Aquaculture

Aquaculture installations in southern Chile

Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms such as

finfish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants.[1][2] Also known as

aquafarming, aquaculture involves cultivating aquatic populations under

controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which

is the harvesting of wild fish.[3] One half of the world commercial production

of fish and shellfish that is directly consumed by humans comes from

aquaculture.[4] Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine

environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include algaculture (the

production of kelp/seaweed and other algae), fish farming, shrimp farming,

oyster farming, and the growing of cultured pearls. Particular methods

include aquaponics, which integrates fish farming and plant farming.

History

Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi

Aquaculture began in China circa 2500 BC.[5] When the waters subsided

after river floods, some fishes, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes. Nascent

aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate the

fish for their protein. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the

emergence of goldfish during the Tang Dynasty.

Hawaiians practiced aquaculture by constructing fish ponds (see Hawaiian

aquaculture). A remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least

1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the

mythical Menehune. The Japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo

poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for

spores. The Romans bred fish in ponds.[6]

In central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural

practices.[7] Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages, since

away from the seacoasts and the big rivers, fish were scarce/expensive.

Improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fish easily

available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less

popular.

In 1859 Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began

experiments with brook trout. By 1864 Seth Green had established a

commercial fish hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester,

NY. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord Mass,

artificial fish hatching operations were under way in both Canada and the

United States.[8] When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in

Newfoundland Canada in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in the

world.

California residents harvested wild kelp and attempted to manage supply

starting circa 1900, later labeling it a wartime resource.[9]

Tilapia, a commonly farmed fish due to its adaptability

About 430 (97%) of the aquatic species cultured as of 2007 were

domesticated during the 20th century, of which an estimated 106 aquatic

species came in the decade to 2007. Given the long-term importance of

agriculture, it is interesting to note that to date only 0.08% of known land

plant species and 0.0002% of known land animal species have been

domesticated, compared with 0.17% of known marine plant species and

0.13% of known marine animal species. Domesticating an aquatic species

typically involves about a decade of scientific research.[10] Aquatic species

involve fewer risks than that of land animals, which took a large toll in

human lives through diseases such as smallpox and bird and swine flu, that

like most infectious diseases, are transferred to humans from animals. No

human pathogens of comparable virulence have yet emerged from marine

species.

Stagnation in harvests from wild fisheries and overexploitation of popular

marine species, combined with a growing demand for this high quality

protein encourages aquaculturists to domesticate other marine species.[11]

World production

In 2004, the total world production of fisheries was 140.5 million tonnes of

which aquaculture contributed 45.5 million tonnes or about 32% of the total

world production.[12] The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture has been

sustained and rapid, averaging about 8 percent per annum for over thirty

years, while the take from wild fisheries has been essentially flat for the last

decade.

Average annual percentage growth for different species groups

Major species groups in 2004
Top ten species groups in 2004

Production by country

Aquaculture is an especially important economic activity in China. Between

1980 and 1997, the Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture

harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7 percent, jumping from 1.9 million to

nearly 23 million tons. In 2005, China accounted for 70% of the world's

aquaculture production.[13][14] It is currently one of the fastest growing areas

of agriculture in the U.S. [15]

Top ten aquaculture

producers in 2004

Approximately 90% of all U.S. shrimp consumption is farmed and imported.

[16]
In recent years salmon aquaculture has become a major export in

southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt, Chile's fastest-growing city.

Environmental impact

As aquaculture has grown, so have concerns about its environmental impact.

In fact, aquaculture can be more environmentally damaging than exploiting

wild fisheries.[17] Concerns include waste handling, side-effects of

antibiotics, competition between farmed and wild animals, and using other

fish to feed consumer-desired carnivorous fish. However, research and

commercial feed improvements during the 1990s & 2000s have lessened

many of these environmental impacts.[18]

About 20 percent of mangrove forests have vanished since 1980, partly due

to aqua-farming.[19]

Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components

of aquatic food webs. In-ocean aquaculture often produces much higher than

normal concentrations of fish waste in the water. The waste collects on the

ocean bottom, damaging or eliminating bottom-dwelling life. Waste can also

decrease dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, putting further

pressure on wild animals.

Cultivators often supply their animals with antibiotics to prevent disease. As

with livestock, this can accelerate the evolution of bacterial resistance.

Fish can escape, where they can encounter wild fish and dilute wild genetic

stocks through interbreeding.[20] Escaped fish can become invasive and

therefore can have a damaging environmental impact.[21]

Farming carnivorous fish such as salmon typically increases the pressure on

wild fish, because producing one kilo of farmed salmon requires up to six

kilo of fish or other protein.[22] Adequate diets for salmon and other

carnivorous fish can be formulated from protein sources such as soy,

although are concerns about changes in the balance between omega-6 and

omega-3 fatty acids.[23]

Other aquaculture "crops" such as seaweed and filter-feeding bivalve

mollusks such as oysters, clams, mussels and scallops are relatively benign

or even restorative environmentally. Filter-feeders filter pollutants as well as

nutrients from the water, improving water quality.[24] Seaweeds extract

nutrients such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus directly from the water,
[25]
and filter-feeding mollusks can extract nutrients as they feed on

particulates phytoplankton and detritus.[26]

Despite the environmental concerns, profitable aquaculture can funnel

money into promoting sustainable practices.[27] New methods lessen the risk

of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing fish stress,

fallowing netpens, and applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines are

being used more and more to reduce antibiotic use for disease control.[28]
Onshore recirculating aquaculture systems, facilities using polyculture

techniques, and properly-sited facilities (e.g. offshore areas with strong

currents) are examples of ways to manage the negative environmental

effects.

Types of aquaculture

Algaculture

Main article: Algaculture

An open pond Spirulina farm

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of

algae. Microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or

planktonic algae constitute the majority of cultivated algae.

Macroalgae, commonly known as seaweed, also have many commercial and

industrial uses, but due to their size and specific requirements, they are not

easily cultivated on a large scale and are most often taken in the wild.

[edit] Fish farming

Main article: Fish farming

Fish farming is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising

fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that

releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a

species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish

species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, carp and

trout.

Freshwater prawn farming

Main article: Freshwater prawn farm

Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the

same problems as, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced

by the developmental life cycle of the main species (the giant river prawn,

Macrobrachium rosenbergii).[29]
The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and

crabs) in 2003 was about 280,000 tons, of which China produced 180,000

tons, followed by India and Thailand with 35,000 tons each. Additionally,

China produced about 370,000 tons of Chinese river crab (Eriocheir

sinensis).[30]

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture

Main article: Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the by-

products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs

(fertilizers, food) for another. Fed aquaculture (e.g. fish, shrimp) is

combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. seaweed) and organic extractive

(e.g. shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental

sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification

and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices).[25]

"Multi-Trophic" refers to the incorporation of species from different trophic

or nutritional levels in the same system.[31] This is one potential distinction

from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture, which could simply be the

co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case,
these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes,

with few synergistic benefits, which could potentially lead to significant

shifts in the ecosystem. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact,

incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches, as

extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond.

The "Integrated" in IMTA refers to the more intensive cultivation of the

different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and

energy transfer through water.

Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should

balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions

of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured

species are typically more than just biofilters; they are harvestable crops of

commercial value.[31] A working IMTA system can result in greater total

production based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved

ecosystem health, even if the production of individual species is lower than

in a monoculture over a short term period.[32]

Sometimes the term "Integrated Aquaculture" is used to describe the

integration of monocultures through water transfer.[32] For all intents and

purposes however, the terms "IMTA" and "integrated aquaculture" differ

only in their degree of descriptiveness.Aquaponics, fractionated aquaculture,

IAAS (integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems), IPUAS (integrated peri-

urban-aquaculture systems), and IFAS (integrated fisheries-aquaculture

systems) are other variations of the IMTA concept.

Mariculture

Main article: Mariculture

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation

of marine organisms in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or

in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. An example of

the latter is the farming of marine fish, prawns, or oysters in saltwater ponds.

Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient

agar, jewelry (e.g. cultured pearls) and cosmetics.

Shrimp farming

Main article: Shrimp farm

A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine

shrimp for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the

1970s, and production grew steeply thereafter. Global production reached

more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, representing a value of nearly

9,000 million U.S. dollars. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in

Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly

in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer. Thailand is the

largest exporter.

Shrimp farming has changed from its traditional, small-scale form in

Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to

ever higher densities per unit area, and broodstock is shipped worldwide.

Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family

Penaeidae), and just two species of shrimp—the Penaeus vannamei (Pacific

white shrimp) and the Penaeus monodon (giant tiger prawn) account for

roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very

susceptible to disease, which has decimated shrimp populations across entire

regions. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and

pressure and criticism from both NGOs and consumer countries led to

changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by

governments. In 1999, governments, industry representatives, and

environmental organizations initiated a program aimed at developing and

promoting more sustainable farming practices.

Types of fish in aquaculture

• Asian Carps

• Barramundi

• Black Drum

• Bluegill

• Catfish

• Cobia

• Crappie

• Florida Pompano

• Gourami

• Largemouth Bass

• Milkfish

• Perch

• Red Drum

• Salmon

• Striped Bass

• Tilapia

• Trout

[edit] See also

Sustainable development portal
Water portal

• Algaculture

• Aquaponics

• Agroecology

• Fish farming

• Fisheries science

• Mariculture

• Industrial agriculture

• Shrimp farm

• Prawn farm
Detergent

A detergent (as a noun) is a material intended to assist cleaning. The term is

sometimes used to differentiate between soap and other surfactants used for

cleaning. As an adjective pertaining to a substance, it (or "detersive") means

"cleaning" or "having cleaning properties"; "detergency" indicates presence

or degree of cleaning property.

Components

Detergents, especially those made for use with water, often include different

components such as:

• Surfactants to 'cut' (Emulsify) grease and to wet surfaces

• Abrasive to scour

• Substances to modify pH or to affect performance or stability of other

ingredients, acids for descaling or caustics to break down organic

compounds

• Water softeners to counteract the effect of "hardness" ions on other

ingredients
• oxidants (oxidizers) for bleaching, disinfection, and breaking down

organic compounds

• Non-surfactant materials that keep dirt in suspension

• Enzymes to digest proteins, fats, or carbohydrates in stains or to

modify fabric feel

• Ingredients that modify the foaming properties of the cleaning

surfactants, to either stabilize or counteract foam

• Ingredients to increase or decrease the viscosity of the solution, or to

keep other ingredients in solution, in a detergent supplied as a water

solution or gel

• Ingredients that affect aesthetic properties of the item to be cleaned,

or of the detergent itself before or during use, such as optical

brighteners, fabric softeners, colors, perfumes, etc.

• Ingredients such as corrosion inhibitors to counteract damage to

equipment with which the detergent is used

• Ingredients to reduce harm or produce benefits to skin, when the

detergent is used by bare hand on inanimate objects or used to clean

skin

• Preservatives to prevent spoilage of other ingredients

Sometimes materials more complicated than mere mixtures of compounds

are said to be detergent. For instance, certain foods such as celery are said to

be detergent or detersive to teeth.

Types

There are several factors that dictate what compositions of detergent should

be used, including the material to be cleaned, the apparatus to be used, and

tolerance for and type of dirt. For instance, all of the following are used to

clean glass. The sheer range of different detergents that can be used

demonstrates the importance of context in the selection of an appropriate

glass-cleaning agent:

• a chromic acid solution—to get glass very clean for certain precision-

demanding purposes such as analytical chemistry

• a high-foaming mixture of surfactants with low skin irritation—for

hand-washing of dishware in a sink or dishpan

• any of various non-foaming compositions—for dishware in a

dishwashing machine

• other surfactant-based compositions—for washing windows with a

squeegee, followed by rinsing

 • an ammonia-containing solution—for cleaning windows with no

additional dilution and no rinsing

• ethanol or methanol in windshield washer fluid—used for a vehicle in

motion, with no additional dilution

• glass contact lens cleaning solutions, which must clean and disinfect

without leaving any eye-harming material that would not be easily

rinsed

Terminology

Sometimes the word detergent is used to distinguish a cleaning agent from

soap. During the early development of non-soap surfactants as commercial

cleaning products, the term syndet, short for synthetic detergent was

promoted to indicate the distinction. The term never became popular and is

incorrect, because most soap is itself synthesized (from glycerides). The

term soapless soap also saw a brief vogue. There is no accurate term for

detergents not made of soap other than soapless detergent or non-soap

detergent.
The term detergent by itself is sometimes used to refer specifically to

clothing detergent, as opposed to hand soap or other types of cleaning

agents.

Plain water, if used for cleaning, is a detergent. Probably the most widely-

used detergents other than water are soaps or mixtures composed chiefly of

soaps. However, not all soaps have significant detergency and, although the

words "detergent" and "soap" are sometimes used interchangeably, not every

detergent is a soap.

The term detergent is sometimes used to refer to any surfactant, even when

it is not used for cleaning. This terminology should be avoided as long as the

term surfactant itself is available.

History

The earliest detergent substance was undoubtedly water; after that, oils,

abrasives such as wet sand, and wet clay. The oldest known detergent for

wool-washing is stale (putrescent) urine.[1] For the history of soap, see the

entry thereon. Other detergent surfactants came from saponins and ox bile.

The detergent effects of certain synthetic surfactants were noted in 1913 by

A. Reychler, a Belgian chemist. The first commercially available detergent

taking advantage of those observations was Nekal,[2] sold in Germany in

1917, to alleviate World War I soap shortages. Detergents were mainly used

in industry until World War II. By then new developments and the later

conversion of USA aviation fuel plants to produce tetrapropylene, used in

household detergents, caused a fast growth of household use, in the late

1940s.[3] In the late 1960s biological detergents, containing enzymes, better

suited to dissolve protein stains, such as egg stains, were introduced in the

USA by Procter & Gamble.[4]