (see 28.E), the fundamental group of the pun
tured plane
R 2 r 0 is Z. There are two isomorphisms whi
h dier by multipli
ation by
1. We
hoose the one whi
h maps the homotopy
lass of the loop t 7!
(
os 2t; sin 2t) to 1 2 Z. In terms of
ir
ular loops, the isomorphism
means that to any loop f : S 1 ! R2 r 0 we asso
iate an integer. It is
the number of times the loop goes arround 0 in the
ounter-
lo
kwise
dire
tion.
Now we
hange the viewpoint in this
onsideration, and x the loop, but
vary the point. Let f : S 1 ! R2 be a
ir
ular loop and x 2 R2 r f (S 1 ).
Then f denes an element of 1 (R2 r x) = Z (we
hoose basi
ally the
same identi
ation of 1 (R2 r x) with Z assigning 1 to the homotopy
lass of t 7! x + (
os 2t; sin 2t)). This number is denoted by ind(f; x)
and
alled winding number or index of x with respe
t to f .
29:A. Let f : S 1 ! R2 be a loop and x; y 2 R2 r f (S 1 ). Prove that
if ind(f; x) 6= ind(f; y) then any path
onne
ting x and y in R2 meets
f (S 1 ).
29:B. Find a loop f : S 1 ! R2 su
h that there exist x; y 2 R2 r f (S 1 )
with ind(f; x) = ind(f; y), but lying in dierent
onne
ted
omponents
of R2 r f (S 1 ).
29:C. Prove that for any ray R radiating from x the number of points
in f 1 (R) is not less than j ind(f; x)j.
Borsuk-Ulam Theorem
29:D One-Dimensional Borsuk-Ulam. For ea
h
ontinuous map f :
30.
129
29 1.
Theorems 29:D and 29:E are spe
ial
ases of the following general theorem. We do not assume the reader to be ready to prove Theorem 29:F
in the full generality, but is there another easy spe
ial
ase?
29:F Borsuk-Ulam Theorem. For ea
h
ontinuous map f : S n ! Rn
30.B. Riddle on Lifting Loops. Des ribe loops in the base spa e of
30.
130
Number of Sheets
! B be a overing, b0 2 B .
Hierar
hy of Coverings
Let p : X ! B and q : Y ! B be
overings, x0 2 X , y0 2 Y and
p(x0 ) = q (y0 ) = b0 . One says that q with base point y0 is subordinate to
p with base point x0 if there exists a map ' : X ! Y su
h that q ' = p
and '(x0 ) = y0 . In this
ase the map ' is
alled a subordination.
30.H. A subordination is a
overing map.
30.I. If a subordination exists, then it is unique. Cf. 27.O.
Coverings p : X ! B and q : Y ! B are said to be equivalent if there
exists a homeomorphism h : X ! Y su
h that p = q h. In this
ase h
and h 1 are
alled equivalen
ies
30.J. If two
overings are mutually subordinate, then the
orresponding
subordinations are equivalen
ies.
30.K. Let p : X ! B and q : Y ! B be
overings, x0 2 X , y0 2 Y
and p(x0 ) = q (y0) = b0 . If q with base point y0 is subordinate to p with
base point x0 then the group of
overing p is
ontained in the group of
overing q , i.e. p (1 (X; x0 )) q (1 (Y; y0)).
A topologi
al spa
e X is said to be lo
ally path-
onne
ted if for ea
h point
a 2 X and ea
h neighborhood U of a there is a neighborhood V U
whi
h is path-
onne
ted.
30.
131
To be nished
Automorphisms of Covering
Regular Coverings
Existen
e of Coverings
Lifting Maps
CHAPTER 5
133
31.B.
The following problem is more di
ult than 31.E in the sense that its solution
is not a straightforward
onsequen
e of Theorem 31.C, but rather demands
to reexamine the arguments used in proof of 31.C.
31.11. Prove that the boundary
ir
le of M
obius band is not a retra
t of
Mobius band.
31.12.
handle.
The Borsuk Theorem in its whole generality
annot be dedu
ed like Theorem 31.E from Theorem 31.C. However, it
an be proven using a generalization of 31.C to higher homotopy groups. Although we do not assume
that you
an su
essfully prove it now relying only on the tools provided
above, we formulate it here.
Sphere S n
At rst glan
e this theorem seems to be useless. Why
ould it be interesting to know that a map with a very spe
ial property of being retra
tion
does not exists in this situation? However in mathemati
s non-existen
e
theorems may be
losely related to theorems, whi
h may seem to be more
attra
tive. For instan
e, Borsuk Theorem implies Brower Theorem dis
ussed below. But prior to this we have to introdu
e an important notion
related to Brower Theorem.
134
Fixed-Point Property.
Let f : X ! X be a
ontinuous map. A point a 2 X is
alled a xed
point of f if f (a) = a. A spa
e X is said to have the xed-point property
if any
ontinuous map X ! X has a xed point. Fixed point property
means solvability of a wide
lass of equations.
Prove that the xed point property is a topologi
al property.
31.14. A
losed interval [a; b has the xed point property.
31.15. Prove that if a topologi
al spa
e has xed point property then ea
h
its retra
t also has the xed-point property.
31.16. Prove that if topologi
al spa
es X and Y have xed point property,
x0 2 X and y0 2 Y , then X q Y=x0 y0 also has the xed point property.
31.17. Prove that Rn with n > 0 does not have the xed point property.
31.18. Prove that S n does not have the xed point property.
31.19. Prove that RP n with odd n does not have the xed point property.
31.20*. Prove that C P n with odd n does not have the xed point property.
31.13.
135
32.2.
Examples
136
Prove that the spa
e obtained from S 2 by identi
ation of a two (distin
t) points is homotopy equivalent to the union of a two-dimensional sphere
and a
ir
le interse
ting in a single point.
2
32.10. Prove that the spa
e f(p; q ) 2 C : z + pz + q has two distin
t rootsg
of quadrati
omplex polynomials with distin
t roots is homotopy equivalent
to the
ir
le.
32.11. Prove that the spa
e GL(n; R) of invertible n n real matri
es is
homotopy equivalent to the subspa
e O(n)
onsisting of orthogonal matri
es.
32.9.
137
x0
138
are not xed at y0 and x0 , respe
tively? How would f and g be related?
Would 1 (X; x0 ) and 1 (Y; y0 ) be isomorphi
?
X0 [' (q D1 ):
The images of the interior parts of
opies of D1 are
alled (open) 1dimensional
ells, or 1-
ells, or edges . The subsets obtained out of D1
are
alled
losed 1-
ells. The
ells of X0 (i.e., points of X0 ) are also
alled verti
es. Open 1-
ells and 0-
ells
omprise a partition of a onedimensional
ellular spa
e. This partition is in
luded in the notion of
ellular spa
e, i.e., a one-dimensional
ellular spa
e is a topologi
al spa
e
equipped with a partition, whi
h
an be obtained in this way.
One-dimensional
ellular spa
es are asso
iated also with the term graph.
However, rather often this term is used for one-dimensional
ellular spa
es
either equipped with additional stru
tures (like orientations on edges),
or satisfying to additional restri
tions (su
h as inje
tivity of ' ).
139
140
First Examples
Does the statement of 33.1 remain true if one skips the niteness
ondition in it? If yes, prove; if no, nd an example when the produ
t is not
a
ellular spa
e.
33.2*.
33.4.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
141
Prove that for any two
ellular spa
es homeomorphi
to R1 there exists
a homeomorphism between them mapping ea
h
ell of one of them homeomorphi
ally onto a
ell of the other one.
33.8.
142
the sides of polygon along the
ontour. The letters
orresponding to the
sides, whose orientation is opposite to the
ounter-
lo
kwise dire
tion,
put with exponent 1. This gives rise to a
olle
tion of words, whi
h
ontains a su
ient information about the family of polygons and the
partition. For instan
e, the presentation of torus shown above is en
oded
by the word ab 1 a 1 b.
Prove that:
word a 1 a des
ribes a
ellular spa
e homeomorphi
to S 2 ,
word aa des
ribes a
ellular spa
e homeomorphi
to RP 2 ,
word aba 1b 1
des
ribes a handle,
word ab
b 1 des
ribes
ylinder S 1 I ,
ea
h of the words aab and aba
des
ribe Mobius strip,
word abab des
ribes a
ellular spa
e homeomorphi
to RP 2 ,
ea
h of the words aabb and ab 1 ab des
ribe Klein bottle,
word
a1 b1a1 1 b1 1a2 b2 a2 1 b2 1 : : : ag bg ag 1 bg 1 :
des
ribes sphere with g handles,
word a1 a1 a2 a2 : : : ag ag des
ribes sphere with g
ross
aps.
33.9.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
X.
143
33.Q.
144
33.T. Prove that any nite onne ted 1-dimensional ellular spa e ontains a maximal tree.
33.V. Let X be a 1-dimensional
ellular spa
e and A its
ellular subspa
e. Prove that if A is a tree then the natural proje
tion X ! X=A is
a homotopy equivalen
e.
imal tree.
33:N. Any
onne
ted one-dimensional
ellular spa
e is homotopy equivalent to a bouquet of
ir
les.
33:O. Prove that if T is a tree and a
ellular subspa
e of a
ellular spa
e
(X ) = 0 (X ) 1 (X ) + 2 (X )
+(
1)i i (X ) + : : :
.
33:Q. Prove that Euler
hara
teristi
is additive in the following sense:
for any ellular spa e X and its nite ellular subspa es A and B
33.W.
145
(X ).
34.B. Homotopy Classi
ation of Finite 1-Dimensional Cellular Spa
es. Two nite 1-dimensional
ellular spa
es are homotopy
equivalent, i their Euler
hara
teristi
s are equal.
34.1.
Generators
is surje tive.
Relators
Let X be a
ellular spa
e, x0 its 0-
ell. Denote by Xn the n-skeleton of
X . Re
all that X2 is obtained from X1 by atta
hing
opies of disk D2 by
ontinuous maps ' : S 1 ! X1 . The atta
hing maps are
ir
ular loops
in X1 . For ea
h
hoose a path s : I ! X1
onne
ting ' (1) with x0 .
146
147
34.J.
tation
fa1; b1 ; a2; b2 ; : : : ag ; bg
34.K.
a1 b1 a1 1 b1 1 a2 b2 a2 1 b2 1 : : : ag bg ag 1 bg 1 = 1g:
The fundamental group of a sphere with g
ross
aps admits pre-
sentation
148
34.N.
34.O.
1 (X ) = f1 ; : : : ; p ; 1 ; : : : ; q :
1 = 1; : : : ; r = 1; 1 = 1; : : : ; s = 1;
1 = 1 ; : : : ; t = t g:
34:C. Let X , A, B and C be as above. Suppose A; B are simply
onne
ted and C
onsists of two path
onne
ted
omponents. Prove that
1 (X ) is isomorphi
to Z.
149
group, was introdu
ed and used in Se
tion 34 to prove, in parti
ular, that
spheres with dierent numbers of handles are not homotopy equivalent,
see Problems 34.L, .1-.3 and 34.M.
Re
all that for a path-
onne
ted spa
e X the abelianized fundamental
group of X is
alled its one-dimensional homology group and denoted
by H1 (X ). If X is an arbitrary topologi
al spa
e then H1 (X ) is the
dire
t sum of the one-dimensional homology groups of all the
onne
ted
omponents of X .
In this Se
tion we will study the one-dimensional homology and its
losest relatives. Usually they are studied in the framework of homology
theory together with high-dimensional generalizations. This general theory requires mu
h more algebra and takes more time and eorts. On
the other hand, one-dimensional
ase is useful on its own, involves a lot
of spe
i
details and provides a geometri
intuition, whi
h is useful, in
parti
ular, for studying high-dimensional homology.
First, few new words. Elements of a homology group is
alled homology
lasses. They really admit several interpretations as equivalen
e
lasses
of obje
ts of various nature. For example, a
ording to the denition
we start with, a homology
lass is a
oset
onsisting of elements of the
fundamental group. In turn, ea
h element of the fundamental group
onsists of loops. Thus, we
an think of a homology
lass as of a set
of loops. A loop whi
h belongs to the zero homology
lass is said to be
zero-homologous. Loops, whi
h belong to the same homology
lass, are
said to be homologous to ea
h other.
35:A Zero-Homologous Loop. Let X be a topologi
al spa
e. A
ir
ular loop s : S 1 ! X is zero-homologous, i there exist a
ontinuous
map f of a disk D with handles (i.e., a sphere with a hole and handles)
to X and a homeomorphism h of S 1 onto the boundary
ir
le of D su
h
that f h = s.
35:A:1. In the fundamental group of a disk with handles, a loop,
whose homotopy
lass generates the fundamental group of the boundary
ir
le, is homotopi
to a produ
t of
ommutators of meridian and
longitude loops of the handles.
A homotopy between a loop and a produ
t of
ommutators of loops
an be thought of as an extension of the loop to a
ontinuous map of
a sphere with handles and a hole.
150
35:B. On the sphere with two handles and three holes shown in Figure
1 the sum of the homology lasses of the three loops, whi h go ounter lo kwise arround the three holes, is zero.
:
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
35 1.
One-Dimensional Cohomology
Let X be a path-
onne
ted topologi
al spa
e and G a
ommutative group.
35:E. The homomorphisms 1 (X; x0 ) ! G
omprise a
ommutative
group in whi
h the group operation is the pointwise addition.
151
35:I Addition of Maps to Cir le. What operation on the set of ho-
152
modulo 2.
2.
35 3.
153
logi
al spa
e. Any
lass 2 H1 (X ; Z2)
an be represented by a nite
olle
tion of free
ir
ular loops in X . Colle
tions fu1 ; : : : ; up g and
fv1 ; : : : ; vq g of free
ir
ular loops in X dene the same homology
lass
modulo 2, i there exist a
ontinuous map f : F ! X , where F is a disjoint sum of several spheres with
ross
aps and holes with the total number of holes equal p+q, and embeddings i1 ; : : : ; ip+q : S 1 ! F parametrizing the boundary
ir
les of all the holes of F su
h that uk = f ik for
k = 1; : : : ; p and vk = f ik+p for k = 1; : : : ; q.
: Compare 35:O with 35:D. Why in 35:O the
ounter-
lo
kwise
dire
tion does not appear? In what other aspe
ts 35:O is simpler than
35:D and why?
35 5.
Part 3
Manifolds
This part is devoted to study of the most important topologi
al spa
es.
These spa
es provide a s
ene for most of geometri
bran
hes of mathemati
s.
CHAPTER 6
Bare Manifolds
36. Lo
ally Eu
lidean Spa
es
Denition of Lo
ally Eu
lidean Spa
e
Let n be a non-negative integer. A topologi
al spa
e X is
alled a lo
ally
Eu
lidean spa
e of dimension n if ea
h point of X has a neighborhood
homeomorphi
either to R n or R n+ . Re
all that R n+ = fx 2 R n : x1 0g,
it is dened for n 1.
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
S n,
RP n ,
C P n,
R n+ ,
any open subset of R n+ ,
Dn ,
torus S 1 S 1 ,
handle,
sphere with handles,
sphere with holes,
Klein bottle,
sphere with
ross
aps.
36.1.
36.2.
of dimension p + q .
156
157
Dimension
36.3.
36.I. Formulate a denition of boundary point independent of a denition for interior point.
Let X be a lo
ally Eu
lidean spa
e of dimension n. The set of all interior
points of X is
alled the interior of X and denoted by int X . The set
158
37. MANIFOLDS
and
159
(X Y ) = ( (X ) Y ) [ (X Y ):
(b) Dn = S n 1 ,
(
) (S 1 I ) = S 1 I = S 1 q S 1 ,
(d) the boundary of Mobius strip is homeomorphi
to
ir
le.
37. Manifolds
Denition of Manifold
A topologi
al spa
e is
alled a manifold of dimension n if it is
lo
ally Eu
lidean of dimension n,
se
ond
ountable,
Hausdor.
37.A. Prove that the three onditions of the denition are independent
(i.e., there exist spa
es not satisfying any one of the three
onditions and
satisfying the other two.)
37.A.1. Prove that R [i R, where i : fx 2 R : x < 0g ! R is the in
lusion,
is a non-Hausdor lo
ally Eu
lidean spa
e of dimension one.
37.B. Che
k whether the spa
es listed in Problem 36.B are manifolds.
A
ompa
t manifold without boundary is said to be
losed. As in the
ase
of interior and boundary, this term
oin
ides with one of the basi
terms
of general topology. Of
ourse, the image of a
losed manifold under
embedding into a Hausdor spa
e is a
losed subset of this Hausdor
spa
e (as any
ompa
t subset of a Hausdor spa
e). However absen
e
of boundary does not work here, and even non-
ompa
t manifolds may
be
losed subsets. They are
losed in themselves, as any spa
e. Here
we meet again an ambiguity of
lassi
al terminology. In the
ontext of
manifolds the term
losed relates rather to the idea of a
losed surfa
e.
37. MANIFOLDS
160
Components of Manifold
manifold of dimension n.
37.N. Prove that if the total spa
e of a
overing is a manifold then the
base is a manifold of the same dimension.
37.O. Let X and Y be manifolds of dimension n, A and B
omponents
of X and Y respe
tively. Then for any homeomorphism h : B ! A
the spa
e X [h Y is a manifold of dimension n.
37.O.1. Prove that the result of gluing of two
opy of Rn+ by the identity
map of the boundary hyperplane is homeomorphi
to Rn .
37. MANIFOLDS
161
Double
37.Q. Can a manifold be embedded into a manifold of the same dimension without boundary?
Let X be a manifold. Denote by DX the spa
e X [idX X obtained by
gluing of two
opies of X by the identity mapping idX : X ! X of
the boundary.
37.R. Prove that DX is a manifold without boundary of the same dimension as X .
38. ISOTOPY
162
38. Isotopy
Isotopy of Homeomorphisms
Let X and Y be topologi
al spa
es, h; h0 : X ! Y homeomorphisms. A
homotopy ht : X ! Y , t 2 [0; 1
onne
ting h and h0 (i.e., with h0 = h,
h1 = h0 ) is
alled an isotopy between h and h0 if ht is a homeomorphism
for ea
h t 2 [0; 1. Homeomorphisms h, h0 are said to be isotopi
if there
exists an isotopy between h and h0 .
38.A. Being isotopi
is an equivalen
e relation on the set of homeomorphisms X ! Y .
38.B. Find a topologi
al spa
e X su
h that homotopy between homeomorphisms X ! X does not imply isotopy.
This means that isotopy
lassi
ation of homeomorphisms
an be more
rened than homotopy
lassi
ation of them.
38.1.
38.2.
38. ISOTOPY
163
164
Prove that any two embeddings S 1 ! R3 are isotopi
. Find embeddings S 1 ! R3 that are not ambiently isotopi
.
38.8.
! X extends to an isotopy Ht : X ! X .
165
Examples
S1
R1
I
R 1+
Statements of Main Theorems
39.C.
166
39.D.
39.E.
39.F.
39.G.
Any non- ompa t onne ted manifold of dimension one with nonempty boundary is homeomorphi to half-line R 1+ .
39.H Lemma. Any
onne
ted manifold of dimension 1
overed with two
open sets homeomorphi
to R 1 is homeomorphi
either to R 1 , or S 1 .
Let X be a
onne
ted manifold of dimension 1 and U; V X be its open
subsets homeomorphi
to R. Denote by W the interse
tion U \ V . Let
' : U ! R and : V ! R be homeomorphisms.
39.H.1. Prove that ea
h
onne
ted
omponent of '(W ) is either an open
interval, or an open ray, or the whole R.
39.H.2. Prove that a homeomorphism between two open
onne
ted subsets
of R is a (stri
tly) monotone
ontinuous fun
tion.
39.H.3. Prove that if a sequen
e xn of points of W
onverges to a point
a 2 U r W then it does not
onverge in V .
39.H.4. Prove that if there exists a bounded
onne
ted
omponent C of
'(W ) then C = '(W ), V = W , X = U and hen
e X is homeomorphi
to
R.
39.H.5. In the
ase of
onne
ted W and U 6= V ,
onstru
t a homeomorphism X ! R whi
h takes:
W to (0; 1),
U to (0; +1), and
V to ( 1; 1).
39.H.6. In the
ase of W
onsisting of two
onne
ted
omponents,
onstru
t a homeomorphism X ! S 1 , whi
h takes:
p
p
W to fz 2 S 1 : 1=p 2 < Im(z) < 1= 2g,
U to fz 2 S 1 : 1= 2 < Im(
p z)g, and
V to fz 2 S 1 : Im(z) < 1= 2g.
Without Boundary
39.D.1. Dedu
e Theorem 39.D from Lemma 39.G.
167
39.E.1. Dedu
e from Lemma 39.G that for any
onne
ted non-
ompa
t
one-dimensional manifold X without a boundary there exists an embedding
X ! R with open image.
39.E.2. Dedu
e Theorem 39.E from .1.
With Boundary
39.F.1. Prove that any
ompa
t
onne
ted manifold of dimension 1
an be
embedded into S 1 .
39.F.2. List all
onne
ted subsets of S 1 .
39.F.3. Dedu
e Theorem 39.F from .2, and .1.
39.G.1. Prove that any non-
ompa
t
onne
ted manifold of dimension 1
an be embedded into R1 .
39.G.2. Dedu
e Theorem 39.G from .1.
39.1.
168
Constru
t non-homeomorphi
non-
ompa
t
onne
ted manifolds of dimension two without boundary and with isomorphi
innitely generated fundamental group.
40.1.
169
40:H. Prove that this denes a topologi al stru ture in the set of ends
of X .
The set of ends of X equipped with this topologi
al stru
ture is
alled
the spa
e of ends of X . Denote this spa
e by E (X ).
40.1:1. Constru
t non-
ompa
t
onne
ted manifolds of dimension two
without boundary and with isomorphi
innitely generated fundamental group, but with non-homeomorphi
spa
es of ends.
40.1:2. Constru
t non-
ompa
t
onne
ted manifolds of dimension two
without boundary and with isomorphi
innitely generated fundamental group, but with dierent number of ends.
40.1:3. Constru
t non-
ompa
t
onne
ted manifolds of dimension two
without boundary with isomorphi
innitely generated fundamental
group and the same number of ends, but with dierent topology in
the spa
e of ends.
40.1:4. Let K be a
ompletely dis
onne
ted
losed set in S 2 . Prove
that the map E (S 2 r K ) ! K dened in 40:G is
ontinuous.
40.1:5. Constru
t a
ompletely dis
onne
ted
losed set K S 2 su
h
that this map is a homeomorphism.
Closed Surfa es
40.C.
Re all that a ording to Theorem 34.M the basi surfa es represent pairwise distin t topologi al (and even homotopy) types. Therefore, 34.M
170
and 40.C together give topologi
al and homotopy
lassi
ations of
losed
2-dimensional manifolds.
We do not re
ommend to prove Theorem 40.C immediately and, espe
ially, in the formulation given here. All known proofs of 40.C
an be
de
omposed into two main stages: rstly, a manifold under
onsideration
is equipped with some additional stru
ture (like triangulation or smooth
stru
ture); then using this stru
ture a required homeomorphism is
onstru
ted. Although the rst stage appears in the proof ne
essarily and
is rather di
ult, it is not useful outside the proof. Indeed, any
losed
2-manifold, whi
h we meet in a
on
rete mathemati
al
ontext, is either
equipped, or
an be easily equipped with the additional stru
ture. The
methods of imposing the additional stru
ture are mu
h easier, than a
general proof of existen
e for this stru
ture in arbitrary 2-manifold.
Therefore, we suggest for the rst
ase to restri
t ourselves to the se
ond
stage of the proof of Theorem 40.C, prefa
ing it with general notions
related to the most
lassi
al additional stru
ture, whi
h
an be used for
this purpose.
Triangulations of Surfa
es
By an Eu
lidean triangle we mean the
onvex hall of three non-
ollinear
points of Eu
lidean spa
e. Of
ourse, it is homeomorphi
to disk D2 , but
not only the topologi
al stru
ture is relevant for us now. The boundary
of a triangle
ontains three distinguished points, its verti
es, whi
h separates the boundary into three pie
es, its sides. A topologi
al triangle in a
topologi
al spa
e X is an embedding of an Eu
lidean triangle into X . A
vertex (respe
tively, side ) of a topologi
al triangle T ! X is the image
of a vertex ( respe
tively, side) of T in X .
A set of topologi
al triangles in a 2-manifold X is a triangulation of X
provided the images of these triangles
omprise a fundamental
over of
X and any two of the images either are disjoint or interse
t in a
ommon
side or in a
ommon vertex.
40.D. Prove that in the
ase of
ompa
t X the former
ondition (about
fundamental
over) means that the number of triangles is nite.
40.E. Prove that the
ondition about fundamental
over means that the
over is lo
ally nite.
Lo
al strong
onne
tedness
Triangulations
present a surfa
e
ombinatorially.
171
172
(d) for any two-element element of there exist exa
tly two threeelement elements of
ontaining it
Prove that (V; ) is a
ombinatorial s
heme of a triangulation of a 2manifold.
Examples
40.2. Consider the
over of torus obtained in the obvious way from the
over of the square by its halves separated by a diagonal of the square. Is it
a triangulation of torus? Why not?
Figure 1
40.3.
Families of Polygons
The problems
onsidered above show that triangulations provide a
ombinatorial des
ription of 2-dimensional manifolds, but this des
ription
is usually too bulky. Here we will study other, more pra
ti
al way to
present 2-dimensional manifolds
ombinatorially. The main idea is to
use larger building blo
ks.
Let F be a
olle
tion of
onvex polygons P1 ; P2 ; : : : . Let the sides of
these polygons be oriented and paired o. Then we say that this is
a family of polygons. There is a natural quotient spa
e of the sum of
polygons involved in a family: one identies ea
h side with its pair-mate
by a homeomorphism, whi
h respe
ts the orientations of the sides. This
quotient spa
e is
alled just the quotient of the family.
40.H. Prove that the quotient of the family of polygons is a 2-manifold
without boundary.
40.I. Prove that the topologi
al type of the quotient of a family does not
hange when the homeomorphism between the sides of a distinguished
pair is repla
ed by other homeomorphism whi
h respe
ts the orientations.
40.J. Prove that any triangulation of a 2-manifold gives rise to a family
of polygon whose quotient is homeomorphi
to the 2-manifold.
173
40.K. A olle tion of words is a phrase asso iated with a family of polygons, i ea h letter appears twi e in the words.
174
40.M Redu
tion Theorem. Any nite irredu
ible family of polygons
an be redu
ed by the ve elementary operations to one of the following
standard families:
(a) aa 1
(b) a1 b1 a1 1 b1 1 a2 b2 a2 1 b2 1 : : : ag bg ag 1 bg 1
(
) a1 a1 a2 a2 : : : ag ag for some natural g .
40.N Corollary. Any triangulated
losed
onne
ted manifold of dimen-
175
obtained as follows: Take two disjoint
opies of disk. Atta
h three parallel
strips
onne
ting the disks and twisted by . The resulting surfa
e S has
a
onne
ted boundary. Atta
h a
opy of disk along its boundary by
a homeomorphism onto the boundary of the S . This is the spa
e to
re
ognize.
Orientations
By an orientation of a segment one means an ordering of its end points
(whi
h one of them is initial and whi
h one is nal). By an orientation
of a polygon one means orientation of all its sides su
h that ea
h vertex
is the nal end point for one of the adja
ent sides and initial for the
other one. Thus an orientation of a polygon in
ludes orientation of all
its sides. Ea
h segment
an be oriented in two ways, and ea
h polygon
an be oriented in two ways.
An orientation of a family of polygons is a
olle
tion of orientations of all
the polygons
omprising the family su
h that for ea
h pair of sides one
of the pair-mates has the orientation inherited from the orientation of
the polygon
ontaining it while the other pair-mate has the orientation
176
40.9.
40.Q.
40.T.
Two
losed
onne
ted manifolds of dimension two are homeomorphi
i they have the same Euler
hara
teristi
and either are both
orientable or both nonorientable.
40.U. Contra
ting to a point ea
h
onne
ted
omponent of the boundary of a two-dimensional
ompa
t manifold with boundary gives rise to
a
losed two-dimensional manifold.
40.12. A spa
e homeomorphi
to the quotient spa
e of 40.U
an be
onstru
ted by atta
hing
opies of D2 one to ea
h
onne
ted
omponent of the
boundary.
40.V.
177
40.W. Riddle. Generalize orientabilty to the
ase of non
losed manifolds of dimension two. (Give as many generalization as you
an and
prove that they are equivalent. The main
riterium of su
ess is that the
generalized orientability should help to re
ognize the topologi
al type.)
40.X.
Two
ompa
t
onne
ted manifolds of dimension two are homeomorphi
i they have the same Euler
hara
teristi
, are both orientable
or both nonorientable and their boundaries have the same number of
onne
ted
omponents.
41. One-Dimensional
mod2-Homology
of Surfa es
178
Subdivisions of Triangulation
To avoid a
ongestion of paths on edges, one
an add new edges, i.e.,
subdivide the triangulation. Although an elementary operation on families of polygons applied to a triangulation, gives rise to a family, whi
h is
not a triangulation, making several elementary operations, one
an get a
new triangulation with more edges.
One triangulation of a surfa
e is
alled a renement of another one if
ea
h triangle of the former is
ontained in a triagle of the latter. There
are several standard ways to
onstru
t a renement of a triangulation.
For example, add a new vertex, whi
h is lo
ated inside of a triangle of
a given triangulation,
onne
t it with the verti
es of this triangle with
segments, whi
h are three new edges. The triangle is subdivided into
three new triangles. The other triangles of the original triangulations
are kept inta
t. This is
alled the star subdivision
entered at . See
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
41 2.
179
41 3.
180
The surfa
e T des
ribed in 41:I is
alled the result of
utting F along C .
It is denoted by F C . This is not the
omplement F r C , though a
opy of F r C is
ontained in F C as a dense subset, whi
h is homotopy
equivalent to the whole F C .
181
41:J Triangulation of F
182
To be written!
One-Sided and Two-Sided Simple Closed Curves on Surfa
es
To be written!
Orientation Covering and First Stiefel-Whitney Class
To be written!
Relative Homology
To be written!
183
To be written!
Systems of disjoint
urves on a surfa
e
To be written!
Polygonal Jordan and S
hon
ies Theorems
To be written!
Polygonal Annulus Theorem
To be written!
Dehn Twists
To be written!
Coverings of Surfa
es
To be written!
Bran
hed Coverings
To be written!
Mapping Class Group of Torus
To be written!
184
CHAPTER 7
Smooth Manifolds
Although manifolds provide a s
ene for almost all geometri
bran
hes of
Mathemati
s, the topologi
al stru
ture of a manifold does not de
orate
this s
ene enough. It is not su
ient to dis
uss most of phenomena of
Analysis and Geometry.
Usually in appli
ations, manifolds arise equipped with various additional
stru
tures. One of them, smooth or dierential stru
ture, appears more
often than others. The goal of this Chapter is to introdu
e the smooth
stru
ture and develope the basi
theory.
While topologi
al stru
tures provide a basis for dis
ussing phenomena
related to
ontinuity, smooth stru
tures provide a basis for dis
ussing
phenomena related to dierentiability.
The traditional denition of smooth stru
tures is quite long and dierent
from denitions of similar, and, in fa
t,
losely related stru
tures whi
h
are studied in algebrai
geometry and topology. Furthermore, smooth
stru
tures are traditionally dened only on manifolds. This deprives us
of
exibility that we enjoy in general topology, where any set-theoreti
onstru
tion has a topologi
al
ounter-part: a subset turns into a subspa
e, a quotient set turns into a quotient spa
e, et
. The image of a
dierential manifold under a dierentiable map may happen to be not
a manifold, and hen
e not eligible to bear any tra
e of a dierential
stru
ture.
Therefore we dare to
hange the very basi
denitions of the dierential
topology. The notion of dierential manifold be
omes a spe
ial
ase
of more general notions of dierential spa
e and dierential variety. Of
ourse, spe
ialists are aware about the possibility of these generalizations.
However as far as we know, nobody did a serious attempt to rely on the
generalizations in a textbook written for beginners. We try to over
ome
the phobia about singularities, whi
h was a
hara
teristi
property of
texts on dierential topology. We believe, this makes the subje
t simpler,
although introdu
es possibilty to speak about pathologi
al obje
ts.
As we
laimed above, we think on tea
hing the elementary topology as
about tea
hing a language. This is a great language, one of the main
parts of the language of Mathemati
s. It is not our goal to tea
h only
185
186
\politi
ally
orre
t" words: we do not want to ex
lude a single word just
be
ause it
an be used in a des
ription of \bad", \pathologi
al" obje
ts.
Of
ourse, the standard approa
h to smooth manifolds is also presented,
right after the new one. But rst, we must refresh the ba
kground from
Multivariable Cal
ulus.
187
f (a + tv) f (a)
.
t
Thus, Dv f (a) is the velo
ity of
hanging of f when a moves with velo
ity v.
44.4. Prove that if v is the i-th standard base ve
tor (i.e., all the
omponents
of v, but i-th, equal 0, and the i-th
omponent is 1), then Dv f (a) is equal to
f2
fk
1
( f
xi (a); xi (a); : : : xi (a)), where fj is the j -th
omponent of f .
The dierential da f of a map f : Rn
Ja
obian matrix of f at a).
44.5.
! Rk
j
has matrix f
xi (the
oinsides with L.
1?
! Rk : (a; v) 7!
188
: : : vr .
Prove that Dr f (a; v1 ; : : : vr ) does not hange when one inter hange v1 ,
44.11.
Pn
lim
x!0
jf (a + x) f (a)
Ps
1 Pn
ir
i1
r
r=1 r! i1 ;:::;ir =1 D f (a; ei1 ; : : : ; eir )x : : : x j
jxjs
=0
C r -Maps
Let U be an open subset of R n and r a non-negative integer or 1. A
map f : U ! R k is said to be of
lass C r or a C r -map if at ea
h point of
U it has all the derivatives of order r and all of them are
ontinuous.
A map is of
lass C 1 if it is of
lass C r for all nite r.
44.12.
n
1 X
Dr f (x0 ; ei1 ; : : : ; eir )xi1 : : : xir
r! i1 ;:::;ir =1
189
Dieomorphisms
Let U , V be open subsets of R n and r be a natural number, or 1 or
a. A map f : U ! V is
alled a dieomorphism of
lass C r , or C r dieomorphism or just dieomorphism (of U to V ) if f is of
lass C r at
ea
h point of U , invertible, and f 1 is of
lass C r at ea
h point of V .
44.H. The dierential of a dieomorphism at any point is an isomorphism.
44.I. Composition of C r -dieomorphisms is a C r -dieomorphism. The
map inverse to a C r -dieomorphism is a C r -dieomorphism.
44.13. Whi
h of the following maps are dieomorphisms and what are the
lasses of the dieomorphisms:
(a) R ! R : x 7! x2 ,
(b) R ! R : x 7! x3 ,
(
) (0; 1) ! (0; 1) : x 7! x3 ,
(d) (0; 1) ! (0; 1) : x 7! x2 ,
(e) C ! C : x 7! x3 ,
(f) R ! R : x 7! x + x3 ,
(g) R ! R : x 7! (
x + x2 ,
x + x2 ; if x 0
(h) R ! R : x 7!
,
x x2 ; if x < 0
(
x + x5 ; if x 0
(i) R ! R : x 7!
,
x x44 ; if x < 0
(j) R ! R : x 7! x5=3 ,
(k) R ! R : x 7! x + x101=3 ?
190
C r -Fun
tions
The set of all the C r -fun
tions U ! R is denoted by C r (U ).
44.M. If f 2 C r (U ) then f jV 2 C r (V ) for any open V U . In other
words, for open sets V U R n formula f 7! f jV denes a map
C r (U ) ! C r (V ).
1 : x 7!
exp( (x
0;
1
1)(x 2) );
if x 2 (1; 2);
if x 6=2 (1; 2)
is a C 1-fun
tion on R.
44.N.2 Lemma on Smooth Step Fun
tion. The fun
tion
Rx
(t) dt
2 (x) = R02 1
1 1 (t) dt
1
is a C -fun
tion on R. It takes value 0 on [0; 1 and 1 on [2; 1). A
C a -fun
tion f : R ! R with f [0; 1 = 0 and f [2; 1) = 1 does not exists.
191
192
Dierential Spa
es
Let X be a set and r be a natural number or innity. A dierential
stru
ture of
lass C r on X is an algebra C r (X ) of fun
tions X ! R
satisfying the following two
onditions:
(a) For any f1 ; : : : ; fn 2 C r (X ) su
h that the image of the map f : X !
R n dened by f1, : : : ,fn is
ontained in an open set A R n and
any C r map g : A ! R the
omposition g (f j) : X ! R belongs
to C r (X ). (Cf. 45.B above.)
(b) A fun
tion f : X ! R belongs to C r (X ) if for ea
h a 2 X there
exist g; h 2 C r (X ) su
h that h(a) > 0 and f (x) = g (x) for ea
h x
with h(x) > 0.
A set equipped with a dierential stru
ture of
lass C r is
alled a differential spa
e of
lass C r or C r -spa
e. Elements of C r (X ) are
alled
C r -fun
tions on X .
Any dierential spa
e has a natural topologi
al stru
ture: the smallest
one with respe
t to whi
h all the fun
tions belonging to C r (X ) are
ontinuous. It is
alled the underlying topologi
al stru
ture and X equipped
with this stru
ture is
alled the underlying topologi
al spa
e of the C r spa
e. The terms from general topology applied to a C r -spa
e are understood as being applied to the underlying topologi
al spa
e. For example, \Hausdor C r -spa
e" means \C r -spa
e whose underlying topologi
al
spa
e is Hausdor".
45.E. The underlying topologi
al stru
ture has a basis
onsisting of the
sets whi
h are dened by nite systems of inequalities f (x) > 0 with
f 2 C r (X ).
45.1. Let X be a C r -spa
e with r 1, let f1 ; : : : ; fr 2 C r (X ), and Ui =
fi 1 (0; +1) for i = 1; : : : ; r. Constru
t f; g 2 C r (X ) su
h that \ri=1 Ui =
f 1 (0; +1) and [ri=1 Ui = g 1 (0; +1).
45.2. The underlying topologi
al stru
ture of a C r -spa
e with r 1 has the
basis
onsisting of the sets ea
h of whi
h is dened by an inequality f (x) > 0
with f 2 C r (X ).
193
45.G. The set of all the fun tions of lass C r on an open subset U R n
45 1.
dierentiability introdu ed above oin ides with the lassi al dierentiability dis ussed in Se tion 44.
Let X be a metri
spa
e. A fun
tion f : X ! R is said to be
ontinuously dierentiable at a 2 X if for any neighborhood U of a there exists
a neighborhood V of a and
ontinuous fun
tions b1 ; : : : ; bk : V ! U ,
1 ; : : : ; k : V ! R (for some k) su
h that for any point
2 V
Pk
j
f (x) f (
)
i=1 i ((bi (
); x) (bi (
);
))j = 0:
lim
x!
(x;
)
194
What is C 1 (X ) if
X = f(x; y) 2 R2 j xy = 0g with metri
indu
ed from R2 ,
X = f(x; y; z ) 2 R3 j xy = 0g with metri
indu
ed from R3 ,
X = S 2 with metri
indu
ed from R3
X is the Cantor set with metri
indu
ed from R?
45 3.
Dierential Subspa es
45.H. Let X be a C r -spa
e and A its subset. Consider the set of fun
tions f : A ! R su
h that for ea
h b 2 A there exist g; h 2 C r (X ) with
h(b) > 0 and f (x) = g (x) for ea
h x 2 A with h(x) > 0. Prove that this
is a dierential stru
ture of
lass C r on A.
This set of fun
tion is denoted by C r (A) and
alled the C r -stru
ture
indu
ed by C r (X ). The set A equipped with C r (A) is
alled a C r -subspa
e
of X .
45.I. (Cf. 44.O) Let U R n . Prove that the set of fun
tions belonging
to the C r -stru
ture on U indu
ed by the standard C r -stru
ture of Rn
oin
ides with the set of C r -fun
tions U ! R .
Below all the subsets of R n are
onsidered as C r -spa
es with the stru
ture
indu
ed, as on subspa
es, by the standard C r -stru
ture of R n , unless the
opposite is stated expli
itely.
45.J. Prove that if A is a subset of a C r -spa
e X and f 2 C r (A) then
f jB : B ! R belongs to C r (B ) for any B A.
45.8. Prove that the C r -stru
ture indu
ed on R from the standard C r stru
ture of R2
oin
ides with the standard C r -stru
ture of R.
195
stru
ture indu
ed from the metri
C r -stru
ture of X
oin
ides with the
C r -stru
ture indu
ed by the restri
tion to A of the metri
of X .
45:E. For any subset A of a metri
spa
e X the C r -stru
ture indu
ed by
C r -stru ture
Rn
dard
of
oin
ides with the C r -stru
ture indu
ed by the
restri
tion to A of the metri
of Rn .
45:G. Constru
t a subset A of a metri
spa
e X su
h that the C r -
stru
ture indu
ed on A from the metri
C r -stru
ture of X does not
oin
ide with the C r -stru
ture indu
ed by the restri
tion to A of the metri
of X .
45:G:1. Embed isometri
ally R1 with the standard metri
to a metri
spa
e X su
h that fun
tion R ! R : x 7! jxj is direntiable with
respe
t to the C 1 -stru
ture indu
ed from the metri
C 1 -stru
ture on
X.
Dierentiable Maps
Let X , Y be C r -spa
es. A map f : X ! Y is
alled a dierentiable map
of
lass C r or a map of
lass C r or or just a C r -map if ' f 2 C r (X )
for ea
h ' 2 C r (Y ). A C r -map f : X ! Y denes a homomorphism
C r (Y ) ! C r (X ).
map with respe
t to the C r -stru
tures indu
ed from the standard stru
tures
of the ambient spa
es Rn and Rk i it is a C r -map in the sense dened in
Se
tion 44 (that is the
ompostions of f with all the
oordinate proje
tions
U ! R are r times
ontinuously dierentiable).
196
Dieomorphisms
Let X , Y be C r -spa
es. A map X ! Y is
alled a dieomorphism of
lass
C r or C r -dieromorphism if it is an invertible C r -map, and the inverse
map is also of
lass C r . C r -spa
es are said to be (C r -)dieomorphi
if
there exists a C r -dieomorphism X ! Y .
45.L General Properties of Dieomorphisms. Prove that:
(a) The
omposition of C r -dieomorphisms is a C r -dieomorphism.
(b) The identity map of a C r -spa
e is a C r -dieomorphism.
(
) The inverse map to a C r -dieomorphism is a C r -dieomorphism.
45.M. The dieomorphism relation of C r -spa
es is an equivalen
e relation.
45.N. Prove that C r -dieomorphisms of open subsets of R n dened in
Se
tion 44 are C r -dieomorphisms in the sense dis
ussed here.
Prove that any dieomorphism of a semi-
ubi
parabola
C = f(x; y) 2 R2 j x3 = y2 g
onto itself preserves (0; 0) 2 C ).
45.13. Consider the angle A = f(x; y ) 2 R2 j x = 0; y 0g [ f(x; y ) 2 R2 j
x 0; y = 0g, semi-
ubi
parabola C = f(x; y) 2 R2 j x3 = y2 g and line R.
Prove that there exist C r -bije
tions A ! R, R ! C and C ! R, but these
C r -spa
es are pairwise nondieomorphi
.
45.12.
Dierentiale Embeddings
Re
all that a topologi
al embedding is a map f : X ! Y of a topologi
al
spa
e X to a topologi
al spa
e Y su
h that its submap f : X ! f (X )
is a homeomorphism. In the setup of dierential spa
es this denition
has an obvious
ounter-part: a map f : X ! Y of a C r -spa
e X to a
C r -spa
e Y is
alled a C r -embedding if its submap f : X ! f (X ) is a
C r -dieomorphism.
45.O. The in
lusion of a smooth submanifold to the smooth manifold
is a dierentiable embedding.
45.P. (Cf. 45.D.) Prove that a C r -spa
e X
an be embedded to R n , i
the algebra C r (X )
ontains n fun
tions f1 , : : : , fn su
h that
(a) C r (X ) is the minimal C r -stru
ture
ontaining f1 , : : : fn ,
(b) for any dierent a; b 2 X there exists fi with fi (a) 6= fi (b).
Whi
h of the following maps are dierentiable embeddings:
id : R ! R,
S 1 ! R2 : (
os 2t; sin 2t) 7! (sin 2t; sin 4t),
S 1 ! S 1 : z 7! z 2,
R1 ! R2 : t 7! (t2 ; t3 ),
R1 ! R3 : t 7! (t2 ; t3 ; t),
45.14.
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
197
R ! R2 : t 7! (t2 ; t4 ),
I ! R2 : t 7! (sin t; sin 2t),
[0; 1) ! R2 : t 7! (sin t; sin 2t),
(0; 1) ! R2 : t 7! (sin t; sin 2t),
R ! S 1 S 1 : t 7! (eit ; eit ),
S 1 ! S 1 S 1 : z 7! (z 3 ; z 2),
S1 ! S1 S1 (
: z 7! (z 4 ; z 2),
(x; x + x5 ); if x 0
(m) R ! R2 : x 7!
,
(x; x x44 ); if x < 0
(
(x; 2x); if y = 0;
2
2
(n) f(x; y) 2 R j xy = 0g ! R : (x; y) 7!
,
(2y; y(); if x = 0
(x; 0); if y = 0;
(o) f(x; y) 2 R2 j y(y x2 ) = 0g ! R2 : (x; y) 7!
,
(0; x); if y 6= 0
(p) f(x; y) 2 R2 j y2 = x3 g ! R3 : (x; y) 7! (x; y; y1=3 )?
45.Q. The set of all C 1-fun
tions on R with the rst derivative vanishing at 0 is a C 1 -stru
ture on R .
45.R. Prove that for any C 1-fun
tion f : R ! R with dxdf (0) = 0
there exist C 1 -fun
tions : R ! R and : R ! R su
h that f (x) =
(x2 ) + (x3 ).
45.S. The C 1-spa
e of Problem 45.Q is C 1-dieomorphi
to the subspa
e of R 2 dened by equation x3 = y 2. The map x 7! (x2 ; x3 ) is the
dierential embedding.
198
This set of fun
tion is denoted by C r (X=S ) and
alled the quotient of
C r (X ). The quotient set X=S equipped with C r (X=S ) is
alled a quotient
C r -spa
e of X .
Let S be the partition of R2 into verti
al lines (i.e., sets of the form
a R). Prove that R2 =S is dieomorphi
to R.
46.5. Prove that the quotient spa
e of the segment [ 1; 1 obtained by identifying the end points 1 and 1 is not dieomorphi
to the
ir
le S 1 (with the
C r -stru
ture indu
ed from the standard C r -stru
ture of the ambient plane
R2 ). Find a C r -subspa
e of R2 dieomorphi
to this quotient C r -spa
e.
46.6. Prove that the quotient spa
e of the segment [ 1; 1 obtained by identifying x with x + 3=2 for x 1=2 is dieomorphi
to S 1 .
46.7. Prove that the orbit spa
e of involution R2 ! R2 j (x; y ) 7! ( x; y )
is dieomorphi
to the
one f(x; y; z ) 2 R3 j x2 + y2 = z 2; z 0g.
46.8. Prove that the orbit spa
e of involution R2 ! R2 j (x; y ) 7! (x; y ) is
dieomorphi
to the half-plane R2+ .
46.9. Prove that the quotient spa
e D 2 =S 1 (the boundary
ir
le S 1 of the
disk D2 is
ontra
ted to a single point) is not dieomorphi
to a subset of
Eu
lidean spa
e of any dimension.
46.4.
46.10.
199
To be written
Spa
e of n-Point Subsets of Surfa
e
To be written
Tori
Varieties
To be written
1A
(f)
200
201
202
on X in the sense of dierential spa
es. With respe
t to this C r -stru
ture,
all the
harts of X are
harts in the sense of dierential spa
es. In
parti
ular, as a dierential spa
e, X is a C r -manifold in the sense of
dierential spa
es.
203
Revision of Boundary
Let X be a smooth manifold of
lass C r and dimension n, and let U >
>> G R n+ be a
hart belonging to its C r -stru
ture. Then (U \
X ) = G \ R n 1 is an open set of the boundary hyperplane R n 1 of R n
and j : U \ X ! G \ R n 1 is a lo
al
oordinate system in X .
47.N. Lo
al
oordinate systems in X obtained in this way from lo
al
oordinate systems belonging to the C r -stru
ture of X dene a C r stru
ture on X .
47.O. The C r -stru
ture on X dened in 47.N
oin
ides with the one
indu
ed on X as on dierential subspa
e of X ,
f. 47.C.
204
Rank of Mapping
47.U. Prove that the rank of the Ja obian matrix (thematrix of the
Dierential Topology
Let X and Y be smooth manifolds of
lass C r . Re
all that a map f :
X ! Y is a dieomorphism of
lass C r if it is of
lass C r , invertible and
the inverse is also of
lass C r . (Cf. above.)
Information: If X , Y are C r -manifolds and there exists a dieomorphism
X ! Y of
lass C 1 then there exists a C r -dieomorphism X ! Y .
47.3.
Submanifolds
In Se
tion 45 any subset of a C r -spa
e was equipped with the indu
ed C r stru
ture. If we
onsider only smooth manifolds then a subset, whi
h
an
re
eive a stru
ture, must satisfy strong restri
tions. It must be a manifold
and positioned in su
h a ni
e way that the stru
ture of C r -spa
e indu
ed
as it was des
ribed in Se
tion 45 would turn it to a smooth manifold.
Moreover, for some reasons usually one imposes extra
onditions on the
position in the ambient manifold.
205
206
Dierentiable Embeddings
Re
all that a map f : X ! Y of a C r -spa
e X to a C r -spa
e Y is
alled
a C r -embedding if its submap f : X ! '(X ) is a C r -dieomorphism.
In the traditional approa
h to smooth manifolds, one should add to this
an additional
ondition, be
ause the image f (X ) is not a smooth manifold
automati
ally. Thus the denition looks as follows: A C r -map f : X ! Y
is
alled a dierentiable embedding if f (X ) is a smooth subsmanifold of
Y and f j : X ! f (X ) is a dieomorphism.
48.A. The in
lusion of a smooth submanifold to the smooth manifold
is a dierentiable embedding.
48.7. Whi
h of the following dierentiable maps are dierentiable embeddings:
(a) id : R ! R,
(b) S 1 ! R2 : (
os 2t; sin 2t) 7! (sin 2t; sin 4t),
(
) S 1 ! S 1 : z 7! z 2,
(d) R1 ! R2 : t 7! (t2 ; t3 ),
(e) R ! R2 : t 7! (t2 ; t4 ),
(f) I ! R2 : t 7! (sin t; sin 2t),
(g) [0; 1) ! R2 : t 7! (sin t; sin 2t),
(h) (0; 1) ! R2 : t 7! (sin t; sin 2t),
(i) R ! S 1 S 1 : t 7! (eit ; eit ),
(j) S 1 ! S 1 S 1 : z 7! (z 3 ; z 2),
207
(k) S 1 ! S 1 S 1 (
: z 7! (z 4 ; z 2),
(x; x + x5 ); if x 0
(l) R ! R2 : x 7!
?
(x; x x44 ); if x < 0
208
The proof of 48.E sket
hed above does not work for r = a, i.e., for real
analyti
fun
tions.
48.9.
Theorem 48.E is
orre
t for real analyti
ase too, but requires arguments of absolutely dierent nature. As it was mentioned above, these
arguments were found by Grauert and Remmert in the fties.
209
Coordinate Denition
A physisist would probably agree with the following denition of a ve
tor:
a ve
tor is a quantity whi
h
an be
hara
terised by n real numbers (its
oordinates ) if it is taken in n-dimensional spa
e and a
oordinate system
is xed. When the
oordinate system
hanges, the
oordinates of a ve
tor
hange a
ordingly. The rst denition of tangent ve
tor that we
onsider
ts to this s
heme.
Let X be a smooth manifold of
lass C r and dimension n and a be a
point of X . Denote by Ca the set of lo
al
oordinate systems of X with
supports
ontaining a. A tangent ve
tor of X at a is a map v : Ca ! R n
su
h that for any ; 2 Ca
v ( ) =
(22)
v ( );
a
where
at (a).
210
are explained below. The main goals of these notations is to ex
lude numerous summation signs and en
ode the dieren
e between elements of a
ve
tor spa
e and the
onjugate spa
e. In the Einstein notations formula
(23) looks as follows:
i
xi = j (a)y j ;
see Digression on Einstein Notations below.
The set of all the tangent ve
tors of X at a is denoted by Ta X and
alled
the tangent spa
e of X at a.
49.A. TaX is a ve
tor spa
e with respe
t to
oordinatewise operations
(v + w)( ) = v ( ) + w( ) and (av )( ) = a(v ( )).
49.B. Any
oordinate system 2 Ca denes a map
Ta X ! R n : v 7! v ( ):
This map is a linear isomorphism.
In parti
ular, a ve
tor v 2 Ta X is determined by v ( ), and v ( )
an
be any element of R n . The
oordinates of v ( ) (with respe
t to the
anoni
al
oordinate system in R n ) are
alled the
oordinates of v in (or
with respe
t to) the lo
al
oordinate system .
To be written
Dierentiation of Fun
tions
To be written
Dierential of Map
To be written
Tangent Bundle
Consider the set of all the tangent ve
tors of a manifold X , i.e., [a2X Ta X .
It is denoted by T X and
alled the tangent bundle of X .
For any lo
al
oordinate system X U > >> G Rn put T U =
[a2U Ta X and dene a bije
tion T U ! G R n by formula TxX 3 v 7!
( (x); v ( )). By this bije
tion one introdu
es to T U topology and smooth
stru
ture from G R n
To be nished
51. ORIENTATION
To be written
To be written
51. Orientation
To be written
211
212