02.08.

30 - 010
1
Social skills
Communication
Communicating (1)
If we are to do our jobs properly, we must know about things like process
technology, process control, process equipment, technical maintenance, quality,
safety and so on. If we are to communicate with one another and work together
effectively, we also need to know about people. Obviously we all do to some
extent. But its like the difference between a motorist and a car mechanic. The
mechanic really knows about the workings of the car.
Its just the same with peoplethere is a big difference between what everyone
knows and what someone who has a real understanding of how people function
knows. In this lesson we will be looking at:
- the way people function;
- the factors that influence getting on with and working in a group;
- the elements that motivate and demotivate people.
This lesson covers basic knowledge of what makes people tick and how they are
influenced. We call this knowledge psychology when it relates to the individual,
and social psychology when were talking about human beings in groups.
You need this basic knowledge to communicate in the right way and work with
other people.
Contents of the lesson
1 Dealing with other people
2 Causes of behaviour
3 Personal factors
4 Situation-related factors
5 Interaction between individual and situation
6 Role-playing behaviour
7 Rules, standards and expectations
8 Role conflicts
9 Observing and assessing behaviour
10 The role of the employee
11 Behaviour and human needs
12 Behaviour, frustration and stress
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Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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Lesson
1. Dealing with other people
Anyone who has to deal and work with other people will influence the behaviour
of his colleagues to a greater or lesser degree, both individually and in the
context of the group. This comes very evidently to the fore in those cases where
the behaviour of people in a plant departs from the rules of the plant and the
wishes of the customer.
If we want to influence the behaviour of other people, we will have to start by
explaining and understanding the behaviour we have observed. In fact, we
frequently understand human behaviour simply by intuition, but this is often not
good enough. We will then have to try to discover the causes of the behaviour in
order to understand why someone is behaving in a particular way. Bear in mind
that we are never looking for a single causethere are almost always several
causes.
Behaviour is always dictated by a composite of different causes. There is often a
connection between these causes. If we can identify this connection, it is easier
to take the right action. In this context, you can in a sense compare human
behaviour with the operation of a piece of equipment or a machine. Nobody has
any problems with a machine that is operating well or a production process that
is running properly. However, as soon as there is a departure from this state of
affairs, as soon as there is a malfunctionin other words when the machine or
the process does not behave the way we want it towe will have to search
carefully and systematically for the cause of the problem.
Its much the same with human behaviour. As long as an individual working in
the plant behaves in an active and friendly way of his own accord, everything
will go smoothly.
However, should a change occurshould, for example, this individual lose
interest in his work, become more careless, start acting more aggressivelywe
will only be able to influence his behaviour in the right way if we discover the
causes of this change in his behaviour.
2. Causes of behaviour
When we pursue the question of the causes that determine human behaviour, we
find that we can sum up the two most obvious factors as follows:
- the persons temperament: his character, his disposition, his emotional life
and the intensity of his emotions, his wishes and his goals. Most of these are
innate, hereditary factors, although they can often be developed;
- the persons development: his upbringing, background and education, his
friends and acquaintances, his work, the group or groups he works with,
particular events that have made a deep impression on him, and so on.
- behaviour
- causes
- factors
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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If we examine this series more closely, we find that we can make a distinction
between:
a. factors that are directly related to the individual;
b. external factors that influence behaviour: the situation.
The causes that influence human behaviour can consequently be traced back to
the person and to his situation in an ongoing reciprocal interaction. We will start
by looking at the factors that are related primarily to the individual, and then go
on to examine the factors that relate to the situation.
Question 1
Are there often several causes for observed behaviour?
Question 2
What are the two most obvious factors that influence human behaviour?
3. Personal factors
If we ask ourselves what the motives might be for a particular course of action,
for example lighting a cigarette, taking out life assurance, buying a car, it
appears that there are three factors that play an important role:
- the person feels like doing it, has a need to do it: we refer to this as emotion;
- he has worked out reasons, looked at it sensibly; we refer to this as thinking,
thought;
- in part as a consequence of the first two factors he is aiming for a particular
goal, he chooses from various options and finally takes a decision; we refer
to this as wanting and call this will.
These three factors do not operate in isolation: each affects the others. We can
say that a person cannot think or want without his emotions being involved.
Conversely, his emotional life is inevitably affected by his thinking.
A hardened smoker finds it difficult to think objectively about the consequences
of smoking. If we tell him that smoking causes lung cancer, his addiction
(emotions) will lead him to reason (think) that smoking has a disinfectant effect
and makes him less susceptible to infectious diseases. His emotions have steered
his thoughts in a particular direction, which will now govern his behaviour.
Reassured, he carries on smoking.
Continuing to smoke now has an apparently rational basis. We describe this as
rationalisation.
This rationalisation of emotions is very common. We can deduce from this that
people cannot manage their emotional lives without reasoning.
- emotion
- thought
- will
- rationalisation
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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In observing human behaviour, which is always governed in part by thoughts
and emotions, we can now say:
a. Expression in the form of behaviour is sometimes primarily determined by
thought. In a debate on technical problems, where rational arguments
predominate, all sorts of emotional influences will also play a role. People
may, for instance, regard a workmate as an a or a good craftsman. These
emotions will certainly have an effect on their thinking.
b. Sometimes behaviour is dictated primarily by the emotions. This comes to
the fore most clearly when the more extreme forms of emotions are a factor
in behaviour. We have only to think of emotions like fear, anger and grief.
We often see that the same emotions are aroused in the other person in response
to this sort of emotional behaviour. This can be the start of a serious row or lead
to conflicts.
Someone becomes irritated, gets angry, loses his temper, bangs his fist on the
table. His boss feels that he cant put up with this, and he too starts banging on
the table.
It is in precisely this sort of emotional situation that the people involved will
have to try to keep their emotions under control. In our example there would be
little point in the bosss trying quietly to reason with the employee in an attempt
to get him to understand that his complaint is unfounded. The behaviour of this
employee is not being dictated by his intellect but by his emotions, and these
emotions are blocking his ability to use his brains properly.
The boss would do better to exert a beneficial influence over someones
behaviour by responding with other emotions:
- calm versus anger;
- self-confidence versus fear, uncertainty.
In practice we often form a snap judgement about someones behaviour. We
often take action based on the observable behaviour, based on the fact as we
see it, without sufficiently investigating the causes that have led to this
behaviour.
Example
One of the jobs of the apprentice bench hands in a workshop was to keep the
area around their lathes clean. One of the apprentices had set his machine to
automatic so that he could sweep up the cuttings around his lathe. As he took his
eyes off the piece he was working on for a moment, one of his colleagues
switched his lathe off. Without commenting, he started it up again. Later on, the
same thing happened for the second time. He decided to watch out and see who
was doing this. Shortly afterwards, spotting a strange hand on the switch, he
spun around and hit the culprit on the head with his broom. The instructor
came along at precisely that moment. He had the victim taken to the first aid
post, while the person who had lashed out was suspended. When an
investigation brought the full facts to light, the suspension was commuted into a
less severe punishment, and the real guilty party was also reprimanded.
- emotional
behaviour
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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As this example shows, the action taken on the grounds of the fact that the
young man had hit out with a broom was not actually the fairest response. We
see that behaviour is not only affected by the individuals personal
characteristicsin this case his temperbut is also strongly influenced by the
situation in which the individual finds himself.
Question 3
What is rationalisation?
4. Situation-related factors
The capacity in which each individual operates, particularly in terms of the
effects on his behaviour, can be broken down into three situations:
Private situation
Marital status, number of children, illness, the childrens education or jobs,
membership of clubs and societies, dealings with friends and neighbourswhat
do they think about the job a person doesand so on.
Work situation
Some of the important points relating to the work situation are:
- The type of work a person does;
- How this job is regarded and perceived;
- Whether the individual is able to use and develop his personal qualities in
this work situation;
- His position in the work group;
- What his colleagues and his boss think of him;
- His relationship with his colleagues and people in other groups.
Social situation
Society expects us to behave according to certain standards because of the job
we do. We have to obey certain ruleswe call these social standards. We
would, for instance, expect a security officer to behave in a particular way
always doing things the proper way, at home as well as at work, whether he is in
uniform or dressed as civilian. A doctor will have to play his role in the right
way, and the same thing applies to the baker, to the insurance agent and to
someone who works for a large organisation.
5. Interaction between individual and situation
If we want to understand human behaviour in order to be able to communicate
effectively with other people, we will have to know more about the individual,
his emotional life, his experiences and disposition, and the situationall of
which influence his behaviour.
- private situation
- work situation
- social situation
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So far we have looked separately at a number of factors that relate to the
individual, and then at factors in the situation. This could give the impression
that these two behavioural factors also occur separately. In fact, however, human
behaviour is governed by an ongoing interaction between the individual and the
situation.
5616-010-001
Figure 1
Behaviour as an interaction between individual and situation
Every individual is always reacting to and in a given situation. The situation has
an effect on the individual. Sometimes the individual is stronger; sometimes,
however, the situation has a decisive effect on his behaviour.
Example
Someone is doing a job in which he has the opportunity to grow and develop. He
is transferred to a department where, in his view, personal development is not
possible. He may react in one of two ways.
He can endeavour to control the situation himself and, by making a considerable
effort, try to change the job so that it acquires greater content.
He can allow himself to be overwhelmed by the situation, he may start to lose
interest and behave as if he doesnt care any more.
5616-010-002
Figure 2
Behaviour as a result of emphasising individual or situation
Situation
Another very important factor in this interaction is the way in which we
ourselves perceive, explain and experience the situation. The individual can
explain a situation in his own way and will then act according to this view.
Conclusion
If we want to understand behaviour, we will have to take a great many factors
into consideration. This is no easy matter for someone who finds himself in a
new environment. As time passes, initial intuitive human knowledge will be
augmented by knowledge gained through regular discussionsboth individually
and in the context of the groupand a lot of incomprehensible behaviour will
become easier to understand. We will know more about the individual and his
situation, while at the same time we get to know the customs and the atmosphere
in the group.
- interaction
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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Question 4
Is the influence an individual exercises on the situation often equal to the
influence of the situation on the individual?
6. Role-playing behaviour
Human behaviour is governed by factors that are directly related to the
individual and by outside factors that influence behaviourthe situation.
We could also say that behaviour is governed in part by:
a. individual freedom: everyone has his own free will, his own nature, his own
emotional life, and his own needs;
b. social constraints: our behaviour is very strongly governed by the social
environment in which we live.
Individual freedom and social constraints cannot be separated in terms of their
effect on behaviour. Behaviour is always the result of strictly psychological
factors (individual) in an interaction with socio-psychological factors (the
group).
People do not behave towards other people in a random fashion as they see fit.
An individual is never entirely himself in the way he behaves with other people
and he cannot always do what he personally would like to do. It could be said
that the individual is playing a particular role. This is referred to as role-
playing behaviour.
7. Rules, standards and expectations
Human behaviourrole-playing behaviour, in other wordsis largely
determined by the position someone occupies in social interactions at any given
moment, particularly since each position has its own more or less individual
system of rules and laws, standards and expectations attached to it.
5616-010-003
Figure 3
Determining role-playing behaviour
How do we define rules and laws, standards and expectations?
Rules and laws are particular regulationscommandments and prohibitionsto
which we have to conform. The way we behave when were driving is governed
by road traffic laws.
If we dont obey the law, if we dont play the right role, we run the risk not
only of having an accident but also of getting a ticket. What we are dealing with
here is a duty to play a particular role.
- psychological
factors
- socio-
psychological
factors
- role-playing
behaviour
- rules and laws
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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Standards are views as to how we should or should not behave: the unwritten
rules and laws. In any company, we abide by these unwritten rules and laws far
more than we realise.
Expectations are views about how the other person should behave. If two
colleagues run into one another in the street they will greet each other. This after
all is a standard related to the relationship of being colleaguesyou should greet
someone you work with. We would also expect the other person to greet us in
this situation.
In the plant we see that our behaviour is very strongly influenced by rules and
laws, standards and expectations. You have only to think about all the
regulations, bye-laws, rules and instructions relating to things like safety, the
environment, working practices, leave requests and reporting sick.
The rules and laws, standards and expectations make us more socially
constrained in our behaviour, and our personal freedom of action is limited.
As a rule we are comfortable with these social constraints. On the one hand they
give us a sense of security, we enjoy a degree of protection and support. On the
other hand, the system of laws, standards and expectations has a highly
structuring effect. After all, we know where we stand and what we have to do. In
many cases we also know how another person will behave.
To sum up, every position has a number of rules, laws, standards and
expectations attached to it. We consequently expect a particular type of
behaviour from every individual in a given position.
Example
Compare the expected pattern of behaviour of a police officer and a stallholder
in a market. We would expect the policeman to be smartly dressed, helpful, not
walking around with his hands in his pockets, and so on.
We would usually expect a market trader to behave differently. He is the man
with the scarf round his neck and the cloth cap, shouting his wares.
Just imagine if a policeman were to behave like a stallholder ... or vice versa!
Its simply impossible.
Before we take up a given position, we will have to know what this position is.
We will have to know what other people think about this positionwhat they
expect of the person who occupies it. Only then will we be able to play our role
in the most appropriate way.
Question 5
How are rules and laws, standards and expectations generally perceived?
- standards
- expectations
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8. Role conflicts
If a role conflicts with an individuals character, this can give rise to a role
conflict. Uncertainty about the expected role pattern leads to uncertainty when it
comes to filling the position. The result may be an inner conflict.
The situations in which role conflicts can occur include creating new tasks, jobs
and occupations, for instance the new demands that a changed job description
makes on us.
Example
A new boss is moved into a department or someone takes a specialist job. If the
individual himself is not aware of what people expect of him, this can lead to an
inner role conflict. If the people who will be working with him are likewise not
familiar with what the job entails, and consequently dont know what to expect
of the person doing the job, this can give rise to role conflicts in the department.
Another aspect is that we sometimes have to play not one but several roles at the
same time. This depends on the number and diversity of the relationships in
which we are operating.
In the plant we are, at one and the same time, an employee, a workmate and a
subordinate. At the same time we are a husband and father, or a bachelor, etc.
These are five roles altogether. Each functional relationship calls for a different
role and a different form of behaviour.
Example
A young man, an employee ... From one and the same positiona worker in the
grouphe will play various roles. Think about his relationships with his boss,
his colleagues, people in other departments and so on.
On the way home, he ceases to be an employee and becomes the person on the
bus or train who gives up his seat to the pretty girl or the old manhe plays his
role as befits his age and sex.
If this is not in his character or he has not been brought up to behave in this way,
while his environment expects it of him, it can lead to a role conflict.
If we are not flexible enough to constantly shift gear into a new relationship, we
can easily find ourselves in conflictwith ourselves and with other people. We
call these role conflicts.
9. Observing and assessing behaviour
One of the difficulties in assessing human behaviour in work situations is that
the boss generally only sees his employee in one particular role, i.e. that of an
employee in a particular job.
If we want to get to know a workmate better, we need to be able to observe him
in different situations and in different roles. This means that the boss will try, by
having regular conversations with the employee, to get a more complete picture
of the probable role he plays.
- role conflict
- flexibility in roles
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During group discussions we can observe someone else in his role as the silent
figure or the dominant character, as the driving force, as the destructive critic, or
in other roles.
With the images of people that we build up in this way as the background, we
are in a better position to understand their behaviour. We will also always have
to bear in mind the question as to how well we want to get to know the person
and the extent to which this is desirable and useful. The most important goal,
after all, is to understand the individual as well as possible in terms of the way
he behaves at work.
As we have seen, behaviour is governed not only by the social constraints (social
role-playing) but also by individual freedom (personal role-playing).
Always remember that each individual will interpret his social role more or less
in his own way.
10. The role of the employee
In the case of an employee, on the one hand his role is prescribed not only by
company, working and safety rules, but also by the unwritten rules of the
company, geographical area and era. On the other hand, he will have to be able
to be himself in his job. There can be a significant difference between someones
personal views of the employees role and the social role expectations arising
out of corporate policy. If the employee nonetheless does his job in accordance
with the social role expectation, there will be artificiality. The employee will
be acting a part. This usually causes tension, which can in turn spark off
conflicts. In the specific work situation, the employees individual temperament,
character and personality are the decisive factors. These aspects can be
influenced. Education and training can help here.
Question 6
Why is it a good thing to observe people in different roles?
11. Behaviour and human needs
If we were to ask someone whether he knows the people he deals with every
day, he would most probably tell us that he does. I know them very well, I
know exactly where I am with them. In fact, a statement like this tells us that
every individual has a particular image of the behaviour, attitude and actions of
the people with whom he is in regular contact. This image is formed because we
have observed a more or less constant pattern of behaviour on the part of the
other person. As long as the attitude, the actions and the behaviour of the other
person correspond to the image that we have of himin other words, they
remain consistent with our expectations in respect of his behaviourthen there
is, at least outwardly, no problem.
There are, however, instances when the behaviour we observe is not in line with
what we expect. Our reaction then is often along the lines of Id never have
expected it of him, or I dont know whats got into him.
- understanding
behaviour
- unwritten rules
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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Human needs
The question then is what leads people to behave in a way other than that which
we could reasonably have expected of them. We will discuss this against the
background of the theory of human needs.
a. biological needs
Biological needs vary from one individual to the next. They include:
- eating when you are hungry;
- drinking when you are thirsty;
- sleeping when you are tired;
- and so on.
If these needs are not satisfied or are not satisfied adequately, this will have
specific effects on behaviour:
- sleeplessness or fatigue: tension, lethargy, irritability;
- hunger and thirst: poor concentration.
b. social needs
These are needs that relate to an individual as part of a group. It is virtually
impossible to give anything like a complete summary of these needs. The
most important ones are probably:
- needs arising out of the situation in which we find ourselves at work:
good group, colleagues, boss and so on;
- self-respect, respect from others, appreciation, belonging;
- being taken seriously, one counts.
c. developmental needs
Developmental needs relate to the human urge to develop and to educate
oneself further.
We can make a distinction here between:
- me-feelings, the individuals own wishes and aspirations;
- responsibility and new, challenging work;
- opportunities for personal growth and development in the form of
education and training.
If social and developmental needs are not satisfied or are not satisfied
adequately, this can provoke one or more of the following reactions:
- dissatisfaction, demotivation;
- moaning, complaining, making unfair criticisms;
- illness, wanting to change jobs;
- compensating by constantly asking for pay rises;
- resisting change.
- needs
- me-feelings
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Example of human social and developmental needs
me-feelings at work outside work
appreciation good wages having a job and
financial prospects
security appropriate work aspirationsfor
children, for instance
social acceptance group bonding
good relationship with
management
social status
self-development work with more
responsibility
social positions
For the purposes of the diagram these individual needs have been arranged in
columns, but they are in fact strongly interlinked. These links are so intertwined
that we cannot fully understand the behaviour of people at work if we have no
idea about their aspirations outside work, or if we fail to pay attention to their
me-feelings.
We can, for instance, say that ambitions, needs and wants in the private sphere
are inextricably linked to the individual. When people come to work, they bring
all the facts, problems and experiences from their private lives with them.
The extent to which our desires outside work are met affects our behaviour, our
mood and our attitude at work. Conversely, all our experiences and aspirations at
work influence our behaviour outside work.
The way we behave at work is largely determined by the way we perceive our
job. What we think about our pay and our job group, what we still hope to
achieve, our level of aspiration, our relationship with the boss, with our
colleagues, and so onfactors that have a knock-on effect on our behaviour
when we are not at work.
Personal explanation of needs
In the diagram above we listed a number of needs that every individual tries to
satisfy. There is consequently not much point trying to compile a more or less
complete scale of needs. It is much more important to realise that:
a. every individual interprets these needs in his own way:
- to one person, security means staying with the same company for as
many years as possible, while to another it means holding a variety of
different functions;
- to one person, self-fulfilment means having responsibility, while to
another it means having power or being independent; yet a third will
seek it through the work itself, the opportunity to be creative.
b. every individual has his own priority of needs, his own ranking of
preferences in his scale of needs:
- to one person, being able to work creatively is more important than a
pay rise, while to another salary comes first;
- yet another will give priority to appreciation over group bonding,
while a fourth regards group bonding as being extremely important.
- private sphere
- interpretation of
needs
- priority of needs
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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Question 7
Why does each individual interpret needs in his own way?
12. Behaviour, frustration and stress
When we take everything we have discussed so far into account, it becomes
easier to understand the phenomenon of frustration. Every individual will
sometimes encounter problems in satisfying his social needs. These problems
may relate to his me-feelings, to situations at work or in his private life. So what
does it really mean when we have problems in respect of our needs? What it
boils down to, in fact, is that we get the feeling that something or someone is
standing in the way of our achieving a goal. Our path is, as it were, being
blocked. We are confronted with an obstacle.
5616-010-004
Figure 4
Blocking the satisfying of needs
How does someone behave in a situation like this?
The most natural response is to redouble his efforts to achieve the goal. This can
be described as positive behaviour with a rational basis.
Example
An individual realises that he is lagging behind his colleagues in terms of job
group and pay. If he accepts this fact soberly, openly, honestly and realistically,
without allowing his emotions to run away with him, he will then consider very
rationally what he needs to do to reach the same level as them, for example:
- study for a higher qualification;
- increase his input, work harder;
- take the initiative more often.
The obstacle is still there, but he is endeavouring to remove it himself by putting
in more effort.
5616-010-005
Figure 5
Removing the obstacle through greater personal effort
- frustration
- obstacle
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If the person in our example realises that this approach is not going to help him
achieve his goal, he will change tactics by reviewing the situation thoroughly in
the hope of finding another way of achieving his goal, for example by:
- reassessing the problem;
- looking for a solution;
- asking for a transfer;
- taking another course of study.
5616-010-006
Figure 6
Removing the obstacle by changing tactics
Suppose that all these efforts are in vain while at the same time the driving
force is so strong that the individual wants to achieve the goal (higher job
group, better pay) at any price, and there is no chance of escaping the situation.
This is when the phenomenon that we call frustration can occur. The stress is
then so great that the individuals behaviour is now governed not by achieving
the goal, but by his emotional state.
The driving forces may be:
a. outside influences, for example from family, partner or friends: how come
hes got that, and you havent?
b. inner drives, for example feelings of rivalry, envy. An inner conflict is set up
in the individual.
5616-010-007
Figure 7
Outside driving forces and inner drives
To sum up, we can say that frustration is likely when:
1 someone constantly fails to achieve his goal.
2 a. someone is continually being forced by others towards this goal or;
b. someone is continually being driven towards the goal by inner drives.
3 someone is in a situation where it is impossible to let off steam; this will
result in a stress situation.
Question 8
How may people react if obstacles block the achievement of their goals?
Social skills 02.08.30 - 010
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We cannot observe the frustration or the stress itself, but we can sometimes see
in the people around us a form of behaviour that can be an indication of
frustration. Generally speaking, we dont say hes frustrated, we say hes not
motivated. We thus regard not being frustrated as being more motivated.
Frustration or lack of motivation can be recognised from one or more forms of
behaviour: aggression, regression, fixation and resignation. We will now look
more closely at these types of behaviour.
Aggression
Aggression can show itself in different ways. In adults, aggression is usually
expressed verballyswearing, blowing your top, having a good old moan.
These forms of aggression are not so bad; everyone experiences them at some
time. After an expression of aggression the person concerned often starts co-
operating again in a constructive way. If aggression is related to frustration,
however, we can see a form of hostility in it, coupled with emotions of anger,
fury, spite and so on.
Symptoms of aggression at work:
- unfair criticism of the management;
- picking quarrels;
- not being able to get on with other people.
Regression
Regression is immature behaviour, in other words behaviour that is not
consistent with an individuals age and stage of development. It is going back to
more primitive and childish behaviour. Constructive attempts to solve a problem
are abandoned.
Normal people may occasionally regress when they are faced with a situation
for which they do not have a solutionlike the man who kicks his car because it
wont start!
Signs of regression at work:
- slavishly copying other people;
- lack of responsibility;
- inability to delegate;
- generalising.
Fixation
Fixation is a lack of flexibility in behaviour. Continuing to do something that has
in fact lost its value. The same action is repeated even though experience should
have taught the individual that it is pointless. This is the way we always did it.
Fixation is reflected in strong resistance to any form of change.
Resignation
Resignation means apathy, giving up. Frustration can lead to acceptance,
indifference. The spark has gone, we give up, we dont make the effort to reach
the goal, we cant be bothered. nothing will change in my time Im just
hanging on for my pension. All the bosses care about is getting themselves
promoted.
- motivation
- aggression
- regression
- fixation
- resignation
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When we observe this sort of behaviour, we cannot automatically assume that
frustration is the cause. It will take regular observation to discover what the
possibly frustrating situation might be.
Our natural reaction to aggression and resignation, which are the easiest to
spot, is to judge these people as being insubordinate and unsuitable.
Regression and fixation appear less malignant, but they are harder to detect.
We regard a person displaying regression and fixation as a nobody, a bloke
you cant get anywhere with.
However, there is no point in punishing these symptoms, because this will not
solve the problem. The cause of the problem will have to be discovered through
observation, and solved.
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Summary
Every human being has to deal with other people and has an effect on other
peoples behaviour. Human behaviour is governed by the individuals
disposition and development. There are factors that are directly related to the
individual, which are expressed in emotion, thinking and will, and factors that
relate to the individuals environment.
Humans have individual freedom but are also bound by social mores; they live
as social beings in at least two situationsthe work situation and the private
situation. An individual is present with his personality in each of these
situations. His behaviour is governed by his position in a particular situation and
by the rules and laws, standards and expectations that prevail in that situation.
People play different roles in different situations.
Every individual is driven, motivated by three types of needs: biological, social
and developmental.
If these needs are satisfied reasonably well the individual will be motivated. If
these needs are not satisfied, or not satisfied to a sufficient degree, this has a
demotivating effect. A person will judge the situation in his own entirely
individual way.
Obstacles to satisfying needs can lead to frustration and stress, as a result of
which the individual concerned may react with aggressive or regressive
behaviour, fixation or resignation. This behaviour is the consequence and not the
cause of the situations.
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Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction
1. What do people do, consciously or unconsciously, when they are dealing
with other people?
2. List and describe the three factors that play an important role in the way an
individual acts?
3. There are three situations in which every individual finds himself. List them
and given an example of each one.
4. What do you need to know to understand peoples behaviour better?
5. What do we mean by peoples role-playing behaviour and what influence
does an individuals position have on his role-playing behaviour?
6. Explain the differences between rules and laws, standards and expectations.
7. Which three main needs govern peoples behaviour? Give three examples of
each.
8. When does frustration occur?
9. What are the four types of behaviour in which we can recognise frustration?
Give a brief description of each type of behaviour.
Answers to the questions in the lesson
1. Yes, there may be several causes of the behaviour that is observed.
Behaviour is governed by a complex of different causes.
2. The two most obvious factors that influence human behaviour are:
- the persons temperament, including his character, his disposition, his
emotional life, his needs, his wishes and his goals;
- the persons development, including his upbringing, background and
education, his friends and acquaintances, his work.
3. Rationalisation is construing an explanation for emotionally motivated
behaviour, to conceal the emotional motives.
4. No, the influence a person can exert on the situation is often not equal to the
effect of the situation on the person.
Sometimes the individual is stronger; sometimes, however, the influence
of the situation will determine his behaviour.
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5. Rules and laws, standards and expectations restrict our personal freedom of
action. Our behaviour is consequently more socially constrained.
Generally speaking we perceive this social constraint as comfortable; it
provides security, protection and support.
6. If we can observe people in different roles (and in different situations), we
are in a better position to understand their behaviour.
7. Each individual interprets these needs in his own way, because these needs
have a different meaning for each individual and because everyone has his
own priority of needs.
8. If obstacles block the satisfaction of needs, the reaction may be:
- to increase the efforts to achieve the goal;
- to change tactics by reviewing the situation thoroughly; this reaction
often follows if the first reaction has produced little or no result.
Answers to the exercises
1. When we deal with other people we will to a greater or lesser degree,
consciously or unconsciously, influence their behaviour. This is why we try
to use our intuition to understand behaviour, but it often lets us down. We
must look for the causes of the behaviour.
2. Three factors that play an important part in the way people act are:
- emotion: the person feels like doing something, has a need to do it;
- thought: the person will work out reasons, look at things sensibly;
- will: the person is aiming for a particular goal and chooses from various
options.
These three factors do not operate in isolationthey influence one another.
3. Every individual finds himself in the following three situations:
1 Private situation.
Married or single, children, member of clubs or societies, family, friends
and neighbours, etc.
2 Work situation.
The job a person does, what other people think about this job,
opportunities to grow and develop, relations with colleagues and so on.
3 Social situations.
On the basis of the position we hold, society expects us to conform to
social norms.
Example: we expect an accountant to be correct and accurate.
4 To understand peoples behaviour better we will have to get to know a bit
more about the person, his emotional life, experiences and temperament. We
will also have to know about the situation that governs his behaviour.
We can also understand peoples behaviour better if we are able to observe
them in different situations and in different roles; this will give us a more
complete picture of that person.
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5 People cannot behave towards other people in a random fashion as they see
fit. They cannot always do what they personally would like to do and so they
are never entirely themselves. A person is thus playing a particular role.
This is referred to as role-playing behaviour.
Role-playing behaviour is largely governed by the position a person
occupies in society at a given moment. Rules and laws, standards and
expectations associated with the position will influence behaviour.
6 Rules and laws are particular regulations to which we have to conform.
Standards are views as to how we should or should not behave: the
unwritten rules and laws. Abiding by these rules is highly desirable but not
mandatory. The same applies to expectations, which are views about how
the other person should behave.
7 The three main types of needs governing human behaviour are:
a. biological needs; the primary needs.
For example: eating, drinking, sleeping.
b. social needs; human beings as part of a group.
For example: appreciation, counting, good relations with colleagues.
c. developmental needs; the urge to grow and develop.
For example: personal wishes, taking responsibility, education and
training.
8. Frustration may occur when someone wants to achieve a particular goal, but
all his attempts to do so are in vain. If the drive to achieve the goal is strong
enough, the person will become frustrated. The stress is so great that the
persons behaviour is no longer governed by the desire to achieve the goal
but by his emotional state.
9. Frustration is expressed in the following four types of behaviour:
a. Aggression: adopting a threatening attitude. Aggression can take various
forms, from letting off steam to attacking someone.
b. Regression: immature behaviour, in other words behaviour that is not
consistent with an individuals age and stage of development. It is more
primitive and childish behaviour.
c. Fixation: lack of flexibility in behaviour. Continuing to do something
that has in fact lost its value. The same action is repeated even though it
is pointless.
d. Resignation: apathy, giving up. We no longer make any effort to reach
the goal.
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Problems and assignments
Answer and send in for correction
1. Like every other individual, you have also been formed by your
temperament and development. Write a description of yourself so that you
create a clear picture of what you are like.
a. What are your talents, what are you good at?
b. What education have you had?
c. What experience have you had, what position(s) do you hold?
d. What conclusion do you draw from the answers to 1a, 1b and 1c?
2. In each case name three roles that you play in your:
a. private situation;
b. work situation;
c. social situation.
3. What is a role conflict?
Describe a situation in your work situation that does or could give rise to a
role conflict.
4. a. What, for you, in order of importance, are the five most important
factors in dealing with and working with other people?
b. Describe the above factors and indicate the extent to which they exist in
your work situation (not, somewhat, reasonably or strongly).
What could be changed in your work situation to increase your
motivation? List and describe three points.
5. There is a continual interaction between the individual and the situation.
This interaction governs behaviour. How do we define this interaction?
If different people are put into the same situation, the interaction will be
different for each individual. Explain this.