Chapter 2

PHYSIOPATHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT FOR PROTECTION
AGAINST FALLS
Maurice Amphoux
INTRODUCfION
When the possibility of standardizing personal equipment for protection against falls
was envisaged some years ago, it seemed necessary to go beyond the traditional view
of the problem, namely requiring that the components have mechanical strength
combined with a large safety coefficient. It was not sufficient to be sure of finding the
accident victim caught on the structure. It was apparently important to make sure of
finding him free of injury, or at least to try to minimize the consequences of the fall so
that wearing personal protection equipment would represent a significant and proven
benefit compared with free fall.
The problem thus raised meant finding, as a first step, the possible circumstances of
falls in the construction industry and the job requirements that had to be respected, so
that the recommended devices could be used.
Editorial note: This paper was first presented at the Specialist meeting 011 Personal Protective
Equipment Agaillst FaLls from heights held 011 March 17 to 19, 1982 ill Paris,
France. It was subsequently published ill its original, French version titled
"Protectioll individuelle cOlllre les chutes - Aspects physiopathologiques" ill
the collectioll of papers from the meeting" Proteclioll individuelle confle les
chutes de hauteur - Rencontre d'experts 17-19 Mars 1982".
Publisher: Comite NatiollaL de l'Orgallisme. Professiol1nel de Prevention du
Batiment et des Travaux Publics, Tour Amboise, 204, Rond-Poin! du Ponl-
de-Serres, 92516 Bou[ogne-Billancourt, France.
33
1991 International Society for Fall Protection. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without written permission from the publisher.
At the time, the French regulations required limiting the fall distance to 1 metre.
When analyzed, this requirement did not appear to correspond to any reality. In a
certain number of cases, the fall could be much shorter, but it had to be accepted that
the protective equipment permitted the worker to move upright on the highest solid
element of the structure. In this case, the lanyard can only be attached below the feet
of the subject on the permanent part of the structure. The worker can only be attached
to this anchoring point by a lanyard, connected, moreover, clearly above his own center
of gravity, and preferably to the upper part of his trunk, for reasons we shall refer to
later. In these conditions, the lanyard must be at least 2 metres long (Fig. 1) and the
total fall distance cannot be less than 4 metres. It was therefore necessary to come up
with equipment capable of accepting these kind of falls.
fig. J
That meant, first of all, that the mechanical strength of protective equipment must
be sufficient. But it also meant that the victim of the fall should not suffer any injury
either from his equipment or his fall.
Detailed analysis of the phenomenon showed that, from the biomechanic point of
view, to which we shall confine ourselves in this article, the injuries could have three
types of causes.
First, the body gripping device, holding the body of the worker, had to rest on the
most solid parts of the body and in no way pose a threat to the vital organs, both during
the fall and when it is arrested and during the more or Jess prolonged passive suspension
that may then occur until the victim is rescued. This equipment also had to be tolerated
34
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without discomfort during work-and indispensable condition if it is to be worn every
time.Secondly, the maximum arrest force (MAF) acting on the subject at the instant of
the arrest of fall must be compatible with his corporal integrity and the energy acquired
by the subject during the fall and which he must absorb when it is arrested, must not
reach the level where injuries become possible.
Finally, the arrest of the fall is equivalent to a negative acceleration with mainly
vertical component, and this acceleration must remain compatible with the limited
physiological possibilities of the subject. This acceleration itself has two rather different
aspects which are, first, the global acceleration felt by the body, and secondly, the
accelerations of the various individual parts of the body which have quite different
moments of inertia and trajectories.
Those are the main points that we shall touch on in this article. But it is clear that
this analytical study could only be carried out because we have simultaneously studied
and experimented on all these points, as a team, with the engineers of the OPPBTP,
the CEBTP and the INRS, who developed the aspects pertaining to their own dis-
ciplines. The physiological and pathological considerations mcntioned here cannot be
isolated from this technical context without which they would hardly have any value.
The ergonomy of a fall arresting system, like any ergonomic study, can be the result
only of a multidiscipline approach. We are pleased to point out here that the collabora-
tion achieved enabled us to overcome the sometimes very profound contradictions and
opposition typical of this delicate subject, with the result that it is now possible to make
a coherent rcport on it.
BODY GRIPPING DEVICES
The traditional waist belt
The waist belt used to be recommended as the only body gripping device. It was a
wide belt in artificial textile or even leather, fitted with "0" rings. Its characteristics
were covered in a German standard, DIN 7470. It could resist stresses of several tonnes,
we would say now several tens of kilonewtons. Providing the rope or the chain to which
it was attached was of similar strength, it offered every guarantee from the mechanical
point of view. It could not be broken by effect of a fall, even a much higher fall than
the 1 metre stipulated in the regulations.
But the workers generally refused to use it, feeling, intuitively, that in the event of a
fall they would be "cut in two". In fact, tests of simple suspension (Fig. 2) have shown
that the situation was not tolerable for more than a few seconds and that the abdominal
organs, liver and spleen in particular, were directly threatened.
35
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Fi,. 2
Any possible fall with such equipment therefore had to be excluded. Moreover, it
was obviously over-dimensioned and straps with comparable resistance but much
lighter were available on the market. The tongue system only had to be replaced with
a fastening system based on overall tightening, which would eliminate the risk of
longitudinal tearing by the tongue. On the traditional belt the edge of the hole, even
fitted with a grommet, was by far the weakest point, and on some models even a very
weak point.
The belt with shoulder straps
We therefore turned to a much lighter device based on that currently used by
mountaineers. The belt was much lighter and fitted with two short thin shoulder straps
which allowed it to be kept under the armpits, on the lower part of the rib cage. In the
event of a fall or suspension, the pressure was taken on the rib cage, which is much
more resistant than the abdominal wall (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3
36
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In addition, the fastening was farther away from the subject's center of gravity and
the final position appeared much more "natural". Tests on an anthropometric man-
nikin, the same one that was used for tests of car belts, convinced us that this device,
much lighter than the belt, was also much more comfortable and we made a few tests
on humans. Tolerance was perfect in falls of up to 50 or 60 centimetres- or at least it
appeared perfect until the day when, at heights and in fall conditions which had not
previously causes any trouble, two rib fractures occurred, showing that the risks of
injury had not been eliminated, and that falls from greater height could be dangerous.
At the same time simple suspension tests lasting a few minutes showed up another
risk: there was a tendency to faint suddenly with sudden acceleration of the pulse and
breathing, which was clearly shown by the recording of heart beat and breathing carried
out both at INRS and by us.
In practice, however, it could not be expected that the victim of a completely
unforeseen accident could be rescued in such a short time and therefore suspension by
a simple chest strap had to be eliminated.
The physiological explanation of this phenomenon was not obvious. The apparently
innocuous thoracic compression could have permitted diaphragm breathing as the
abdomen was not compressed. In fact, it was accompanied by a muscle blocking of the
whole rib cage and therefore led to a progressive asphyxia which was not felt by the
subject until the fainting trouble appeared.
We therefore tried to remedy this inconvenience by making shoulder-belts with
multiple straps and complete vests, in the hope of distributing the thoracic compression
better and facilitating abdominal breathing (Fig. 4). None of the tests were satisfactory,
even when they prevented too much local pressure on the thorax or the armpits.
ria. 4
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The Location of the D-ring
At the same time as the preceding studies there was a certain urgency about the
problem of the location of the D-ring on the body-gripping device.
The position of this point seemed to condition the distribution of forces when the
fall was arrested, among the various parts of the body.
Lateral fastening allowed or even favoured by the location of the D-rings on the belt,
was quickly eliminated.
Transverse bending of the spinal column appeared inacceptable, as it has to bear the
weight of the lower limbs and all the stress is taken by the small, not very mobile joints
which the vertebrae have between the bases of the transverse apophyses. In fact the
frequency of fracture at this not very resistant point (Fig. 5) is well known. Only stresses
in the axis of the body appeared acceptable. Then the very solid posterior ligament is
stretched and the bony elements of the spine are much less threatened.
ria ,
There remained two possibilities, at the level of the thorax, D-ring in the front or at
the back.
Front location was very tempting. In some circumstances, e. g. mountaineers, it may
actually be convenient for the user to be able to reach his D-ring directly, change it,
adapt it. But this location has, however, two major inconveniences.
38
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First the face of the wearer is directly threatened, in the event of a fall, by the rope
which passes in front of him, then the inevitable stretching of the straps through the
knot and the O-ring (Fig. 6).
ria. 6
Secondly, and this seems much more serious, the head will be thrown backwards
when the fall is arrested and will suffer sudden deflection, which considering its own
mass, cannot be damped, either by the weak muscles at the front of the neck, or the
not very resistant posterior articulations, or by any anatomic obstacle. Therefore, there
is a great risk of "whip-lash", with all the serious problems that may cause: fractures of
the posterior arches of the cervical vertebrae, injury to the medulla or to nerves.
We concluded that this frontal O-ring location should be avoided and that the most
favorable situation was fastening on the back. There the rope threatens only the back
part of the skull, and then only very slightly. Forward deflecting of the head, which is
much more natural because of the position of its center of gravity, will be less sudden,
limited by the chin resting on the sternum and possibly checked by the very solid
muscles of the posterior paravertebral grooves. The risk of injury will therefore be
considerably reduced and we thoroughly recommend this mode of fastening. (Fig. 7).
Fig- 7
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Parachutists, whose competence in this field is indisputable and on whom we have
relied to a large extent, confirmed that our position is well founded. The movement
obtained with the dorsal D-ring location is that imposed on parachutists at the moment
their parachute opens so that the head is not thrown backwards, which could cause
fracture of the cervical vertebrae.
Moreover, the fastening of a parachute consists of four straps at shoulder level, which
reduces further the stresses affecting the head, but makes the equipment more
complicated and heavier. This particularly favorable solution seems difficult to apply,
in practice, in equipment used in construction, but any solution that comes close to it
must be encouraged.
The Harness
The above considerations led to the conclusion that the only acceptable solution was
a complete harness, once there is a risk of falling more than about 10 cm and of being
suspended longer than a few minutes while awaiting rescue.
A complete harness consists essentially of shoulder straps and a strap under the
buttocks, and other straps arranged so as to keep the first ones in the proper place in
all circumstances.
The essential element is the strap under the buttocks. It rests, in fact on the pelvis,
the most rigid and solid element of the human frame, and is cushioned by large areas
of flesh.
Prolonged suspension can thus become quite comfortable and tolerable without
trouble for several hours.
No element of the harness must be allowed to interfere with breathing or create
painful pressure on any part of the body. That is more difficult to achieve than appears
at first sight. In fact, buckles, rings, additional straps are inevitable so that the whole
device is kept in the proper position even when the straps have become stretched by
the tension applied to them in the fall. Moreover, the morphology of the users varies
greatly and even assuming the harness is made in several sizes, adjusting devices are
still necessary. The example of the parachutists is not convincing in this case as their
suspension cannot be prolonged and they have no experience of that.
We therefore carried out suspension tests, with strict electrocardiogram and visual
control, on a number of harness models worn by different persons. Details of these
tests are given in Chapter 1. It appeared that each model proved dangerous for at least
one of the test persons after 15 to 20 minutes and, inversely, that each test person could
tolerate the various models differently and one at least caused trouble within the time
indicated. Therefore, in spite of a considerable improvement in the situation, the use
of present harnesses, including a model for parachutists, does not allow suspension
without risk for more than 15 minutes. This means that each time that a worker has to
use this type of equipment, the necessary facilities must be provided for rescue in the
shortest possible time in the event of a fall.
40
1991 International Society for Fall Protection. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without written permission from the publisher.
From the point of view of arresting falls, the strap under the buttocks is also a very
favorable element. The maximum stress, in the case of falling feet first, will be exerted
on a specially resistant part of the body. However, the spine as a whole will then be
subjected to compression and not to tension. Its mechanical strength is then not so
great. Crushing of the vertebrae, injury to intervertebrae discs and fractures of the
apophyses may occur through stresses which, as we shall see later, are in no way
impossible and that will make additional measures necessary. The existence of curva-
tures of the vertebrae, particularly in man, and the possibility of anomalies in these
curvatures, cyphosis and scoliosis, which are harmless in persons otherwise in good
health aggravate the risks. However, the limits that must not be exceeded do not differ
very much from those in the case of vertebral traction. Moreover, the most fragile zone
is the cervical region, and this is affected in all cases in similar bending conditions. On
the whole, therefore, the situation is clearly more favorable than with chest straps.
However, falls are not always feet first and the possibility of a fall being arrested
when the head is down, cannot be eliminated. The shoulder straps become the essential
element in this case. Repeated measurements have actually shown that the tipping of
the body to reach its final position in suspension on the strap under buttocks, only
occurs after the first shock which is the one with maximum intensity.
The shoulders are affected first and the resistance of the shoulder straps and their
dimensions must be such that the stress is bearable for this region which is less solid
and has less muscle than the buttocks region, but which, on the other hand, is more
supple and more suitable for diffusing some of the energy.
With respect to the vertebrae, the mechanisms of vertebral compression will be very
similar to those in the previous case, except for the cervical column, where the relative
bending movement of the head is then mainly due to the rotation of the rest of the
body around the attachment point and involves the head secondarily. The deflection
is perhaps less sudden, but the movement may not be in the most favorable axis and
the local accelerations may be considerable, as we shall see later.
It nevertheless seems difficult to eliminate completely such possibilities but, even
though their harmfulness does give cause for concern, their probability appears rather
slight.
Therefore, from the point of view of making the body gripping device meet the
requirements of anatomy and physiology, only a harness, and a harness which is well
designed and carefully tested, can answer the problem raised. The other solutions
could, at the most, only continue to be tolerated, as is the case in many countries, as
accessories for devices preventing any fall of more than some tens of centimetres and
in working conditions where the victim can regain his balance at once and avoid
remaining in suspension. In all other cases, a harness is necessary, all the more so as
the energies and accelerations in question then make it just as indispensable as do the
requirements for supporting the body.
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INJURY THRESHOLD
The stresses suffered by the human body when a fall is arrested are the consequence
of the obligation to dissipate the energy acquired by the worker and his equipment
during the free fall.
The entire Fall Arresting System has elastic properties and, consequently, is able to
absorb part of the energy, so that the human body itself absorbs only a part of the total
energy.
We have therefore made a series of tests with a mannikin recording the maximum
stresses at the anchoring point, which gives values around 12,000 N in the above
mentioned conditions.
Similar measurements were, in fact, also carried out many times during parachute
drops in order to estimate the level of stress that can be tolerated by the body and it
was found that 12,000 N was an upper limit which was already extremely dangerous for
a young, well-trained body, well prepared to face the shock of opening of a parachute
by contracting his muscles to the maximum and thus keeping his body in a particularly
favorable position.
In fact, the values usually recorded when a parachute opens are very much lower and
it was calculated that the subject exerted on the straps of his harness a force of the
order of 3,750 N with the old techniques of folding the parachute as "first canopy", and
that that force dropped to 2,250 N with the introduction in the '60's of folding it as "first
rigging line", for military jumps.
That force is applied essentially to the strap under the buttocks and, if the position
of the parachutist is satisfactory, it is exerted more or less in the axis of the spine (Fig.
8) which will suffer a compression stress at all levels, especially at the level of the cervical
part and the joint between the neck and head. The latter must at that moment be bent
forward, chin resting on the chest, in preparation for the shock.
Fig. 8
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In these conditions the risks are very limited. Fractures of the spine, of the order of
1 for 10,000 jumps, are usually the result of incidents on landing rather than on opening
of the parachute. But other types of disabling vertebral injuries are 5 or 6 times more
frequent. The fact that the change in the mode of folding the parachute reduced the
frequency shows that even for such levels of energy injuries are still possible. Of course,
they are then the result, very often, of faulty posture technique, opening when the
relative position of the body and the axis of the parachute can direct the stresses in a
less favourable direction.
That, however, is precisely the usual situation in the case of a worker who falls. in
fact, the accident will be an absolutely exceptional, unforeseeable phenomenon,
psychologically an experience that should never happen. The persons involved are of
all ages and all physical constitutions and have obviously not undergone any special
training. The curvature of their spine and their paravertebral muscles are not neces-
sarily, in perfect conditions.
Moreover, during the few tenths of a second that the fall will last, the reflexes do not
have the time to react and it is totally excluded that the worker can react, prepare
himself for the shock, modify his position in any way and contract his muscles.
Finally, the fall is not necessarily feet first and vertical to the anchoring point and
consequently the relative positions of the body and the lanyard at the moment of shock
can present any configuration.
We are therefore far from the usual conditions of the parachutist, but the exceptional
character of the fall nevertheless allows us to be less demanding about it harmlcssness.
It was all the more important to be able to reduce these demands, as the reduction of
stress when the fall is arrested can only be obtained by increasing the braking distance.
The space available below the anchoring point may be small and it is important
therefore to limit this braking distance as much as possible, a requirement which
conflicts with the previous one, but is compulsory, considering the usual conditions of
use of FAS.
A compromise therefore had to be found, related also to the tolerance limits for
acceleration. With respect to forces it seemed reasonable to propose a limit of 6,000
N, i. e. half the quantities considered dangerous in the case of parachutists, a particular-
ly favorable case, and double that commonly met in this sport with a risk considered
acceptable for a repetitive activity.
The proposal also takes into account the knowledge acquired in the special field of
mechanical strength of the various elements making up the vertebral column. There
are mainly two types of elements, some rigid: the vertebrae, the others more elastic:
the intervertebral discs with the cartilagious part, their fibrous part and their central
liquid core. In the case of an arrest of the feet-first fall the body is supported on the
strap under the buttocks, the shock wave is transmitted almost exclusively by this bone
system, the soft parts providing gradual damping, first through the buttock muscles,
then from disc to disc, from the first sacral vertebra up to the head. That is a relatively
favorable situation, as the crushing resistance of the vertebrae gradually diminishes
from the lumbar region to the dorsal region then to the cervical region, and the known
rupture limits should never be reached.
43
1991 International Society for Fall Protection. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
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In the event of a head-first fall - the situation is less favorable, but it is probable that
the shock wave reaches the vertebral column damped more by the shoulders/rib-cage
system than by the buttocks/pelvis system.
There remains now the slightly worrying problem of the increased stressing of the
posterior articulations of the vertebrae, which are much less resistant and much less
elastic than the intervertebral discs, in the case of falls in intermediary positions or
when the vertebral column has accentuated curvatures or dissymmetries.
Therefore, the proposed compromise of 6,000 N seems to us, from the point of view
of the stresses suffered by the human body in general, and by its most affected parts,
to be a limit that must not be exceeded, and that can only be achieved with a shock
absorber which also influences the accelerations.
ACCELERATION
During the free part of the fall, the vertical acceleration downwards, in -Gz is
obviously that of gravity. It is only when the cause of the accident is an external
mechanical impulse (moving bucket, traps, etc.), that a non-vertical component can
occur, adding the risks of initial shock and pendulum movement.
The most dangerous moment is when the fall is arrested. We have mentioned above
the necessity of reducing as much as possible the braking distance, for reasons
connected with the circumstances in which F AS-s are used. Here too the compromise
to be found will have to come close to the reasonable limits of tolerance of acceleration,
which in this case are negative downwards, in - Gz, and therefore positive upwards, in
+ Gz if we refer to the environment of the subject and the vertical of the place.
For the subject in suspension, at the end of the arrest of the fall it will be an
acceleration very close to his own vertical axis Z. This depends on how the harness is
constructed and the position of his fastening point. But the maximum acceleration peak
can be directed according to any axis of the subject, depending on the relative position
of the body and the lanyard at the moment the latter reaches its maximum extension.
We must therefore consider limits of bearable acceleration for the human body,
whatever the direction of its application.
The effect of the acceleration on the body is complex. It has been studied in the
course of research on car accidents and on the ejection of fighter pilots in emergencies.
An essential point is that the different segments and organs of the human body have
different inertial characteristics and that their acceleration through the force applied
at one point of the body, is only obtained gradually through the more or less rigid
connections between the parts.
Therefore, the solid internal organs, like the heart and the liver, will tend to come
loose and break their "moorings" under the external shock. Similarly, the brain and the
cerebral column could be destroyed by being crushed against the walls of the skull or
the edges of the occipital opening. Finally the limbs could suffer tearing stresses at their
joints.
The changes of acceleration called, the jolts, will therefore be one of the elements
determining injuries, and the data usually available in terms of acceleration will not be
enough to estimate the risk.
44
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in any form without written permission from the publisher.
Another important element, however, will be the duration of the phenomena or,
what is the same up to a certain point, the size of the displacement. Thus, accelerations
of several thousands of m/s2 have been tolerable for a thousandth of a second, while if
the duration approaches a second, the maximum tolerance in Gz is of the order of 50
m/s2 (Fig. 9).
, . .,
'ao
or ~

o
~ --
I ~
... \
\
to ,
"
.0 '--------__
~ Fi 9
10
o , 10 ., 10 U lO 40
TlU, - "'UI:C co .. ot
The phenomena that we are interested in are relatively extended in time. In fact, the
rope, harness and human body have a certain elasticity and the arrest of the fall cannot
be immediate. In addition, to limit the mechanical force it was necessary to add a shock
absorber to the device, calibrated at 6,000 N as proposed earlier. That increases the
time that elapses between the full extension of the lanyard and the complete arrest of
the body until the whole system has reached its final extension.
45
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in any form without written permission from the publisher.
But that increase in the breaking time is offset by a considerable lowering of the
accelerations imposed and their variations, at least with some shock absorber. This
means excluding any system containing too many elastic elements, which restore at the
end of the elongation part of the absorbed energy in the form of a thrust in +Gz, and
increasing accordingly the MAF, the relative accelerations and the duration of the
whole phenomenon.
In practice, however, a large acceleration peak cannot be prevented from occuring
very briefly at the moment when the lanyard is suddenly tightened at the end of the
free fall and the shock absorber begins to take effect, to stop the fall. The measurements
obtained during our tests vary much more than the stresses. In fact, the position of each
element of the system, lanyard, harness straps, body and limbs of the mannikin can be
very different and the appearance of the phenomenon can only be roughly reproduced.
However, we have recorded resultant accelerations of the order of 150 to 200 m/s
2
for
durations of the order of 0.02 to 0.04 sec, i. e. a jolt of the order of 6 km/s3. for ST APP
j
who is the expert on the subject, the maxima tolerable are 350 mls at 5 kmls
and 120 m/s at 1.3 km/s3. We are therefore quite within the area of acceptable limits
and the use of any device which would increase either the value of the acceleration, or
the duration of the phenomenon, should be prohibited.
That is a second reason, as important as the first, for requiring the use of a shock
absorber when the fall distance exceeds a few tens of centimetres. It is very probable
that the fracture of the ribs mentioned above, which occurred during falls of 50 em
arrested by a rope of the same length and therefore not very extendable, are the
consequence of very brief but very sudden accelerations, exceeding the elasticity limits
of the rib cage.
That does not solve conclusively the problem of local accelerations on certain
segments and the resulting distortions. Our most worrying observations concern
experimental falls head first at a distance from the vertical of the anchoring point. At
the moment the lanyard is taut we find, on the one hand, that the mannikin turns over,
pivoting around the point where the lanyard is attached to the harness, and on the
other, that a pendulum movement centered on the anchoring point (Fig. to)
Accelerations of more than 300 mls have been recorded lasting 0.02 seconds, i. e.
a jolt of almost to km/s3 at the level of the head. It can be imagined that such situations
may be particularly threatening for the cervical column of the subject. Bending
frontwards and therefore back fastening or, better, fastening on both shoulder blades
are the only acceptable methods in such a case.
46
1991 International Society for Fall Protection. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without written permission from the publisher.
\
-
Fig. 10
CONCLUSIONS
-
----
I
I
I
The conclusions given here can of course only be provisional. The measurements
and the experiments reported are difficult to carry out and many points remain obscure.
Extrapolation from a mannikin, whose biomechanics can only be an imperfect model
of the human body, is always tricky. Other elements of information could cast doubt
on the points or view expressed.
However, it seems to us a fact that, considering the requirements of some of the jobs,
it is necessary to limit as much as possible the consequences of the most severe falls i.e.
falls of the order of 4 metres.
In these conditions, the probability of injury for the victim can only be brought within
acceptable limits by devices including:
47
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a complete harness ergonomically designed and carefully tested,
not only for its mechanical qualitites, but also for its behaviour
with respect to the subject during arrest of the fall and the sub-
sequent suspension.
a shock absorber simultaneously limiting the force to around the
l r e ~ d y high limit of 6,000 N, and the accelerations to around 100
mls for a few hundreths of a second.
As it is not possible to envisage regular training of those concerned, nor strict medical
selection on hiring, the use of these devices must be reserved for rare cases where no
other solution is available. It must be realized that they are only a lesser evil and do
not exclude the possibility of injury, that their use requires precautions, which make us
recommend a minimum of training for users, and that the further we get from the
tolerance limits of the body, which we have mentioned, the more satisfactory the
protection will be.
48
1991 International Society for Fall Protection. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without written permission from the publisher.