Wear 249 (2001) 821828

Wear-resistant engineering ceramics

Eugene Medvedovski

Ceramic Protection Corporation, 3905 32nd St. N.E., Calgary, Alta., Canada T1Y 7C1
Received 11 September 2000; received in revised form 5 February 2001; accepted 19 June 2001
Abstract
Engineering ceramics have a high application potential for wear-protection of different working parts used for extraction, processing,
conveying, anddust collectionequipment inminingandmineral industries, as well as some structural rotatingparts. The highalumina (Al
2
O
3
content from 91 to 99.5 wt.%), aluminazirconia, zirconia, and silicon carbide-based ceramics (ABSC) have been studied. They have high
mechanical properties, including hardness that is greater than many processed materials, and they are able to withstand high temperatures
(greater than 1300

C) and thermal shocks. These ceramics successfully resist various solid and liquid abrasive and corrosive media
transported at high velocities and pressures, and at cavitation; they may replace hard metals widely used for wear- and corrosion-protection.
The features of the compositions, microstructure, and physical properties of these ceramics, as well as the wear resistance test results,
are discussed. The factors affecting wear resistance of ceramics are emphasized; they may be subdivided by the factors dealing with
microstructure and properties of ceramics, and by the factors dealing with application conditions (e.g. type of abrasive media, velocity,
impingement angle, and others). Wear mechanisms for dense homogeneous oxide ceramics and for coarse heterogeneous ABSC are
discussed. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ceramics; Wear mechanism; Microstructure
1. Introduction
Various industrial processes require the use of wear-
resistant materials to prevent or decrease wear loss and to
reduce downtime of the equipment running in contact with
abrasive environment, and also to increase the performance
and quality of the processes. Traditionally used hard irons
and steels and some polymers are quickly destroyed, espe-
cially, if the processing materials are transported in liquid
corrosive environment, at high velocities and pressures, or
if the working parts are employed at elevated temperatures
and thermal shocks. Engineering ceramics have a growing
application potential for the wear- and corrosion-protection
of different working parts of extraction, processing, con-
veying, dust collection equipment, and piping systems in
mining and mineral industries. They have to serve in con-
tact with hard abrasive particles, and in many cases, in
strong corrosive environment, owing at high velocities and
pressures. Different ceramic parts (bearings, valves, seats,
cable-, wire-, and thread-guides, dies, and some others), as
well as prosthesis and dental ceramics, are subjected contin-

Tel.: +1-403-250-0511; fax: +1-403-735-1001.

E-mail addresses: medvedon@cadvision.com, emedvedo@cerpro.com
(E. Medvedovski).
ued friction of various materials, often in strong corrosive
environment. Engineering ceramics have high mechanical
properties, including hardness, general chemical inertness,
excellent wear resistance, and the ability to work in severe
thermal conditions.
Ceramics used most for wear-protection are dense or
low-porous alumina, zirconia, and some other oxide-based
ceramics, non-oxide ceramics such as carbides, borides,
nitrides, and some others. The proper ceramics are chosen
based on their physical properties, particular working con-
ditions (e.g. corrosive environment, temperature, pressure,
velocity and impingement angle of transported materials,
etc.), an expected life cycle, an ability to obtain the re-
quired shape, and the cost factor. Among the ceramics
used in industry at the present time, alumina, zirconia,
and silicon carbide-based ceramics have the highest ap-
plication potential. They demonstrate excellent wear- and
corrosion-resistance, high mechanical properties, including
hardness, an ability to work at high temperatures (greater
than 1300

C) and to resist thermal shocks. These ceramics

may be produced with different shapes and dimensions,
and the manufacturing processes are relatively inexpensive.
This paper includes the study results of the recently devel-
oped compositions for these types of ceramics presently
manufactured and used for the wear-protection.
0043-1648/01/$ see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0043- 1648( 01) 00820- 1
822 E. Medvedovski / Wear 249 (2001) 821828
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials and manufacturing processes
High alumina ceramics have been developed in the ox-
ide systems Al
2
O
3
SiO
2
CaOMgO and Al
2
O
3
MgO. As
a major raw material, high-purity calcined ground aluminas
having a minimum Al
2
O
3
content of 99.8 mass% and a min-
imum -phase content of 95 mass% were used. The median
particle and crystal size of the aluminas ranges from 0.3 to
2.5 m, their specic surface ranges from 811 to 1.5 m
2
/g.
The zirconia powders (partially stabilized using Y
2
O
3
or
MgO) with a high specic surface (from 6 to 10 m
2
/g) and
very small particle size (0.30.4 m) were used for manufac-
turing of zirconia ceramics. The developed aluminazirconia
ceramics is based on the specic ratio between the alumina
and zirconia powders with a small particle size and a high
specic surface. The silicon carbide-based ceramics (ABSC)
have been developed in the system SiCAl
2
O
3
(SiO
2
). As
the major raw materials, silicon carbide powders with dif-
ferent particle sizes (from 35 to 12.5 mm) were used.
They were mixed using specially developed ratios that pro-
vide a specic particle size distribution promoting a high
level of densication (i.e. the particles with a smaller size
ll the space between the particles with a bigger size),
and therefore, provide required properties. The ground alu-
minas mentioned above and, in some cases, mullite-based
additives were used as a bonding components for these
ceramics.
The dense alumina, zirconia, and aluminazirconia
ceramics are manufactured by slip casting and pressing pro-
cesses. The ABSC are manufactured by slip casting under
vibration (vibration promotes a particles compaction and
a ceramics densication), also the ramming process may
be used for simple shapes. The shaped products are dried
and then red up to temperatures of 15201550

C in gas
Fig. 1. Diagram of ASTM B611 west slurry abrasion test.
kilns. In some cases, the red products are machined to
achieve a high dimensional tolerance. The manufacturing
processes for each particular ceramic have been developed
and optimized.
2.2. Testing
The test samples with the required dimensions for each
particular test were cut from the test tiles with the size
100 mm100 mm(815) mm or with bigger dimensions
manufactured by the methods mentioned above. Density was
measured using the water immersion method based on the
Archimedes law. Three- or four-point exural strength was
tested in accordance with ASTM C1161. Youngs modulus
was tested by ultrasonic technique measuring the ultrasonic
velocity in accordance with ASTM C885 and ASTM C769.
Vickers hardness was tested in accordance with ASTM
C1327 under the load of 10 kg. Fracture toughness was also
tested using the indentation technique under the same load.
Microstructure and phase composition were studied using
transmission and scanning electron microscopes, and X-ray
analysis (Figs. 1 and 2).
Wear resistance was tested in accordance with ASTM
B611 and ASTM G65 (see diagram). Wet slurry abrasion
test ASTM B611 consists of the continuing action of the
hard abrasive media (30-mesh alumina grit with water) that
is supplied between the sample and the rotating steel wheel.
The testing time is 400 revolutions. In dry sand rubber
wheel test ASTM G65 (procedure A), the abrasive media
(4070-mesh silica sand) is continuously supplied between
the sample and the rotating rubber lined wheel. The testing
time is 6000 revolutions. In both cases, the weight loss is
calculated after the test, and the volume loss is subsequently
calculated (weight loss divided by density). As volume loss
is less, wear resistance is higher. Also, the slurry jet ero-
sion testing was carried out at different impingement angles
E. Medvedovski / Wear 249 (2001) 821828 823
Fig. 2. Diagram of ASTM G65 dry sand rubber wheel test.
(20, 45, and 90

). This test was conducted by NRC Inte-

grated Manufacturing Institute using the specially designed
equipment. The abrasive slurry contained 10 wt.% of AFS
5070 silica sand is continuously supplied with a ow rate
of 18 l/min; the distance between the spraying nozzle and a
sample is 100 mm. The duration time of testing is 120 min.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Features of microstructure and
properties of the studied ceramics
The developed and studied alumina ceramics are dis-
tinguished by their alumina content (ranging from 91 to
99.5%), the glassy phase forming components, the kind of
starting alumina (particle size and specic surface, prepara-
tion conditions, etc.), and therefore, they are distinguished
by their microstructure and properties. The alumina ceramics
have uniformand microcrystalline microstructure that is rep-
resented by the corundum crystals (the major phase) bonded
with a glassy phase. The amount of the major phase increases
as the alumina content increases, the glassy phase content
decreases, respectively. A small amount of the secondary
crystalline phases (anorthite, spinel, mullite) is present in the
AL91AL98.5 ceramics at the corundum crystal boundaries.
The corundum crystal size in the ceramics ranges from 24
to 610 m(isometric and prismatic crystals), and it depends
on a kind of starting alumina and the ceramic composition.
The silicate-based glassy phase is uniformly distributed be-
tween the crystalline phase of the AL91AL98.5 ceramics.
The AL99.5 ceramics has another feature of microstructure.
The corundum isometric crystals with the size 15 m are
bonded by a small amount of the tiny spinel crystals and a
very small amount of a glassy phase, this glassy phase is
formed due to the presence of oxides-impurities. All studied
alumina ceramics have zero open porosity, and do not ab-
sorb water; the closed porosity (i.e. residual pores between
the crystals and the glassy phase) is insufcient.
Mechanical properties of the alumina ceramics, as well
as wear resistance, depend on the phase composition (i.e.
a corundum amount, a glassy phase composition, etc.) and
microstructure (a crystal size and shape, a glassy phase and
secondary crystalline phases distribution, closed porosity,
etc.). The main physical properties of the studied alumina
ceramics are performed in Table 1. Youngs modulus (mod-
ulus of elasticity) tends to increase with a higher corundum
and Al
2
O
3
content. As Table 1 shows, Vickers hardness
HV10 of alumina ceramics is in the range of 10001500 that
is greater than hard steels widely used for wear-protection
and signicantly greater than many processing materials.
Hardness tends to increase with higher corundum content;
however, the AL91 ceramics has greater hardness than the
AL95 ceramics, although both of them were produced from
the same grade of starting alumina. This may be explained
by the optimal ratio between crystalline and glassy phases,
by the presence of tiny needle-shaped mullite crystals rein-
forcing the glassy phase, and by lower closed porosity for
the AL91 ceramics. The similar effect is also noted for ex-
ural strength of the alumina ceramics. The ceramics with a
smaller crystal size demonstrate a higher level of physical
properties (such as hardness, exural strength, and others)
due to better compaction at the micro-level and smaller
closed porosity that may be achieved using the ne-grade
starting alumina. Fracture toughness of alumina ceramics
depends mostly on the microstructural features, such as crys-
tal size and shape, and the presence of the secondary phase;
however, only the valuable difference in the corundum con-
tent affects fracture toughness (e.g. K
Ic
of the AL98AL99.5
ceramics is greater than the AL91AL95 ceramics).
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E. Medvedovski / Wear 249 (2001) 821828 825
The aluminazirconia ceramics AZ based on the opti-
mized ratio between alumina and zirconia does not have a
glassy phase; the zirconia tetragonal crystals with a size less
than 1 m are uniformly distributed between the corundum
crystals with a size 13 m. This uniform microcrystalline
and glassy-free microstructure strongly affects physical
properties of the ceramics; the combination of positive
properties of the constituents results in the superior data
(Table 1). For example, Vickers hardness HV10 of high alu-
mina and zirconia ceramics is in the range of 12501500,
but the AZ ceramics demonstrates HV10 greater than 1550.
Fracture toughness K
Ic
of the AZ ceramics is still less than
zirconia ceramics, but it is greater than alumina ceramics.
The partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) ceramics man-
ufactured from the sub-micron starting zirconia powders
have very uniform microstructure. They are formed with
crystals with a size 0.31.0 m for Y
2
O
3
PSZ and 510 m
for MgOPSZ ceramics. The PSZ ceramics have superior
mechanical properties at ambient and elevated temperatures
over 1000

C (Table 1). This is explained by the sub-micron

crystal size, the absence of a glassy phase, and the crys-
tallographic features of stabilized zirconia crystals. The
Y
2
O
3
PSZ ceramics with more homogeneous and micro-
crystalline structure has signicantly higher mechanical
properties than the MgOPSZ ceramics. Different than
many kinds of oxide ceramics, PSZ ceramics have superior
fracture toughness K
Ic
610 MPa m
1/2
or even higher, i.e.
their fracture toughness is close to fracture toughness of
metals.
The main principle of the formation of the ABSC consists
of the mixing of different grades of silicon carbide particles
(from a size 35 m to 12 mm) using the specially devel-
oped ratios; silicon carbide particles are partially oxidized
at high temperature with the silicon dioxide formation on
the particle surface. Formed silicon dioxide reacts with
ne-sized alumina used as one of the bonding constituents.
As a result, the sub-micron mullite crystalline phase and the
aluminasilicate-based glassy phase are formed, bonding the
silicon carbide grains. Silicon carbide oxidation and mullite
formation processes are accompanied with the volume ex-
pansion. This glassy-crystalline bonding phase lls the pores
Table 2
Properties of the studied silicon carbide-based ceramics
Property ABSC20 ABSC15 ABSC17 ABSC30m
Density (g/cm
3
) 2.853.00 2.853.00 2.853.00 3.103.25
Flexural strength (MPa) 2330 2028 2028 3545
Hardness, Mohs scale 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5
Knoop microhardness (principal crystal) 2700 2700 2700 2700
Linear coefcient of thermal expansion (20600

C) (1/

C) (6.06.5) 10
6
(6.06.5) 10
6
(6.06.5) 10
6
(6.06.5) 10
6
Thermal conductivity (20300

C) (W/m

C) 2326 2326 2326 2630

Wear resistance
Volume loss (cm
3
) (ASTM B611)
a
(1.21.5)/(3.03.5) (0.91.2)/(1.11.2) (0.81.1)/(1.51.7) (2.02.2)/(4.95.1)
Volume loss (mm
3
) (ASTM G65) 25 13 19 37
Max use temperature (

C) 1350 1350 1350 1300

a
The values at the top and at the bottom show the wear loss at the top surface and at the center section of samples, respectively.
between the silicon carbide grains cementing them. The de-
veloped ratio between silicon carbide grains with different
sizes provides a high level of their compaction and a good
manufacturing ability of the mix, i.e. an ability to form a sta-
ble concentrated slurry without sedimentation and lamina-
tion of coarse particles in the slurry. These features provide
the manufacturing of large-sized and complicated-shaped
components. These ceramics do not have shrinkage during
ring unlike dense alumina and zirconia ceramics. The sili-
con carbide grains at the surface of ceramics are better oxi-
dized during ring than the grains at the central area, which
results in their difference in microstructure. The ceramic
surface has a more developed glassy phase, and it has low
open porosity different from the central area. The ABSC
ceramics have only moderate mechanical properties due to
the coarse-grained microstructure; however, they have ex-
cellent thermal shock resistance. Pores work as a damper
during the heating-cooling cycles, and the cracks caused
due to thermal stress in the bonding phase stop on the pore
surface between the silicon carbide grains. Properties of the
ABSC ceramics (Table 2) depend on the amount and grade
of starting silicon carbide, particle size distribution, and the
kind and amount of the bonding constituents.
3.2. Wear test results
The studied ceramics demonstrate high wear resistance
(Tables 1 and 2), and they can successfully compete with
many commercial materials widely used for wear-protection.
For example, wear resistance in dry testing conditions of
the studied aluminazirconia, zirconia, and some alumina
and ABSC is at the same level as the tungsten carbide- and
chromium carbide-based materials (volume loss, ASTM
G65, of WCNiCr and Cr
3
C
2
is 0.015 and 0.026 cm
3
,
respectively [1]). Wear resistance of the studied ceramics is
also at the same level or greater than nitride-bonded silicon
carbide ceramics (volume loss is 1.55 cm
3
(top) and 2.5 cm
3
(center), ASTM B611, and 0.035 cm
3
, ASTM G65), and it
is signicantly higher than basalt (volume loss is 3.6 cm
3
,
ASTM B611). Hard steels and mild steels cannot compete
with the studied ceramics in terms of wear resistance, even
826 E. Medvedovski / Wear 249 (2001) 821828
in dry working conditions (volume loss, ASTM G65, is
0.130.175 and 0.230.25 cm
3
for the 440500HB steels
and for the mild steel AISI 1018, respectively [2]).
The materials AL99.5, AL91, and AL98 demonstrate
higher wear resistance among the studied alumina ceramics.
A high level of wear resistance of the AL98 and, especially,
of the AL99.5 ceramics, is explained by very uniform,
small-crystalline microstructure with a small amount of a
glassy phase and, as a result, by a high level of mechan-
ical properties, including hardness and exural strength.
Although the AL91 ceramics does not have superior me-
chanical properties like the AL99.5 ceramics, a high level
of its wear resistance may be explained by the optimal ratio
between crystalline and glassy phases, and by the pres-
ence of the small-sized mullite crystals, which reinforce
the glassy phase that bonds corundum crystals. The use
of starting alumina with a smaller particle and crystal size
and a higher specic surface, or the use of alumina with
the bi-modal particle size distribution (as-received from
the suppliers or specially developed) promotes the achieve-
ment of more uniform, small-crystalline microstructure
with lower closed porosity. It results in higher mechanical
properties and wear resistance of the range of the stud-
ied ceramics. The impurities in the raw materials or the
additives promoting the crystal growth have a negative in-
uence on wear resistance. The crystal growth may have a
positive effect only if the grown prismatic alumina crystals
reinforce the small-crystalline alumina matrix bonded by a
glassy phase. This was achieved using the alumina with the
bi-modal particle size distribution. The study results also
show that the Al
2
O
3
content is not the main factor affecting
wear resistance, which correlates well with other data [3,4].
Open porosity inuences wear resistance negatively. Alu-
mina ceramics with open porosity even 0.20.5% has wear
loss of 2030% greater than fully sintered ceramics (open
porosity less than 0.1%) with the same composition. The
same ceramics, but with open porosity greater than 35%,
has much higher wear loss, and cannot compete with dense
or almost dense ceramics. The study results of the inu-
ence of porosity on wear resistance conducted for alumina
ceramics have good correlation with the literature data [5].
The manufacturing method (slip casting or pressing) may
inuence wear resistance only if it affects microstructure
of ceramics.
Zirconia ceramics also demonstrate high wear resistance;
but despite superior fracture toughness and exural strength,
their wear resistance has the same level as the best alumina
ceramics such as AL99.5 and AL91. However, zirconia ce-
ramics are considered as one of the best candidates where
the combination of high mechanical properties, including
fracture toughness, and wear- and corrosion-resistance are
required. In dry testing conditions (ASTM G65) MgO and
Y
2
O
3
PSZ-ceramics demonstrate the same level of wear
resistance (volume loss is 0.0120.016 cm
3
), in wet testing
conditions (ASTM B611) Y
2
O
3
PSZ ceramics demon-
strates signicantly higher wear resistance than MgOPSZ
conrmed by actual eld test results in the cavitation
conditions.
The aluminazirconia ceramics has the highest wear
resistance among the studied ceramics, especially in wet
testing conditions; its wear loss (ASTM B611) is 0.10 cm
3
in comparison with 0.300.35 cm
3
for the AL99.5 and
PSZ ceramics. This is explained by the optimal ratio be-
tween corundum and zirconia crystals, both providing high
mechanical properties, by very uniform microcrystalline
structure, by the absence of a glassy phase, and by very
low closed porosity. Probably, the PSZ phase with high
fracture toughness protects the alumina grain boundaries
from micro-cracking that also increases wear resistance.
The AZ ceramics, as well as the PSZ ceramics, demonstrate
excellent cavitation resistance.
The ABSC ceramics formed from the coarse grains of
silicon carbide consolidated by the glassy-crystalline bond-
ing phase also demonstrate high wear resistance. It is still
less than wear resistance of the studied dense ceramics in
case of wet slurry conditions (ASTM B611); however, in dry
conditions (ASTM G65) the ABSC ceramics demonstrate
the same level of wear resistance as the alumina ceram-
ics. All studied ABSC ceramics have the glassy-crystalline
surface layer with low porosity and more porous central
area. This difference is explained by the distinction in the
oxidation of silicon carbide grains at the surface and at
the center and associated interaction between the bonding
constituents. As a result, a denser surface of the ceramics
(i.e. the actual working surface) has higher wear resistance
(Table 2).
As already mentioned, the optimal ratio between sili-
con carbide grains with different particle sizes provides
a high level of compaction and densication, as well as
a good manufacturing ability. The ceramics formulated
with a higher content of larger particles of silicon carbide
(with a size 12 mm), such as ABSC15 and ABSC17 have
higher wear resistance. If the silicon carbide ceramics have
the largest particles with a size lower than 12 mm in the
composition, wear resistance drops signicantly. For exam-
ple, the ceramics ABSC30m with the largest particles of
0.60.8 mm has wear resistance of 2035% less than the
ceramics ABSC20 (both of them have the same composi-
tion of the bonding components). However, this ABSC30m
ceramics formulated with a smaller particle size have higher
mechanical strength, and it is used for manufacturing of
thin-walled products. Modication of the bonding phase by
optimizing the ratio between alumina, mullite, and some
specially used glassy phase-forming additives can increase
wear resistance. The use of special additives or altering the
ring conditions that promote the silicon carbide oxidation
during ring may increase wear resistance, especially, of
the central area. However, this oxidation process should not
be extremely active, i.e. the forming glassy phase should
not signicantly decrease a content and a grain size of sili-
con carbide particles as the main phase providing high wear
resistance.
E. Medvedovski / Wear 249 (2001) 821828 827
3.3. Some features of wear for the studied ceramics and
factors effected wear resistance
The wear process of ceramics starts from the impacts of
small abrasive particles and crack formation at the surface.
It is usually considered that in case of rounded particles and
low particle velocity, the contact between an abrasive parti-
cle and ceramics is primary elastic [3,6]. These conditions
promote the conical crack formation. In case of angular
particles, some plastic ows are generated at the contact
points during impact, which result in radial and lateral crack
formation. These cracks are more intense when ceramics
has low hardness and fracture toughness. Under real work-
ing conditions when abrasive particles with different sizes,
shapes, and weights are transported, they move with dif-
ferent velocity due to turbulence and collision. The impact
angle may vary, and, therefore, all kinds of cracks may form.
Because each phase of multiphase ceramics, as the studied
alumina ceramics, has different hardness and fracture tough-
ness, the crack formation starts from the weakest boundary
glassy phase. The residual microcracks, small closed pores
and other defects formed in the boundary layer during the
manufacturing process are the stress concentrators; the
wear cracking starts from these defects. The cracks gen-
erate the network during a continuing abrasive action.
When the weakened boundary layer cannot bond corundum
grains, they are pulled out under the action of abrasive
media resulting in more intense crack generation. As the
compaction of corundum crystals is greater, the crack gen-
eration and wear process are less efcient. Basically, as the
amount of a glassy phase increases, the wear process is
more efcient; however, it is correct only in some ranges
of the compositions. The example of the AL91 ceramics
shows that a high level of wear resistance may be achieved
if the ratio between crystalline and glassy phases is opti-
mized. The presence of the tiny mullite crystals reinforcing
the boundary phase delays the wear process because these
crystals prevent the crack propagation in the glassy phase.
The wear process of zirconia ceramics is distinguished
from the wear process of alumina ceramics due to the ab-
sence of a glassy phase and the structural features of PSZ.
During the action of wet abrasive environment the tetragonal
metastable phase slowly transforms to the monoclinic phase
that is accompanied by micro-cracking and wear of ceramics
(mostly, the monoclinic phase is removed); density of sam-
ples increases and their fracture toughness decreases slightly
at these conditions. Different from other ceramics, the wear
of the PSZ ceramics is not connected with the destruction
of grain boundaries and the removal of whole grains. In ac-
cordance with [7], in case of K
Ic
greater than 5.4 MPa m
1/2
,
the wear process transforms to the plastic ow process.
Considering the studied silicon carbide-based and similar
coarse-grained ceramics, the crack formation appears at the
bonding phase due to relatively low hardness and fracture
toughness of the aluminosilicate glass in comparison with
silicon carbide grains. During the wear process the formed
cracks grow in the bonding phase; the layer of a glassy phase
as a weakest constituent becomes thinner. Liquid (in case
of wet slurry abrasion) and hard particles wedge the bond-
ing phase, generate the cracking, and nally wash out the
bonding phase. After the top surface with higher wear resis-
tance is destroyed, the wear process is accelerated. When the
weakened grain boundary layer cannot bond silicon carbide
grains, these grains are pulled out by a high-velocity abra-
sive ow. In order to increase wear resistance of this kind of
ceramics, the bonding phase should possess high mechanical
properties. The mullite crystals reinforcing a glassy phase
prevent the crack propagation. The crystallization of the
bonding phase should be maximized; however, the amount
of a glassy phase should be sufcient to ll the space be-
tween the silicon carbide grains, thereby cementing them.
The transition between the principal silicon carbide grains
and the bonding phase should be smooth enough to mini-
mize micro-cracking of the structure. The bonding should
be as much as possible both at the surface and in the central
area, and the internal porosity should be minimized. It may
be achieved by optimizing the particle size distribution of
silicon carbide grains, the bonding phase composition, and
manufacturing process, including ring conditions.
Wear resistance of ceramics depends on the factors deal-
ing with application conditions and the factors dealing with
microstructure and properties of material. The application
conditions include the inuence of a processing material
such as a kind of material (rst of all, its hardness), a size
and a shape of the transported particles, and a kind of the
media where the processing material is dispersed (e.g. pH
of the liquid media, presence and composition of chemi-
cally aggressive components and lubricants). As expected,
the ceramics showed signicantly greater wear resistance
using the ASTM G65 test method as opposed to the ASTM
B611 test method due to more severe conditions caused by
the combined action of a liquid media, harder acting parti-
cles (alumina grits with Mohs hardness 9 verse silica sand
with Mohs hardness 7), and harder wheel (a steel wheel
verse a rubber lined wheel). As a result, shorter time is
required to create higher level of wear damage in ceram-
ics at ASTM B611 (400 revolutions) than at ASTM G65
(6000 revolutions). This difference is more noticeable for
the coarse-structured ABSC ceramics with weakened bond-
ing between primary crystals (in comparison with the stud-
ied dense ceramics). It is recognized, that in the presence
of chemically aggressive environment the erosion process is
stronger (i.e. a combined inuence of abrasion and corrosion
occurs). Temperature and pressure of the process have some
inuence on both the general behavior of ceramics and the
processing material. The studies carried out in the eld con-
ditions and the literature data [5,6] indicate that the erosion
rate increases as the processing particle velocity increases.
As known, ceramics have higher wear resistance under
sliding abrasion than under impact action of an abrasive
media [2,3] because fracture toughness and impact strength
of ceramics are not very high. The slurry jet erosion tests
828 E. Medvedovski / Wear 249 (2001) 821828
conducted for the alumina ceramics AL91, Al95, and
AL99.5 showed that wear resistance decreased as the im-
pingement angle increased. The wear loss at 20

is approx-
imately 23 times less than at 45

and 35 times less than

at 90

. The same test conducted for the 460HB steel As-

tralloy showed that the steel had signicantly lower wear
resistance than the alumina ceramics, and that the wear loss
values for the steel at 20, 45, and 90

did not have as high

a difference as ceramics had (although the wear loss at 20

was less than at 45 and 90

). The study of microstructure

of the alumina ceramics after the wear tests showed that at
20

the damage was related to intergranular cracking and

the micro-groove formation. By contrast, at 90

the greater
damage was related to the pitting, the bigger cavities for-
mation, and the grain pullout. In both cases, the cracking
and wear started from the glassy phase, but at 90

the
damage was signicantly stronger. These test results cor-
relate well with the literature data [3,5] and with the eld
studies.
The relationship between wear resistance of ceramics
and their structure and properties has many features [27].
Wear resistance of dense ceramics depends on such physi-
cal properties as hardness, fracture toughness, exural and
impact strength, Youngs modulus, as well as the features of
phase composition and microstructure. Hardness and frac-
ture toughness may be considered as the dominant physical
properties; however, only the combination of all properties
and microstructural features should be taken into consid-
eration. Ceramics should have microcrystalline structure
formed by crystals with high hardness. If ceramics has a
glassy phase, this glassy phase should have high mechani-
cal properties, and the ratio between crystalline and glassy
phases should be optimized. A presence of the secondary
crystalline phase reinforcing the boundary glassy phase
improves wear resistance. Regarding the heterogeneous ce-
ramics, the hardness and fracture toughness values of the
principal crystals and the bonding phase are important. The
level of densication and the composition of the ceramic
surface strongly affect wear resistance. Microstructure (a
size of principal crystals, a particle size distribution and a
particles compaction, the bonding phase distribution, poros-
ity, etc.) and phase composition (mostly, the quantity of
the principal phase provided high wear resistance and the
bonding phase composition) are other factors affecting wear
resistance of heterogeneous ceramics. The volume fraction
of the coarse particles with the highest hardness should
be maximized. A particle compaction and densication
should be maximized, i.e. the ratio between particles with
different sizes should be optimized. The surface quality of
ceramics affects wear resistance of all kinds of ceramics.
As practical experience shows, high surface quality ceram-
ics, especially ceramics with ground or polished surface
demonstrate higher wear resistance due to lower contacting
area between ceramics and acting abrasive media and lower
local turbulence at the surface.
4. Conclusion
The compositions, microstructure, and properties of the
developed and manufactured alumina, aluminazirconia,
zirconia, and ABSC used for wear-protection have been
studied. This ceramics demonstrate a high level of me-
chanical properties, including hardness, and excellent wear
resistance. The wear test results and the wear mechanisms
for the studied dense homogeneous and coarse-grained
heterogeneous ceramics are discussed. The main factors
affecting wear resistance of ceramics are emphasized. They
include the features of the application conditions and the
factors related to properties and microstructure of ceramics.
Only the combination of all properties and microstructural
features should be taken into consideration during the eval-
uation and choosing of ceramics for wear-protection. The
studied ceramics are successfully used for wear-protection
of different working parts in mining and mineral industries
and structural components.
Acknowledgements
Wear resistance and some mechanical properties testing
support provided by Alberta Research Council, Edmonton,
and NRC Integrated Manufacturing Technologies Institute
(Dr. Rees J. Llewellyn), Vancouver, is appreciated greatly.
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