Digital Microwave Communication Principles

Document code Product name
Target readers Huawei engineers Product version

Edited by Optical Network Product Service Department Document version 1.
Digital Microwave Communication
Principles
Dra!ted by" #$en S$aoying Date" %%&'%1'%(
)eviewed by" #$en Hu Date"
)eviewed by" Date"
*pproved by" Date"
Huawei Technologies Co, Ltd
All Rights Reserved
Digital Microwave Communication Principles
Confidentiality Level:
Internal Use Only
Revision Records
Date )evised version *ut$or Description
2007-1-11 V1.0 Chen Shaoying Initial draft
2007-10-16 V1.1 Chen Shaoying amend
2008-3-10 V1.2 Chen Shaoying Refresh as the training docment
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Contents
1 Microwave Communication Overview !
$ (asic Concepts of Digital Microwave$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ )
$2 Microwave Development Course$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*
$2$ Microwave +volution in t&e ,orld$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*
$2$2 Microwave +volution in C&ina$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ -
$' C&aracteristics of Digital .adio Communication /ystem$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$0
$! C&allenges and Opportunities for Digital Microwave Communication$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$!$ Optical 0i1er Communication2(iggest C&allenge for Digital Microwave
Communication$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$!$2 Opportunities for Digital Microwave Communication$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$2
$3 Microwave 0re4uency (and C&oice and .0 C&annel 5rrangements$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!
$6 Digital Microwave Communication /ystem Model$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6
$6$ Modulation Met&od of Digital Microwave$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6
$6$2 C&annel Utili7ation of +ac& Modulation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*
$) Digital Microwave 0rame /tructure$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ -
$* Conclusion$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 20
" #ntroduction to Digital Microwave $%uipment""
2$ Digital Microwave +4uipment Classification$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$22
2$2 Microwave antenna and feeder$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 2'
2$2$ Microwave antenna$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 2'
2$2$2 Classification of Microwave 5ntennas$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$26
2$2$' 0eeder /ystem$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 26
2$2$! (ranc&ing /ystem$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 2*
2$' Outdoor unit 8ODU9$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 2*
2$'$ Constituents of Digital Microwave :ransmitter and Ma;or Performance Inde<es
2-
2$'$2 Constituents and Ma;or Inde<es of .eceiver$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$'
2$! Indoor Unit$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ ''
2$3 Installation and 5d;ustment of /plit Microwave /ystem$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$'!
2$6 Conclusion$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ '6
& Microwave '(stem )etwor*ing and Application&+
'$ Microwave /ystem :ypical %etwor=ing Modes and /tation :ypes$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$'*
'$$ :ypical %etwor=ing Modes$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ '*
'$$2 Microwave /tation :ypes$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ '*
'$2 .elay /tation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ '-
'$2$ Passive .elay /tation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ !0
'$2$2 5ctive .elay /tation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ !'
'$' Digital Microwave 5pplication$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ !3
'$! Conclusion$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ !6
, Microwave Propagation Theor( ,!
!$ +lectric ,ave Propagation in 0ree /pace$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!)
!$$ 0ree /pace$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ !)
!$$2 Propagation Loss of +lectric ,aves in 0ree /pace$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!)
!$2 Influence of >round .eflection on t&e +lectric ,ave Propagation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!*
!$2$ Concept of 0resnel ?one$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ !*
!$2$2 Influence of >round .eflection on .eceiving Level$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$30
!$' Influence of :roposp&ere on +lectric ,ave$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$36
!$'$ .ay (end in 5tmosp&ere$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 36
!$'$2 Concept of +4uivalent +art& .adius$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$3)
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!$'$' .efraction can 1e classified into t&ree categories 1ased on t&e @ value$$$$$$$$$$$3*
!$'$! :&e Meaning of @ Aalue in +ngineering Design$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$3-
!$! 0ading caused 1y /everal 5tmosp&eric and +art& +ffects$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$60
!$!$ 0ading :ypes$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 60
!$!$2 Influence of :roposp&ere on +lectric ,ave Propagation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6
!$!$' 0ading .ules 8microwave fre4uency 1ands lower t&an 0 >#79$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6'
!$3 0re4uency /elective 0ading$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 6!
!$3$ Multi"pat& Propagation of +lectric ,aves$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6!
!$3$2 Influence of 0re4uency /elective 0ading on :ransmission Buality of Microwave
Communication /ystems$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 63
!$6 /tatistic 0eature of 0ading$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 66
!$6$ Microwave 0ading Model2.ayleig& Distri1ution 0unction$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$66
!$6$2 +ngineering Calculation of .ayleig& 0ading Pro1a1ility$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6)
!$) Conclusion$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 6*
- Anti./ading Technolog( in Digital Microwave $%uipment01
3$ Overview$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 6-
3$$ Purposes of :a=ing 5nti"0ading Measures$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$6-
3$$2 Classification of 5nti"0ading Measures$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$)0
3$$' +valuation on 5nti"0ading Measures$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$)
3$2 5daptive +4uali7ation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ )2
3$2$ 50+$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ )2
3$2$2 5:+$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ )!
3$' Cross"Polari7ation Interference Counteracter 8CPIC9$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$)3
3$! 5utomatic :ransmit Power Control 85:PC9$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$)6
3$3 Diversity .eception$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ )*
3$3$ Classification of Diversity .eception$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$)*
3$3$2 Description of /pace Diversity$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ *0
3$3$' Compound Mode of Diversity /ignals$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*2
3$6 Microwave +4uipment Protection Mode$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*'
3$6$ #/M$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ *'
3$6$2 #/($$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ *!
3$6$' Classification of Digital Microwave +4uipment Protection Modes$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*3
3$) Interference and Main Met&ods against Interference$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*6
3$)$ Interference /ource$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ *6
3$)$2 (asic Met&ods of Communication /ystem against Interference$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*)
3$* Conclusion$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ **
0 2asis o3 Designing a Microwave Transmission Line+1
6$ (asis of Designing a Microwave :ransmission Line$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*-
6$$ .e4uirement on a Microwave :ransmission Line$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*-
6$$2 O1;ective of Designing a Microwave :ransmission Line$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$*-
6$$' :ransmission Clearance$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ *-
6$$! Meaning of @ Aalue in Microwave :ransmission Planning$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$-'
6$$3 Cross /ection and /tation Distance$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$-!
6$2 Procedure for Designing a Microwave :ransmission Line$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$-3
6$2$ /electing t&e .oute D /ite$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ -6
6$2$2 Determining 5ntenna #eig&t$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ -)
6$2$' /electing Microwave (and and Configuring Polari7ation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$-*
6$2$! Circuit Performance +stimate$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 0
6$' Conclusion$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ 02
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Course $4plain
Course #ntroduce
:&is document descri1es 1asic concepts of t&e microwave and microwave
communication to &elp tec&nical support staff learn microwave products and
improve t&eir a1ility to maintain microwave e4uipment$
Course Con3iguration
:&ere are si< c&apters in t&is document$ 0irst c&apter is an overview a1out t&e
microwave communicationF succeeding c&apters introduce t&e digital
microwave communication e4uipmentE split microwaveE typical networ=ing
modes and application and site types of t&e microwaveE t&e relay siteE
transmission t&eory of t&e microwave w&ic& includes fading in t&e transmission
processE tec&nology against fadingE microwave e4uipment protection modesE
interference and anti"interference tec&nology$
:&e last c&apters relate t&e microwave engineering design met&odsE is t&e
fundamentals of microwave engineering design$
Course O56ectives
Concept and c&aracteristics of digital microwave communications
0unctions and principles of eac& component of digital microwave
e4uipment
Common networ=ing modes and application scenarios of digital
microwave e4uipment
Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and various
types of fading
5nti"fading tec&nologies
Procedure and =ey points in designing microwave transmission lin=
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1 Microwave Communication Overview
O56ectives7
:o understand w&at is microwave communication
:o =now t&e c&allenges and opportunities for t&e microwave communication
:o &ave an overall concept a1out t&e microwave communication
11 2asic Concepts o3 Digital Microwave
Microwave is electromagnetic wave wit& fre4uency from '00M#7 to '00>#7
and it is a finite fre4uency 1and of t&e entire electromagnetic wave spectrum$
5ccording to t&e microwave transmission featureE microwave can 1e viewed as
plane wave$ 5long t&e transmission directionE t&e plane wave &as no
longitudinal components of electric field and magnetic field$ (ot& electric field
and magnetic field are vertical to t&e transmission direction$ :&usE t&e plane
wave is called transverse electromagnetic wave and mar=ed as :+M wave$ 0or
t&e application of eac& fre4uency 1and in t&e microwave spectrumE see figure
$$
0igure $ application of eac& fre4uency 1and in t&e microwave spectrum
In figure $E A#0 and L0 are ground wave w&ic& is very capa1le of diffraction
and can diffract &undreds of =ilometersF t&ey are mainly used in radio and
navigation$ M0 is used in 1roadcast and is less capa1le of diffraction t&an A#0
and L0$ #0 is not ground waveE and it is reflected to t&e ionosp&ere$ A#0 and
U#0 are used in :A$ :&oug& U#0 is used in :AE 8t&at isE t&e microwave is
involved9 it is not called microwave$ 5fter t&e microwaveE it is optical wave
w&ic& is also a type of electromagnetic wave$
Digital microwave communication refers to a type of communication mode
w&ic& uses microwave 8fre4uency9 to carry digital information t&roug& t&e
electric wave spaceE transmit independent information and conduct
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regeneration$ Microwave is wea= in diffraction and it is only line"of"sig&t
communicationE t&ereforeE it &as a limited transmission distance$ In long"
distance transmissionE relay is needed to connect sites$ :&usE it is called
microwave relay communication$
Microwave communication uses microwave as t&e carrier of signalsE w&ic& is
similar to optical fi1er communication t&at uses lig&t as t&e carrier of signals$
/imply spea=ingE transmitting module and optoelectronic inspection module
used for receiving in t&e optical fi1er transmission system are similar to t&e
transmitting and receiving antenna$ Compared wit& t&e optical fi1er
communication wit& wire c&annelsE microwave c&annel is wireless and
microwave communication is muc& more complicated$
1" Microwave Development Course
Microwave communication tec&nology comes into 1eing &alf a century ago$ It is
a wireless line"of"sig&t communication means t&at propagates information in
t&e radio"fre4uency 1and around t&e ground$ Original microwave
communication systems are all analogE and same as t&e coa<ial ca1le carrier
transmission system at t&at timeE t&ey are t&e ma;or transmission means of t&e
communication networ= long"distance transmission trun=$ In t&e year of -3*E
C&ina 1egan to studyE developE introduce and apply t&e analogue microwave
communication tec&nology$ In t&e -)0GsE C&ina developed t&e low" and
medium"capacity 8suc& as *M1Hs and '!M1Hs9 digital microwave
communication systemE w&ic& was t&e outcome of communication tec&nology
from t&e analogue to t&e digital$
In t&e late -*0GsE /D# was widely used in transmission system and /D# &ig&"
capacity digital microwave communication system of %I33M1Hs was
developed$ %owE digital microwave communicationE optical fi1er communication
and satellite communication are considered as t&e t&ree ma;or means of
modern communication transmission$ 0ollowing sections descri1e microwave
development &istory 1ot& in C&ina and t&e world$
1"1 Microwave $volution in the 8orld
In t&e year of -!)E (ell la1 1uilt t&e first analogue microwave trial circuit 8:D"
C9 1etween %ew Jor= and (oston$ :&is circuit used vacuum tu1e to amplify
signals and adopted t&e fre4uency modulation 80M9 mode$ In t&e year of -30E
! >#7 :D"2 system carried commercial telep&one services for t&e first time$
/ince early -30GsE e<cept 5mericaE t&e 1ac=1ones of 5ustraliaE CanadaE
0ranceE Italy and Kapan were all installed wit& microwave"relay system similar
to t&e :D"2 system$ In t&e year of -)-E radio"c&annel capacity of Kapanese
commercial system was up to '600 telep&one c&annelsE and till -*0E
5merican commercial system 5.65 adopted single"side1and modulation
tec&nology and arranged 6000 telep&one c&annels in '0 M#7 1andwidt& of 6
>#7 fre4uency 1andE w&ic& made t&e transport cost of eac& c&annel to t&e
minimum unprecedented$ :o improve t&e voice 4ualityE in t&e late -60GsE digital
radio"relay came into 1eing for t&e first time$ :o improve t&e fre4uency
spectrum efficiencyE &ig&"status modulation modes 6!B5ME 2*B5ME 32B5M
appears and t&e fre4uency spectrum efficiency is raised to 01itHsH#7$ In t&e
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year of -**E 1ased on t&e 5merican /O%+:E t&e I:U formulated t&e /D#
transmission networ= standard$ Compared wit& t&e former PD#E /D# unifies
t&e standards of +urope and %ort& 5merica and made intercommunication of
/:M" and &ig&er rate in t&e world 1ecome availa1le$ /D# system adopts
sync&ronous multiple< and fle<i1le mapping structure$ It can addHdrop lower"
order tri1utary signals directly toHfrom &ig&er"order tri1utariesF avoid
multiple<ing of many &ierarc&ies and simplify t&e e4uipment$ MoreoverE /D#
system provides sufficient over&ead 1ytesE w&ic& strengt&ens t&e operationE
managementE maintenance and provision of t&e networ=$ :&ereforeE /D# was
rapidly developed in t&e --0Gs$
1"" Microwave $volution in China
89 5nalogue Microwave +volution
C&ina already 1egan to develop analogue radio communication system of 60
c&annels and '00 c&annels since -3) and 1egan t&e researc& of 600
c&annels in -6!E -60 c&annels in -66$ 5nd in -*6E C&ina developed *00
c&annels analogue microwave system 8si<t& five year state =ey tec&nologies
.DD program9$ (ased on t&ose ac&ievementsE C&ina 1uilt analogue microwave
circuits of more t&an 20E000 =ilometers$
829 PD# Digital Microwave +volution
PD# is formulated 1y CCI:: 8t&e previous name of I:U9 in -60Gs$ C&ina
introduced a set of PD# microwave e4uipment from a1road in late -60Gs$ In
t&e year of -)-E C&ina 1uilt t&e first trun= PD# microwave circuit 81etween
(ei;ing and ,u&anE introduced from a1road 1y /tate +lectric Power Ministry9$
In t&e year of -*6E C&ina independently developed ! >#7 '! M1itHs PD#
microwave system and 1uilt it 1etween 0u7&ou and Ciamen$ During -*) and
-*-E t&e former :elecommunications Ministry 1uilt 6 >#7 !0 M1itHs PD#
microwave circuit 1etween (ei;ing and /&ang&ai$ In --2E C&ina independently
developed 6>#7 !0M1ps PD# microwave system 8ac&ievement of sevent&
five year state =ey tec&nologies .DD program9 and 1uilt it 1etween ,uc&ang
and Jangluo in #u1ei province$ 5fter --3E low and medium capacity PD#
microwave systems needed in mo1ile communication coverage are greatly
developed$ /plit microwave systemE w&ic& is easy to install and dismantleE
gradually replaces trun= microwave system$
8'9 /D# Digital Microwave +volution
/D# 8sync&ronous digital &ierarc&y9 was developed in t&e world in --2$ :&e
first /D# microwave circuit in C&ina was introduced and 1uilt 1y Kilin (roadcast
:elevision (ureau in --3$ During --3 and --6E t&e former /tate
:elecommunications Ministry 1egan to introduce and 1uild /D# microwave
circuit$ In --)E t&e 6 >#7 /D# microwave circuit 8ac&ievement of nint& five
year state tec&nologies .DD program9 developed 1y C&ina independently
passed t&e verification and was accepted in /&andong$ 5fter t&e year of 2000E
Information Industry Ministry discontinues to 1uild /D# microwave used in
national 1ac=1one pu1lic networ=$ Due to t&e industry features and t&eir own
demandsE industries suc& as 1roadcast televisionE coalE oilE water and natural
gas pipe &ave already 1ecome t&e main force of t&e /D# microwave$ /D#
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minimi7ed split microwave systems are already 1eing applied in mo1ileE
emergent and metro networ=s$
1& Characteristics o3 Digital Radio Communication '(stem
.adio communication systemE especially t&e digital radio communication
systemE &as t&e following advantages:
Can 1e rapidly installed
Can use t&e e<isting networ= infrastructure repeatedly 8digital radio uses t&e
infrastructure of t&e analogue radio9
Can cross complicated terrains 8riversE la=es and mountains9
Can use point"to"point radio transmission structure in t&e remote mountains
Can rapidly restore t&e communication after t&e natural disasters
Can protect &y1rid multiple transmission media
:&ose advantages not only apply to t&e fi<ed nodes or temporary nodes and
feeder routes in t&e ur1an areasE 1ut also apply to very long long"distance
routes$
0or e<ampleE .ussian :elecommunications 1uild a very long long"distance
route 8totally more t&an *000 =m9 of /D# digital microwave radio"relay system$
:&is networ= uses t&e e<isting infrastructureE &ave total capacity of eig&t radio
fre4uency 8.09 c&annels 8si< primary c&annels and two protection c&annels9
and eac& c&annel carries 33 M1itHs$
5not&er e<ampleE Canada uses optical fi1er transmission system and radio
transmission system toget&er to constitute a transmission networ=E to
overcome t&e difficulties of geograp&ical conditions$
#ig& capa1ility /D# microwave circuit of C&ina s&ould 1e (ei;ing">uang7&ou
1ac=1one microwave circuit 1uilt in --*E w&ic& occupies two fre4uencies and
is configured in 2I2I8)L9 wit& a total transmission capacity up to !$* >1itHs$
In metropolises and ur1an areasE digital microwave is always considered as t&e
only optional means t&at can parallel optical ca1les in terms of 1uilding digital
nodes and distri1uting networ=s$ In factE it is very e<pensive to 1ury
underground ca1les in t&e metropolises and towns and it is unli=ely to get
approved to trenc& in downtown areasE particularly in t&e developed countries
suc& as +uropean countries and 5merica$ It is said t&atE in developed
countriesE *0MN-0Mof t&e transmission used for mo1ile coverage adopts
digital radio system$
In most parts of t&e worldE radio"relay lin=s may 1e t&e only availa1le &ig&"
capacity transmission medium in crossing t&ousands of miles of wood areasE
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mountainsE prairiesE desertsE wetlands and ot&er roug& areas$ 0urt&ermoreE for
t&e power consumption of radio"relay lin=s is very lowE solar power already
1ecomes a ma;or factor in suc& roug& areas using digital radio"relay systems$
0or t&e microwave circuit is unli=ely to 1e damaged 1y &uman activities and
natural disastersE t&ereforeE microwave system is an indispensa1le part to
constitute C&ina communication networ=s and ensure t&e security of
communication networ=s$
CurrentlyE microwave is still a most promising means of communications$ In
-)6 w&en t&e eart&4ua=e occurred in :angs&anE all t&e coa<ial ca1les
1etween (ei;ing and :ian;in were 1ro=enE 1ut t&e si< microwave c&annels were
free from any damage$ :&ereforeE if networ= planning is carefully and
reasona1ly carried out and proper information volume is used to cover t&e landE
radio"relay lin=s toget&er wit& ot&er modern transmission media can support
and supplement optical fi1er transmission networ=s$
Microwave yet &as some disadvantages$ In microwave transmissionE
Line"of"sig&t transmission conditions s&ould 1e ensured
:ransmission distance 1etween two stations s&ould 1e not too long
0re4uencies need to 1e applied for
Communication 4uality is greatly affected 1y t&e environment and
Communication capacity is limited
1, Challenges and Opportunities 3or Digital Microwave
Communication
1,1 Optical /i5er Communication92iggest Challenge 3or Digital
Microwave Communication
.ising of optical fi1er communication is t&e most scientific event in t&e
twentiet& century$ /ince t&e optical fi1er transmission t&eory is proposed in
-)0Gs and t&e optical fi1er is practically used in -*0GsE t&e optical fi1er
communication is greatly developed$ Due to its &uge 1andwidt&E minimum loss
and lowest costE optical fi1er communication 1ecomes a ma;or means of t&e
1ac=1one transmission and enormously impacts t&e digital microwave
communication$
Challenge 17 can the 5ac*5one digital microwave s(stems 5e used as
protection 3or 5ac*5one optical 3i5er s(stems:
/ince t&e 1eginning of --0GsE administration of telecommunications 1egins to
use &ig&"capacity optical fi1er systems as t&e ma;or transmission means of t&e
national information &ig&wayE w&ic& 1ecomes an overw&elming trend$ In t&e
middle and late --0GsE w&en C&ina administration of telecommunications
notes t&e &uge capacity of t&e optical fi1er communicationE it also o1serves t&e
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great influence of t&e optical fi1er systems on t&e telecommunication w&en t&e
systems are affected 1y natural disasters and &uman destructive acts$ :o
ensure t&e normal running of communicationsE a1out ten national 1ac=1one
/D# radio communication circuits are esta1lis&ed to protect t&e 1ac=1one
optical networ=s$ #oweverE in t&e twenty"first centuryE optical networ=s are
sufficiently 1uilt from west to east and from nort& to sout&E t&e previous
pro1lems of optical fi1er communication can 1e completely solved 1y
redundant circuitE and t&e significance of using digital microwave systems as
t&e protection of optical communications is reduced$
Challenge "7 can the capacit( o3 digital microwave s(stems 5e
increased:
:o increase t&e capacity of digital microwave systemsE microwave .DD
engineers adopts a series of advanced tec&nologies:
#ig&"status modulation demodulationE
6!B5MH2*B5MH236B5MH32B5M
CPIC2a cross"polari7ation interference counteract tec&nologyE w&ic& can
reali7e co"c&annel fre4uency multiple<$ :&enE t&e transmission capacity
can multiple under same radio"fre4uency 1andwidt&
%ew efficient correction coding tec&nologyE suc& as :CME MLCM and ./
5 series of anti"multi"fading tec&nologiesE suc& as fre4uency field
e4uali7ationE time field e4uali7ationE space diversity and all =inds of
diversity tec&nologies
Ot&er new tec&nologiesE suc& as 5:PCE transmitting power spectrum
molding tec&nology
It is said t&atE at t&e end of --0GsE some researc& institutes claimed t&at t&ey
already ac&ieved t&e tec&nology t&at under 2* M#7 c&annel 1andwidt&E using
&ig&"status modulation"demodulation 02!B5ME CPIC and ot&er advanced
tec&nologies to transmit /:M"! and ma=e t&e total transmission capacity up to
!$* >1itHs in 300 M#7 fre4uency 1and 8suc& as L6 >#7 fre4uency 1and9$
#oweverE due to many reasonsE t&is tec&nology is not commerciali7ed in use$
:&oug& capacity of !$* >1itHs of t&e microwave communication systems is very
remar=a1leE it is far less t&an t&e capacity of optical fi1er communications
w&ic& is up to do7ens of or even &undreds of >1itHs in a single fi1er$
1," Opportunities 3or Digital Microwave Communication
5s a radio transmission meansE digital microwave transmission &ave t&e
advantages t&at t&e optical fi1er cannot parallel in terms of fle<i1ilityE anti"
disaster and mo1ility$ 5t presentE t&e opportunities of digital microwave can 1e
included as follows: used as dedicated networ= or t&e 1ac=up and supplement
of t&e dedicated optical fi1er transmission$ C&ina dedicated networ=sE suc& as
1roadcast televisionE oilE natural gas pipeE coal and waterE do not need &ig&
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capa1ility transmissionE normallyE an /:M" or several /:M"s$ :&ose
networ=s are eit&er 1uilt wit& optical fi1er communication circuitsE or only 1uilt
wit& single"line optical fi1er communication lin=s$ :&ey do not &ave t&e
advantage li=e t&e telecommunication does w&ic& is 1uilt wit& sufficient optical
networ=s from west to east and nort& to sout&$ :&ereforeE t&ose networ=s must
1e 1uilt wit& /D# or PD# microwave circuits used
:o transmit data services and telegrap&y
5s t&e protection for t&e optical transmission systems in natural disasters
In some situations t&at t&e optical transmission systems are inapplica1le
In C&inaE 2 > and 2$3 > mo1ile communication stations use most PD#
microwave communication circuits$ 5long wit& t&e award of '> licenseE t&e
transmission capacity is to 1e e<panded$ In additionE participation of fi<ed
networ= operator may furt&er raise t&e fever of mo1ile coverage$ /ucceeding to
t&e optical fi1er transmissionE t&e digital microwave transmission is surely to 1e
in increasing demands and t&e /D# microwave may 1e in great demandE too$
,&en C&ina telecommunication productsE especially mo1ile communication
systems are e<panding to t&e oversea countriesE digital microwave
transmission products is also e<ported$
Ot&er met&ods of microwave communicationsE for e<ample:
89 Point to multi"point microwave communication system 8PMP9: it &as two
categories of user line type and relay line typeE t&e radio user loop in t&e
microwave fre4uency 1and can 1elong to t&e PMP$ PMP is mainly used in
remote areas suc& as countrysideE islandsE and dedicated communication
networ=s$
829 Microwave spreading data transmission systemE suc& as point"to"point
2$!>#7 spreading microwaveE point to multi"point 2$!>#7 spreading
microwave data networ=$
8'9 :emporary microwave communicationE w&ic& adopts upper fre4uency
1and point"to"point microwave communication system and can easily
settle 1urst matters in t&e communications$
8!9 Local multi"point distri1uted serviceE w&ic& wor=s at t&e fre4uency 1and
from 26 to 2* >#7 and can 1e used in t&e future wide1and services
accessE it is called wireless fi1er$
:&ose various microwave communication met&ods may last perpetually for
t&eir diversity and fle<i1ility$
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1- Microwave /re%uenc( 2and Choice and R/ Channel
Arrangements
0re4uency 1ands fre4uently used in microwave transmission include
)>H*>H>H'>H3>H*>H2'>H26>H'2>H'*> 8defined 1y .ec$ I:U".9$ +ac&
fre4uency 1and is used as follows:
0igure$2 t&e use of commom fre4uency 1and
89 0or long"distance PD# microwave circuit 8more t&an 3 =m9E use * >#7
fre4uency 1and$ If t&e distance is not more t&an 23 =mE use >#7$ C&oose
specific fre4uency 1and 1ased on t&e local weat&er condition and microwave
transmission cross section$
829 0or s&ort"distance PD% microwave circuit 8normally used in t&e access
layerE wit&in 0 =m9E consider using >#7E ' >#7E ! >#7E 3 >#7 and *
>#7$
8'9 0or long"distance /D# microwave circuit 8normally e<ceeding 3 =m9E use 3
>#7E 6 >#7E ) >#7 and * >#7$ If t&e distance is not more t&an 20 =mE
consider using >#7$ C&oose specific fre4uency 1and 1ased on t&e local
weat&er condition and microwave transmission cross section$
0re4uency 1ands )>E * >E >E '>E 3>E *>E 2'> are not contiguousE for
t&e microwave fre4uency resources are internationally defined and radar needs
to use some fre4uency 1ands$ :&e microwave used in transmission is a1ove
!>E 2> is used 1y mo1ile communication$ Microwave communications
previously use $3>E and later I:U": decides to allocate 2> to mo1ile
communication and -> to meteorologic radar$
.adio resources are restricted 1y t&e administrations 1ut t&e optical ca1le is
not$ Microwave fre4uency needs to 1e applied for 1ut it does not need to 1e
applied for in a certain period$ In t&e pastE $*> and 2$!> are used as
spreading fre4uencies suc& as microwave ovenE (luetoot&$ $* > and 2$! >
can 1e transmitted in t&e noiseE 1ut now t&e interference is too &eavy and 2$!
> cannot 1e randomly used$
In eac& fre4uency 1andE various fre4uency rangesE transmitting and receiving
8:H.9 spacing and c&annel spacing are defined$ :&e c&annel spacing is e4ual
to c&annel 1andwidt&$ In using a certain fre4uency 1andE t&ere are
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specifications for t&e center fre4uencyE :H. spacing and c&annel spacing$ 5nd
t&e specification can 1e loo=ed up in relevant fre4uency specifications$
0igure$' simple concepts of microwave fre4uency 1and arrangements
5fter deciding t&e microwave fre4uency 1andE configure t&e .0 c&annels$ :o
configure .0 c&annels is to su1divide t&e specific fre4uency 1andE to ma=e t&e
1ands adapt to fre4uency spectrum t&at t&e transmitter needs$ :&ose
su1divided fre4uency 1ands are called Oc&annelP$ %ormallyE any c&annel is
e<pressed 1y t&e center fre4uency it is configured and an ordinal num1er$ :&e
widt& of t&e c&annel is decided 1y t&e spectrum of t&e signals transmittedE t&at
isE t&e capacity and t&e modulation mode adopted$
In configuring .0 c&annelE following factors s&ould 1e considered:
89 Utmost economy and efficiency of t&e .0 fre4uency
829 +noug& spacing 1etween transmitting fre4uency and receiving fre4uency in
a microwave station to avoid serious interference generated 1y transmitter to
receiver
8'9 In multi"c&annel wor=ing systemE ad;acent c&annels must &ave enoug&
fre4uency spacing to avoid interference generated 1y eac& ot&er
8!9 +noug& guard 1ands s&ould 1e reserved at t&e edge of t&e distri1uted
fre4uency 1and to avoid generating interference wit& t&e system wor=ing on
t&e ad;acent fre4uency 1and
839 Most .0 c&annel arrangements are 1ased on t&e &omogeneous patterns
I:U". 0$)!6"' O.adio"0re4uency C&annel 5rrangements for .adio".elay
/ystemsP recommends t&at &omogeneous patterns are preferred as t&e 1asis
for radio"fre4uency c&annel arrangements$ %ormallyE t&e 1asic c&annel spacing
is 2$3 M#7 and '$3 M#7$ Digital microwave systems t&at adopt suc& c&annel
spacing support t&e 1it rate of 1ot& %ort& 5merica and +urope$ In t&e pattern of
'$3 M#7E it may 1e su1divided into $)3 M#7 spacing to meet t&e transmission
re4uirement of + and 2+ in t&e low capacity mo1ile coverage$
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10 Digital Microwave Communication '(stem Model
Digital microwave communication system model:
0igure $! Digital microwave communication system model
/ignal source of t&e transmit end is t&e e4uipment t&at provides original
signalsE it outputs digital signals$
C&annel coding is to improve t&e relia1ility of transmitting digital signals$ 0or
noise and interference may inevita1ly e<ist in t&e c&annelE t&e digital signals
transmitted may generate error 1it$ :o ma=e t&e code element automatically
c&ec=ed and corrected at t&e receive endE c&annel coder is used to add some
additional code elements to t&e input digital &ierarc&y 1ased on certain rulesE
and form new digital &ierarc&y$ 5t t&e receive endE signals are c&ec=ed 1ased
on t&e rules of t&e new digital code element &ierarc&y$
Modulation is to modulate t&e digital signals to t&e carrier of &ig&er fre4uencies
to ma=e it adapt to radio c&annel transmission$
0unctions of demodulation and c&annel decoding at t&e receive end are
opposite to t&at of modulation and c&annel code at t&e transmit end$
101 Modulation Method o3 Digital Microwave
Digital signal unmodulated is called digital 1ase1and signal$ 0or t&e 1ase1and
signal cannot 1e transmitted in t&e radio microwave c&annelsE it must 1e
converted to fre4uency 1and signalE t&at isE implement digital modulation to t&e
carrier 1ased on t&e 1ase1and signals$ 5fter t&e modulationE intermediate
fre4uency 8I09 signal is o1tained$ %ormallyE fre4uency of t&e upper I0 signal is
'30 M#7E and t&e lower !0M#7$ In some circumstancesE fre4uency of t&e
upper I0 signal is *30 M#7E and t&e lower )0 M#7$
:o transmit t&e signal 1y t&e microwaveE it s&ould 1e converted to .0 signals
1y t&e upconversion$ Upconversion is a process to mi< t&e I0 signals and a
&ig&"fre4uency local oscillation signal and t&en get t&e upper side1and signal
after t&e fre4uency mi<ing$ Down"conversion is a reverse process of t&e
upconversion wit& t&e same principleE 1ut it gets different com1ination of local
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oscillation signal and microwave signalE namelyE o1tains t&e lower side1and
signal after t&e fre4uency mi<ing$ /lig&t s&ift of local oscillation signal may
cause large fre4uency s&ift of t&e emitting signals and t&e receiving signals$
:&ereforeE t&eir fre4uency sta1ility is dependent on t&e fre4uency sta1ility of
t&e local oscillation signals$
0igure $3 Modulation process of digital microwave signal
Modulation process of digital 1ase1and signal can 1e simply e<pressed as
5mplitude s&ift =eying 85/@9: using digital 1ase1and signal to c&ange
carrier 5E ,c 5%D Q are not c&anged
0re4uency s&ift =eying 80/@9: using digital 1ase1and signal to c&ange
carrier ,cE 5 and Q are not c&anged
P&ase s&ift =eying 8P/@9: using digital 1ase1and signal to c&ange carrier
QE 5 and Q are not c&anged
Buadrature amplitude modulation 8B5M9: using digital 1ase1and signal to
c&ange carriers Q and 5E ,c is not c&anged
CurrentlyE P/@ is a critical modulation used in low and medium capacity radio
communication systems$ It &as 1etter anti"interference performance and is a
very simple modulation and cost"effective$ Current low and medium capacity
digital radio communication systems use 4uaternary p&ase s&ift =eying 8!P/@
or BP/@9 modulation$ :ypical manufacturers include %+CE +ricsson and %o=ia$
0/@ is also a critical modulation used in low and medium capacity radio
communication systems$ (ut its anti"interference performance and decoding
t&res&old is not 1etter t&an t&at of P/@E and it occupies larger c&annel
1andwidt&$ Current low and medium capacity digital radio communication
systems use 4uaternary 0/@ 8!0/@9 modulation$ :ypical manufacturers
include DMC and #arris$
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MB5M is a carrier =eying mode largely used in &ig& capacity digital radio
communication systems$ :&is mode &as &ig&er fre4uency spectrum utili7ation
and w&en t&e modulation of more t&an 1inaryE t&e signal vector set is
reasona1ly allocated and t&e mode can 1e easily carried out$
PD# microwave systems mainly use P/@E !P/@ 8!B5M9 and *P/@ and some
systems also use MB5M suc& as 6B5M$ /D# microwave systems typically
use MB5M 8usuallyE '2B5ME 6!B5ME 2*B5M and 32B5M9$ B5M
modulation &as &ig&er fre4uency 1and utili7ation$ ,aveforms of typical
modulations are as follows:
0igure $6 ,aveform of typical modulations
10" Channel ;tili<ation o3 $ach Modulation
C&annel utili7ation is typical concept used to compare t&e advantages and
disadvantages of eac& modulation$ C&annel utili7ation is defined as: t&e ratio of
signal 1ase1and 1andwidt& to transmission c&annel 1andwidt& 81itHsH#79$ 0or
1inary digital signalE t&e fre4uency 1and utili7ation of t&e 1ase1and
transmission c&annel is 20(H0(R281itHsH#79$
0or &ig&"fre4uency c&annelE O1ase1and signalP is dual"side1and signal t&at is
already modulated$
In practiceE for t&e 1ase1and transmission c&annel is not ideally rectangularE
t&e c&annel 1andwidt& s&ould 1e properly widenedE and t&e nominal digital
microwave c&annel utili7ation is smaller t&an t&e t&eoretical value$ 0ollowing is
t&e t&eoretical values of &ig&"fre4uency c&annel utili7ation of eac& modulation
and nominal digital microwave c&annel utili7ation$
:a1le $ .atio of c&annel utili7ation of typical modulations
!odlation modes "and#idth tili$ation of %ase%and
transmission channel
"and#idth tili$ation of high-
fre&ency channel
"and#idth tili$ation of nominal micro#a'e
channel
()S* 2 +1 +2
(,S* 2 1 2
8,S* 2 1.- 3
16,S* 2 2 (
16./! 2 2 (
6(./! 2 3 6
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1! Digital Microwave /rame 'tructure
In digital microwave systemE to transmit digital orderwireE wayside informationE
5:PC information correction 1itE c&annel switc&ingE some complementary 1its
s&ould 1e added to t&e main data flow from t&e /D# multiple<ing e4uipmentE
t&at isE radio frame complementary over&ead 8.0CO#9$
+ac& manufacturer arranges t&e frame structure 1ased on t&e transmission
rateE modulation and correction modes adopted and types of complementary
information neededE t&ereforeE t&e radio frame structure of e4uipment
manufactured 1y different manufacturers are different$ 0ollowing figure s&ows
t&e frame structure of e4uipment using multi"level coded modulation 8MLCM9
0igure $) .adio frame over&ead of e4uipment using MLCM
.0CO#: radio frame complementary over&ead
MLCM: multi"level coded modulation
DMJ: Dummy
,/: wayside services
CPIC: cross polari7ation interference counteract
./C: radio service
I%I: %: switc& instruction
ID: Idientificaiton
05: 0rame sync&roni7ation
5:PC: automatic transmitter power control
:otal rate of t&e supervision 1it t&at is added for multi"level code is $*! M1Hs$
:&e ,/ is '0 PCM telep&one c&annels and t&e nominal rate is 2$0!* M1Hs$ :o
use t&e same cloc= as t&e main data systemE 1efore t&e radio frame
multiple<ingE use positive ;ustification to ad;ust t&e nominal rate to 2$2! M1HsE
and t&en enter it to t&e microwave multiple<ing circuit$ :&ere are total '
c&annels of ./C and control signalsE eac& c&annel is 6! =1HsE total rate is *'2
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=1Hs$ Convert t&e rate to 1e *6! =1Hs and enter it to microwave multiple<ing
circuit$ :&e ' c&annels include two user c&annels w&ic& can transmit voice or
data signalsE t&e ot&er c&annels are au<iliary switc&ing signal: four c&annels
are used in main c&annel service switc&ing information and ot&er si< c&annels
are system monitor c&annels$ ID is used to separate different microwave
c&annels$
0igure $* Microwave frame w&en MLCM is used
:&e frame structure of /D# is a 1loc= 1y 1yte and it &as specific alignment$
Microwave frame is different from ot&ers for it is 1y 1it and its alignment is
determined 1ased on specific applications and wit&out any order$
I indicates information 1itE C and C2 indicate correction coding supervision 1it
of first level and second level$ 0/ indicates frame sync&roni7ation 1itE OaP and
O1P indicate ot&er complementary over&ead 1its$
1+ Conclusion
:&is c&apter e<plains t&e concepts of microwave and digital microwave
communicationsE t&e development course and features of microwave
communication$ It descri1es t&e current c&allenges and opportunities for
microwave communicationsE introduces t&e arrangements of microwave .0
c&annels and microwave modulationsE and e<plains t&e microwave frame
structure$
Have a thin*7
,&at do you learn in t&is c&apterS
1. What is the meaning of microwave?
2. What is digital microwave communication?
3. What are the challenges and opportunities for microwave
communication at the present?
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4. How to arrange the microwave RF channels?
5. What is the asic model of microwave communication?
!. What are the modulations of microwave?
". What is microwave frame li#e?
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" #ntroduction to Digital Microwave $%uipment
O1;ectives:
:o =now t&e classification of microwave e4uipment
:o understand rolesE constituents and performance inde<es of antenna and
feederE outdoor unit 8ODU9 and indoor unit 8IDU9 of split microwave e4uipment
:o learn split microwave e4uipment installation and antenna ad;ustment
:o &ave an overall idea of microwave e4uipment
"1 Digital Microwave $%uipment Classi3ication
(ased on different classification met&odsE t&e digital microwave e4uipment can
1e classified 1ased on t&e following modes:
:a1le 2$ Microwave e4uipment classification
+ode Digital microwave *nalogue microwave
!lti0le1ing mode ,23 S23
4liminated
ca0acity
251641
3(!
S6!-0
S6!-1
2 1 S6!-1
Strctre
/ll-indoor micro#a'e
S0lit micro#a'e
/ll-otdoor micro#a'e
CurrentlyE common classification met&od isE 1ased on structureE to classify t&e
microwave e4uipment into split microwaveE all"indoor microwave and all"
outdoor microwave$
5ll"indoor microwave is commonly called 1ig microwave$ Its .0 unit 8.0U9E
signal processing unit 8/PU9 and multiple<er reside indoorE only t&e antenna is
outdoor$ It &as a &ig& transmission capacity and is suita1le to 1ac=1one line
transmissionE 1ut its cost is &ig&$
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0igure 2$ 5ll"indoor microwave
5ll t&e units of all"outdoor microwave reside outdoor$ 5ll"outdoor microwave is
easy to install and saves e4uipment room space$ 0or it is outdoorE it is easily
damaged$
0igure 2$2 5ll"outdoor microwave
0igure 2$' /plit microwave
/plit microwave e4uipment consists of ODU and IDU$ :&e antenna and ODU
are connected 1y waveguide pipeE and t&e IDU and ODU are connected 1y I0
ca1le$ I0 ca1le is used to transmit t&e I0 service signals 1etween IDU and ODU
and t&e IDUHODU communication control signals and provides power to t&e
ODU$ /plit microwave e4uipment &as a low capacity and is easy to install and
maintain and availa1le in 4uic=ly 1uilding networ=s$ It is t&e most widely used
microwave e4uipment for t&e present$
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"" Microwave antenna and 3eeder
""1 Microwave antenna
:&e antenna is used to directionally radiate t&e microwave power emitted 1y
t&e transmitter ODU and transmit t&e microwave power received to t&e receiver
ODU$ Commonly used microwave antenna includes para1olic antenna and
cassegrain antenna$ :&e diameter of t&e microwave antenna is 0$'E 0$6E $2E
$*E 2$0E 2$!E '$0E '$2m$ :&ere are many types of antennas$ 5ntenna of
different diameters &as different specifications for different fre4uencies$
+ricsson Mini"lin= &as !6 types of antennas$
0igure2$! Para1olic antenna 0igure2$3 Cassegrain antenna
% c&annels in t&e same fre4uency 1and can s&are t&e same antenna$
0igure2$6 same antenna s&ares % c&annels
In a radio"relay systemE t&e re4uirements for t&e antenna are t&at t&e antenna
s&ould 1e &ig&ly efficientE t&e sidelo1e level s&ould 1e lowE cross"polari7ation
discrimination s&ould 1e &ig&E voltage standing wave ratio s&ould 1e low and
t&e wor=ing fre4uency 1and s&ould 1e wide$ :&e main parameters of t&e
antenna are as follows:
89 5ntenna gain
>ain is a ma;or parameter of t&e antenna$ ,&en t&e si7e of t&e antenna is
certainE t&e antenna gain directly reflects t&e efficiency of t&e antenna$
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:&e gain is t&e ratio of t&e input power Pio of isotropic antenna to t&e input
power Pi of t&e surface antenna w&en t&e surface antenna and isotropic
antenna produce t&e same electric field at t&e same place$
5ntenna gain of t&e microwave antenna is e<pressed 1y:
= =
2
D
P
P
G
i
io

In t&e formulaE D is t&e diameter of t&e para1olic antennaE
is t&e wor=ing
wavelengt&E
is a surface usa1ility coefficientE w&ic& is decided 1y t&e

antenna processing accuracy and t&e active lossE normallyE
ranges from
0$!3 to 0$6$ :&e gain given in t&e antenna inde<es is t&e ma<imum radiation
direction 8main lo1e9 gain and e<pressed 1y d($
> 8d(9 R0log>R0log T8UDHV9
2
IW
829 #alf"power angle 8' d( 1eam widt&9
Deviate to t&e two sides from t&e main slo1eE w&en t&e direction is deviated to
t&e point w&ere t&e power decreases &alfE t&e point is called t&e &alf"power
point$ 5nd t&e separation angle 1etween t&e two &alf"power points is &alf"
power angle$
#alf"power angle is e<pressed 1y:
D
$ "% & !5 '

% %
5 . %
=
0rom t&is formulaE you can see t&atE w&en t&e antenna diameter is certainE t&e
&ig&er t&e wor=ing fre4uency isE t&e smaller t&e &alf"power angle isE and t&e
&ig&er t&e power integration is$ ,&en t&e wor=ing fre4uency is certainE t&e
larger t&e antenna diameter isE t&e smaller t&e &alf"power angle is$
8'9 Cross"polari7ation discrimination 8CPD9
CPD isE for a radio wave transmitted wit& a given polari7ationE t&e ratio at t&e
reception point of t&e power received wit& t&e e<pected polari7ation to t&e
power received wit& t&e ort&ogonal polari7ation$ :&e CPD s&ould 1e &ig& to
suppress t&e interference from t&e ort&ogonal polari7ation signal$ #ig& capacity
radio"relay system 8/D# microwave system9 widely uses co"c&annel
ort&ogonal polari7ation fre4uency multiple<ing to improve communication
capacity and save fre4uencies and it &as strict re4uirement for t&e CPD 8suc&
as t&e CPD s&ould 1e larger t&an !0 d(9$
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CPDR0lgPoHP<
In t&e formulaE
O
%
p P is t&e receiving power to t&e normal polari7ation wave
O
x
p P is t&e receiving power to t&e a1normal polari7ation wave
In actual microwave circuitE due to multi"pat& propagation effect and rainE CPD
may degrade$ 0or fre4uency 1and lower t&an 0 >#7E t&e main cause to CPD
degradation is multi"pat& effect$ 0or t&e two ort&ogonal polari7ation signals
reac& at different angles in communicationE and t&e influence of t&e
geograp&ical and meteorologic conditions on t&e two ort&ogonal polari7ations
are not totally relevantE w&ic& cause t&e CPD to c&ange in actual practice$
+ven t&oug& t&ere is no fading or t&ere is up fadingE t&e CPD is tested to 1e
distri1uted logarit&mically and normally rat&er t&an a constant value$
8!9 5ntenna protection ratio
5ntenna protection ratio is t&e attenuation of t&e antenna reception capa1ility in
some direction to t&e antenna reception capa1ility in t&e main lo1e direction$
0or protection ratio of *0XE it is also called frontHrear ratio$ 5ntenna protection
ratio is an import inde< in t&e microwave communication$
839 Aoltage standing wave ratio
:&e connecting impedance 1etween t&e antenna and t&e feeder s&ould 1e
matc&ed and t&e voltage standing wave ratio at t&e input must 1e smaller$ :&e
standing wave ratio of normal antenna is 1etween $03 and $2$
""" Classi3ication o3 Microwave Antennas
(ased on installation met&odE microwave antenna can 1e classified as &anging
antenna and seating antenna$
(ased on electric featureE it can 1e classified as standard antenna and &ig&"
performance antenna$
:&e front and rear of t&e &ig&"performance antenna is larger t&an t&at of t&e
standard antenna wit& more t&an 0 d($
""& /eeder '(stem
0eeder system consists of t&e feeder connecting 1ranc&ing system to antennas
and t&e waveguide componentsE and it &as several installation met&ods$
CurrentlyE elliptical waveguide is commonly used$
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8a9 +lliptical waveguide 819 0le<i1le twist waveguide
0igure 2$) :ypical feeders
+lliptical waveguide &as lower loss in certain lengt& and is suita1le for long
feeders$ %ormallyE it is used in fre4uency 1and from 2 to >#7 and it is t&e
most typical microwave feeder$ %owE elliptical waveguide is widely used in
fre4uency 1and ranging from ! >#7 to 3 >#7 as t&e feeder for it ma=es t&e
layout and installation of t&e feeders easier$ :&e entire feeder system includes
elliptical waveguideE elliptical"rectangular converterE sealing section and air"
filled waveguide section$ :o protect feederE t&e feeder must 1e c&arged wit& dry
gas$ In installing t&e elliptical waveguideE you must follow t&e product
specificationF ot&erwiseE t&e standing wave ratio of t&e feeder mig&t 1e
affected$
0le<i1le twist waveguide is used to connect t&e ODU and t&e antenna$ It is
easy to install and can ensure t&e connection accuracyE and it &as function of
twisting$ :&e disadvantage of t&e fle<i1le twist waveguide is &uge loss$
Coa<ial ca1le &as &uge loss in certain lengt&$ It is 1etter to use t&e coa<ial
ca1le in occasion t&at t&e antenna is near t&e transceiver$ %ormallyE it is used
in t&e fre4uency 1and lower t&an 2 >#7$ currentlyE it is seldom used$
:&ere are two ways of connecting elliptical waveguide and 1ranc&ing system:
a9 ,aveguide: using &ard waveguideE + 1end and # 1end or fle<i1le
waveguide$
19 Coa<ial: using coa<ial ca1le
In additionE t&e access layer typically uses porta1le PD# and /D# microwave
systems and adopts indoorHoutdoor structure$ :&e indoor unit and t&e outdoor
unit 8transceiver9 are connected 1y I0 ca1le$ Outdoor unit and antenna are
connected 1y flange interface 8t&e feeder loss is reduced9 or fle<i1le waveguide
of 0$6N0$- m 8t&e cali1er is more t&an $2 m9$
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0ollowing figures s&ow &ow t&e PD#H/D# microwave antenna is connected to
t&e ODU 8transceiver9:
0igure 2$* 5ntenna connected to ODU
"", 2ranching '(stem
%ormallyE in microwave communicationE many c&annels s&are t&e same set of
an antenna and feeder systemE w&ic& needs 1ranc&ing system to separate
t&em$ :&e 1ranc&ing system consists of circulatorE 1ranc&ing filterE terminator
and connection waveguide$ :&e filter is installed in t&e rac=$
(ranc&ing filter consists of 1andpass filterE it only allow designed certain
fre4uency 1and to pass and t&e fre4uencies t&at outside t&e 1and cannot pass
t&e filter$ :&e terminator is used to a1sor1 t&e emitting wavesE and t&e loop
ma=es t&e signals progress in a certain direction$
"& Outdoor unit =OD;>
ODU is used to convert I0 and .0 signalsE process and amplify t&e .0 signals$
/pecification of t&e ODU is related to t&e .0 fre4uency and independent of t&e
transmission capacity$ 0or an ODU cannot cover a fre4uency 1andE normallyE a
fre4uency 1and can 1e su1divided into t&ree su1"1ands: 5E ( and C$ Different
su1"1and matc&es different ODU$ Different receivingHtransmitting spacing also
matc&es different ODU and different &ig&er"lower station matc&es different
ODU$ :&ereforeE ODU typesR 4uantity of t&e fre4uency 1and I 4uantity of
receivingHtransmitting spacing I 4uantity of su1"1and I2 8for different
manufacturersE different ODU wit& different capacities may &ave different
types9$ CurrentlyE ODU &as many types 1ut small 1atc&es$ /mall manufacturers
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produce ODU and larger manufacturers integrate ODU$ 0or specific functional
module structure inside ODUE see t&e following ta1le$
0igure2$- inner structure of ODU
In 0igure 2$-E ODU consists of transmitter and receiver w&ic& ac&ieve t&e
conversion from I0 to .0 and .0 to I0 respectively$
"&1 Constituents o3 Digital Microwave Transmitter and Ma6or Per3ormance
#nde4es
"&11 /unctions and constituents o3 transmitter
Main functions of transmitter are as follows:
89 >enerate proper local oscillation 8LO9 wit&in t&e .0 1and$
829 Use t&e local oscillation signal from t&e local oscillator to convert t&e
ad;usted I0 signal from t&e ad;uster to t&e re4uired fre4uency in
transmitting$
8'9 5c&ieve pre"distortion of I0 and .0 of signals to compensate t&e non"
linearity of .0 amplifier$
8!9 5c&ieve amplification of linear .0
839 Conduct .0 filter to eliminate useless fre4uencies 8&armonic mirroring
fre4uencyE local oscillator lea=ageE stray outcome9 to =eep t&e fre4uency
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spectrum wit&in re4uired frame$ In t&e 1ranc&ing systemE t&e local carrier is
com1ined wit& ot&er carriers toget&er and sent to t&e antenna$
0ollowing is t&e system frame of a typical microwave transmitter
0igure2$0 system frame of receiver
5fter 1eing amplified 1y t&e I0 amplifier of t&e transmitterE I0 ad;usted signal
from t&e ad;uster is transmitted to t&e transmitting fre4uency mi<erE and after
transmitting mi<ing fre4uencyE ad;usted I0 signal is converted to a fre4uency of
t&e .0 1and$ :o suppress local oscillator lea=age and stray outcomeE
e4uali7ation fre4uency mi<er is preferred in use$ Unilateral filter o1tains a
side1and after fre4uency mi<ing$ Microwave power amplifier is used to amplify
t&e signals wit& wea= level 8"'0 d(m to "30 d(m9 output 1y t&e transmitting
fre4uency mi<er to t&e re4uired level$ :ypical .0 power amplifier is >a5s 0+:
device$ 0or t&e /D# microwave system normally uses &ig&"status modulation
modeE it &as strict re4uirement for t&e linearity of t&e amplifier$ :ypical amplifier
wor=s at output power far lower t&an t&e compression point of d(E t&at isE
1ac=off measures s&ould 1e ta=en$ (ut if t&e 1ac=off 4uantity increasesE t&e
cost of t&e amplifier increasesE t&ereforeE pre"distortion is adopted to
compensate t&e residual non"linearity$ In normal transmission conditionsE 5:PC
is used to low t&e output powerE and t&en t&e power is amplified to t&e re4uired
transmitting power 1y microwave power amplifierE laterE t&e power is
transmitted to 1ranc&ing systemE antenna and feeder 1y t&e su1"c&annel filter$
./C is transmitted 1y multiple<ing modulation$
"&1" Ma6or Per3ormance #nde4es o3 the Transmitter
89 ,or=ing 0re4uency (and
CurrentlyE t&e wor=ing fre4uency 1ands mainly used in C&ina 1ac=1one
microwave system are ! and 6 >#7$ 0re4uency 1ands )E * and >#7 are
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mainly used in 1ranc& lines$ 0re4uency 1ands &ig&er t&an ' >#7 are mainly
used in access layer suc& as station access$
829 Output power
Output power refers to t&e power at t&e output port of t&e transmitterE ranging
from 3 to '0 d(m$
8'9 0re4uency sta1ility
+ac& c&annel of t&e transmitter &as nominal .0 center wor=ing fre4uency$ :&e
sta1ility of t&e wor=ing fre4uency depends on t&e fre4uency sta1ility of t&e
transmitting local oscillator$ If t&e wor=ing fre4uency of t&e transmitter is
unsta1leE and t&ere is offsetE t&e amplitude of t&e effective signal demodulated
may decreaseE and 1it error rate may increase$ CurrentlyE t&e local oscillator
fre4uency sta1ility of t&e microwave e4uipment is normally a1out 'N0 ppm$
8!9 :ransmitting fre4uency spectrum frame
/pectrum of signal transmitted must comply wit& certain limitations to prevent
over"wide 1andwidt& from 1eing occupiedE and t&en over"&ig& interference may
1e produced to t&e ad;acent c&annels$ :&e limitation range of t&e spectrum is
called fre4uency frame$
"&" Constituents and Ma6or #nde4es o3 Receiver
2.3.2.1 (onstituents of Receiver
:&e t&eory of receiver is: to use low"noise amplifier to amplify t&e .0 signal
from t&e antenna and convert .0 fre4uency as follows 1efore t&e
demodulation$ :&e system frame is s&own in 0igure 2$$
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0igure 2$ /ystem frame of receiver
Direct wave from t&e upper antenna and t&e lower antenna and t&e electric
wave t&at reac&es t&e receiving point 1y means of all pat&s pass two same
c&annels: 1andpass filterE low"noise amplifierE mirror"suppressing filterE
receiving fre4uency mi<ingE preset I0 amplifier and t&en t&ey are composed
and amplified 1y t&e I0 amplifier and t&en t&e I0 modulated signal is output$
In t&e receiver:
89 Use L5% wit& low noise coefficient to pre"amplify t&e .0 signals$
829 Use local oscillator to convert t&e .0 signals from t&e antenna via t&e
1ranc&ing filter components to I0 signals$
8'9 Use varia1le gain amplifier to amplify t&e I0 signals to maintain t&e level
unc&anged w&en t&e propagation fading c&anges$
0or most receiversE t&e gain is carried 1y t&e ma;or I0 amplifierE its varia1le
gain is used to compensate t&e .0 signal fading caused 1y propagation$ :&e
reason w&y I0 amplifier is set wit& automatic gain control circuit is to ma=e t&e
level of t&e signal t&at is transmitted to t&e modulator =eep unc&anged$ :&e
gain c&ange of amplifiers is ac&ieved 1y many levels$ :&e gain of t&ose levels
can vary wit& proper controlling voltageE w&ile t&e controlling voltage is t&e
function of t&e I0 signal amplitude at t&e output end of t&e amplifier$ In factE part
of input signals is led outE detected 1y t&e diodeE filtered 1y 5>C filter 8t&is filter
can prevent signals outside t&e usa1le spectrum from affecting t&e total
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fre4uency response of t&e amplifier9E after 1eing amplifiedE it is used as
controlling voltage of t&e varia1le gain section$ :&is met&od is to e<tract some
signals from t&e feed1ac= pat& and t&e middle layer to control t&e varia1le gain
and t&en to ma=e t&e I0 output level unc&anged$
8!9 I0 c&annel filter
"&"" Ma6or Per3ormance #nde4es o3 the Receiver
89 ,or=ing fre4uency
.eceiver and t&e transmitter cooperate in wor=$ 0or a regenerator sectionE t&e
transmitting fre4uency of t&e former microwave station is t&e receiving
fre4uency of t&e same c&annel of t&e local receiverE and use of t&e fre4uency
1and is t&e same as t&at of t&e transmitter$
829 0re4uency sta1ility of t&e receiving oscillator
.e4uirement for t&e fre4uency sta1ility of t&e receiving oscillator is consistent
wit& t&at of t&e transmitter$ %ormallyE it is 'N0 ppm$
8'9 %oise coefficient
:&e noise coefficient of digital microwave receiver is normally 2$3N3 d(E and it
is 3 d( less t&an t&at of t&e analogue receiver$
8!9 Pass1and
:o effectively suppress t&e interferenceE o1tain t&e 1est signal transmissionE
c&oose suita1le pass1and and t&e amplitude feature of t&e pass1and$ :&e
pass1and feature of receiver depends on I0 filter and t&e pass1and of normal
digital microwave e4uipment can 1e N2 times of transmission code element
rate$
839 /electivity
:o ensure t&at t&e receiver only accepts signals of local c&annelE t&e receiver
s&ould 1e a1le to suppress t&e interference of ot&er signals outside t&e
pass1andE especially to suppress t&e interference of t&e ad;acent c&annelsE
mirroring interferenceE and interference 1etween receiving and transmitting of
t&e receiver$
869 5utomatic gain control range
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On t&e 1asis of t&e received level under free space transmissionE w&en t&e
received level is &ig&er t&an t&e reference levelE it is called upward fadingE and
w&en it is lower t&an t&e reference levelE it is called downward fading$
/upposed t&e upward fading of t&e digital microwave system is L3 d( and t&e
downward fading is "!0 d(E t&at isE t&e fading &as a dynamic range of !3 d($
:&e re4uirement for automatic gain control is w&en t&e received level
undergoes variation wit&in t&is rangeF t&e rating output level of t&e receiver
does not c&ange$
", #ndoor ;nit
IDU performs t&e functions of service accessE service sc&edulingE multiple<ing
and modulation and demodulation$ It is t&e ma;or part of a microwave system$
If an I0 1oard is e4ual to t&e line 1oard of optical networ= e4uipmentE IDU is
similar to t&e 1o<"s&ape e4uipment of optical networ=$ It &as service 1oards
8/D+E /DE /L+E /LE P# and PO9E cross"connect 1oard 8PCC9 and /CC$
:&e structure of IDU internal function modules is s&own in figure 2$2$
0igure2$2 IDU internal structure
"- #nstallation and Ad6ustment o3 'plit Microwave '(stem
/plit microwave system can 1e divided into two parts: outdoor installation and
indoor installation$ Indoor installation is similar to t&at of 1o<"s&ape e4uipment$
:&is section descri1es outdoor installation w&ic& mainly consists of antenna
and ODU installation$ :&ere are two met&ods of outdoor installation: integrated
mounting and separate mounting$ Integrated mounting does not need feederE
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and it directly connects ODU to t&e antenna$ /eparate mounting uses feeder to
connect ODU to t&e antenna$ /ee figure 2$'$
0igure 2$' Outdoor installation
,&en t&e antenna is mountedE t&e =ey process is to ad;ust t&e directional
angle of t&e antenna$
0igure 2$! 5ntenna side view and top view
In t&e process of ad;usting t&e antennaE you may find voltage wave in figure
2$3E under t&is conditionE t&e point of t&e ma<imum voltage is t&e main lo1e
position of t&e pitc&ing or &ori7ontal direction$ :&en you need not ad;ust t&is
direction wit&in great e<tentE and you only need slig&tly ad;ust t&e antenna to
t&e point w&ere t&e voltage is &ig&est$ :&e met&od of ad;usting t&e pitc&ing
direction of t&e antenna is same as t&at of ad;usting &ori7ontal direction$ ,&en
t&e antenna is not accurately ad;ustedE you can only test lower voltage in a
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direction$ :&enE you need 1riefly ad;ust antennas of t&e two ends and ma=e
t&em leveled$
In t&e process of ad;usting t&e antennaE if you find t&e received signal indicates
t&e point of ma<imum voltageE t&at position is t&e main lo1e position of pitc&ing
or &ori7ontal direction$ $ :&en you need not ad;ust t&is direction wit&in great
e<tentE and you only need slig&tly ad;ust t&e antenna to t&e point w&ere t&e
voltage is &ig&est$ :&e met&od of ad;usting t&e pitc&ing direction of t&e antenna
is same as t&at of ad;usting &ori7ontal direction$ ,&en t&e antenna is not
accurately ad;ustedE you can only test lower voltage in a direction$ :&enE you
need 1riefly ad;ust antennas of t&e two ends and ma=e t&em roug&ly leveled
and t&en ad;ust t&em carefully$ :ypical errors occur in t&e process of antenna
ad;usting is s&own in figure 2$6E t&at isE t&e antenna is ad;usted to t&e side
lo1eE w&ic& ma=es t&e received signal level falling s&ort of t&e design inde<es$
Tips7
,&en antenna at two ends are leveledE t&ey may 1ecome sligtly upward and
N2 d( is wasted to prevent refraction interference$

0igure 2$3 Aoltage wave in ad;usting antenna 0igure 2$6 :ypical errors in ad;usting antenna
"0 Conclusion
:&is c&apter mainly descri1es digital microwave e4uipmentE and attac&es great
importance to e<plaining functions of eac& componentsE antenna and feeder
systemE constituents and performance inde<es of ODU and IDUE split
microwave system and antenna ad;ustment$
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Have a thin*:
89 :&e classification of microwave e4uipment
829 5ntenna and feeder system and 1ranc&ing system of split microwave
system
8'9 ODU constituentsE functions and performance inde<es of split microwave
system
8!9 IDU constituents of split microwave system
839 Installation and ad;ustment of split microwave system
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& Microwave '(stem )etwor*ing and Application
O1;ectives:
:o =now t&e typical networ=ing modes of microwave system
:o understand all types of stations of microwave system
:o learn classification of relay station
:o learn microwave application
&1 Microwave '(stem T(pical )etwor*ing Modes and
'tation T(pes
&11 T(pical )etwor*ing Modes
Microwave networ= is similar to t&e optical networ= in terms of structure$ :&e
1asic structure is s&own in figure '$$
0igure '$ Microwave typical networ=ing mode
&1" Microwave 'tation T(pes
(ased on station typesE t&e microwave station can 1e classified as:
:erminal station: stations located at two ends of t&e microwave lin=E t&e
communication is unidirectional and voice c&annels need to 1e addedHdropped$
.elay station: stations in t&e middle of any two stations of a microwave lin=E t&e
communication is to directions and t&e voice c&annels can 1e addedHdropped
81ase1and transfer9 or cannot 1e addedHdropped 8I0 or .0 transfer9$
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Pivotal station: t&e station located in t&e middle of t&e microwave lin=E t&e
communication is to more t&an t&ree directionsE and voice c&annels need to 1e
addedHdropped$
(ased on communication fre4uencyE stations can 1e classified as:
Upper station: station w&ere t&e receiving fre4uency is &ig&er t&an transmitting
fre4uency$
Lower station: station w&ere t&e receiving fre4uency is lower t&an transmitting
fre4uency$
O1viouslyE due to microwave fre4uency configurationE upper and lower stations
are arranged alternatively$ /ee figure '$2$
0igure'$2 microwave station types
&" Rela( 'tation
Microwave fre4uency 1and &as &ig&er fre4uencies$ :&e microwave 1eam is
transmitted along a straig&t line and it is incapa1le of diffraction w&en it
encounters o1stacles$ :&ereforeE t&ere s&ould 1e no o1stacles in t&e line"of"
sig&t range 1etween two communication points$ Ot&erwiseE a microwave relay
station s&ould 1e added at t&e o1stacle point or ot&er suita1le place to
communicate t&e two communication points$
Microwave relay station can 1e classified into two types: passive relay station
and active relay station$
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&"1 Passive Rela( 'tation
Passive relay station is li=e a 1eam diverterE it ma=es t&e microwave 1eam
surpass t&e o1stacle and form pat&$ :&ere are two models of passive relay
station: one model of station is formed 1y two 1ac="to"1ac= para1olic antennas
connected 1y a section of waveguideE t&e ot&er is one or two metal planes
w&ic& is smoot& to some e<tentE &as proper availa1le areaE and a suita1le
angle and distance for two communication points$
0igure'$' Passive relay station
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0igure'$! Dual para1olic antennas passive relay station
89 :&e received power can 1e e<pressed 1y:
P.RP:"L0
L0R LL L2L L'L L!L L3" >">2">'">!
In t&e formula:
P: is transmitting power
L0 is line net lossE t&at isE t&e net loss 1etween t&e transmitter and t&e receiver
0rom t&e formulaE to increase t&e received powerE t&e output power of t&e
transmitter and gains of t&e four microwave antennas s&ould 1e increased and
feeder losses and t&e free space loss 1etween two pat&s s&ould 1e reduced$
829 Met&ods to Increase P.
,&en t&e microwave e4uipment and t&e model are selectedE t&e output power
of microwave transmitter and t&e sensitivity of t&e receiver are fi<ed$ ,&en
relative location of t&e transmitting antenna and t&e transmitter and t&at of t&e
receiving antenna and t&e receiver are fi<edE t&e feeder loss L and L3 are
constant$ :&ereforeE to improve t&e received powerE you can only increase t&e
gains of t&e four para1olic antennasE reduce t&e free space loss and ma=e t&e
two para1olic antennas closer to reduce t&e feeder loss L'$
8'9 Para1olic antenna gain
Para1olic antenna gain can 1e e<pressed 1y:
>R20lgDL20lg0L)$*
In t&e formula:
D: diameter of t&e cali1er of t&e para1olic antenna 8m9
0: wor=ing fre4uency 8>#?9
>: antenna gain 8d(9
%ormallyE passive relay station uses large diameter para1olic antenna$ (ut if
t&e cali1er diameter of t&e para1olic antenna is enlarged unrestrainedE t&e
passive relay station may cost a lot and 1e difficult to install and erect$ 5t t&e
same timeE t&e &alf"power angle of t&e para1olic antenna 1eam may 1e smallE
t&e antenna installation may 1ecome complicated and t&e ad;ustment of t&e
antenna may 1e not accurate 8for t&e &alf"power angle of para1olic antenna
1eam is in reverse proportion to t&e diameter of t&e para1olic antenna9$
:&ereforeE ground microwave passive relay station is improper to use para1olic
antenna wit& too large diameter$
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0or passive relay stationE fading margin is not large and t&ere are four
antennasE t&e gain may1e 4uadrupled to affect t&e received power$
8!9 0ree space loss
0ree space loss of t&e pat& can 1e e<pressed 1y:
LR-2$!L20lgDL20lg0
In t&e formula:
L: free space loss 8d(9
0: wor=ing fre4uency 8>#?9
>: antenna gain 8d(9
0or communication line t&at &as passive relay stationE t&e total free space loss
is t&e sum of t&e free space loss from t&e passive relay station to t&e two
communication pointsE t&at isE LRL2LL!$ :&is means t&at t&e total free space
loss of t&e passive relay station is related to t&e relative position of t&e passive
relay station to t&e two communication points$ :&ereforeE to improve t&e
efficiency of t&e passive relay stationE t&e distance 1etween t&e passive relay
station and any of t&e two communication points s&ould 1e narrowed if
possi1le$ :&e closer t&e passive relay station ne<t to t&e communication pointE
t&e less t&e L2 or L! is$ :&e worst condition is t&at t&e passive relay station is
located in t&e rig&t middle of t&e two communication pointsE 1ecause t&e free
space loss is t&e ma<imum in t&is condition$
&"11 )lane antenna passive rela* station
5 metal plane t&at is smoot& to some e<tentE &as proper availa1le areaE and a
suita1le angle and distance to two communication pointsE is also a microwave
passive relay station$ :&e station uses t&e reflection function of t&e metal plane
to c&ange t&e propagation direction of t&e microwave 1eam and round t&e
o1stacle to ac&ieve communication$ :&e P. is calculated 1y t&e same formula
t&at is previously descri1ed in para1olic antenna passive relay station$
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&"1" (omparison etween two passive rela* stations+ paraolic
antenna and plane antenna
9 Plane antenna is more efficientE for t&e gain of t&e antenna is used two
times in receiving and transmitting$ :&is is a remar=a1le advantage of t&is
station$
29 Para1olic antenna passive relay station is easy to install and ad;ustF it
wor=s in a more sta1le way$ ,&ile t&e plane antenna passive relay stationE due
to large reflection areaE is of do7ens of s4uare metersE it is not easy to install
and ad;ust$ ,&en t&ere is a strong windE it may not wor= sta1ly$
'9 Para1olic antenna passive relay station is not limited 1y t&e separation
angle of t&e receiving and transmitting pat&s at t&e relay stationE w&ile t&e
plane antenna passive relay station is limited 1y t&is separation angle$ ,&en
t&e angle is more t&an 00XE two plane antennas are usedE w&ic& ma=es field
selectionE installation and ad;ustment more difficult$
!9 Para1olic antenna passive relay station can use polari7ation selector to
convert t&e &ori7ontal and vertical polari7ation waves transmitted from t&e
previous station at t&e relay stationE to reduce t&e fading caused 1y
propagation condition c&ange$ +specially w&en t&e passive relay station is
located on t&e straig&t line of t&e pat&E polari7ation conversion can reduce
multi"pat& fading of t&e pat&$
39 (ased on re4uirement of transmitting signals and suita1le terrain
conditionE t&ree para1olic antennas passive relay station can 1e 1uilt$ ,&ile t&e
plane antenna passive relay station cannot ac&ieve t&is$
69 In view of t&e costE dual para1olic antennas passive relay station cost less
t&an t&e plane antenna passive relay stationE especially muc& less t&an dual
plane antennas passive relay station$ Dual plane antennas passive relay
station &as strict re4uirements for t&e site locationE if it is adoptedE t&e wind
loading s&ould 1e consideredE and t&en investment needs to 1e increased to
ensure sta1le wor= of t&e dual plane antennas passive relay station$
&"" Active Rela( 'tation
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:&ere are two types of microwave active relay station: .0 direct station and
regenerative relay station$
3.2.2.1 RF ,irect -tation
.0 direct station is an activeE 1idirectionalE non"fre4uency"s&ift .0 relay
system$ 0or it amplifies signals directly on t&e .0E it is called .0 direct station$
It can 1e used as a relay station t&at needs not addHdrop voice c&annels in t&e
microwave system$ It can 1e used to solve t&e 1loc= pro1lem caused 1y
mountains and large 1uildingE and it can also 1e inserted in t&e newly 1uilt and
already esta1lis&ed microwave to increase fading margin$
.0 direct station is &ig&ly applica1le due to following c&aracteristics:
89 It &as large gains and good transmission performance$
829 It &as &ig& relia1ility and can cooperate wit& t&e terminal e4uipment of any
manufacturers$
8'9 It adopts many types of energy to supply powerE suc& as DCE 5CE solar
energyE wind and &eat$
8!9 It needs low cost and is fle<i1le in c&oosing sites$ %ormallyE .0 direct
station is installed in t&e outdoor stormproof 1o< and is attac&ed to iron tower
ne<t to t&e antenna to narrow t&e feeder line$ 0or .0 direct stationE e4uipment
roomE power line and railway are unnecessary$ Its total cost is 30M"*0M less
t&an t&at of t&e regenerative relay station$ In additionE w&en selecting t&e siteE
you only need to consider t&e optimal position for transmission wit&out worrying
a1out factors suc& as transportE power supply and so on$
839 It is easy to install and maintainE and e<pansion and fre4uency conversion
of t&e .0 direct station is very simple$
3.2.2.2 Regenerative Rela* -tation
.egenerative relay station is a &ig&"fre4uency repeater wit& &ig& performance$
.egenerative relay station is similar to 1ac="to"1ac= terminal stationE including
an entire set of .0 unit wit& regenerative microwave signals$ It can e<tend t&e
signal transmission pat& and c&ange transmission direction to round o1staclesE
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1ut it is incapa1le of addingHdropping voice c&annels$ It can 1e used to 1rea=
t&e distance limit of microwave transmission system or divert t&e transmission
direction to round line"of"sig&t o1staclesE and t&e signal 4uality is not degraded$
It receives signalsE fully regenerates and amplifies t&e signals and t&en
transmits t&e signals$
&& Digital Microwave Application
Microwave system is mainly used in t&e following scenarios:
Mo1ile 1ase station return transmission: after field mo1ile 1ase station receives
radio signalsE t&e signals need to 1e returned to (/C to enter into t&e core
networ= for transmissionE and t&is process is called Omo1ile 1ase station return
transmissionP$
/upplementary networ= of optical networ=: due to geograp&ical condition and
ot&er reasonsE it is difficult to lay fi1er ca1les 1etween optical networ= and
(/CE and t&en microwave transmission is needed$
Critical lin= 1ac=up: 1etween two ma;or transmission sitesE to reduce t&e impact
on t&e transmission to t&e minimum w&en t&e fi1er ca1les are 1ro=enE
microwave transmission is used as a 1ac=up for t&e optical transmission$
+nterprise private networ=: due to limitations of some special industriesE suc&
as oil transport pipe or t&e relay of t&e :A signals in t&e fieldE fi1er ca1les
cannot 1e laid due to certain limitationsE and t&en microwave transmission is
adopted$
AIP customer access: due to cost limitationE 1etween t&e #B of large
enterprises and t&eir su1sidiariesE fi1er ca1les cannot 1e laid in wide areaE and
t&en microwave transmission is adopted$
CurrentlyE microwave system is fre4uently used in mo1ile 1ase station return
transmission$ In t&e networ=ing of wide1and radio accessE t&e topology
structure s&ould 1e c&osen 1ased on actual re4uirements$ :opology structure
on t&e 1asis of PMP is traditional and fre4uently usedE and t&e networ= model
can 1e ring networ= w&ic& is similar to t&e optical ring networ=$ :opology
structure 1ased on :DMHIP is original and effective$ :&e two structures 1ot&
&ave t&eir advantages and &ave different application environmentsF t&ey can
supplement eac& ot&er$ Microwave ring networ= topology structure is also
called consecutive point topology structure$
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&, Conclusion
:&is c&apter mainly descri1es typical networ=ing modes of microwave systemsE
models of microwave stations and c&aracteristics of relay stationsE and t&e
application of t&e digital microwave systems$
#ave a t&in=:
89 %etwor= structures of digital microwave systems
829 Models of digital microwave stations
8'9 C&aracterstics of relay stations
8!9 5pplication of digital microwave systems
Jou s&ould pay more attention to t&e c&aracterstics of relay stations$
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, Microwave Propagation Theor(
O1;ectives:
:o understand microwave propagation in free space
:o =now t&e influence of ground reflection and troposp&ere on t&e electric wave
propagation
:o learn t&e fadings caused 1y aerial and ground effect
:o understand t&e impact caused 1y fadings and statistic features of fadings
Microwave communication is 1ased on t&e carrier of microwave and reali7ed
1y line"of"sig&t communication in t&e atmosp&ere$ :&e ma;or t&eory foundation
of microwave communication is electromagnetic propagationE w&ic& includes:
#uygens"0resnel t&eoryE concepts of 0resnel 7oneE interference and
polari7ation of electric wavesE co"oscillation and a1sorption of materials$ ,e
s&ould learn all t&ose t&eories first to fut&er study microwave communication$
,1 $lectric 8ave Propagation in /ree 'pace
,11 /ree 'pace
0ree space is also called ideal medium spaceE it e4uals to t&e ideal space in
vacuum status$ :&is space is full of &omogeneous and ideal mediumE for t&is
mediumE t&e conductance YR0E dielectric constant ZRZ0R0
"-
H'6U 0Hm and
magnetic capacity [R[0R!UI0
")
#Hm$ in t&is spaceE electric waves are not
affected 1y factors suc& as o1staclesE reflectionE diffractionE scattering and
a1sorption$
,1" Propagation Loss o3 $lectric 8aves in /ree 'pace
0or magnetic wave t&at propagates in free spaceE reflectionE diffractionE
a1sorption and scattering do not occur$ :&at isE t&e total energy is not lost$ (ut
w&en electric wave propagates in free spaceE it is attenuated for energy is
diffused to t&e spaceE li=es a single 1ul1 lig&ting in t&e airE t&e lig&t is
&omogeneously spreading aroundE and t&e place t&at is far away from t&e 1ul1
o1viously is of less energy$ :&e diffusion loss of electric wave is called free
space loss$ (ased on t&e energy"flu< density and antenna t&eoryE t&e
propagation loss of electric wave in free space is e<pressed 1y:
L/RPt H Pr R8!UdfHc9
2

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or L/ 8d(9 R20log8!UdfHc9
In t&e formula:
L/: free space loss 8d(9
d: distance from t&e emitting source of electric wave to t&e receiving point 8m9
f: wor=ing fre4uency of electric wave 8#79
c: speed of lig&t ' I0
*
8mHs9
If t&e unit of d is =m and t&at of f is >#7E t&e formula can 1e:
L/ 8d(9 R-2$!L20log dL20logf
," #n3luence o3 ?round Re3lection on the $lectric 8ave
Propagation
Due to different terrain conditionsE different relay sections &ave different
influence on electric wave$ Ma;or influences are reflectionE diffraction and
ground scattering$ 0or t&e ground scattering &as little influence on t&e main
wavesE it can 1e ignored$ :&e influence of reflection is t&at t&e ground can
reflect some of t&e signals from t&e antenna to t&e receiving antenna 8water
surface and smoot& ground &ave strong influence of reflection9E w&ic&
interferes t&e direct wavesE and at t&e receiving pointE vector of t&ese signals is
added to t&e vector of t&e direct wavesE as a resultE t&e receiving level
sometimes is more t&an t&e receiving level of t&e free space and sometimes is
less t&at t&e receiving level of t&e free space$
,"1 Concept o3 /resnel @one
,"11 Hu(gens./resnel Principle
#uygens formulates electro"magnetic wave c&aracter t&eoryE 1ased on
#uygensG t&eoryE 0resnel formulate t&e concept of 0resnel 7one w&ic& furt&er
e<plains t&e reflection and diffraction of electric waves and is proved in
practice$ :&e 1asic idea of #uygens principle is: lig&t and electric"magnetic
wave are 1ot& a =ind of oscillationE t&e medium around t&em are fle<i1leE and
t&ereforeE t&e oscillation of a point can 1e transmitted to t&e ad;acent particle
and spread aroundE and t&en it 1ecomes t&e wave t&at is transmitted in t&e
medium$ :&ereforeE it can 1e considered t&at t&e oscillation of a point source is
transmitted to t&e ad;acent particles and forms secondary wave source and
t&en tertiary wave source and so on$ If t&e wave transmitted 1y t&e point
source is sp&erical waveE t&en t&e wave 1efore t&e secondary wave formed 1y
t&e point source is sp&erical wave and t&at 1efore t&e tertiary wave is also
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sp&erical waveE and t&e ot&er is 1y analogy$ In microwave communicationE
w&en t&e si7e of transmitting antenna is less t&an t&e microwave relay
distanceE t&e transmitting antenna can 1e considered to 1e a point source$
,"1" /resnel $llipsoid
/upposedE for a microwave relay sectionE t&e transmitting point is : and t&e
receiving point is . and t&e distance 1etween stations is dE if on a flat surfaceE
t&e distance from a moving point P to two fi<ed points 8: and .9 is a constantE
t&e trac= of t&is point is an ellipse$ 5nd in t&e spaceE t&e trac= of t&is point is a
rotary ellipsoid$ In electric wave propagationE w&en t&e constant is dLVH2E t&e
ellipsoid o1tained is called first 0resnel ellipsoidE and w&en t&e constant is
dL2VH2E t&e ellipsoid o1tained is called second 0resnel ellipsoid$$$E w&en t&e
constant is dL%VH2E t&e ellipsoid o1tained is called %um1er % 0resnel ellipsoid$
,"1& /resnel @one
If t&e 0resnel ellipsoid intersect wit& t&e waves transmitted from : or .E on t&e
intersect interfaceE a series of circles and rings can 1e o1tained and t&e center
is a circle w&ic& is called t&e first 0resnel 7oneE t&e annulus 8e<ternal circle
minus internal circle9 ne<t to t&e first 0resnel 7one is called second 0resnel
7one and ot&ers 1y analogy$ :&ese rings and circles can 1e appro<imately
considered as plane area grap&ics t&at are vertical to t&e ground and t&e ray
1etween : and .$ In practiceE t&e influence of 0resnel 7one on t&e pro;ect can
1e ignored$
,"1, /resnel @one Diameter
:&e distance from any point on t&e 0resnel 7one to t&e lin= 1etween . and : is
called 0resnel diameter and is represented 1y 0$ w&en t&e point is on t&e first
0resnel 7oneE t&e diameter is called t&e first 0resnel 7one diameter$
0igure!$ 0irst 0resnel 7one diameter
(ased on definitions of 0resnel ellipsoid and 0resnel 7oneE t&e firstE second\
and num1er % 0resnel 7one diameter can 1e appro<imately e<pressed 1y:
02R 82Vdd2Hd9
H2
R 829
H2
0
0R 8Vdd2Hd9
H2

$$$
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0nR 8nVdd2Hd9 H2 R 8n9H2 0
In t&e formula:
:&e meanings of F1, E d1, d2, d are as previously e<plainedE and unit of F1, is
m and t&e unit of d1, d2, d is =m$
,"1- Relationship 5etween /ield strength o3 Receiving Point and
$nerg( o3 $ach /resnel @one
(ased on analysisE p&ases of field strengt& produced 1y ad;acent 0resnel
7ones in t&e receiving point . are opposite$ :&at isE t&e field strengt& produced
1y t&e second 0resnel 7one is opposite to t&at produced 1y t&e first 0resnelE
and t&e field strengt& produced 1y t&e t&ird 0resnel 7one is opposite to t&at
produced 1y t&e second 0resnel$
:a=e t&e first 0resnel 7one as a referenceE t&e field strengt& produced 1y t&e
7one wit& odd num1er ma=es t&e field strengt& of t&e receiving point
strengt&enedE and t&at produced in 1y t&e 7one wit& even num1er ma=es t&e
field strengt& wea=ened$ 0ield strengt& of t&e receiving point is sum of t&e
vectors of t&e field strengt& of eac& 0resnel 7one at t&e receiving point$ In
practiceE for t&e slant of eac& 0resnel 7one to t&e receiving point is differentE
t&us 0resnel 7ones interfere wit& eac& ot&er$ :&e result of t&e vectors
overlapped toget&er is: t&e field strengt& of t&e receiving point w&ic& is
o1tained from all t&e 0resnel 7ones in t&e free space is appro<imately e4ual to
t&e field strengt& produced 1y t&e first 0resnel 7one at t&is point in t&e space$
,"" #n3luence o3 ?round Re3lection on Receiving Level
:o ma=e e<planation more simple and easy to understandE t&e conve< of t&e
eart& is ignoredE t&at isE distance 1etween stations is considered to 1e s&ort
and t&e ground is wit& little fluctuation$
,""1 Clearance
5ctual microwave propagation may 1e 1loc=ed 1y 1uildingsE trees and
mountains$ If o1stacles are &ig& enoug& to enter t&e first 0resnel 7oneE
additional loss is caused and t&e receiving level decreasesE and t&en t&e
transmission 4uality is affected$ :o avoid t&e p&enomenonE t&e clearance is
introduced$
:&e vertical distance from t&e o1stacle to line section AB is called clearance of
t&e o1stacle in t&e pat&E and line section hc t&at is vertical to t&e ground is
used to indicate t&e clearanceE see figure !$2$ If t&e first 0resnel diameter of
t&is point is 0E hc/F1 is t&e relative clearance of t&is point$
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0igure!$2 Definition of clearance2sc&ematic
,""" Loss caused 5( Ani3e.edge O5stacles on the Path
In actual microwave pro;ectE =nife"edge o1stacles always 1loc= t&e
transmission pat&$ :&e =nife"edge o1stacles cannot 1loc= all t&e 0resnel
7onesE at t&e receiving pointE t&ere is only partial 0resnel 7one energy is
diffracted and ma=e t&e receiving point &ave somew&at level$ :&e level must
1e lower t&an t&at in t&e free space$ Loss caused 1y t&e =nife"edge o1stacles
is called additional loss$ ,&en t&e pea= of t&e o1stacle ;ust falls down on t&e
lin= 1etween t&e transmitting and receiving pointsE t&at isE # CR0E t&e additional
loss is 6 d($ ,&en t&e pea= of t&e o1stacle surpasses t&e lin= 1etween t&e two
pointsE t&e additional loss may rapidly increase$ ,&en t&e pea= of t&e o1stacle
is 1elow t&e lin= 1etween t&e two pointsE additional loss may vary slig&tly
around 0 d(E at t&is timeE t&e transmission loss 8or receiving level9 on t&e pat&
is close to t&at of t&e free space$
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0igure!$' Loss caused 1y =nife"edge o1stacle
,""& Re3lection o3 /lat Terrain to $lectric 8aves
0lat terrain indicates t&at t&e eart& curvature is not considered and t&e terrain
1etween two points is considered to 1e flat$ In actual microwave
communication pro;ect linesE t&e receiving and transmitting antennas are
leveled to ma=e t&e receive end receive stronger direct waves$ (ut 1ased on
t&e #uygens t&eoryE some electric waves are always sent to t&e groundE
t&ereforeE at t&e receiving pointE 1esides t&e direct wavesE t&ere are reflected
waves reflected 1y t&e ground and meeting t&e reflection conditions 8angle of
arrival e4uals to angle of reflection9$ ,e can use t&e following geometrical
relations&ip to deduce t&e e<pression of virtual value of t&e composite field
strengt&$
If: transient value of field strengt& of direct wave is e<pressed 1y:
eR2
H2
+0cos]t
:ransient value of field strengt& of reflected wave is e<pressed 1y:
e2R2
H2
+0^cos 8]t"_"2U 8r2"r9 H29
In t&e two formulas:
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e1, e2 are t&e transient values of field strengt& of direct wave and reflected
wave respectively$
E0 is t&e effective wave of t&e field strengt& of waves propagates in free space$
is t&e modulus of reflectance$
is t&e p&ase angle of reflectance 8w&en t&e angle of arrival formed 1y t&e
incoming wave and t&e ground are smallE _ is close to *0X9
r2-r1 is t&e progressive error of t&e field strengt& of reflected wave and t&e direct
wave$
(u deductionE t&e effective value of composite field strengt& is:
+R8+02L+02^2L2 +02^CO/ 8_L2U 8r2"r9 HV9 9 H2
R+0 8L^2N2^CO/ 8_L2U 8r2"r9 HV9 9 H2
:&e ratio of composite field strengt& E to t&e field strengt& of free space is
called fading factor V w&en t&e ground influence is considered$ :&e V is
e<pressed 1y:
AR+H+0
R 8L^
2
N2^CO/ 8_L2U 8r2"r9 HV9 9
H2

+<pressed in d(:
A d(R20logA
,&en t&e ground influence is consideredE t&e actual receiving level is:
P. 8d(m9 RP.0 8d(m9 LA d(
0igure!$! Influence of terrain on electric waves
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,"", ;sing /resnel <one concept to anal(<e the in3luence o3
ground re3lection
,&en section distance d is longer t&an antenna &eig&t 8& and &29E t&e
progressive error of direct wave and ground reflection wave can 1e
appro<imately e<pressed 1y:
rRV 8#cH09
2
H2
,&en in figure!$' is very small 8t&at isE _ is close to *0X9E following
e<pression can 1e o1tained
AR TL^2L2^CO/ 8U 8&cH09 2`H2
:&is e<pression indicates t&e 4uantitative relations&ip 1etween fading factor A
and relative clearance &cH0$ In engineeringE curve indicating t&e relations&ip
1etween A and &cH0 is made to simplify t&e calculation of t&e additional loss
caused 1y ground reflection$
is related to ground conditionsE see figure!$3$
0igure!$3 .elation 1etween Ad( and &cH0
In t&e figureE Oreflection lossP indicates t&at compared wit& incoming waveE t&e
level t&at reflected wave attenuatesF it is e4ual to 20LO> and different from t&e
fading factor in terms of concept$
In figure!$3:
If ^RE t&e ground influence is consideredE w&en t&e receiving level e4uals to
t&e level of free space for t&e first timeE #cH0R0$3))$
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If âE w&en t&e receiving level e4uals to t&e level of free space for t&e first
timeE #cH0R0$3))
,&en #cH0R0$3))E t&e clearance is called free space clearance w&ic& is
represented 1y #0$
It is e<pressed 1y:
#0R0$3))0R 8Vdd2Hd9 H2
,""- Classi3ication o3 Microwave Lines
%ormallyE in t&e line"of"sig&t microwave communicationE 1ased on t&e
clearance hc of relay linesE t&e relay lines can 1e classified into t&ree
categories:
If &cb&0E it is called open line
If 0a&c a&0E it is called &alf open line
If &cc0E it is called closed line
Corresponding to t&e previous t&ree conditionsE t&e calculation met&od of
fading factor V is:
Open line: for roug& calculationE refer to figure!$3
0or =nife"edge o1staclesE refer to figure!$3$
0or &alf"open and closed line s caused 1y large &ig&landsE mountainsE t&e
fading factor can 1e c&ec=ed out in figure!$3 or calculated 1y diffraction
e<pression$ Under condition of suc& linesE electric wave reac&es t&e receiving
point in t&e way of diffraction$ (ased on relevant t&eoryE appro<imate diffraction
e<pression can 1e o1tained$ :&ere are t&ree conditions:
5E w&en &cR&0R0$3))0E ARE or Ad(R0F
(E w&en &cR0E for =nife"edge o1stacles: Ad(R"6d(F
0or large"si7e o1stacles: Ad( a"6d(E 1ased on e<pression C$
CE w&en &c a&0E Ad(R A0d( 8"&cH&09
In t&e formulas:
VdB is t&e fading factor w&en diffraction is considered$
h0 is free space clearance$ &0R0$3))0
hc is clearance of t&e main ray of relay circuit 8m9
V0dB is t&e level value of fading factor w&en t&e free space clearance is &cR0$ It
is calculated 1y parameter [ t&at reflects t&e o1stacle terrain$
[R2$02T@8"@9HL`
2H'

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In t&e formula:
@RdHd
L is t&e lin= t&at parallel to t&e .:E draw tangent and secant lines over t&e
o1stacles 1ased on 8Vd9
H2
H2E t&e widt& of o1stacles can 1e o1tained$
0or cross"section diagram of calculating terrain parameter [E see figure !$6$
0igure!$6 Curve of determining terrain parameter [
:&e relation 1etween A0d( and [ is s&own in figure!$)$
0igure!$) Curve indicating relation of A0d( and [
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,& #n3luence o3 Troposphere on $lectric 8ave
:&e most distinct influence of troposp&ere on t&e electric wave is t&e influence
of atmosp&eric refraction on t&e electric wave propagation$
,&1 Ra( 2end in Atmosphere
:&e propagation speed of electric wave in t&e free space is:
dRcRH8[0Z09
H2
R'I0
*
8mHs9
In actual atmosp&ereE dielectric coefficient ZRZ0eZ
G
E [R[0E t&us t&e velocity t&at
electric wave propagates in atmosp&ere is:
dRH8[0Z0 Z
G
9
H2
R cH8Z
G
9
H2

In t&e formula: Z
G
is called relative dielectric coefficient$
/upposed t&e diffraction of atmosp&ere is nE it is t&e velocity t&at electric wave
propagates in t&e free space to t&e velocity t&at electric wave propagates in
atmosp&ere$
nRcHdR8Z
G
9
H2
Indicated 1y reflection e<ponent %:
%R 8n"9 I 0
6
In free spaceE %R0$ On t&e surface of t&e groundE %R'00$ n is normally
1etween $0 and $000!3$
In atmosp&ereE in different &eig&tsE influenced 1y different pressureE
temperatureE and moistureE t&e atmosp&ere may vary$ :&is variation is
e<pressed 1y dnHd&$ /ee figure!$*$
0igure!$* variation of electric wave trac= influenced 1y atmosp&ere
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,&en dnHd& a0E n is in reverse ratio to h in variationE w&ic& ma=es electric
transmitting ray 1end down$
,&" Concept o3 $%uivalent $arth Radius
:o analy7e influence on electric wave transmissionE t&e concept of e4uivalent
radius is introduced$ 5fter t&e concept is introducedE t&e electric wave is always
considered to 1e a straig&t line and t&e actual radius of t&e eart& is e4uivalent
to ae$ +4uivalent rule is t&at t&e clearance 1etween t&e ray and t&e eart& is
unc&anged 1efore and after t&e e4uivalence$ /ee figure!$-$
0igure!$- Conditions after and 1efore t&e e4uivalence2sc&ematic
@ is defined as e4uivalent eart& radius coefficient: @R aeHa
In t&e formulaE aR6')0 =m
:&e relations&ip 1etween K and t&e inde< of refraction is:
@RH8La dnHd&9
K is a very important concept in microwave engineeringE it must 1e considered$
,&& Re3raction can 5e classi3ied into three categories 5ased on the A
value
89 .on/refraction+ dn0dh1%2 and #11 or a1a
e
829 .egative refraction+ dn0dh 3%2 and # 41 or a3a
e
5 the ending
direction of the electric wave ra* is opposite to that of the earth
8'9 )ositive refraction+ dn0dh 4 %2 and # 3 1 or a 4a
e
5 the ending
direction of the electric wave ra* is same as that of the earth
(ased on a large amount of test resultE t&e refracting inde< gradient is: dnHd&R"
H!a
5nd t&enE
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=RH8La8"H!a99R!H'
In temperate regionE w&en @R!H'E t&e refraction is standard refractionE and t&e
atmosp&ere is called standard atmosp&eric pressure$ aeR!aH' is called
standard e4uivalent eart& radius$
5t e4uatorE standard e4uivalent eart& radius is aeR 8!H'N'H29aF
0igure!$0 Classification of refraction2sc&ematic
In engineering calculationE C&ina uses @standardR!H'E @negative refractionR2H'$ ,&en
inter"station interference is consideredE @R fE t&at isE influence of eart& 1ulge
on t&e electric wave propagation is not considered$
,&, The Meaning o3 A Balue in $ngineering Design
In engineeringE to ma=e clearance more economical and rational in useE you
s&ould control t&e antenna &eig&t 1ased on t&e following re4uirements$
89 67%.55 that is5 for circuits that have small earth reflectance5 such as
mountains5 cities5 hill* grounds5 to avoid over large diffraction5
control the antenna height ased on the following standards.
,&en @R2H'E &c b 0$'0 8for general o1stacles9
&c b 0 8for =nife"edge o1stacles9
In t&is situationE diffraction fading produced is not more t&an * d($
829 63 %."5 that is5 for circuits that have large earth reflectance5 such as
flat5 water reticulation area5 to avoid over large reflection fading5
control the antenna height ased on the following standards.
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,&en @R2H'E &c b 0$'0 8for general o1stacles9
&c b 0 8for =nife"edge o1stacles9
,&en @R!H'E &c g 0
,&en @RfE &c c$'3 0 8for w&en t&e clearance is 2
H2
0E deep fading
may appear9
If t&ose re4uirements cannot 1e metE c&ange t&e antenna &eig&t or c&ange t&e
route$
,, /ading caused 5( 'everal Atmospheric and $arth $33ects
Microwave propagation must adopt direct wave and t&e field strengt&s of t&e
receiving point is overlap of t&e direct space wave and eart& reflected wave$
Propagation medium is t&e low"altitude aerosp&ere and eart& and o1;ects in
t&e route$ ,&en t&e time 8seasonE day and nig&t9 and weat&er 8rainE fog and
snow9 varyE atmosp&eric temperatureE refraction and pressureE eart& reflecting
point and reflectance also c&ange$ :&is causes t&e field strengt& of t&e
receiving point to c&ange$ :&e p&enomenon is called electric wave propagation
fading$ O1viouslyE fading is very random$
:&e degree of fading is indicated 1y fading factor and fading reason attri1utes
t&e eart& and ground effect$
,,1 /ading T(pes
,,11 /ast /ading and 'low /ading
0ading can 1e classified into slow fading and fast fading 1ased on t&e duration$
Long"duration fading is called slow fading and t&e duration is from several
minutes to several &ours$ /&ort"duration fading is called slow fading and t&e
duration is from several seconds to several minutes$ /low fading varies slowlyE
it is slowly formed and t&en slowly disappearsE and it is always caused 1y
atmosp&eric refraction c&anging slowly in a wide area$ 0or in a wide area 8suc&
as a section of relay circuit9E atmosp&eric refraction 1ecomes 1ad and recovers
in a relatively long timeE and t&en slow fading is formed$ 0ast fading is closely
related to multi"pat& propagation caused 1y t&in layer in t&e atmosp&eric
waveguide and tur1ulent current$ In t&e range of microwaveE if t&e pat&s of
eac& ray in t&e previous multi"pat& propagation varyE t&e composite signals of
t&e rays at t&e receiving point may vary and t&en fast fading is formed$
,,1" ;pward /ading and ;pward /ading
0ading can 1e classified 1ased on t&e field strengt& of t&e receiving point$
,&en t&e received level is &ig&er t&an t&e free space levelE it is called upward
fadingE and w&en it is lower t&an t&e free space levelE it is called downward
fading
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,,1& 2lin*ing /ading and Multi.path /ading
In engineeringE fading is always classified into 1lin=ing fading and multi"pat&
fading 1ased on t&e p&ysical causes of fading$
(lin=ing fading is mainly caused 1y local slig&t distur1ance in atmosp&ere
resulting in electric wave 1eam scattering$ +ac& scattering wave &as small
amplitude and t&e p&ase varies along wit& t&e atmosp&ere$ 5s a resultE t&e
composite amplitude at t&e receiving point is very small and does affect t&e
main waves$ :&ereforeE t&is fading seldom affects t&e sta1ility of t&e line"of"
sig&t radio"relay circuits$
Multi"pat& is mainly caused 1y multi"pat& propagationE and it is t&e ma;or cause
of t&e deep fading of line"of"sig&t propagation c&annels$
0or 1ot& analogue microwave and digital microwaveE multi"pat& propagation
o1;ectively e<ists and affects microwave$ (ut digital microwave is more
sensitive to multi"pat& propagation t&an analogue microwave$ Multi"pat&
propagation is descri1ed in t&e following section$
Multi"pat& propagation is a =ind of propagation p&enomenon t&at w&en t&e
electric wave leaves transmitting antennaE it arrives at t&e receiving antenna
t&roug& more t&an two different pat&s$ :&ere are many reasons for multi"pat&
propagationE for e<ampleE on t&e pat& w&ere t&ere is eart& reflectionE in
addition to receiving t&e direct space wave from transmitting antennaE t&e
receiving antenna also receives reflected waves from t&e ground$ In additionE
under certain weat&er conditionsE t&ere are various non"&omogeneous o1;ects
in t&e atmosp&ere$ 0or e<ampleE atmosp&eric waveguide or reflectionE
refracted waves received 1y receiving antennaE t&ose are t&e causes of multi"
pat& propagation$
In multi"pat& propagationE electric wave is transmitted to t&e receiving point
along many pat&s$ 0or non"&omogeneous positionsE interfaces and si7es are
randomF t&ere is p&ase variance 1etween eac& electric wave caused 1y
progressive errorE and t&e amplitude error caused 1y different reflection
conditions is also random$ :&ereforeE t&e composite interference field at t&e
receiving point greatly c&angesE and t&is is multi"pat& fading$ In t&e microwave
fre4uency 1andE for t&e wavelengt& is very s&ortE t&e p&ase variance
2
caused 1y progressive error c&anges greatlyE t&us multi"pat& fading is very
remar=a1le in t&is fre4uency 1and$
,," #n3luence o3 Troposphere on $lectric 8ave Propagation
0rom t&e groundE upwardlyE atmosp&ere can 1e divided into si< layers in order:
troposp&ereE stratosp&ereE mesosp&ereE t&ermosp&ereE ionosp&ereE and
e<osp&ere$ :roposp&ere is low"altitude atmosp&ere ranging from t&e ground to
0 =ilometers &ig&er upward$ Microwave communication wor=s in t&is layer$
:roposp&ere gat&ers 'H! mass of t&e entire atmosp&ere$ ,&en t&e ground is
e<posed to t&e sunE t&e ground temperature increasesE and &eat emitted from
t&e ground ma=e t&e low"temperature atmosp&ere inflatedE w&ic& causes t&e
atmosp&eric density non"&omogeneousE and t&en convection current is formedE
t&us t&is layer is called troposp&ere$ :&e influence of troposp&ere on t&e
electric wave &as following types:
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,,"1 Atmosphere A5sorption Loss
Molecule of any material is constituted 1y c&arged particles$ :&ose particles
&ave constant electro"magnetic resonance fre4uency$ ,&en t&e microwave
fre4uency of t&ese materials is close to t&eir resonance fre4uencyE t&ose
materials a1sor1 microwave resonantly$ O<ygen molecule 8O29 in t&e
atmosp&ere &as magnetic"coupling polar and vapor 8#2O9 &as electric"coupling
polarE t&ey can a1sor1 energy from electromagnetic waves and t&en a1sorption
loss is caused$
:&e ma<imum a1sorption pea= of vapor is at
$ 2 . 22 ' 3 . 1 GHz f cm = =
E
and t&at of o<ygen is at
$ 5" ' 5" . % GHz f cm = =
$
0ollowing figure s&ows t&e a1sorption loss of electromagnetic waves caused
1y atmosp&ere$

0igure!$ 51sorption of vapor and o<ygen
:&e curve in t&e figure s&owsE w&en t&e microwave fre4uency is 2 >#7
8wavelengt& is 2$3 cm9E a1sorption loss of t&e atmosp&ere is a1out 0$02 d(H=m$
if t&e microwave station distance is 30 =mE t&e attenuation of a relay section is
$0 d($ :&ereforeE w&en microwave fre4uency is less t&an 2 >#7E compared
wit& free space propagation lossE t&e a1sorption loss can 1e ignored$
,,"" 'cattering Loss Caused 5( Rain and /og
.ainE fog and snow can a1sor1 electric wave energy if t&e microwave
wavelengt& is under 3 cm 8fre4uency is 6 >#79E w&en t&e wavelengt& is longer
t&an 3 cmE t&e a1sorption can 1e ignored$ >enerallyE for fre4uency 1and is less
t&an 0 >#7E fading caused 1y rain and fog is not seriousF normally t&e fading
1etween two stations is only several d($ 0or t&e fre4uency 1and is more t&an
0 >#7E distance 1etween relay sections is limited 1y loss caused 1y rainsE
and it cannot 1e too long$ /ee figure!$$
/ometimesE moisture clusterE suc& as mistE is formed in t&e atmosp&ereE t&is
non"&omogeneous material can ma=e t&e electric wave refractedE a1sor1edE
scattered and reflectedE mainly refracted$
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0igure!$2 scattering loss caused 1y rain and fog
,,"& A T(pe /ading
It is an interference"type fading caused 1y multi"pat& transmission$ :&is fading
is caused 1y mutual interference of t&e direct wave and ground reflected wave
8or diffracted wave under certain conditions9 due to p&ase variance w&en t&e
two =inds of waves arrive at t&e receiving point$ :&e interference is related to
progressive error$ In troposp&ereE t&e progressive error varies wit& t&e @ valueF
t&ereforeE t&is fading is called @ types fading$ :&is fading is very serious w&en
t&e transmission line crosses riverE la=e and smoot& ground$ :&usE in selecting
routesE try to avoid riverE la=e and smoot& ground if possi1leE if notE use &ig&"
low antenna tec&nology to ma=e t&e reflecting point more nearer to one end to
reduce t&e impact of reflected wavesE or use &ig&"low antenna tec&nology plus
space diversity tec&nology to reduce t&e impact of multi"pat& reflection$
,,", 8aveguide /ading
Due to influence of all =inds of weat&er conditionsE suc& as t&e ground is
&eated 1y t&e sun in t&e morning and 1ecome cold in t&e nig&tE and in t&e &ig&"
pressure areaE non"&omogeneous o1;ects are formed$ ,&en electric waves
pass t&ose non"&omogeneous o1;ectsE super reflection p&enomenon occurs
and atmosp&eric waveguide is formed$ Under suc& circumstancesE you can
deal wit& t&e waveguide fading only 1ased on engineering e<perience$
,,& /ading Rules =microwave 3re%uenc( 5ands lower than 1C ?H<>
(ased on a large amount of test resultE find fading of microwave fre4uency
1ands lower t&an 0 >#7 follows t&e following rules:
89 :&e s&orter t&e wavelengt& isE t&e longer t&e distance isE and t&e more
serious t&e fading is$
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829 0ading of propagation pat&s crossing rives and plains is more serious t&an
t&at of t&e pat&s crossing mountain areas$
8'9 0ading occurs more fre4uently and is deeper in summer and autumn t&an
autumn and spring$
8!9 :&e field strengt& of received signals is more sta1le in sunny days and
daytime t&an nig&ts$ ,&en day and nig&t s&iftE for e<ampleE from 03:00:00 to
0-:00:00 in t&e morningE from -:00:00 to 2:00:00 in t&e nig&tE and from
00:00:00 to 0':00:00E deep fading fre4uently occurs$
869 /ignals received in rainyE foggy and windy days are more sta1le t&an in
sunny days$ ,&en t&e sun s&ines again after rain and fog scattersE fast fading
always occur$
,- /re%uenc( 'elective /ading
,-1 Multi.path Propagation o3 $lectric 8aves
,-11 2asic Concepts
0rom t&e previous c&aptersE it is learned t&at for a relay sectionE in addition to
receiving direct wavesE t&e receiving point can also receive reflected waves
from some point of t&e pat&$ 5tmosp&eric effect ma=es t&e atmosp&ere
produce some random reflected waves and scattered waves t&at are
independent of any fi<ed reflecting surface$ :&at isE t&e receiving point can
receive electric waves from many pat&sE t&is is multi"pat& propagation
p&enomenon$
Multi"pat& electric waves &ave random amplitude and p&ase at t&e receiving
pointE and t&e level of t&e receiving point is t&e vector sum of mutual
interference of t&e wavesE t&ereforeE t&e receiving level produces multi"pat&
interfering fading along wit& t&is multi"pat& propagation p&enomenon$ :&is
p&enomenon typically occurs in &ot and &umid summerE for e<ampleE in t&e
1asin of t&e Jellow riverE it fre4uently occurs in KulyE 5ugust and /eptem1er$
:&is p&enomenon is more apt to occur in plains and water reticulation areas
t&an mountain areas$
,-1" /urther Anal(sis on Multi.Path Propagation
Multi"pat& fading can 1e classified into level fading and fre4uency selective
fading$
Influence of level fading on digital microwave system is e4uivalent to receiving
level decrease$ :&ereforeE ade4uate level fading margin can effectively improve
t&e level fading in multi"pat& fading c&annels$ 0or level fadingE its analysis
model can 1e indicated 1y t&e sum of a constant field strengt& vector and t&e
innumera1le mutually independent random vectorE and t&e modulus of t&is
vector sum is su1;ect to .ayleig& distri1ution$
Influence of fre4uency selective fading on digital microwave system is
e4uivalent to signal"to"noise ratio decrease$ :&ereforeE it is limited to enlarge
fading margin to improve system 1it error performance$ :&e analysis met&ods
normally use two"pat& model or simplified t&ree"pat& model$
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Multi"pat& propagation can 1e concluded to two types: one type of multi"pat& is
formed 1y direct waves and reflected wavesE and t&e ot&er type of multi"pat& is
formed 1y co"e<isting pat&s caused 1y low"atmosp&ere effect$ %ormallyE t&e
first type is ma;or and fre4uently occurs$ 5nd t&e second type is not typical and
does fre4uently occur$ (ut w&en ground reflected wave is very wea= even
fee1leE influence of t&e second type 1ecomes t&e ma;or factor$
0or multi"pat& interfering fading is produced 1y mutual interference of electric
waves of different pat&sE t&ereforeE t&eoreticallyE fading model for researc&
s&ould 1e 1ased on several composite wave 1eams$ #oweverE fading caused
1y mutual interference of more t&an t&ree 1eams &as lower pro1a1ility of
ma=ing circuit 4uality 1adF t&ereforeE model for researc& of interfering fading is
normally 1ased on two 1eams$
,-" #n3luence o3 /re%uenc( 'elective /ading on Transmission Dualit( o3
Microwave Communication '(stems
,-"1 Causing #n.2and Distortion
In"1and distortion indicates t&at amplitude fre4uency feature and time delay
fre4uency feature of microwave signals 8modulated waves9 in t&e 1and are
linearE t&e 5 8f9E : 8f9 features of eac& fre4uency spectrum of t&e signal vary
along wit& fre4uencyE and t&is variation is called in"1and distortion$
In"1and distortion caused 1y fre4uency selective fading is related to
transmission 1andwidt& of signalsE w&ile 1andwidt& of signals is determined 1y
transmission capacity and modulation mode$
,-"" Ma*ing Cross Polari<ation Discrimination Decrease
0or microwave signal under a polari7ation status 8suc& as &ori7ontal
polari7ation9E after 1eing transmitted 1y t&e c&annelE due to t&e influence of t&e
atmosp&ere on t&e electric wave transmissionE t&e polari7ation side may 1e
damaged and part of t&e energy may 1ecome ort&ogonal status 8suc& as
vertical polari7ation9 to t&e signals$ :&enE w&en co"fre4uency reutili7ation
sc&eme is adoptedE interference 1etween two c&annels of t&e same
fre4uencies and wit& polari7ation ort&ogonal may 1e causedE t&is is called
cross polari7ation interference 8CPI9$
CPI can 1e produced 1y t&e feature of antenna and feeder system at t&e
receiving and transmitting ends$ (ut CPI e<ists in t&e form of 1ac=ground
interference 8noise9 and =eeps unc&anged$ In t&e fre4uency 1and lower t&an
0 >#7E CPI is mainly caused 1y multi"pat& propagation$
Cross polari7ation discrimination 8CPD9 is normally represented 1y level valueE
t&at isE
CPDR0lg8PHPC9 8d(9
In t&e formula:
P is power of t&e signal received 1y some c&annel of receiving end and &aving
t&e same polari7ation wit& transmitting end$
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PX is t&e CPI signal received 1y t&e c&annel$
If t&e CPD value is largeE it indicates t&at energy is reduced w&en a polari7ation
status is c&anged to ort&ogonal polari7ation status via transmission$
0or fre4uency 1ands ! >#7 and 6>#7E t&e CPD of antenna and feeder system
s&ould 1e larger t&an !0 d(E 1ut multi"pat& propagation mig&t ma=e t&e CPD
1ecome 1ad remar=a1ly$
,-"& Ma*ing Original /ading Margin o3 the '(stem Decrease
,&en t&e fre4uency selective fading is not considered or t&e narrow1and
signals are transmitted in t&e system 8fre4uency selective fading is ignored9E
anti"fading capacity of t&e system is represented 1y flat fading margin$
0lat fading margin is: compared wit& free space propagation conditionE w&en
t&ermal noise is increased 8only t&ermal noise is considered9E to ma=e system
wor= under t&e condition t&at t&e t&res&old 1it error rate is not e<ceededE t&us
ade4uate level margin must 1e reserved$ 0or e<ampleE under t&e condition of
free space propagationE for a digital microwave communication systemE t&e
receiving level is "'3 d(E w&en t&e 1it error rate is t&e t&res&old value PeR0
"'E
t&e receiving level is "*0 d( and its flat fading margin is !3 d($
,&en fre4uency selective fading is consideredE t&at isE for &ig& and medium
capacity digital microwave communication systemE concept of flat fading is not
suita1le$ (ecause transport 1andwidt& of t&e digital microwave communication
system is relatively wide and t&e wider t&e 1andwidt& isE t&e more serious t&e
influence of fre4uency selective fading isE and t&en actual fading margin of t&e
system is less t&an flat fading margin$ :&is is 1ecause w&en in"1and distortion
is seriousE sometimes t&e fading is not deep and t&e influence of t&ermal noise
is not remar=a1leE 1ut t&e 1it error rate may 4uic=ly increase and w&en it
e<ceeds t&res&old 1it error rateE communication is interrupted$
+ffective fading margin is always mentioned in digital microwave
communicationE it is level margin t&at must 1e reserved o ma=e t&e system still
wor= w&en t&e t&res&old 1it error rate is not e<ceeded and fre4uency selective
fading is considered in comparison to free space propagation$
0or &ig& and medium capacity digital microwave communication systemE w&en
flat fading margin is addedE effective fading margin cannot 1e added 8it is
slowly added9 in proportion to t&e flat fading margin$ :&at isE only 1y means of
increasing flat fading margin suc& as increasing transmitting powerE
performance of digital microwave communication system cannot o1tain
necessary improvement$ Jou can adopt fre4uency diversityE space diversity
and automatic e4uili1rium tec&nologies to improve t&e capa1ility of t&e system
in terms of fre4uency selective fading$
,0 'tatistic /eature o3 /ading
,01 Microwave /ading Model9Ra(leigh Distri5ution /unction
:o understand t&e relia1ility of communicationsE you s&ould understand
possi1ility distri1ution of fading dept& and fading duration$ 0ading dept&
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provides interruption level in propagation and fading duration provides
interruption time$
P&ase interference caused 1y multi"pat& transmission effect is t&e ma;or cause
of microwave transmission line"of"sig&t deep fading$ 0ading model is descri1ed
1y t&e sum of innumera1le random vectors wit& independent p&ase$ :o analy7e
fading features in different conditionsE pro1a1ility t&eory is adoptedE and many
types of distri1ution functions t&at can indicate t&ose features are cited$ :&e
typical function is .ayleig& distri1ution function$ :&e modulus of t&e vector sum
t&at can prove fading is su1;ect to t&is general distri1ution$ ,&en t&e fading is
seriousE co&erent multi"pat& vector occupies large proportionE and constant
field strengt& is su1ordinated$ In t&e .ayleig& distri1utionE t&e fading is fast and
deep$
/implyE .ayleig& distri1ution is t&e pro1a1ility of a value t&at t&e receiving level
mig&t 1e w&en t&ere is fading$ ,&en t&e fading feature is su1;ect to .ayleig&
distri1utionE t&e pro1a1ility of t&e receiving level lower t&an a certain level is:
P8+9R"e"8+2H+e29
In t&e formula:
+
2
2t&e s4uare of previously defined effective value of t&e field strengt&E it
corresponds to receiving power and sometimes it indicates t&e receiving power
related to t&res&old condition$
+e
2
2t&e effective guide average value of t&e field strengt&$ It corresponds to
average receiving power$
,0" $ngineering Calculation o3 Ra(leigh /ading Pro5a5ilit(
Use .ayleig& fading distri1ution rules in t&e microwave communicationE
consider t&e condition of electric wave propagationE t&e pro1a1ility of fading is:
PrR@Bf(dc,H ,0
In t&e formula:
Pr: .ayleig& fading pro1a1ilityE t&at isE not more t&an t&e pro1a1ility of t&e
receiving power w&en t&ere is fading$
@: factor of environment condition
B: factor of geograp&ical condition
0: wor=ing fre4uency of microwave 8>#79
(E C: constant factor concerning weat&er and seasonal geograp&y
D: distance 1etween stations 8=m9
,: t&e received power w&en t&ere is no fading
,0: t&e received power w&en t&ere is fading
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(ased on decades of practices performed 1y national researc& institutesE in
C&inaE t&e values of constant factors are as follows:
7o. *. " C
1 !ontain areas 1.072810-2 1 1.3
2 3illy areas 2.7- 810-3 1 1.8
3 0lains 2.88( 810-3 1 2.2
( 9a:e; sea; s#am0 lands 2.63 810-( 1 3.2
In actual engineeringE w&en t&e fading dept& is already =nown O0d8d(9PE t&e
pro1a1ility of t&is dept& to occur is:
PrR@Bf
(
d
c
0
8"fdH09

In t&e formula: meanings of t&e sym1ols are previously e<plainedE 0
8"fdH09
is t&e
multiple of fading dept&$
In engineeringE w&en Pr value of eac& relay circuit meets t&e 1it error rate inde<
of t&e microwave c&annelsE it is O@$
,! Conclusion
:&is c&apter mainly descri1es t&e propagation principles of microwaveE
including propagation t&eory of free spaceE #uygens"0resnel t&eoryE 0resnel
t&eory of electric wave propagationF interference and polari7ation of electric
waveE electric wave reflection caused 1y non"&omogeneous atmosp&ereE
influence of troposp&ere on t&e electric waveE super refraction caused 1y
irregular c&ange of atmosp&eric medium gradientE reflection on different
c&aracteristic groundsE diffraction on smoot& sp&erical surfaceE propagation in
t&e presence of =nife"edge o1stacles and multi"o1staclesE a1sorption of t&e
electric wave 1y rains and fogs in atmosp&eric propagationE and loss t&eory$
#ave a t&in=:
89 +lectric wave propagation in free sapce
829 Influence of groud reflection on t&e electric wave propagation
8'9 Influence of troposp&ere on t&e electric wave
8!9 0ading caused 1y several atmosp&eric and ground effects
839 0re4uency selective fading and its influence on microwave communication
Pay special attention to 8!9 and 839$
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- Anti./ading Technolog( in Digital Microwave
$%uipment
O56ectives
8o have a general understanding on anti/fading technolog*
8o master principles and features of all #inds of anti/fading technologies
8o master all #inds of protection schemes for digital microwave e9uipment
0ading p&enomenon in microwave propagation &as impact on relay
transmission$ (ased on t&e wave propagation statistical rulesE all =inds of anti"
fading tec&nical measures are proposedF t&at isE anti"fading tec&nology$
-1 Overview
Multi"Pat& fading may cause fading and distortion of t&e transmission c&annelE
w&ic& varies wit& t&e geograp&ical environment and time$ #enceE any =ind of
anti"fading measure must 1e adaptive$
:o deal wit& flat fadingE t&e automatic gain control circuit 85>+9 of t&e
intermediate fre4uency amplifier in t&e receiver and c&annel switc&ing met&od
are for common use$
:o deal wit& fre4uency selective fadingE t&e diversity tec&nology and adaptive
e4uali7ation tec&nology are adopted$ :&e following t&ree measures are used
for fre4uency selective anti"fading$ :&ese anti"fading tec&nologies suppress
amplitude dispersion and delay dispersion in different ranges of spaceE
fre4uency and time$ If t&ese tec&nologies are com1inedE a 1etter anti"fading
effect can 1e ac&ieved$
-11 Purposes o3 Ta*ing Anti./ading Measures
89 Compared to fi1er transmission systemE digital microwave relay system &as
t&e following two pro1lems:
.educed received power due to multi"pat& fading
Degraded circuit performance due to wave s&ape distortion
#enceE t&e designers of t&e microwave relay system s&ould ta=e proper anti"
fading measures to meet inde<es on general error performance parameters of
t&e systemE suc& as /+/ pro1a1ility$
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829 I:U": specifies t&e error performance inde<es of t&e end"to"end digital
c&annels wit&in 2)300=m$ I:U". also responds and proposes similar
suggestions$ :o meet t&ese inde<esE digital microwave relay system s&ould
ta=e anti"fading measures to improve t&e system performance$ During t&e
design for systems andHor e4uipmentE all =inds of anti"fading devices are
important parts of t&e system$ :&e stricter t&e inde<es areE t&e more advanced
anti"fading met&ods t&e system s&ould 1e adopted$
8'9 5not&er purpose of t&e anti"fading measures is to populari7e and apply
microwave relay lin=s in relay segments w&ere t&e propagation conditions are
wea=$ 0or e<ampleE proper diversity receiver and effective e4uali7er can
overcome t&e difficulty in long"&aul across"t&e"sea spans$ In t&ese casesE
microwave relay system is always t&e uni4ue transmission medium to transmit
services as re4uired$
5ny =ind of anti"fading measure re4uires additional investment$ #enceE 1ot&
t&e price and performance need 1e considered to decide an anti"fading
measure$
-1" Classi3ication o3 Anti./ading Measures
:&e anti"fading measures can 1e classified 1ased on two standards$
(ased on p&ysical features
:a1le 3$ and :a1le 3$2 illustrate t&e anti"fading measures classified 1ased on
p&ysical features$ Category 5 relates to t&e e4uipment and category ( relates
to t&e system$
:a1le 3$' illustrates t&e classification 1ased on functional features$
:a1le 3$Category 5 " anti"fading measure related to e4uipment
/da0ti'e e&ali$ation
)re&ency domain e&ali$ation
6ime domain e&ali$ation
9inear e&ali$ation
2ecision feed%ac: e&ali$ation
Interference cancellation
<,IC
IC of other rote
/6,C
for#ard error correction =)4C>
:a1le 3$2Category ( " anti"fading measure related to t&e system
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s0ace di'ersity
2o%le s0ace di'ersity
6ri0le?&adr0le s0ace di'ersity
angle di'ersity
fre&ency di'ersity
Same fre&ency %and
Cross-connect fre&ency %and
mlti-carrier transmission@
e Multi"carrier transmission is only used in areas w&ere environments are 1ad$
2(ased on functional features
Multi"Pat& fading may cause power reduction or wave s&ape distortion w&en
signals are received$ :&e spectrums wit&in t&e fre4uency range is fully 8flat
fading9 or partially reduced 8selective fading9$ 5s a =ind of dominant fading in
microwave systemE flat fading may cause relative reduction of CH% and CHI$
/elective fading is a =ind of dominant fading in 1road"1and digital microwave
system$
:&e anti"fading measures descri1ed in :a1le 3$ and :a1le 3$2 are used for
compensation in case of one or two preceding conditions$
:a1le 3$' Classification 1ased on functional features
#lassi!ication E!!ect
=/> /nti-fading measre related to
e&i0ment
/da0ti'e e&ali$ation Aa'e sha0e distortion
Interference cancellation Aa'e sha0e distortion
/6,C ,o#er redction
for#ard error correction ,o#er redction
="> /nti-fading measre related to the
system
S0ace di'ersity ,o#er redction and #a'e sha0e distortion
/ngle di'ersity ,o#er redction and #a'e sha0e distortion
fre&ency di'ersity ,o#er redction and #a'e sha0e distortion
!lti-Carrier transmission Aa'e sha0e distortion
-1& $valuation on Anti./ading Measures
:&e improvement factor of anti"fading measures is defined 1y I R PHPG$ P refers
to t&e system interruption pro1a1ility in a given fading dept& in w&en t&ere is
not anti"fading measure$ PG refers to t&e system interruption pro1a1ility in a
given fading dept& w&en t&ere are anti"fading measures$
:&e value of I relates to t&e degree of performance degradation$ 5s s&own in
0igure 3$E w&en t&ere is space diversityE if t&e system &as large fading marginE
t&e improvement effect is also great$
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0igure 3$ /pace diversity improvement factor
+ac& anti"fading measure &as its own improvement factor$ #oweverE t&e
improvement effect for two different anti"fading measures is not presented 1y
multiplying two improvement factors$ 0or e<ampleE if space diversity and
adaptive e4uali7er are com1inedE t&e com1ined effect e<ists$ :&e improvement
factor is 1igger t&an t&e product of two factors$
-" Adaptive $%uali<ation
In a digital microwave systemE to compensate signal distortion caused 1y multi"
pat& fading and reduce t&e system interruption timeE t&e adaptive e4uali7er is
widely used$ (ased on different wor=ing fre4uencies and placesE t&e e4uali7er
is classified into two types$
5daptive fre4uency domain e4uali7er 850+9: used in intermediate fre4uency
8I09 to control transfer function of t&e c&annel
5daptive time domain e4uali7er 85:+9: used in time domain to directly reduce
intersym1ol interference 8I/I9 caused 1y 1ad transfer function
Compared to 50+E t&e e4uali7ation capa1ility of 5:+ is stronger$ /ome /D#
microwave systems ;ust use 5:+E rat&er t&an 50+$ #oweverE most /D#
microwave systems use 1ot& 50+ and 5:+E w&ic& may cause com1ined effect$
-"1 A/$
0re4uency e4uali7ation uses t&e fre4uency c&aracteristics of an ad;usta1le
networ= to compensate distortion of amplitude fre4uency c&aracteristics and
p&ase fre4uency c&aracteristics of actual c&annels$ CurrentlyE t&e common
e4uali7er is intermediate fre4uency adaptive e4uali7erE w&ic& is a =ind of
1andpass e4uali7ation$
Intermediate fre4uency adaptive e4uali7er 8I0"+BL9 consists of correction
networ= 8e4uali7ation circuit9E e4uali7ation c&aracteristic detector and
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controller$ I0"+BL is classified into I0 tuna1le e4uali7er and I0 adaptive
amplitude fre4uency slope e4uali7er$
0igure 3$2 illustrates t&e principle of tuna1le e4uali7er:

0igure 3$2 I0 tuna1le adaptive e4uali7er
-"11 'lope /re%uenc( Domain $%uali<er
,&en multi"pat& fading e<istsE slope fre4uency domain e4uali7er is used to
compensate t&e slope asymmetry in fre4uency response to microwave
c&annels$ :&e e4uali7er introduces a tool to correct t&e amplitude slope and
t&us recovers symmetry of power spectrum density of received signals$
Principle of slope fre4uency domain e4uali7er: Use a set of narrow"1and filters
to monitor output power spectrums at t&ree places$ 5ccording to t&e tested
slope directionE a detection signal at t&e opposite direction is generated to mi<
wit& t&e original signal$ :&us t&e amplitude fre4uency c&aracteristics can 1e
recovered to 1e flat$
%ote: During spectrum monitoringE information a1out group delay distortion
cannot 1e o1tained$ #enceE t&e improvement effect of t&e e4uali7er is limited$
-"1" ?ap /re%uenc( Domain $%uali<er
:&e transfer function s&ould 1e close to t&e reciprocal of t&e c&annel
c&aracteristic t&at complies wit& t&e propagation model of two rays$ In t&is wayE
t&e actual transfer function can o1tain flat amplitude fre4uency c&aracteristics$
Principle of gap fre4uency domain e4uali7er: 5s a partE t&e resonance filter is
used to control its gradient coefficient and center fre4uency and t&us trace t&e
fading gap$ :&is =ind of circuit always s&ows concave"down group delay
c&aracteristic$ #enceE w&en t&e c&annel encounters t&e minimum p&ase
fadingE t&e signal distortion will reduce$ #oweverE if t&e c&annel encounters
non"minimum p&ase fadingE group delay distortion will dou1le$ In t&is eventE t&e
system c&aracteristic curve of t&e minimum p&ase fading can 1e reducedE 1ut
t&e c&aracteristic curve of t&e non"minimum p&ase fading is not improved$
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In 0igure 3$2E t&e control signals of most fre4uency domain e4uali7ers are
e<tracted from signal spectrum 1y using t&ree 1andpass filters$ #enceE t&e
many &ardware devices are involved and t&e control accuracy is 1ad$
CurrentlyE t&e control signals of some fre4uency domain e4uali7ers are
e<tracted from 1ase1and signalsF t&at isE time domain controls e4uali7ation of
fre4uency domain$
-"" AT$
5:+ is used in time domain to directly reduce intersym1ol interference 8I/I9
caused 1y distortion of amplitude and group delay$ :&e following formula
descri1es t&e discrete inputHoutput relation of general c&annel responseE
visually presenting 1asic principle of 5:+:
In t&e preceding formula:
C=8h9 R <= 8=:Lh9 is t&e received composite signal at t&e sampling moment: =:Lh
a= refers to t&e transmitted data sym1ol at =:$
n= refers to t&e sampling value of additive w&ite >auss noise 85,>%9
&i8h9EiRNf\\ELf is t&e sampling value of general c&annel pulse response at
t&e sampling p&ase h$
:&e preceding e4uation descri1es two reasons for t&e 4uality reduction of
transmitted sym1ols: additive noise and interference from previous and later
sym1ols$ Only w&en pulse response &8h9 meets t&e %y4uist ruleE may non"
intersym1ol interference 1e implemented$ 5ctuallyE t&oug& t&e transmitting and
received filters are designed to form t&e %y4uist filterE time"varying multi"pat&
propagation of attri1ute microwave c&annel destroys t&is c&aracteristicE t&us
causing severe intersym1ol interference$ :o avoid intersym1ol interferenceE an
adaptive e4uali7er s&ould 1e added out of t&e receiver$
0or t&e microwave e4uipment in B5M modeE different information is
transmitted t&roug& ort&ogonal p&ase carriers$ #enceE distortion caused on t&e
propagation c&annel can interfere in mutual ort&ogonal carriers$ :ime domain
e4uali7ation is performed 1etween ort&ogonal carriers to eliminate suc&
ort&ogonal interference$
0igure 3$' illustrates t&e principle of an I0 adaptive transverse e4uali7er:
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S(t)
90
S' ( t)
T T T T T
X
C- 2 - 1 C
X X
C1 0 C
X
2 C
X
X
d2
X
d0 1 d
X X
d- 1 - 2 d
X
S1(t)
S2(t)
0igure3$' Principle diagram of an I0 adaptive transverse e4uali7er

: refers to t&e delay line and every class of delay is a 1it$
:&e 5:+ can e4uali7e non"minimum p&ase fading w&en t&e reflected wave is
stronger t&an direct wave:
1 >
$
In actual useE 1ot& t&e 50+ and 5:+ are used$
-& Cross.Polari<ation #nter3erence Counteracter =EP#C>
In a common microwave radio transmission systemE t&e fre4uency of two
polari7ation waves are allocated in different interleave mode$ :&e interference
1etween two polari7ation waves is small$ #oweverE in /D# microwave
transmissionE to improve t&e spectrum utili7ationE t&e co"c&annel or c&annel"
insertion cross"polari7ation fre4uency regeneration mode is adopted$
In a lig&t"of"sig&t propagation routeE in t&e event of multi"pat& fadingE dispersion
on t&e nonuniform layer and ground or rain and fogE t&e cross"polari7ation
signals may severely cause interference to co"polari7ation signals$ #enceE t&e
interwave interference compensation tec&nology of cross"polari7ation s&ould
1e introduced$
Ort&ogonal polari7ation Interference Counteracter 8OPIC9 can 1e implemented
in radio fre4uencyE intermediate fre4uency and 1ase1and fre4uency$ :&e latter
two fre4uency 1ands are more common$ 5fter t&e CPIC is adoptedE t&e CPI can
1e improved 1y a1out 20 d($
0igure 3$! s&ows t&e principle of CPIC 8%+C'000 series /D# microwave
e4uipment9:
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0igure3$! Principle of CPIC
-, Automatic Transmit Power Control =ATPC>
5s a =ey tec&nology in digital microwave areaE 5:PC &elps t&e output power of
a transmitter operates in a normal value 8or minimum value9 Pnom in most
cases$ ,&en t&e level of t&e remote receiver reducesE t&e reverse
communication service c&annel is used to control t&e transmitter configured in
t&e feed1ac= loop and t&us t&e output power can gradually reac& Pma<$
C&aracteristics of 5:PC: :&e output power of a microwave transmitter can
automatically trace t&e receiving levels at t&e receive end wit&in t&e range
controlled 1y 5:PC and vary wit& t&e levels$ In normal propagation conditionsE
t&e output power of a transmitter is fi<ed at a low level t&at may 1e a1out 0N
3 d( lower t&an t&e normal level$ ,&en t&e level is lower t&an t&e lowest
received level specified 1y 5:PC and t&e receiver detects propagation fading in
t&e event of propagation fadingE 5:PC uses t&e .0CO# 1yte to control t&e
peer end transmitter and t&us increase t&e transmitting power till a rated power
value$ UsuallyE t&e time rate occurring on severe propagation fading is s&ortF
t&at isE lower t&an M$ 5fter t&e 5:PC is adoptedE t&e transmitter operates at
t&e power 0N3 d( lower t&an t&e rated power in most time 8over --M9$
0igure 3$3 Principle of 5:PC
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5ccording to t&e c&ange rate of t&e transmitting power of a transmitterE 5:PC is
classified into mutation 5:PC system and progressive 5:PC system$ 0or t&e
mutation 5:PC systemE w&en t&e received level of a receiver reduces to t&e
startup t&res&old level of 5:PCE t&e transmitting power of a transmitter
operates at a &ig& level at once$ ,&en t&e received level increases to a set
upper levelE t&e transmitting power operates at a low level at once$ 0or t&e
progressive 5:PC systemE w&en t&e received level ranges 1etween two
t&res&oldsE t&e level of t&e transmitting power c&anges gradually$
:o adapt t&e c&ange of electric wave fadingE t&e trace speed of t&e 5:PC
system s&ould 1e 00 d(Hs$ In additionE any 1it error s&ould not occur due to
t&e 5:PC during t&e operation of 5:PC$ In common fre4uency &eteropolari7ing
fre4uency reuse modeE two polari7ations s&ould start 5:PC at t&e same timeE
t&us avoiding one in a &ig& level and t&e ot&er in a low level$ Ot&erwiseE severe
interference may occur$
0igure 3$3 Mutation and progressive 5:PC systems
5dvantages of using 5:PC are as follows:
89 In t&e event of strong fadingE output 1ac=off 8O(O9 can 1e reduced$ In t&e
middle"&ig& (+. area 80
"-
c (+. c 0
"6
9E t&e gain of an availa1le system is
added and t&e impact on (+. performance due to 1ad linear performance of a
transmitter can 1e omitted$
829 Koint adaptive DC feeding may 1e provided$ 5s a resultE power
consumption of &ig&"power amplifiers is o1viously reduced and t&e power
consumption of t&e radio fre4uency amplifiers is e4ual to 30M of t&e normal
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levelE w&ic& facilitates to largely improve t&e mean time 1etween failures
8M:(09 of 0+: power device$
8'9 :&e upward fading pro1lem of t&e receiver is removed$
8!9 :&e impact due to ad;acent c&annel interference 85CI9 is reduced and t&e
performance improvement is interrupted$
839 5t t&e crowded railroad terminalsE t&e reduction of nominal received level is
prone to fre4uency coordination$
:&ese advantages are very important for t&e new generation /D# microwave
system$
-- Diversit( Reception
Diversity reception: a resultant signal is o1tained 1y com1ining or selecting
signalsE from two or more independent sourcesE t&at &ave 1een modulated wit&
identical information"1earing signalsE 1ut w&ic& may vary in t&eir fading
c&aracteristics at any given instant$ Diversity reception is used to minimi7e t&e
effects of fading$
--1 Classi3ication o3 Diversit( Reception
Diversity reception is classified into t&e following types:
89 /pace diversity 8/D9: a met&od of transmission or receptionE or 1ot&E in
w&ic& t&e effects of fading are minimi7ed 1y t&e simultaneous use of two or
more p&ysically separated antennasE ideally separated 1y one or more
wavelengt&s$ 5s t&e antennas are separated p&ysicallyE t&e correlation is small$
:&e count of antennas decides t&e count of diversity$
0igure 3$6 /pace diversity
/pace diversity can effectively solve @ type fading caused 1y interference from
t&e ground reflected wave and direct wave and interference fading caused 1y
t&e troposp&ere$ :&e space diversity can save fre4uency resourcesE 1ut t&e
e4uipment involved is comple<$ :wo or more sets of antennas and feeders are
needed$
829 0re4uency diversity 80D9: :ransmission and reception in w&ic& t&e same
information signal is transmitted and received simultaneously on two or more
independently fading carrier fre4uencies to reduce t&e effects of fading$
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:&e fre4uency diversity uses t&e irrelevance of fading in different fre4uenciesF
t&at isE a feature wit& low pro1a1ility of co"interruption on two fre4uencies$ In
/D# microwave systemsE t&e main reason for circuit interruption is not t&e
reduction of signal levelE 1ut t&e occurrence of fre4uency selective fading$
0re4uency diversity improves t&e digital microwave system muc& greater t&an
t&e analog microwave system$ 5s s&own in t&e trial result on an actual
microwave circuit ranging from 3-23 to 6!23 M#7E t&e correlation of flat fading
dept&s of signals 1etween two c&annels at a spacing of 60 M#7 is &ig& and t&e
correlation coefficient is 0$-)$ #oweverE t&e selective fading is seldom irrelevant
and t&e coefficient is only 0$03$ :&is is t&e reason for &ig& improvement
coefficient of fre4uency diversity in microwave systems$
In fre4uency diversity systemsE t&e correlation of two diversity received signals
8fre4uency correlation9 s&ould 1e small$ Only in t&is eventE deep fading on two
fre4uencies can 1e avoided in a given pat& and good diversity effect can 1e
implemented$ :&e 1igger t&e spacing of two fre4uencies isE t&e smaller t&e
correlation of deep fading at t&e same time$
,&en t&e diversity in t&e same fre4uency uses 2M of t&e wor=ing fre4uency as
a fre4uency spacingE t&e diversity improvement effect can 1e o1tained$
0igure3$) 0re4uency diversity
0re4uency diversity &as o1vious effects and needs an antenna and a
feeder only$ #oweverE t&e utili7ation of its fre4uency 1ands is low$
8'9 Polari7ation diversity: Diversity transmission and reception w&erein t&e
same information signal is transmitted and received simultaneously on
ort&ogonally polari7ed waves wit& fade"independent propagation
c&aracteristics$ Compared to ot&er diversitiesE t&e effect of polari7ation diversity
is smaller$ :&e e<ample is seldom seen$
8!9 5ngle diversity: Diversity reception in w&ic& 1eyond"t&e"&ori7on
troposp&eric scatter signals are received at slig&tly different anglesE e4uivalent
to pat&s t&roug& different scatter volumes in t&e troposp&ere$ :&e second
1eam can 1e provided 1y an independent antenna or dual"feed antenna$ :&e
structure of angle diversity consists of two antennas installed side 1y side$
:&ey &ave different elevation angles or directions$ 0igure 3$* is a typical
structure$ :&e main antenna is parallel wit& t&e main radialE and t&e 1eam of
diversity antenna is elevation angle i$
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0igure 3$* 5ngle diversity
/pace diversity wit& t&e angle diversity &as muc& 1etter improvement effects
t&an space diversity wit&out t&e angle diversityE especially w&en a 1ig uprig&t
space 1etween two antennas cannot 1e ensured in pat&s wit& strong ground
reflection$ CurrentlyE a large num1er of test results related to t&e angle diversity
system e<ist$ :&ese results s&ow t&at t&e performance of angle diversity and
space diversity is e4uivalent w&en t&e performance of a digital microwave
system depends on t&e amplitude dispersion$ #oweverE w&en t&e performance
depends on t&e t&ermal noise effectE space diversity is 1etter$
--" Description o3 'pace Diversit(
0re4uency diversity and space diversity are used more widely$ #oweverE
current fre4uency resources are more insufficient and fre4uency diversity &as a
good effect only w&en t&e fre4uency spacing is 1ig$ #enceE space diversity is
applied more often and t&us is descri1ed as follows$
/pace diversity needs several antennas in t&e same tower$ ,&en deciding t&e
antenna spacingE analy7e and c&ec= w&et&er multi"pat& fading on t&e specified
pat& is caused 1y aerosp&ere or ground reflection$
0or t&e pat& wit& wea= ground reflection on foot&illsE w&en space diversity
focuses on air multi"pat& fadingE use t&e following formula:
: 4 . % %%21 . % e;p< d fS
c
=
c
refers to t&e correlation coefficient of two antenna signals and t&e value
ranges from 0$! to 0$6$
/ refers to t&e uprig&t spacing 1etween t&e center of t&e upper received
antenna and lower received antennaF t&at isE Odiversity antenna spacingP 8m9$
In engineering practiceE t&e value of / can 1e calculated simply as follows:
/ b 800N2009V
0or plain areas and water circuitE t&e O&alf lo1e distanceP principle is adopted to
calculate t&e spacing as follows:
2
=
1
4h
d
S

=
%
2
2
2
=
2
2kR
d
h h =
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1
=
2
4h
d
S

=
%
2
1
1
=
1
2kR
d
h h =
1
S refers to t&e diversity antenna spacing of t&e received station and
2
S
refers to t&e diversity antenna spacing of t&e transmitting station 8m9$
1
h refers to t&e &eig&t from t&e received antenna to t&e mountaintop and
2
h
refers to t&e &eig&t from t&e transmitting antenna to t&e mountaintop 8m9$
,&en t&e preceding formulas are adoptedE pay attention to t&e following two
issues:
a$ ,&en t&e clearance of a long pat& is smallE t&e fre4uency is low and t&e
&eig&t difference of antennas on 1ot& ends is 1igE t&e values calculated 1y
using t&e preceding formulas will 1e 1ig$ /elect a proper value according to t&e
formula: / b 800N2009V$
1$ ,&en t&e clearance of a s&ort pat& is 1ig and t&e fre4uency is &ig&E t&e
values calculated 1y using t&e preceding formulas will 1e small$ /elect a value
according to t&e formula: / b 800N2009V and t&e value can 1e ta=en as t&e
integer multiple of O&alf lope distanceP$
In common engineering applicationE t&e spacing of space diversity for a digital
microwave system can range from * to 2m and 0m is availa1le$ /pace
diversity largely reduces t&e received power and improves signal distortion$
/pace diversity reduces impact on flat fading and in"1and amplitude dispersion
and t&us improves t&e transmission 4uality of digital microwave circuits$
/pace diversity is furt&er divided into t&e following:
89 /tandard space diversity:
/tandard space diversity is a common receiving mode of t&e /D# microwave
system$ 5 transceiver unit needs one transmitter and two receivers 8one is
diversity receiver9$ +ac& station needs two antennasE including one main
antenna 8receiving and transmitting t&e main signal9 and one diversity antenna
8receiving diversity signal9$
829 #y1rid diversity:
#y1rid space diversity is a common receiving mode of t&e PD# microwave
system 8one transceiver unit &as one transmitter and one receiver9$ One station
uses one antenna 8one antenna can receive and transmit two main signals9
and t&e ot&er station uses two antennas 8eac& can receive and transmit one
main signal9$
8'9 %on"standard space diversity:
%on"standard space diversity is also a common receiving mode of t&e PD#
microwave system 8one transceiver unit &as one transmitter and one receiver9$
+ac& station uses two antennas 8one antenna can receive and transmit one
main signal9$
0igure 3$- is t&e s=etc& map of common space diversity in engineering design:
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0igure3$- Classification of space diversity
--& Compound Mode o3 Diversit( 'ignals
:&ere are two modes to process receiving signals from different diversity pat&s:
switc&ing diversity and compound diversity$
/witc&ing diversity is to c&oose one of t&e two signal pat&s 1ased on ma<imum
signal"to"noise ratio or minimum 1it error rate$ Integrated diversity is to
compound two signals 1ased on certain rules$ (ased on different rulesE t&ere
are following compound modes: ma<imum power compound 8co"p&ase
compound9E ma<imum signal"to"noise ratio co"p&ase compound and minimum
c&romatic dispersion compound$ :&e advantages and disadvantages of eac&
diversity signal compound modes are descri1ed as follows:
89 /witc&ing Diversity
0or switc&ing diversityE in switc&ingE t&ere are pro1lems of amplitude and p&ase
;ump and waveform distortion$ :&is diversity mode is very simple and it is
mainly used in PD# microwave communication and normally reali7ed in
1ase1and$
829 Ma<imum Power Compound
It is also called co"p&ase compoundE t&is compound ignores fre4uency
selective fading and only considers t&e flat fading caused 1y multi"pat& effect$ It
is ineffective to en&ance receiving level$ :&is compound mode does not
consider separate signal"to"noise ratio of t&e two receiving signals$ If t&e
signal"to"noise ratios of t&e two pat&s are differentE t&e signal"to"noise ratio of
t&e compound signal may decrease$
Ma<imum power compound is easily reali7ed in I0$
8'9 Ma<imum /ignal"to"%oise .atio Co"P&ase Compound
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:o ensure optimal signal"to"noise ratio of t&e diversity receiving compound
signalE you can adopt ma<imum signal"to"noise ratio co"p&ase compound$ :&e
advantage is t&at w&en a receiving signal tends to 1e 0E t&e signal"to"noise
ratio of t&e compound signal is not less t&an t&e signal"to"noise ratio value
w&en single antenna is used to receive signals$
8!9 Minimum C&romatic Dispersion Compound
In t&e condition of wide1and modulationE fre4uency selective fading cannot 1e
ignored for its influence is even more serious t&an flat fading$ 5t t&is timeE t&e
main o1;ective of space diversity is to overcome fre4uency selective fading and
t&us minimum c&romatic dispersion is adopted$
:&e disadvantage of minimum c&romatic dispersion compound is t&at t&e
compound output power is less t&an t&at of co"p&ase compoundE w&ic& may
cause t&ermal noise to increase and deteriorate 1it error rate$
-0 Microwave $%uipment Protection Mode
CurrentlyE t&ere are two protection mode widely used in microwave e4uipment:
&itless switc& module 8#/M9 and &ot stand1y 8#/(9$ %ormallyE t&e two are
com1ined in use to protect microwave e4uipment$
-01 H'M
5s it is descri1ed previouslyE 0D and /D are c&annel 1ac=up$ ,&en t&e signal
of some c&annel is unavaila1leE it can 1e replaced 1y t&e signal of anot&er
c&annelE and at t&e receiving endE activeHstand1y c&annels switc&
independently$ 5fter demodulating .0 signalsE local I0 1oard not only sends
signals to its own multiple<ing module 1ut also sends one signal to t&e 1ac=up
I0 1oard$
Multiple<ing module selects and receives t&e signal of t&e 1est 4uality of all t&e
signalsE and t&en &itless switc& of t&e 1ase1and signal can 1e performed$
:ransmitting process of 0D and /D are t&e sameE 1ot& are cross dual fed$ :&e
difference isE w&en it is /DE ODU of t&e 1ac=up c&annel does not transmit
signals 1ut only receives signalsF w&en it is 0DE only an antenna is neededE and
t&e two ODUs transmits same services wit& different fre4uencies$
0igure3$0 #/M protection mode2sc&ematic
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-0" H'2
#/( is similar to L &ot stand1y of t&e cross"connect 1oard and /CC in
optical networ= e4uipmentE it reali7es t&e 1ac=up of I0 1oard and ODU to 1e
dual fed and selective receiving$ :&e receiving end completes selective
receiving at t&e cross"connect sideE and #/( can 1e mi<ed wit& 0D or /D to
provide protection$ %ormallyE cross"connect 1oard only receives one signal and
w&en t&is signal failsE t&e cross"connect 1oard is switc&ed to anot&er signal$
:&ereforeE #/( switc&ing may damage t&e service$
0igure3$ #/( protection mode2sc&ematic
:&ere are two ways to reali7e #/(:
5dd a &y1rider 1etween two ODUs and t&e antennaE and t&en you can
ac&ieve L #/( protection 1y using one antenna and use 0D tec&nology
at t&e same time$
Use two antennas to ac&ieve L #/( protection$ Jou can use 0D and /D
tec&nologies to improve system availa1ility$
/ee figure 3$2$

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0igure3$2 connection of single antenna and two antennas used in #/(
It s&ould 1e emp&asi7ed t&at #/M switc&ing is completed in I0 1oard and can
ac&ieve &itless switc&ingE w&ile #/( is completed in cross"connect 1oard and
may damage services$
-0& Classi3ication o3 Digital Microwave $%uipment Protection Modes
Classification of microwave e4uipment protection modes is s&own in ta1le 3$!$
L0 non"protection is t&at 1ot& receive and transmit ends use one IDU and one
ODU$ 0or connection of ot&er protection modesE see figures 3$'N3$6$
:a1le 3$! Classification of Digital Microwave +4uipment Protection
#on!iguration Protection mode )emark *pplication
1B0 7, 7on-0rotection
6erminal of the
net#or:
1B1 3S" 4&i0ment 0roteciton Intra-fre&ency
circits #here
distance %et#een the
stations is short
1B1 3S"B)2
Channel 0rotection;
e&i0ment 0rotection
Inter-fre&ency
Select 0ro0er mode
%ased on
geogra0hical
conditions and
cstomerCs
re&irement
1B1 3S"BS2
e&i0ment and antenna
0roteciton
Intra-fre&ency
1B1 )2BS2
0rotection of channel;
e&i0ment and antenna
Inter-fre&ency
7B1 )2
Channel 0rotection; e&i0ment
0rotection
Inter-fre&ency
3igh ca0acity
%ac:%one
transmission
0igure3$' #/(
0igure3$! #/(L0D
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0igure3$3 #/(L/D
In figure3$3E if fre4uency transmitted 1y eac& antenna is inter"fre4uencymE it
is#/(L/DL0D$
In figure3$6E Mn is t&e active c&annel and P is protection c&annel$ :&ey 1ot&
include independent demodulator and modulatorE receiving and transmitting
units$ ,&en failure or fading occurs to t&e active c&annelsE signals may 1e
switc&ed to stand1y c&annelsE c&annel 1ac=up is inter"fre4uency 1ac=up and
t&is protection mode 80D9 is mainly used in all indoor microwave e4uipment$
:&is protection mode is always called %L 8%c'E )E 9 protection and different
manufacturers support different specifications$
0igure3$6 %L
-! #nter3erence and Main Methods against #nter3erence
-!1 #nter3erence 'ource
Interference on t&e communication system is from all =inds of sources w&ic&
mainly are:
89 Circuits t&ermal noiseE w&ic& is caused 1y t&ermal distur1ance of t&e
electrons in conductor$
829 Inner noise of electric devicesE w&ic& is mainly caused 1y s&ot effect w&en
c&arges inside devices move discontinuously$
8'9 :&ermal radiation noise of o1;ects 8including a1sorption noise9 w&ic& is
caused 1y t&ermal radiation of o1;ects$
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8!9 /pace interferenceE a noise radiation from universal o1;ects
839 5tmosp&eric noiseE w&ic& is caused 1y electric disc&arge in t&e atmosp&ere
and is in t&e s&ape of pulse$
869 Industry interferenceE electric radiation from electrical e4uipmentE suc& as
electrical spar= interference$
8)9 .adio station interferenceE signal radiation from ot&er radio stations$
8*9 5ll =inds of interference produced inside receiverE suc& as alternating
current &umE compounding noiseE micro"p&onic effectE non"linear result and
oscillator p&ase ;itter and so on$
-!" 2asic Methods o3 Communication '(stem against #nter3erence
Ma;or factors t&at affect communication 4uality are defects 8including failure9 in
e4uipment and interference$ Buality of communication e4uipment can 1e
improved under t&e development of scientific tec&nology$ (ut interference
always e<ists and it is accelerated to some e<tent w&en t&e electric e4uipment
is widely used$ Influence of interference on communications is increasingly
aggravated$ :&us it 1ecomes more crucial to prevent communication systems
against interference$
5nti"interference in communication systems already 1ecomes a speciali7ed
su1;ect w&ic& attracts a great deal of sc&olars and engineers$ CurrentlyE
researc& on communication tec&nology is always researc& on t&e anti"
interference tec&nology 8or closely related to anti"interference tec&nology9$
/ummari7ing e<isting anti"interference met&odsE t&e 1asic met&ods are:
89 5mplifying t&e power of transmitting signalsF improving t&e level of input
signals of t&e receiving end
:&is met&od is very effective 1ut limited 1y many aspects suc& as e4uipment
si7eE weig&t and power"consumption 4uantity$ In additionE amplifying
transmitting power may aggravate interference on ot&er radio stations or lines$
:&ereforeE radio management administrations always set strict limitations on
t&e ma<imum transmitting power of stations$
829 Using directional antenna to conduct space selection
Directional antenna is good for improving t&e strengt& of availa1le signals and
it can suppress interference from ot&er directions on some particular &ig&"level
interference at t&e same time$ Jou can also use directional suppression
met&od to wea=en t&e strengt& of signals$ (ut comple< and &uge antennas are
always re4uired in t&is met&odE t&us t&e met&od is also limited to great e<tent$
8'9 Using narrow1and filterer to conduct fre4uency selection
:&is is t&e 1asic met&od to prevent communication systems against
interferenceE almost all t&e communication e4uipment adopt t&is met&od$
%arrow1and filterer is complicated in crafts$ ,&en wor=ing fre4uency is &ig&erE
satisfactory attenuation feature cannot 1e guaranteed$ :&ereforeE it s&ould
cooperate wit& ot&er anti"interference measures to ac&ieve re4uired anti"
interference performance$
8!9 Using correlator to conduct waveform selection
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If narrow1and filtering considered to 1e processing signals in t&e fre4uency
domain and t&en correlated receiving met&od is to process signals in t&e time
domain$ ,&en t&e input signal of correlator and t&e interference level are 1ot&
very low to ensure correlator is under linear wor=ing statusE its anti"interference
a1ility is always superior to narrow1and filtering$ :&usE t&is met&od attracts
more and more attention$ #oweverE w&en input interference level e<ceeds t&e
linear wor=ing area of correlatorE anti"interference performance may o1viously
degrade$ :&ereforeE it is always used toget&er wit& narrow1and filtering$
839 Improving modulation and demodulation
(ased on different features of interferenceE narrow1and modulation 8suc& as
single side1and modulation9E wide1and modulation 8suc& as fre4uency
modulation9E fre4uency"e<panding communication tec&nology and digital
modulation tec&nology are used to improve anti"interference a1ility$ :ec&nology
of t&is aspect is rapidly developed now$
869 Using error correction and detection tec&nology to c&ec= errors
:&is is an effective anti"interference measure w&ic& is developed in digital
communication tec&nologyE and it is greatly used in communication systems
t&at &ave strict re4uirement for relia1ility$
-+ Conclusion
:&is c&apter first descri1es t&e fading of digital microwave transmission and
o1;ectivesE classifications and evaluation of measures against fadingE and t&en
e<plains t&eories and features of anti"fading tec&nologies related to microwave
e4uipmentE diversity tec&nologies related to systemsE and protection modes of
microwave e4uipmentE at lastE it introduces t&e interference in microwave
propagation and main anti"interference met&ods$
Have a thin*7
89 O1;ectivesE classifications and evaluation of measures against digital
microwave fading
829 Principles and features of tec&nologies related to protect e4uipment
8'9 Diversity
8!9 Protection modes of microwave e4uipment
839 Interference and main met&ods against interference
Diversity is very importantF you s&ould pay more attention to t&is section$
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0 2asis o3 Designing a Microwave Transmission
Line
O56ectives
>aster the re9uirement on the designing a microwave transmission line
8o understand the classification of cross/section
8o #now the priciples and methods of designing a microwave transmission line
01 2asis o3 Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
011 Re%uirement on a Microwave Transmission Line
(ecause t&e microwave is a s&ort wave and &as wea= a1ility of diffractionE t&e
normal communication can 1e reali7ed in t&e line"of"sig&t transmission wit&out
o1stacles$ In t&e microwave transmissionE t&e transmit power is very smallE
only t&e antenna in t&e accurate direction can reali7e t&e communication$ 0or
t&e communication of long distanceE use t&e antenna of greater diameter or
increase t&e transmit power$
01" O56ective o3 Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
In common geograp&ical conditionsE it is recommended t&at t&ere 1e no
o1stacles wit&in t&e first 0resnel 7one if @ is e4ual to !H'$
,&en t&e microwave transmission line passes t&e water surface or t&e desert
areaE it is recommended t&at t&ere are no o1stacles wit&in t&e first 0resnel
7one if @ is e4ual to $
01& Transmission Clearance
5ctual microwave propagation may 1e 1loc=ed 1y 1uildingsE trees and
mountains$ If o1stacles are &ig& enoug& to enter t&e first 0resnel 7oneE
additional loss is caused and t&e receiving level decreasesE and t&en t&e
transmission 4uality is affected$ :o avoid t&e p&enomenonE t&e clearance is
introduced$
:&e vertical distance from t&e o1stacle to line section AB is called clearance of
t&e o1stacle in t&e pat&E and line section hc t&at is vertical to t&e ground is
used to indicate t&e clearanceE see figure 6$$ If t&e first 0resnel diameter of
t&is point is 0E hc/F1 is t&e relative clearance of t&is point$
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0igure6$ Definition of clearance2sc&ematic
01&1 Loss caused 5( Ani3e.edge O5stacles on the Path
In actual microwave pro;ectE =nife"edge o1stacles always 1loc= t&e
transmission pat&$ :&e =nife"edge o1stacles cannot 1loc= all t&e 0resnel
7onesE at t&e receiving pointE t&ere is only partial 0resnel 7one energy is
diffracted and ma=e t&e receiving point &ave somew&at level$ :&e level must
1e lower t&an t&at in t&e free space$ Loss caused 1y t&e =nife"edge o1stacles
is called additional loss$ ,&en t&e pea= of t&e o1stacle ;ust falls down on t&e
lin= 1etween t&e transmitting and receiving pointsE t&at isE # CR0E t&e additional
loss is 6 d($ ,&en t&e pea= of t&e o1stacle surpasses t&e lin= 1etween t&e two
pointsE t&e additional loss may rapidly increase$ ,&en t&e pea= of t&e o1stacle
is 1elow t&e lin= 1etween t&e two pointsE additional loss may vary slig&tly
around 0 d(E at t&is timeE t&e transmission loss 8or receiving level9 on t&e pat&
is close to t&at of t&e free space$
0igure6$2 Loss caused 1y =nife"edge o1stacle
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01&" Re3lection o3 /lat Terrain to $lectric 8aves
0lat terrain indicates t&at t&e eart& curvature is not considered and t&e terrain
1etween two points is considered to 1e flat$ In actual microwave
communication pro;ect linesE t&e receiving and transmitting antennas are
leveled to ma=e t&e receive end receive stronger direct waves$ (ut 1ased on
t&e #uygens t&eoryE some electric waves are always sent to t&e groundE
t&ereforeE at t&e receiving pointE 1esides t&e direct wavesE t&ere are reflected
waves reflected 1y t&e ground and meeting t&e reflection conditions 8angle of
arrival e4uals to angle of reflection9$ ,e can use t&e following geometrical
relations&ip to deduce t&e e<pression of virtual value of t&e composite field
strengt&$
If: transient value of field strengt& of direct wave is e<pressed 1y:
eR2
H2
+0cos]t
:ransient value of field strengt& of reflected wave is e<pressed 1y:
e2R2
H2
+0^cos 8]t"_"2U 8r2"r9 H29
In t&e two formulas:
e1, e2 are t&e transient values of field strengt& of direct wave and reflected
wave respectively$
E0 is t&e effective wave of t&e field strengt& of waves propagates in free space$
is t&e modulus of reflectance$
is t&e p&ase angle of reflectance 8w&en t&e angle of arrival formed 1y t&e
incoming wave and t&e ground are smallE _ is close to *0X9
r2-r1 is t&e progressive error of t&e field strengt& of reflected wave and t&e direct
wave$
(u deductionE t&e effective value of composite field strengt& is:
+R8+0
2
L+0
2
^
2
L2 +0
2
^CO/ 8_L2U 8r2"r9 HV9 9
H2
R+0 8L^
2
N2^CO/ 8_L2U 8r2"r9 HV9 9
H2

:&e ratio of composite field strengt& E to t&e field strengt& of free space is
called fading factor V w&en t&e ground influence is considered$ :&e V is
e<pressed 1y:
AR+H+0
R 8L^
2
N2^CO/ 8_L2U 8r2"r9 HV9 9
H2

+<pressed in d(:
A d(R20logA
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,&en t&e ground influence is consideredE t&e actual receiving level is:
P. 8d(m9 RP.0 8d(m9 LA d(

0igure6$' Influence of terrain on electric waves
01&& ;sing /resnel <one concept to anal(<e the in3luence o3
ground re3lection
,&en section distance d is longer t&an antenna &eig&t 8& and &29E t&e
progressive error of direct wave and ground reflection wave can 1e
appro<imately e<pressed 1y:
rRV 8#cH09
2
H2
,&en in figure6$' is very small 8t&at isE _ is close to *0X9E following
e<pression can 1e o1tained
AR TL^
2
L2^CO/ 8U 8&cH09
2
`
H2

:&is e<pression indicates t&e 4uantitative relations&ip 1etween fading factor A
and relative clearance &cH0$ In engineeringE curve indicating t&e relations&ip
1etween A and &cH0 is made to simplify t&e calculation of t&e additional loss
caused 1y ground reflection$
is related to ground conditionsE see figure6$!$
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0igure6$! .elation 1etween Ad( and &cH0
In t&e figureE Oreflection lossP indicates t&at compared wit& incoming waveE t&e
level t&at reflected wave attenuatesF it is e4ual to 20LO> and different from t&e
fading factor in terms of concept$
In figure6$!:
If ^RE t&e ground influence is consideredE w&en t&e receiving level e4uals to
t&e level of free space for t&e first timeE #cH0R0$3))$
If âE w&en t&e receiving level e4uals to t&e level of free space for t&e first
timeE #cH0R0$3))
,&en #cH0R0$3))E t&e clearance is called free space clearance w&ic& is
represented 1y #0$
It is e<pressed 1y:
#0R0$3))0R 8Vdd2Hd9
H2

01, Meaning o3 A Balue in Microwave Transmission Planning
:o ma=e t&e clearance cost"effective and reasona1le in t&e engineeringE t&e
&eig&t of t&e antenna s&ould 1e ad;usted according to t&e following
re4uirements$
In t&e case t&at ^ is not greater t&an 0$3E t&at isE for t&e circuit t&at passes t&e
area of small ground reflection factor li=e t&e mountainous areaE cityE and &illy
areaE to avoid over great diffractionE t&e &eig&t of t&e antenna s&ould 1e
ad;usted according to t&e following re4uirements:
,&en @ R 2H'E #C 0$'0 8for common o1stacles9
#C 0 8for =nife"s&aped o1stacles9
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:&e diffraction fading s&ould not 1e greater t&an * d( in t&is case$
In t&e case t&at ^ is greater t&an 0$)E t&at isE for t&e circuit t&at passes t&e area
of great ground reflection factor li=e t&e plain area and water reticulation areaE
to avoid over great reflection fadingE t&e &eig&t of t&e antenna s&ould 1e
ad;usted according to t&e following re4uirements
,&en @ R 2H'E #C 0$'0 8for common o1stacles9
#C 0 8for =nife"edged o1stacles9
,&en @ R !H'E #C 0
,&en @ R E #C $'30 8:&e deep fading occurs w&en #C R 3H2 0$9
If t&ese re4uirements cannot 1e metE c&ange t&e &eig&t of t&e antenna or t&e
route$
01- Cross 'ection and 'tation Distance
89 Cross /ection
Cross section of relay section of digital microwave relay communication system
can 1e classified into four types 1ased on terrainsE weat&er conditionE antenna
&eig&t and electric wave propagation$
:ype 5:
:&e cross section consists of mountainsE city 1uildings or com1ination of t&e
twoE wit&out wide valleys and la=es lying 1etween$ :&e e4uivalent ground
reflection coefficient of t&is cross section is less t&an 0$3E t&at isE t&e decrease
of receiving level caused 1y ground reflection wave is not more t&an 6 d($ 5t
t&e same timeE if t&e cross section &as no wide valley and la=es lying 1etween
and t&e gas is dryF multi"pat& fading is unli=ely caused 1y gas non"
&omogeneous layer$ 0or e<ampleE t&e cross sectionE in t&e area w&ere
reflection mig&t 1e causedE wit& dry weat&er and consisting of =nife"edge
mountains wit& fluctuations more t&an 20mE and t&e cross section of &illy
areasE w&ere t&e elevation angle of electrical wave 1eam is larger t&an 0$3 and
antennas at t&e two ends are 4uite different in &eig&tE 1ot& 1elong to type 5$
:ype (
:&e cross section consists of &illy areas wit& tiny fluctuationsE wit&out wide
valleys and la=es lying 1etween$ :&e e4uivalent ground reflection coefficient of
t&is cross section is less t&an 0$)E t&at isE t&e decrease of receiving level
caused 1y ground reflection wave is less t&an 0 d(E and t&is coefficient
cannot 1e neglected$ :&oug& t&ere are no wide valleys and la=es lying
1etween and weat&er is dryE due to tiny fluctuationsE pro1a1ility of multi"pat&
fading caused 1y gas non"&omogeneous layer cannot 1e neglected$ 0or
e<ampleE cross section wit& dry weat&er consisting of fluctuated &illy areas
w&ic& may cause reflectionE and plains lines w&ere t&e weat&er is dry and t&e
&eig&ts of antennas are every differentE 1ot& 1elong to cross section of type ($
:ype C
Cross section of type C consists of flat grounds and water reticulationsE and it
refers to &umid cross section wit& many flat groundsE water reticulations and
e4ual grounding reflectance not less t&an 0$)$ 0or cross section of t&is typeE
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due to t&e grounding reflected waveE receiving level undergoes a decrease of
more t&an 0 d($ 5nd 1ecause t&ere are many water reticulations and t&e
weat&er is &umidE multi"pat& fading caused 1y gas non"&omogeneous layer is
serious$ 0or e<ampleE flat ground linesE w&ere t&e &eig&ts of t&e antennas are
not so different and e4ual grounding reflectance is more t&an 0$)E 1elong to
cross connection of type C$
:ype D
Cross section of type D is cross"water circuits along coastal pat&s$ 0ading
caused 1y water reflection and gas non"&omogeneous layer is more serious
t&an cross sections of type 5E ( and C$ it is a very 1ad cross section seriously
affecting electric wave transmission sta1ility$
In conclusionE t&e feature of cross section is mainly depending on t&e influence
of grounding reflection and gas non"&omogeneous layer on t&e electric wave
transmission$ :&e two factors result in multi"pat& transmission of electric wave
1eamsE cause fre4uency selective fading of t&e receiving signal level at t&e
receiving endE and t&ey seriously affect digital microwave especially t&e digital
microwave system wit& &ig&er capa1ility and multiple level modulations$ On
one &andE t&e two factors can give rise to waveform distortion to t&e digital
signals ma=ing (+. deteriorate$ On t&e ot&er &andE t&ey reduce polari7ation
discrimination and increase t&e inter"c&annel interference of t&e system$
:&ereforeE to ensure t&e transmission 4uality of digital signalsE relay sections of
cross sections of type 5 and type ( s&ould 1e preferred and t&at of type C and
type D s&ould 1e avoided$
In line designE for t&e 1ad cross section and relay sections t&at seriously affect
transmission 4ualityE e4uali7ation measure and diversity receiving tec&nology
s&ould 1e adopted to overcome t&e influence of selective fading$
829 C&oosing /ite Distance
:&e site distance of digital microwave relay communication lines s&ould 1e
determined 1ased on parameters of e4uipmentE geograp&ical conditionsE
weat&erE antenna &eig&tE electric wave transmission and t&e tec&nology
measure t&at is adopted$
0or relay section wit& longer or s&orted site distanceE tec&nology measure
s&ould 1e adopted to ensure t&at t&e difference 1etween t&e free space
receiving level t&at t&e receiver inputs and t&e nominal value is not more t&an
' d($
0" Procedure 3or Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
Digital microwave relay line engineering design mainly includes t&ree aspects:
/electing routeE determining antenna &eig&tE clearance and calculating
receiving level
Determining fre4uency arrangement and polari7ation
+valuating t&e performance of circuit
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0"1 'electing the Route F 'ite
Principles o3 selecting route7
89 (ased on t&e features of line"of"sig&t microwave systemE t&e distance
1etween two sites must 1e wit&in t&e line of sig&t$
829 5void water surface and flat wide areaE to prevent deep fading caused 1y
strong reflection of t&e water surface and t&e ground$ If possi1leE select
fluctuated cross sections as t&e routesE and ma=e full use of t&e terrains$
8'9 If areas wit& strong reflection cannot 1e avoidedE ma=e antenna of one end
&ig&ly mounted and t&e ot&er lowly mountedE and t&e reflection point can fall on
t&e low end$ %ote: use o1stacles to prevent reflection waves$
8!9 :o ensure relia1le communicationE site distance s&ould not 1e too long$ 0or
microwave system wit& 6N*>#E control it 1etween '0 =m and 30 =m$ /pecific
distance s&ould 1e 1ased on actual cross section$
839 0or microwave 1ac=1one adopts two"fre4uency systemE try to avoid cross"
station interferenceE and t&e circuit s&ould 1e 7ig7ag arranged$
869 .oute selection s&ould 1e 1ased on t&e construction sc&eme of
transmission networ=E and suggestions of construction organi7ation and t&e
e<isting siting 8site position9 s&ould 1e considered$
Principles o3 selecting site7
89 :&e site s&ould 1e located at t&e place w&ere t&e transportation is
convenient and relia1le power supply is availa1leE rat&er t&an t&e place t&at is
too remote or isolated$
829 +nvironment around t&e site s&ould 1e safe$ Jou must not locate t&e site at
potential mineral mountain areasE ancient relics and flood"1eaten areas$
8'9 :&e site s&ould 1e located at t&e place w&ere t&e soil is &omogeneous
rat&er t&an fault areasE edge of eart& slopeE ancient watercourse and places
wit& potential land slip and slide$ 0or eart&4ua=e"sensitive areasE locate t&e site
at t&e place favora1le against eart&4ua=e$
8!9 +nvironment of t&e site s&ould 1e 4uiet$ :&e site s&ould not 1e located at
t&e place t&at near industrial factories w&ic& emanates &armful gasesE dustE
smog and ot&er &a7ardous su1stances$
839 /ite s&ould meet t&e re4uirements of communication securityE and firefig&t$
Methods o3 selecting routes
89 Indoor line selection
:&e ma;or tas= of indoor line selection is to provide route sc&eme 1y drawing a
mapE to guide on"site survey$
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On a map 8written or electronic9 of H300000E determine t&e general layout
of t&e circuit and t&e possi1le positions of addingHdropping circuits$
On a military map of H30000E from one terminal station to anot&er terminal
stationE determine t&e site of teac& middle station 1y carefully calculation
and t&en draw a complete circuit$
List t&e 1asic data of eac& station and eac& relay sectionE draw landform
profileE calculate t&e antenna &eig&ts of eac& station and c&ec= electric
wave propagationE and t&en determine t&e tower &eig&t$
/elect two or more routesE tec&nically and economically compare t&e
routes in an overall viewE and t&en determine t&e optimal route$ 0or eac&
siteE two optional places s&ould 1e providedE and t&en engineers can
c&oose during on"site survey$
829 On"site inspection and survey
In surveyE c&ec= t&e transportationE living conditionE geological conditionE
weat&er condition of t&e entire lineF c&ec= w&et&er t&e actual layout is
contradictory to t&e mapE and w&et&er t&e local construction plan is
contradictory to t&e site plan$ (ased on t&ese materialsE review t&e indoor line
selection w&ic& may lay t&e 1asis for ne<t design tas=$
5fter t&e survey is doneE electrical test is always conductedE 1ut it is not
indispensa1le$ 5ccording to t&e previous e<perience accumulated in similar line
designE if new line cannot 1e estimatedE electrical test s&ould 1e conducted$
0inallyE compare t&e microwave route sc&emes and ma=e a decision: first
c&ec= w&et&er t&e sc&eme meet tec&nical re4uirementsE secondE w&et&er t&e
sc&eme can assure availa1le living conditions and convenient maintenance$ If
sc&emes are up to t&ese two premisesE economically compare t&e sc&emes in
an overall view: total investmentE 4uantity of all t&e stations on t&e lineE stations
t&at need independent power supply rat&er t&an t&at from cityE total tower
&eig&tE lengt& of t&e routeE lengt& of t&e ca1leE and t&en ma=e t&e optimal
sc&eme$
0"" Determining Antenna Height
(ased on t&e route and sites determinedE determine t&e antenna mounting
&eig&t 1y calculating t&e clearance$ If space diversity is adoptedE t&e mounting
&eig&t of primary antenna and diversity antenna s&ould 1e determined$
Principles of determining antenna mounting &eig&t:
89 5ntenna mounting &eig&t s&ould meet t&e clearance re4uirement and t&ere
s&ould 1e no o1stacles near t&e antenna 8draw t&e profile and calculate t&e
clearance9$
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829 0or cross section of C and D typesE ma=e sure t&at &e reflection point does
not fall on t&e water surface or areas wit& larger reflectance or t&e reflected
wave can 1e prevented 1y o1stacles$
8'9 +nlarge t&e &eig&t difference 1etween t&e receiving and transmitting
antennasE w&ic& may 1e &elpful to reduce @"s&ape fading and c&annel"s&ape
fading$
8!9 #eig&t of antennas in microwave relay section s&ould 1e arranged in a
O&ig&2low2&ig&2lowP order$
839 If conditions are satisfiedE microwave antenna s&ould 1e lowly mounted to
save t&e cost$
0"& 'electing Microwave 2and and Con3iguring Polari<ation
'electing Microwave 2and
In selecting microwave 1andE system transmission capacityE communication
networ= planE t&e status 4uo of t&e communication lines already 1uilt and t&e
local conditions s&ould 1e considered$
(asic principles of selecting microwave 1and:
89 0or PD# microwave circuit of long site distance 8generally longer t&an 3
=m9E * >#7 fre4uency is recommended$ If t&e site distance is not more t&an 23
=mE >#7 fre4uency is recommended$ 0re4uencies s&ould 1e determined
1ased on local weat&er condition and microwave transmission cross section$
829 0or PD# microwave circuit of s&ort site distance 8generally t&e access
layerE wit&in 0 =m9E fre4uencies of >#7E '>#7E !>#7E 3>#7 and *>#7
can 1e adopted$
8'9 0or /D# microwave circuit wit& long site distance 8generally longer t&an 3
=m9E fre4uencies of 3 >#7E 6 >#7E ) >#7 and * >#7 are recommended$ If t&e
site distance is not more t&an 20 =mE fre4uency of >#7 is optional$
0re4uencies s&ould 1e c&osen 1ased on t&e local weat&er and microwave
transmission cross section$
Arrangement o3 Microwave /re%uenc( and Polari<ation
1 /actors should 5e considered in 3re%uenc( arrangement
Microwave fre4uency arrangement involves transmitting and receiving
fre4uencies of all c&annels$ :&e 1asic principle of selecting fre4uency
arrangement met&od is to minimi7e interference in t&e system and ma<imi7e
fre4uency spectrum utili7ation$ 0ollowing factors s&ould 1e considered$
In a middle stationE a unidirectional c&annel s&ould use different
fre4uencies wit& enoug& spacing to receive and transmit signalsE to avoid
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t&at signals transmitted from t&is station are received 1y t&is station and
prevent normal signals received from 1eing interfered$
,&en many c&annels wor= at t&e same timeE fre4uencies of t&e ad;acent
c&annels must &ave enoug& spacing to avoid mutual interference$
:&e arrangement of t&e entire fre4uency spectrum must 1e compact to
ma=e t&e designated communication fre4uency can 1e economically used$
0or t&e construction of microwave antenna tower cost too muc&E system
wit& multiple c&annels s&ould use t&e same antenna$
" /re%uenc( Arrangement Method
89 :wo"fre4uency system and four"fre4uency system
:wo"fre4uency system: t&e transmitting fre4uencies of eac& middle station in
t&e two directions are t&e sameE and so are t&e receiving fre4uencies$ (ut
transmitting fre4uency and receiving fre4uency c&anges station 1y station$
5dvantages: narrow fre4uency 1and occupiedF &ig& fre4uency spectrum
utili7ation$ Disadvantages: t&e transmitter of a direction can receive co"
fre4uency interference signal from t&e opposite direction and t&e antenna
s&ould 1e &ig&ly defensive towards t&e opposite direction to reduce signals
from t&e opposite direction attenuated 63N)3d( or more t&an t&e signals from
rig&t a&ead$ If t&e system &as 5:PC functionE re4uirement for t&e antenna can
1e lowered$
0our"fre4uency system: eac& middle station uses four fre4uencies to receive
and transmit signalsE t&usE four"fre4uency system is not trou1led 1y opposite
receiving interference and t&e antenna can 1e less defensive towards t&e
opposite direction$ (ut four"fre4uency system occupies fre4uency 1and one
time wider t&an two"fre4uency system$
Co"fre4uency interferenceE t&at isE cross"station interferenceE may occur to t&e
two systems$ :o avoid cross"station interferenceE t&e site positions must 1e
7ig7ag"s&aped w&en designing t&e lines$
0ollowing figure s&ows fre4uency arrangements of two"fre4uency and four"
fre4uency systems$
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0igure 6$3 fre4uency arrangements of two"fre4uency and four"fre4uency
systems
829 #ig& /tation and Low /tation
(ased on t&e feature t&at t&e transmitting and receiving fre4uencies c&ange
station 1y stationE t&ere are two types of stations on t&e microwave line: one is
t&e station t&at t&e receiving fre4uency is &ig&er t&an transmitting fre4uencyE
called O&ig&P station$ :&e ot&er is t&e station t&at t&e receiving fre4uency is
lower t&an transmitting fre4uencyE called OlowP station$ #ig&Hlow station is
named 1ased on t&e receiving fre4uency$
0igure 6$6 #ig& and low stations
& Principles o3 Microwave 3re%uenc( and Polari<ation Arrangements
89 Digital microwave e4uipment of t&e same fre4uency 1and s&ould 1e
consistent in t&e station type w&en t&ey are co"locatedE and t&at of different
fre4uencies can 1e eit&er consistent or inconsistent in t&e station type w&en
t&ey are co"located$
829 Microwave system of access layer
a9 ,&en microwave e4uipment is co"located: fre4uency arrangement s&ould
adopt four"fre4uency systemE mainly for t&e sa=e of fre4uency
arrangement$ If two"fre4uency system is adoptedE &ig&"performance
antenna s&ould 1e used$
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19 ,&en microwave e4uipment is co"located: if t&ey use ad;acent
fre4uencies and t&e separation angle is less t&an 20XE t&e polari7ation
s&ould 1e reverse$
c9 0or long"&aul microwave system wit& &ig& fre4uency more t&an 0 >#7E
vertical polari7ation s&ould 1e preferred$
d9 Cross"station interference s&ould 1e considered in t&e arrangements of
fre4uency and polari7ation$
8'9 Microwave system of 1ac=1one layer
a9 0re4uency arrangement s&ould adopt two"fre4uency system
19 Microwave circuit s&ould 1e 7ig7ag arranged if possi1le to avoid cross"
station interference$
,&en t&e deflecting angle of t&e middle station is *0Xcâ '3XE two directions
can 1e in t&e same c&annelE 1ut t&e polari7ation s&ould 1e opposite$
,&en t&e deflecting angle of t&e middle station is '3Xc^c*0XE two directions
can 1e in t&e same c&annel and wit& same polari7ation$
,&en t&e deflecting angle of t&e middle station is â *0XE two directions
cannot 1e in t&e same c&annelE one s&ould 1e even and ot&er s&ould 1e oddE
1ut t&e polari7ation can 1e t&e same$
,&en t&e deflecting angle of t&e middle station is â 20XE two directions
cannot wor= in t&e same c&annelE one s&ould 1e odd and t&e ot&er s&ould 1e
even$ :&e polari7ation s&ould 1e opposite$
c9 :ypical polari7ation arrangement met&ods are as follows:
5lternate polari7ation every &opE w&ic& can reduce t&e ante"dorsal interference
of t&e antenna$
5lternate polari7ation every ot&er &opE w&ic& can reduce cross"station
interference$
0", Circuit Per3ormance $stimate
:&ere are two ways to estimate digital microwave line performance: one is
1ased on unavaila1ility degreeE estimate t&e unavaila1ility degree of t&e
transmission system caused 1y propagation fadingE e4uipment and power
supply fault$ Compare t&e estimate result wit& defined value to determine
w&et&er system design can meet t&e re4uirement$ 0or t&e estimate result of
t&e unavaila1ility degree caused 1y e4uipmentE power supply fault is relatively
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largeF it is not used in engineering design$ :&e ot&er is to determine w&et&er
interruption rate meet t&e inde< re4uirement 1ased on severe error second
8/+/9 or severe error second ratio 8/+/.9$ :&e interruption rate of t&e system
only needs to consider t&e influence of electric wave propagation fading$
0ollowing introduces t&e second met&od of estimate$
89 +stimate receiving level 1ased on transmitting powerE propagation lossE and
antenna gain$ Calculate fading margin 1ased on receiving level and receiving
t&res&old level$
829 +stimate transmission system interruption rate 1ased on fading marginE
fre4uency diversityE space diversity and selective fading marginE and determine
w&et&er it matc&es t&e inde< re4uirement of /+/H/+/.$
Determining threshold level7
89 0or PD# microwaveE 1it error performance parameter is esta1lis&ed 1ased
on (+. and t&e inde< system of setting second as t&e 1asic measurement
spacing$ :&ereforeE in engineering designE you only need to predict t&e
possi1ility of /+/. wit& 1it error ratio e<ceeding 0
"'
8t&at isE calculation of
interruption rate descri1ed in 2$2$!9
829 0or /D# microwaveE t&e error performance parameter is esta1lis&ed 1ased
on 1loc=s and 1loc= is set as t&e 1asic measurement spacing for inde< system$
:&e re4uirement of 1loc= is &ig&er t&an (+.F t&ereforeE in engineering designE
to predict t&e possi1ility of /+(/E you need to predict t&e possi1ility of (+.
e<ceeding 0
"3
N0
"!
of /+/.$

Comparison 1etween Calculation and :arget Aalue:
In actual engineering designE fading caused 1y gas a1sorption is not
considered and it is considered to 1e appro<imately flat fading$ 0re4uency
selective fading and t&e interruption rate caused 1y interference are
independent of eac& ot&er 8t&at isE coordinate effect coefficient
1 =
9$ 5t t&e
same timeE considered t&e difference 1etween actual receiving level and
t&eoretically calculated receiving levelE normallyE t&e circuit interruption rate
predicted s&ould 1e )N0d( less t&at t&e target valueE t&at isE 3 to 0 times$
/pecific times s&ould 1e 1ased on cross section$
0& Conclusion
:&is c&apter mainly descri1es microwave engineering design$ 0irstE it descri1es
t&e 1asis of designing a microwave transmission lineE t&e descri1e t&e deign
met&ods of routeE site and antenna &eig&tE and t&en t&e microwave fre4uency
selection and polari7ation configurationE lastE microwave circuit performance
estimate met&ods$
Have a thin*7
:&e re4uirement on t&e point"to"point line"of"sig&t communication
:&e o1;ective of designing a microwave transmission line
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:&e definitions of clearance and additional loss
:&e meaning of @ value in microwave transmission planning
#ow many type of cross"section for t&e microwave transmissionS 5nd w&at are
t&emS
#ow to design routeE site and antenna &eig&t in microwave engineering$
0re4uency selection and polari7ation configuration$
Microwave circuit performance estimate met&ods
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Digital Microwave Communication Principles

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is a surface usa1ility coefficientE w&ic& is decided 1y t&e

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0igure3$' Principle diagram of an I0 adaptive transverse e4uali7er

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