Best SQL - PLSQL Material

INTRODUCTION
SQL is divided into the following

1 Data Definition Language (DDL)
2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
3 Data Retieval Language (DRL)
4 Tansa!tion Contol Language (TCL)
5 Data Contol Language (DCL)
DDL "" !eate# alte# dop# tun!ate# ena$e
DML "" inset# update# delete
DRL "" sele!t
TCL "" !o$$it# oll%a!&# savepoint
DCL "" gant# evo&e
CR'(T' T()L' S*NT(+
Ceate ta%le ,table_name- (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 coln datatypen).
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student (no nu$%e (1)# na$e va!ha (23)# $a&s nu$%e
(4)).
INS'RT
This will %e used to inset the e!ods into ta%le5
6e have two $ethods to inset5
1 )7 value $ethod
2 )7 addess $ethod
a) USIN8 9(LU' M'T:OD

S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 . Valuen).

'/0
SQL- inset into student values (2# ;sudha;# 233).
SQL- inset into student values (1# ;sað# 133).

To inset a new e!od again 7ou have to t7pe entie inset !o$$and# if thee
ae lot of
e!ods this will %e diffi!ult5
This will %e avoided %7 using addess $ethod5
%) USIN8 (DDR'SS M'T:OD

S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln).
This will po$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve7 inset 7ou have to use
fowad slash5

'/0
SQL- inset into student values (<no# =<na$e=# <$a&s).
'nte value fo no0 2
'nte value fo na$e0 >agan
'nte value fo $a&s0 433
old 20 inset into student values(<no# =<na$e=# <$a&s)
new 20 inset into student values(2# =>agan=# 433)
SQL- ?
'nte value fo no0 1
'nte value fo na$e0 Naen
'nte value fo $a&s0 @33
old 20 inset into student values(<no# =<na$e=# <$a&s)
new 20 inset into student values(1# =Naen=# @33)
!) INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 9(LU' M'T:OD

S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name)(col1, col2, col3 Coln) values (value1, value2,
value3 .
Valuen).
'/0
SQL- inset into student (no# na$e) values (4# ;Ra$esh;).
SQL- inset into student (no# na$e) values (@# ;Madhu;).
d) INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 (DDR'SS M'T:OD

S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name)(col1, col2, col3 coln) values (&col1, &col2
.&coln);
This will po$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve7 inset 7ou have to use fowad
slash5

'/0
SQL- inset into student (no# na$e) values (<no# =<na$e=).
'nte value fo no0 C
'nte value fo na$e0 9isu
old 20 inset into student (no# na$e) values(<no# =<na$e=)
new 20 inset into student (no# na$e) values(C# =9isu=)
SQL- ?
'nte value fo no0 D
'nte value fo na$e0 Rattu
old 20 inset into student (no# na$e) values(<no# =<na$e=)
new 20 inset into student (no# na$e) values(D# =Rattu=)
S'L'CTIN8 D(T(
S7nta/0
Sele!t E fo$ ,table_name-. "" hee E indi!ates all !olu$ns
o
Sele!t col1, col2, coln fo$ ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.

NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """""" """"""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
SQL- sele!t no# na$e# $a&s fo$ student.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """""" """"""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
SQL- sele!t no# na$e fo$ student.
NO N(M'
""" """""""
2 Sudha
1 Sa&eth
2 >agan
1 Naen
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
CONDITION(L S'L'CTIONS (ND
OA'R(TORS
6e have two !lauses used in this
1 6hee
2 Ode %7
USIN8 6:'R'
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition-.

the following ae the diffeent t7pes of opeatos used in whee !lause5
1 (ith$eti! opeatos
2 Co$paison opeatos
3 Logi!al opeatos
1 (ith$eti! opeatos "" highest pe!eden!e
G# "# E# ?
2 Co$paison opeatos
H# IH# -# ,# -H# ,H# ,-
1 %etween# not %etween
3 in# not in
3 null# not null
4 li&e
2 Logi!al opeatos
3 (nd
4 O "" lowest pe!eden!e
4 not
a) USIN8 H# -# ,# -H# ,H# IH# ,-

'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
1 Naen @33

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no , 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no - 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no ,H 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33

SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no -H 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no IH 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no ,- 1.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
%) USIN8 (ND

This will gives the output when all the !onditions %e!o$e tue5

S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition1- and ,condition2- and 55
,conditionn-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1 and $a&s -H 133.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""
1 Sa&eth 133
1 Naen @33
!) USIN8 OR
This will gives the output when eithe of the !onditions %e!o$e tue5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition1- and ,condition2- o 55
,conditionn-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1 o $a&s -H 133.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
d) USIN8 )'T6''N
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its lowe %ound#
uppe%ound5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- %etween ,lower bound- and
,upper
bound-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s %etween 133 and @33.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
e) USIN8 NOT )'T6''N
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values ae not in its lowe
%ound#
uppe%ound5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- not %etween ,lower bound- and
,upper
bound-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s not %etween 133 and @33.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
f) USIN8 IN
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its list of values spe!ified5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- in ( value1, value2, value3
valuen).
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no in (2# 1# 4).
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
g) USIN8 NOT IN
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values ae not in the list
of
values spe!ified5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- not in ( value1, value2, value3
valuen).
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no not in (2# 1# 4).
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
h) USIN8 NULL
This will gives the output %ased on the null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- is null.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s is null.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
i) USIN8 NOT NULL
This will gives the output %ased on the not null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- is not null.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s is not null.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
J) USIN8 LIF'
This will %e used to sea!h though the ows of data%ase !olu$n %ased on the
patten
7ou spe!if75
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- li&e ,pattern-.

'/0
i) This will give the ows whose $a&s ae 2335
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s li&e 233.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
ii) This will give the ows whose na$e stat with KS;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =SL=.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sa&eth 133
iii) This will give the ows whose na$e ends with Kh;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =Lh=.

NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
4 Ra$esh
i9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette stat with Ka;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =MaL=.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""
1 Sa&eth 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
D Rattu

9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thid lette stat with Kd;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =MMdL=.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
@ Madhu
9i) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette stat with Kt; fo$
ending5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =LMtL=.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
D Rattu

9ii) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thid lette stat with Ke; fo$
ending5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =LeMML=.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sa&eth 133
4 Ra$esh
9iii) This will give the ows whose na$e !otains 1 a;s5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =LaL a L=.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 >agan 433
E *ou have to spe!if7 the pattens in lie using undes!oe ( M )5
USIN8 ORD'R )*
This will %e used to odeing the !olu$ns data (as!ending o des!ending)5
S7nta/0
Sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- ode %7 ,col- des!.
)7 default oa!le will use as!ending ode5
If 7ou want output in des!ending ode 7ou have to use de!c &e7wod afte the
!olu$n5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student ode %7 no.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
1 Sa&eth 133s
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
C 9isu
D Rattu
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student ode %7 no des!.
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
D Rattu
C 9isu
@ Madhu
4 Ra$esh
1 Sa&eth 133
1 Naen @33
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
USIN8 DML
USIN8 UAD(T'
This !an %e used to $odif7 the ta%le data5
S7nta/0
Update ,table_name- set ,col1- H value2# ,col2- H value1 whee
,condition-.
'/0
SQL- update student set $a&s H C33.
If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will update entie ta%le5
SQL- update student set $a&s H C33 whee no H 1.
SQL- update student set $a&s H C33# na$e H =9enu= whee no H 2.
USIN8 D'L'T'
This !an %e used to delete the ta%le data te$p1oail75
S7nta/0
Delete ,table_name- whee ,condition-.
'/0
SQL- delete student.
If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will delete entie ta%le5
SQL- delete student whee no H 1.
USIN8 DDL
USIN8 (LT'R
This !an %e used to add o e$ove !olu$ns and to $odif7 the pe!ision of the
datat7pe5
a) (DDIN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- add ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student add sdo% date.
%) R'MO9IN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- dop ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student dop !olu$n sdo%.
!) INCR'(SIN8 OR D'CR'(SIN8 AR'CISION OB ( COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- $odif7 ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student $odif7 $a&s nu$%e(C).
E To de!ease pe!ision the !olu$n should %e e$p1t75
d) M(FIN8 COLUMN UNUS'D
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- set unused !olu$n ,col-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student set unused !olu$n $a&s.

'ven though the !olu$n is unused still it will o!!up7 $e$o75
d) DROAAIN8 UNUS'D COLUMNS
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- dop unused !olu$ns.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student dop unused !olu$ns.
E *ou !an not dop individual unused !olu$ns of a ta%le5
e) R'N(MIN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- ena$e !olu$n ,old_col_name- to
,new_col_name-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student ena$e !olu$n $a&s to s$a&s.
USIN8 TRUNC(T'
This !an %e used to delete the entie ta%le data pe$anentl75
S7nta/0
tun!ate ta%le ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL- tun!ate ta%le student.
USIN8 DROA
This will %e used to dop the data%ase o%Je!t.
S7nta/0
Dop ta%le ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL- dop ta%le student.
USIN8 R'N(M'
This will %e used to ena$e the data%ase o%Je!t.
S7nta/0
ena$e ,oldMtable_name- to ,new_table_name-.
'/0
SQL- ena$e student to stud.
USIN8 TCL
USIN8 COMMIT
This will %e used to save the wo&5
Co$$it is of two t7pes5
1 I$pli!it
2 '/pli!it
a) IMALICIT
This will %e issued %7 oa!le intenall7 in two situations5
1 6hen an7 DDL opeation is pefo$ed5
2 6hen 7ou ae e/iting fo$ SQL E ALUS5
%) '+ALICIT
This will %e issued %7 the use5
S7nta/0
Co$$it o !o$$it wo&.
E 6hen eve 7ou !o$$itted then the tansa!tion was !o$pleted5
USIN8 ROLL)(CF
This will undo the opeation5
This will %e applied in two $ethods5
1 Upto pevious !o$$it
2 Upto pevious oll%a!&
S7nta/0
Roll o oll wo&.
O
Roll%a!& o oll%a!& wo&.
E 6hile po!ess is going on# if suddenl7 powe goes then oa!le will oll%a!& the
tansa!tion5
USIN8 S(9'AOINT
*ou !an use savepoints to oll%a!& potions of 7ou !uent set of tansa!tions5
S7nta/0
Savepoint ,!avepoint_name-.
'/0
SQL- savepoint s2.
SQL- inset into student values(2# Ka;# 233).
SQL- savepoint s1.
SQL- inset into student values(1# K%;# 133).
SQL- savepoint s4.
SQL- inset into student values(4# K!;# 433).
SQL- savepoint s@.
SQL- inset into student values(@# Kd;# @33).

)efoe oll%a!&
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33

SQL- oll%a!& to savepoint s4.
O
SQL- oll%a!& to s4.

This will oll%a!& last two e!ods5
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
USIN8 DCL
DCL !o$$ands ae used to ganting and evo&ing the pe$issions5
USIN8 8R(NT
This is used to gant the pivileges to othe uses5
S7nta/0
8ant ,privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- to ,u!er_name- Nwith gant optionO.
'/0
SQL- gant sele!t on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give individual pivilege
SQL- gant sele!t# inset on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give set of pivileges
SQL- gant all on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give all pivileges

The sudha use has to use dot $ethod to a!!ess the o%Je!t5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ sa&eth5student.
The sudha use !an not gant pe$ission on student ta%le to othe uses5 To get
this
t7pe of option use the following5
SQL- gant all on student to sudha with gant option.
Now sudha use also gant pe$issions on student ta%le5
USIN8 R'9OF'
This is used to evo&e the pivileges fo$ the uses to whi!h 7ou ganted the
pivileges5
S7nta/0
Revo&e ,privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- fo$ ,u!er_name-.
'/0
SQL- evo&e sele!t on student fo$ sudha. "" 7ou !an evo&e individual
pivilege
SQL- evo&e sele!t# inset on student fo$ sudha. "" 7ou !an evo&e set of
pivileges
SQL- evo&e all on student fo$ sudha. "" 7ou !an evo&e all pivileges

USIN8 (LI(S'S
CR'(T' 6IT: S'L'CT
6e !an !eate a ta%le using e/isting ta%le Nalong with dataO5
S7nta/0
Ceate ta%le ,new_table_name- Ncol1, col2, col3 ... colnO as sele!t E fo$
,old_table_name-.
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student2 as sele!t E fo$ student.

Ceating ta%le with 7ou own !olu$n na$es5
SQL- !eate ta%le student1(sno# sna$e# s$a&s) as sele!t E fo$ student.

Ceating ta%le with spe!ified !olu$ns5
SQL- !eate ta%le student4 as sele!t no#na$e fo$ student.

Ceating ta%le with out ta%le data5
SQL- !eate ta%le student1(sno# sna$e# s$a&s) as sele!t E fo$ student whee
2 H 1.
In the a%ove whee !lause give an7 !ondition whi!h does not satisf75

INS'RT 6IT: S'L'CT
Using this we !an inset e/isting ta%le data to a anothe ta%le in a single tip5 )ut
the ta%le stu!tue should %e sa$e5
S7nta/0
Inset into ,table1- sele!t E fo$ ,table2-.
'/0
SQL- inset into student2 sele!t E fo$ student.
Inseting data into spe!ified !olu$ns
SQL- inset into student2(no# na$e) sele!t no# na$e fo$ student.
COLUMN (LI(S'S
S7nta/0
$elect %or"inal_col& %alia!_name& 'rom %tableMna$e-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t no sno fo$ student.
o
SQL- sele!t no PsnoQ fo$ student.
T()L' (LI(S'S
If 7ou ae using ta%le aliases 7ou !an use dot $ethod to the !olu$ns5
S7nta/0
Sele!t ,alia!_name-5,col1-# ,alia!_name-5,col2- R ,alia!_name-5,coln-
fo$
,table_name- ,alia!_name-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t s5no# s5na$e fo$ student s.
USIN8 M'R8'
M'R8'
*ou !an use $ege !o$$and to pefo$ inset and update in a single !o$$and5
'/0
SQL- Mege into student2 s2
Using (sele!t EBo$ student1) s1
On(s25noHs15no)
6hen $at!hed then
Update set $a&s H s15$a&s
6hen not $at!hed then
Inset (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a&s)
9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15$a&s).
In the a%ove the two ta%les ae with the sa$e stu!tue %ut we !an $ege
diffeent stu!tued ta%les also %ut the datat7pe of the !olu$ns should $at!h5
(ssu$e that student2 has !olu$ns li&e no#na$e#$a&s and student1 has !olu$ns
li&e no#
na$e# hno# !it75
SQL- Mege into student2 s2
Using (sele!t EBo$ student1) s1
On(s25noHs15no)
6hen $at!hed then
Update set $a&s H s15hno
6hen not $at!hed then
Inset (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a&s)
9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15hno).
MULTIAL' INS'RTS
6e have ta%le !alled D'AT with the following !olu$ns and data
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""" """""""" """"
23 a!!ounting new 7o&
13 esea!h dallas
43 sales Chi!ago
@3 opeations %oston
a) CR'(T' STUD'NT T()L'
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s nu$%e(4)).
%) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: (LL BI'LDS
SQL- Inset all
Into student values(2#;a;#233)
Into student values(1#;%;#133)
Into student values(4#;!;#433)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH23.
"" This insets 4 ows
!) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: SA'CIBI'D BI'LDS
SQL- inset all
Into student (no#na$e) values(@#;d;)
Into student(na$e#$a&s) values(;e;#@33)
d) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: DUALIC(T' RO6S
SQL- inset all
Into student values(2#;a;#233)
Into student values(1#;%;#133)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno - 23.
"" This insets S ows %e!ause in the sele!t state$ent etieves 4 e!ods (4
insets fo
ea!h ow etieved)
e) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D
SQL- Inset all
6hen deptno - 23 then
Into student2 values(2#;a;#233)
6hen dna$e H KS(L'S; then
Into student1 values(1#;%;#133)
6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then
Into student4 values(4#;!;#433)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno-23.
"" This insets @ ows %e!ause the fist !ondition satisfied 4 ti$es# se!ond
!ondition
satisfied on!e and the last none5
f) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D (ND 'LS'
SQL- Inset all
6hen deptno - 233 then
6hen dna$e H KS; then
'lse
Into student values(@#;d;#@33)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno-23.
"" This insets 4 e!ods %e!ause the else satisfied 4 ti$es
g) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D (ND BIRST
SQL- Inset fist
6hen deptno H 13 then
6hen dna$e H KR'S'(RC:; then

"" This insets 2 e!od %e!ause the fist !lause avoid to !he!& the e$aining
!onditions on!e the !ondition is satisfied5
h) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D# BIRST (ND 'LS'
SQL- Inset fist
6hen deptno H 43 then
6hen dna$e H KR; then
'lse
Into student values(@#;d;#@33)
"" This insets 2 e!od %e!ause the else !lause satisfied on!e
i) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: MULTI)L' T()L'S
SQL- Inset all
EE *ou !an use $ulti ta%les with spe!ified fields# with dupli!ate ows# with
!onditions#
with fist and else !lauses5
BUNCTIONS
Bun!tions !an %e !ategoiTed as follows5
1 Single ow fun!tions
2 8oup fun!tions
SIN8L' RO6 BUNCTIONS
Single ow fun!tions !an %e !ategoiTed into five5 These will %e applied fo ea!h
ow and podu!es individual output fo ea!h ow5
1 Nu$ei! fun!tions
2 Sting fun!tions
3 Date fun!tions
4 Mis!ellaneous fun!tions
5 Convesion fun!tions
NUM'RIC BUNCTIONS
1 (%s
2 Sign
3 SUt
4 Mod
5 Nvl
6 Aowe
7 '/p
8 Ln
9 Log
10 Ceil
11 Bloo
12 Round
13 Tun&
14 )itand
15 8eatest
16 Least
17 Coales!e
a) ()S
(%solute value is the $easue of the $agnitude of value5
(%solute value is alwa7s a positive nu$%e5
S7nta/0 a%s (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t a%s(C)# a%s("C)# a%s(3)# a%s(null) fo$ dual.
()S(C) ()S("C) ()S(3) ()S(NULL)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""""""
C C 3
%) SI8N
Sign gives the sign of a value5
S7nta/0 sign (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t sign(C)# sign("C)# sign(3)# sign(null) fo$ dual.
SI8N(C) SI8N("C) SI8N(3) SI8N(NULL)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""
2 "2 3
!) SQRT
This will give the sUuae oot of the given value5
S7nta/0 sUt (value) "" hee value $ust %e positive5
'/0
SQL- sele!t sUt(@)# sUt(3)# sUt(null)# sUt(2) fo$ dual.
SQRT(@) SQRT(3) SQRT(NULL) SQRT(2)
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""""
1 3 2
d) MOD
This will give the e$ainde5
S7nta/0 $od (value, divi!or)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $od(V#@)# $od(2#C)# $od(null#null)# $od(3#3)# $od("V#@) fo$
dual.
MOD(V#@) MOD(2#C) MOD(NULL#NULL) MOD(3#3) MOD("V#@)
"""""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""""""
4 2 3 "4
e) N9L
This will su%stitutes the spe!ified value in the pla!e of null values5
S7nta/0 nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student. "" hee fo 4
d
ow $a&s value is null
NO N(M' M(RFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 !
SQL- sele!t no# na$e# nvl($a&s#433) fo$ student.
NO N(M' N9L(M(RFS#433)
""" """"""" """""""""""""""""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
SQL- sele!t nvl(2#1)# nvl(1#4)# nvl(@#4)# nvl(C#@) fo$ dual.
N9L(2#1) N9L(1#4) N9L(@#4) N9L(C#@)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
2 1 @ C
SQL- sele!t nvl(3#3)# nvl(2#2)# nvl(null#null)# nvl(@#@) fo$ dual.

N9L(3#3) N9L(2#2) N9L(null#null) N9L(@#@)
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""
3 2 @
f) AO6'R
Aowe is the a%ilit7 to aise a value to a given e/ponent5
S7nta/0 powe (value, e(ponent)
'/0
SQL- sele!t powe(1#C)# powe(3#3)# powe(2#2)# powe(null#null)# powe(1#"
C)
fo$ dual.

AO6'R(1#C) AO6'R(3#3) AO6'R(2#2) AO6'R(NULL#NULL)
AO6'R(1#"C)
"""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"" """"""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
"""""""""""""""
41 2 2
53421C
g) '+A
This will aise e value to the give powe5
S7nta/0 e/p (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t e/p(2)# e/p(1)# e/p(3)# e/p(null)# e/p("1) fo$ dual.
'+A(2) '+A(1) '+A(3) '+A(NULL) '+A("1)
"""""""" """"""""" """""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""
15V2W1W2W4 V54WS3CD2 2 524C44C1W4
h) LN
This is %ased on natual o %ase e logaith$5
S7nta/0 ln (value) "" hee value $ust %e geate than Teo whi!h is positive
onl75
'/0
SQL- sele!t ln(2)# ln(1)# ln(null) fo$ dual.
LN(2) LN(1) LN(NULL)
""""""" """"""" """"""""""""
3 5DS42@V2W2
Ln and '/p ae e!ipo!al to ea!h othe5
'+A (4) H 1353WCC4DS
LN (1353WCC4DS) H 4
i) LO8
This is %ased on 23 %ased logaith$5
S7nta/0 log (23# value)"" hee value $ust %e geate than Teo whi!h is positive
onl75
'/0
SQL- sele!t log(23#233)# log(23#1)# log(23#2)# log(23#null) fo$ dual.
LO8(23#233) LO8(23#1) LO8(23#2) LO8(23#NULL)
""""""""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""""" """""""""""""""""
1 543231SSSD 3
LN (value) H LO8 ('+A(2)# value)
SQL- sele!t ln(4)# log(e/p(2)#4) fo$ dual.
LN(4) LO8('+A(2)#4)
""""""" """""""""""""""""
253SWD211S 253SWD211S
J) C'IL
This will podu!e a whole nu$%e that is geate than o eUual to the spe!ified
value5
S7nta/0 !eil (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !eil(C)# !eil(C52)# !eil("C)# !eil( "C52)# !eil(3)# !eil(null) fo$ dual.
C'IL(C) C'IL(C52) C'IL("C) C'IL("C52) C'IL(3) C'IL(NULL)
""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """""""" """"""""""""""
C D "C "C 3
&) BLOOR
This will podu!e a whole nu$%e that is less than o eUual to the spe!ified
value5
S7nta/0 floo (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t floo(C)# floo(C52)# floo("C)# floo( "C52)# floo(3)# floo(null)
fo$
dual.
BLOOR(C) BLOOR(C52) BLOOR("C) BLOOR("C52) BLOOR(3)
BLOOR(NULL)
""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""
""""""""""""""""
C C "C "D 3
l) ROUND
This will ounds nu$%es to a given nu$%e of digits of pe!ision5
S7nta/0 ound (value, preci!ion)
'/0
SQL- sele!t ound(214514@C)# ound(214514@C#1)# ound(214514C@#1) fo$
dual.
ROUND(214514@C) ROUND(214514@C#3) ROUND(214514@C#1)
ROUND(214514C@#1)
""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
"""""""""""""""""""""""
214 214 214514
21451@
SQL- sele!t ound(214514@C#"2)# ound(214514@C#"1)# ound(214514@C#"4)#
ound(214514@C#"@) fo$ dual.

ROUND(214514@C#"2) ROUND(214514@C#"1) ROUND(214514@C#"4)
ROUND(214514@C#"@)
"""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""
""""""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3
3
SQL- sele!t ound(214#3)# ound(214#2)# ound(214#1) fo$ dual.
ROUND(214#3) ROUND(214#2) ROUND(214#1)
""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
214 214 214
SQL- sele!t ound("214#3)# ound("214#2)# ound("214#1) fo$ dual.
ROUND("214#3) ROUND("214#2) ROUND("214#1)
"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""
"214 "214 "214
SQL- sele!t ound(214#"2)# ound(214#"1)# ound(214#"4)# ound("214#"2)#
ound(
"214#"1)# ound("214#"4) fo$ dual.
ROUND(214#"2) ROUND(214#"1) ROUND(214#"4) ROUND("214#"2) ROUND("
214#"1)
ROUND("214#"4)
""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""
""""""""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 "213 "233 3
SQL- sele!t ound(null#null)# ound(3#3)# ound(2#2)# ound("2#"2)# ound("
1#"1)
fo$ dual.
ROUND(NULL#NULL) ROUND(3#3) ROUND(2#2) ROUND("2#"2)
ROUND("1#"1)
""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
""""""""""""""""
3 2 3 3

$) TRUNC
This will tun!ates o !hops off digits of pe!ision fo$ a nu$%e5
S7nta/0 tun! (value, preci!ion)
'/0
SQL- sele!t tun!(214514@C)# tun!(214514@C#1)# tun!(214514C@#1) fo$
dual.
TRUNC(214514@C) TRUNC(214514@C#1) TRUNC(214514C@#1)
""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
214 214514 214514
SQL- sele!t tun!(214514@C#"2)# tun!(214514@C#"1)# tun!(214514@C#"4)#
tun!(214514@C#"@) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214514@C#"2) TRUNC(214514@C#"1) TRUNC(214514@C#"4)
TRUNC(214514@C#"@)
"""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
""""""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 3
SQL- sele!t tun!(214#3)# tun!(214#2)# tun!(214#1) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214#3) TRUNC(214#2) TRUNC(214#1)
"""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""
214 214 214
SQL- sele!t tun!("214#3)# tun!("214#2)# tun!("214#1) fo$ dual.
TRUNC("214#3) TRUNC("214#2) TRUNC("214#1)
""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""
"214 "214 "214
SQL- sele!t tun!(214#"2)# tun!(214#"1)# tun!(214#"4)# tun!("214#"2)#
tun!(
"214#1)# tun!("214#"4) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214#"2) TRUNC(214#"1) TRUNC(214#"4) TRUNC("214#"2) TRUNC("214#1)
TRUNC("
214#"4)
""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 "213 "214 3
SQL- sele!t tun!(null#null)# tun!(3#3)# tun!(2#2)# tun!("2#"2)# tun!("1#"1)
fo$
dual.
TRUNC(NULL#NULL) TRUNC(3#3) TRUNC(2#2) TRUNC("2#"2) TRUNC("
1#"1)
""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""
""""""""""""""""
3 2 3 3
n) )IT(ND
This will pefo$ %itwise and opeation5
S7nta/0 %itand (value1, value2)
'/0
SQL- sele!t %itand(1#4)# %itand(3#3)# %itand(2#2)# %itand(null#null)# %itand("
1#"4)
fo$ dual.
)IT(ND(1#4) )IT(ND(3#3) )IT(ND(2#2) )IT(ND(NULL#NULL)
)IT(ND("1#"4)
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""
"""""""""""""""""
1 3 2
"@
o) 8R'(T'ST
This will give the geatest nu$%e5
S7nta/0 geatest (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL- sele!t geatest(2# 1# 4)# geatest("2# "1# "4) fo$ dual.
8R'(T'ST(2#1#4) 8R'(T'ST("2#"1#"4)
"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
4 "2
1 If all the values ae Teos then it will displa7 Teo5
2 If all the paa$etes ae nulls then it will displa7 nothing5
3 If an7 of the paa$etes is null it will displa7 nothing5
p) L'(ST
This will give the least nu$%e5
S7nta/0 least (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL- sele!t least(2# 1# 4)# least("2# "1# "4) fo$ dual.
L'(ST(2#1#4) L'(ST("2#"1#"4)
"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
2 "4
4 If all the values ae Teos then it will displa7 Teo5
U) CO(L'SC'
This will etun fist non"null value5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !oales!e(2#1#4)# !oales!e(null#1#null#C) fo$ dual.
CO(L'SC'(2#1#4) CO(L'SC'(NULL#1#NULL#C)
""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
2 1
STRIN8 BUNCTIONS
18 Init!ap
19 Uppe
20 Lowe
21 Length
22 Rpad
23 Lpad
24 Lti$
25 Rti$
26 Ti$
27 Tanslate
28 Repla!e
29 Sounde/
30 Con!at ( K XX K Con!atenation opeato)
31 (s!ii
32 Ch
33 Su%st
34 Inst
35 De!ode
36 8eatest
37 Least
38 Coales!e
a) INITC(A
This will !apitaliTe the initial lette of the sting5
S7nta/0 init!ap (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t init!ap(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
INITC(A
"""""""""""
Co$pute
%) UAA'R
This will !onvet the sting into uppe!ase5
S7nta/0 uppe (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t uppe(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
UAA'R
"""""""""""
COMAUT'R
!) LO6'R
This will !onvet the sting into lowe!ase5
S7nta/0 lowe (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t lowe(=COMAUT'R=) fo$ dual.
LO6'R
"""""""""""
!o$pute
d) L'N8T:
This will give length of the sting5
S7nta/0 length (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t length(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
L'N8T:
"""""""""""
W
e) RA(D
This will allows 7ou to pad the ight side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !haa!tes5
S7nta/0 pad (!trin", len"t) *, paddin"_c)ar+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t pad(=!o$pute=#2C#=E=)# pad(=!o$pute=#2C#=EY=) fo$ dual.
RA(D(=COMAUT'R= RA(D(=COMAUT'R=
"""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""
!o$puteEEEEEEE !o$puteEYEYEYE
"" Default padding !haa!te was %lan& spa!e5
f) LA(D
This will allows 7ou to pad the left side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !haa!tes5
S7nta/0 lpad (!trin", len"t) *, paddin"_c)ar+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t lpad(=!o$pute=#2C#=E=)# lpad(=!o$pute=#2C#=EY=) fo$ dual.
LA(D(=COMAUT'R= LA(D(=COMAUT'R=
""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""
EEEEEEE!o$pute EYEYEYE!o$pute
"" Default padding !haa!te was %lan& spa!e5
g) LTRIM
This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the left end of sting5
S7nta/0 lti$ (!trin" *,unwanted_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t lti$(=!o$pute=#=!o=)# lti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$=) fo$ dual.
LTRIM( LTRIM
"""""""" """""""""
$pute pute
SQL- sele!t lti$(=!o$pute=#=pute=)# lti$(=!o$pute=#=o$pute=) fo$ dual.
LTRIM(=C LTRIM(=C
"""""""""" """"""""""
!o$pute !o$pute

"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !haa!tes it will displa7 entie
sting5
h) RTRIM
This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the ight end of sting5
S7nta/0 ti$ (!trin" *, unwanted_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t ti$(=!o$pute=#=e=)# ti$(=!o$pute=#=te=) fo$ dual.
RTRIM( RTRIM
"""""""" """""""""
!o$put !o$pu
SQL- sele!t ti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$put;)# ti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$pute=) fo$
dual.
RTRIM(=C RTRIM(=C
"""""""""" """"""""""
!o$pute !o$pute
"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !haa!tes it will displa7 entie
sting5
i) TRIM
This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the %oth sides of sting5
S7nta/0 ti$ (unwanted_c)ar! fo$ !trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t ti$( =i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual.
TRIM(
"""""
ndian

SQL- sele!t ti$( leading=i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual. "" this will wo& as
LTRIM
TRIM(L
""""""
ndiani
SQL- sele!t ti$( tailing=i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual. "" this will wo& as
RTRIM
TRIM(T
""""""
Indian
J) TR(NSL(T'
This will epla!e the set of !haa!tes# !haa!te %7 !haa!te5
S7nta/0 tanslate (!trin", old_c)ar!, new_c)ar!)
'/0
SQL- sele!t tanslate(=india=#=in=#=/7=) fo$ dual.
TR(NS
""""""""
/7d/a
&) R'AL(C'
This will epla!e the set of !haa!tes# sting %7 sting5
S7nta/0 epla!e (!trin", old_c)ar! *, new_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t epla!e(=india=#=in=#=/7=)# epla!e(Kindia;#;in;) fo$ dual.
R'AL(C' R'AL(C'
""""""""""" """""""""""
+7dia dia
l) SOUND'+
This will %e used to find wods that sound li&e othe wods# e/!lusivel7 used in
whee
!lause5
S7nta/0 sounde/ (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee sounde/(ena$e) H sounde/(=SMIT=).
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) M8R :IR'D(T' S(L D'ATNO
"""""""" """""""" """"" """"" """""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""
V4DS SMIT: CL'RF VS31 2V"D'C"W3 C33 13
$) CONC(T
This will %e used to !o$%ine two stings onl75
S7nta/0 !on!at (!trin"1, !trin"2)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !on!at(=!o$pute=#= opeato=) fo$ dual.
CONC(T(=COMAUT'R=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""
!o$pute opeato
If 7ou want to !o$%ine $oe than two stings 7ou have to use !on!atenation
opeato(XX)5
SQL- sele!t =how= XX = ae= XX = 7ou= fo$ dual.
=:O6=XX=(R'
"""""""""""""""
how ae 7ou
n) (SCII
This will etun the de!i$al epesentation in the data%ase !haa!te set of the
fist
!haa!te of the sting5
S7nta/0 as!ii (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t as!ii(=a=)# as!ii(=apple=) fo$ dual.
(SCII(=(=) (SCII(=(AAL'=)
"""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""
SV SV
o) C:R
This will etun the !haa!te having the %ina7 eUuivalent to the sting in eithe
the
data%ase !haa!te set o the national !haa!te set5
S7nta/0 !h (number)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !h(SV) fo$ dual.
C:R
"""""
a
p) SU)STR
This will %e used to e/ta!t su%stings5
S7nta/0 su%st (!trin", !tart_c)r_count *, no_o'_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t su%st(=!o$pute=#1)# su%st(=!o$pute=#1#C)#
su%st(=!o$pute=#4#V)
fo$ dual.
SU)STR( SU)ST SU)STR
"""""""""" """"""" """"""""
o$pute o$put $pute
1 If no_o'_c)ar! paa$ete is negative then it will displa7
nothing5
2 If %oth paa$etes e/!ept !trin" ae null o Teos then it will
displa7 nothing5
3 If no_o'_c)ar! paa$ete is geate than the length of the
sting then it ignoes and !al!ulates %ased on the oginal sting
length5
4 If !tart_c)r_count is negative then it will e/ta!t the su%sting
fo$ ight end5
2 1 4 @ C D V W
C O M A U T ' R
"W "V "D "C "@ "4 "1 "2
U) INSTR
This will allows 7ou fo sea!hing though a sting fo set of !haa!tes5
S7nta/0 inst (!trin", !earc)_!tr *, !tart_c)r_count *, occurrence+ +)
'/0
SQL- sele!t inst(=info$ation=#=o=#@#2)# inst(=info$ation=#=o=#@#1) fo$ dual.
INSTR(=INBORM(TION=#=O=#@#2) INSTR(=INBORM(TION=#=O=#@#1)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
@ 23
1 If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing !tart_c)r_count and occurrence then
it will stat
sea!h fo$ the %eginning and finds fist o!!uen!e onl75
2 If %oth paa$etes !tart_c)r_count and occurrence ae null# it
will displa7
nothing5
) D'COD'
De!ode will a!t as value %7 value su%stitution5
Bo eve7 value of field# it will !he!&s fo a $at!h in a seies of if?then tests5
S7nta/0 de!ode (value, i'1, t)en1, i'2, t)en2, . el!e).
'/0
SQL- sele!t sal# de!ode(sal#C33#=Low=#C333#=:igh=#=Mediu$=) fo$ e$p1.
S(L D'COD'
""""" """""""""
C33 Low
1C33 Mediu$
1333 Mediu$
4C33 Mediu$
4333 Mediu$
C333 :igh
@333 Mediu$
C333 :igh
2W33 Mediu$
2133 Mediu$
1333 Mediu$
1V33 Mediu$
1133 Mediu$
4133 Mediu$
SQL- sele!t de!ode(2#2#4)# de!ode(2#1#4#@#@#D) fo$ dual.
D'COD'(2#2#4) D'COD'(2#1#4#@#@#D)
""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""
4 D
1 If the nu$%e of paa$etes ae odd and diffeent then de!ode
will displa7
nothing5
2 If the nu$%e of paa$etes ae even and diffeent then
de!ode will displa7 last
value5
3 If all the paa$etes ae null then de!ode will displa7 nothing5
4 If all the paa$etes ae Teos then de!ode will displa7 Teo5
s) 8R'(T'ST
This will give the geatest sting5
S7nta/0 geatest (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL- sele!t geatest(=a=# =%=# =!=)# geatest(=satish=#=sinu=#=sa&eth=) fo$ dual.
8R'(T 8R'(T
""""""" """""""
! sinu
t) L'(ST
This will give the least sting5
S7nta/0 geatest (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL- sele!t least(=a=# =%=# =!=)# least(=satish=#=sinu=#=sa&eth=) fo$ dual.
L'(ST L'(ST
""""""" """""""
a sa&eth
u) CO(L'SC'
This will gives the fist non"null sting5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !oales!e(=a=#=%=#=!=)# !oales!e(null#=a=#null#=%=) fo$ dual.
CO(L'SC' CO(L'SC'
""""""""""" """""""""""
a a
D(T' BUNCTIONS
39 S7sdate
40 CuentMdate
41 CuentMti$esta$p
42 S7sti$esta$p
43 Lo!alti$esta$p
44 D%ti$eTone
45 Sessionti$eTone
46 ToM!ha
47 ToMdate
48 (ddM$onths
49 MonthsM%etween
50 Ne/tMda7
51 LastMda7
52 '/ta!t
53 8eatest
54 Least
55 Round
56 Tun!
57 NewMti$e
58 Coales!e
Oa!le default date fo$at is DD"MON"**5
6e !an !hange the default fo$at to ou desied fo$at %7 using the following
!o$$and5
SQL- alte session set nlsMdateMfo$at H KDD"MONT:"****;.
)ut this will e/pie on!e the session was !losed5
a) S*SD(T'
This will give the !uent date and ti$e5
'/0
SQL- sele!t s7sdate fo$ dual.
S*SD(T'
"""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D
%) CURR'NTMD(T'
This will etuns the !uent date in the session;s ti$eTone5
'/0
SQL- sele!t !uentMdate fo$ dual.
CURR'NTMD(T'
""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D
!) CURR'NTMTIM'ST(MA
This will etuns the !uent ti$esta$p with the a!tive ti$e Tone info$ation5
'/0
SQL- sele!t !uentMti$esta$p fo$ dual.
CURR'NTMTIM'ST(MA
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D 345@15@254W44DS (M G3C043
d) S*STIM'ST(MA
This will etuns the s7ste$ date# in!luding fa!tional se!onds and ti$e Tone of
the
data%ase5
'/0
SQL- sele!t s7sti$esta$p fo$ dual.
S*STIM'ST(MA
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D 345@S5425W433SS (M G3C043
e) LOC(LTIM'ST(MA
This will etuns lo!al ti$esta$p in the a!tive ti$e Tone info$ation# with no
ti$e
Tone info$ation shown5
'/0
SQL- sele!t lo!alti$esta$p fo$ dual.
LOC(LTIM'ST(MA
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D 345@@52W5C31WV@ (M
f) D)TIM'ZON'
This will etuns the !uent data%ase ti$e Tone in UTC fo$at5 (Coodinated
Univesal
Ti$e)
'/0
SQL- sele!t d%ti$eTone fo$ dual.
D)TIM'ZON'
"""""""""""""""
"3V033
g) S'SSIONTIM'ZON'
This will etuns the value of the !uent session;s ti$e Tone5
'/0
SQL- sele!t sessionti$eTone fo$ dual.
S'SSIONTIM'ZON'
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
G3C043

h) TOMC:(R
This will %e used to e/ta!t vaious date fo$ats5
The availa%le date fo$ats as follows5
S7nta/0 toM!ha (date# 'ormat)

D(T' BORM(TS

D "" No of da7s in wee&
DD "" No of da7s in $onth
DDD "" No of da7s in 7ea
MM "" No of $onth
MON "" Thee lette a%%eviation of $onth
MONT: "" Bull7 spelled out $onth
RM "" Ro$an nu$eal $onth
D* "" Thee lette a%%eviated da7
D(* "" Bull7 spelled out da7
* "" Last one digit of the 7ea
** "" Last two digits of the 7ea
*** "" Last thee digits of the 7ea
**** "" Bull fou digit 7ea
S**** "" Signed 7ea
I "" One digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad
I* "" Two digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad
I** "" Thee digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad
I*** "" Bou digit 7ea fo$ ISO standad
*# *** "" *ea with !o$$a
*'(R "" Bull7 spelled out 7ea
CC "" Centu7
Q "" No of Uuates
6 "" No of wee&s in $onth
66 "" No of wee&s in 7ea
I6 "" No of wee&s in 7ea fo$ ISO standad
:: "" :ous
MI "" Minutes
SS "" Se!onds
BB "" Ba!tional se!onds
(M o AM "" Displa7s (M o AM depending upon ti$e of da7
(5M o A5M "" Displa7s (5M o A5M depending upon ti$e of da7
(D o )C "" Displa7s (D o )C depending upon the date
(5D o )5C "" Displa7s (D o )C depending upon the date
BM "" Aefi/ to $onth o da7# suppesses padding of $onth o
da7
T: "" Suffi/ to a nu$%e
SA "" suffi/ to a nu$%e to %e spelled out
SAT: "" Suffi/ !o$%ination of T: and SA to %e %oth spelled out
T:SA "" sa$e as SAT:
'/0
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(s7sdate#=dd $onth 7777 hh0$i0ss a$ d7=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DD MONT: ****::0MI
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de!e$%e 133D 31034014 p$ sun
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(s7sdate#=dd $onth 7ea=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DDMONT:*'(R=)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(s7sdate#=dd f$$onth 7ea=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DD BMMONT: *'(R=)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(s7sdate#=ddth DDT:=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S
""""""""""""
1@th 1@
T:
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(s7sdate#=ddspth DDSAT:=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DDSAT:DDSAT:
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
twent7"fouth T6'NT*"BOURT:
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(s7sdate#=ddsp Ddsp DDSA =) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DDSADDSADDSA=)
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
twent7"fou Twent7"Bou T6'NT*"BOUR
i) TOMD(T'
This will %e used to !onvet the sting into data fo$at5
S7nta/0 toMdate (date)
'/0
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(toMdate(=1@?de!?133D=#=dd?$on?7777=)# =dd E $onth E
da7=)
fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(TOMD(T'(=1@?D'C?13
""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ E de!e$%e E Sunda7
"" If 7ou ae not using toM!ha oa!le will displa7 output in default date
fo$at5
J) (DDMMONT:S
This will add the spe!ified $onths to the given date5
S7nta/0 addM$onths (date, no_o'_mont)!)
'/0
SQL- sele!t addM$onths(toMdate(=22"Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)# C) fo$
dual.
(DDMMONT:S
""""""""""""""""
22">UN"S3
SQL- sele!t addM$onths(toMdate(=22"Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)# "C) fo$
dual.
(DDMMONT:
"""""""""""""""
22"(U8"WS
1 If no_o'_mont)! is Teo then it will displa7 the sa$e date5
2 If no_o'_mont)! is null then it will displa7 nothing5
&) MONT:SM)'T6''N
This will give diffeen!e of $onths %etween two dates5
S7nta/0 $onthsM%etween (date1, date2)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $onthsM%etween(toMdate(=22"aug"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)#
toMdate(=22"
Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)) fo$ dual.

MONT:SM)'T6''N(TOMD(T'(=22"(U8"2SS3=#=DD"MON"
****=)#TOMD(T'(=22">(N"2SS3=#=DD"MON"****=))
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"""""
V
SQL- sele!t $onthsM%etween(toMdate(=22"Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)#
toMdate(=22"
aug"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)) fo$ dual.

MONT:SM)'T6''N(TOMD(T'(=22">(N"2SS3=#=DD"MON"
****=)#TOMD(T'(=22"(U8"2SS3=#=DD"MON"****=))
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"""""""
"V
l) N'+TMD(*
This will podu!e ne/t da7 of the given da7 fo$ the spe!ified date5
S7nta/0 ne/tMda7 (date, day)
'/0
SQL- sele!t ne/tMda7(toMdate(=1@"de!"133D=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) fo$ dual.
N'+TMD(*(
"""""""""""""
42"D'C"3D
"" If the da7 paa$ete is null then it will displa7 nothing5
$) L(STMD(*
This will podu!e last da7 of the given date5
S7nta/0 lastMda7 (date)
'/0
SQL- sele!t lastMda7(toMdate(=1@"de!"133D=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) fo$ dual.
L(STMD(*(
"""""""""""""
42"D'C"3D
n) '+TR(CT
This is used to e/ta!t a potion of the date value5
S7nta/0 e/ta!t ((7ea X $onth X da7 X hou X $inute X se!ond)# date)
'/0
SQL- sele!t e/ta!t(7ea fo$ s7sdate) fo$ dual.
'+TR(CT(*'(RBROMS*SD(T')
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
133D
"" *ou !an e/ta!t onl7 one value at a ti$e5
o) 8R'(T'ST
This will give the geatest date5
S7nta/0 geatest (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL- sele!t geatest(toMdate(=22"Jan"S3=#=dd"$on"77=)#toMdate(=22"$a"
S3=#=dd"
$on"77=)#toMdate(=22"ap"S3=#=dd"$on"77=)) fo$ dual.

8R'(T'ST(
"""""""""""""
22"(AR"S3
p) L'(ST
This will give the least date5
S7nta/0 least (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL- sele!t least(toMdate(=22"Jan"S3=#=dd"$on"77=)#toMdate(=22"$a"S3=#=dd"
$on"
77=)#toMdate(=22"ap"S3=#=dd"$on"77=)) fo$ dual.
L'(ST(
"""""""""""""
22">(N"S3
U) ROUND
Round will ounds the date to whi!h it was eUual to o geate than the given
date5
S7nta/0 ound (date, (da7 X $onth X 7ea))
If the se!ond paa$ete was year then ound will !he!&s the $onth of the given
date in
the following anges5
>(N "" >UN
>UL "" D'C
If the $onth falls %etween >(N and >UN then it etuns the fist da7 of the
!uent 7ea5
If the $onth falls %etween >UL and D'C then it etuns the fist da7 of the ne/t
7ea5
If the se!ond paa$ete was mont) then ound will !he!&s the da7 of the given
date in
the following anges5
2 "" 2C
2D "" 42
If the da7 falls %etween 2 and 2C then it etuns the fist da7 of the !uent
$onth5
If the da7 falls %etween 2D and 42 then it etuns the fist da7 of the ne/t
$onth5
If the se!ond paa$ete was day then ound will !he!&s the wee& da7 of the
given date
in the following anges5
SUN "" 6'D
T:U "" SUN
If the wee& da7 falls %etween SUN and 6'D then it etuns the pevious sunda75
If the wee&da7 falls %etween T:U and SUN then it etuns the ne/t sunda75
1 If the se!ond paa$ete was null then it etuns nothing5
2 If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then ound will
esets the ti$e to the %egining of the !uent da7 in !ase of use spe!ified
date5
3 If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then ound will
esets the ti$e to the %egining of the ne/t da7 in !ase of s7sdate5

'/0
SQL- sele!t ound(toMdate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=)#
ound(toMdate(=22"$a"
3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=) fo$ dual.
ROUND(TOM ROUND(TOM
"""""""""""" """""""""""""""
32">(N"3C 32">(N"3D
SQL- sele!t ound(toMdate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)#
ound(toMdate(=2W"
Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) fo$ dual.

ROUND(TOM ROUND(TOM
""""""""""""" """""""""""""""
32">(N"3@ 32"B')"3@
SQL- sele!t ound(toMdate(=1D"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)#
ound(toMdate(=1S"de!"
3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) fo$ dual.

ROUND(TOM ROUND(TOM
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D 42"D'C"3D
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(ound(toMdate(=1@"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777
hh0$i0ss a$=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(ROUND(TOMD(T'(=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133D 21033033 a$
) TRUNC
Tun! will !hops off the date to whi!h it was eUual to o less than the given
date5
S7nta/0 tun! (date, (da7 X $onth X 7ea))
1 If the se!ond paa$ete was year then it alwa7s etuns the fist da7
of the !uent 7ea5
2 If the se!ond paa$ete was mont) then it alwa7s etuns the fist
da7 of the !uent $onth5
3 If the se!ond paa$ete was day then it alwa7s etuns the pevious
sunda75
4 If the se!ond paa$ete was null then it etuns nothing5
5 If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then tun& will
esets the ti$e to the %egining of the !uent da75
'/0
SQL- sele!t tun!(toMdate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=)#
tun!(toMdate(=22"$a"
3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(TOM TRUNC(TOM
""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
32">(N"3@ 32">(N"3D
SQL- sele!t tun!(toMdate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)#
tun!(toMdate(=2W"Jan"
3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(TOM TRUNC(TOM
""""""""""""" """""""""""""
32">(N"3@ 32">(N"3@

SQL- sele!t tun!(toMdate(=1D"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)#
tun!(toMdate(=1S"de!"
3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(TOM TRUNC(TOM
""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
1@"D'C"3D 1@"D'C"3D

SQL- sele!t toM!ha(tun!(toMdate(=1@"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777
hh0$i0ss
a$=) fo$ dual.
TOMC:(R(TRUNC(TOMD(T'(=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133D 21033033 a$
s) N'6MTIM'
This will give the desied ti$eTone;s date and ti$e5
S7nta/0 newMti$e (date, current_time,one, de!ired_time,one)
(vaila%le ti$eTones ae as follows5
TIM'ZON'S
(ST?(DT "" (tlanti! standad?da7 light ti$e
)ST?)DT "" )eing standad?da7 light ti$e
CST?CDT "" Cental standad?da7 light ti$e
'ST?'DT "" 'asten standad?da7 light ti$e
8MT "" 8eenwi!h $ean ti$e
:ST?:DT "" (las&a":awaii standad?da7 light ti$e
MST?MDT "" Mountain standad?da7 light ti$e
NST "" Newfoundland standad ti$e
AST?ADT "" Aa!ifi! standad?da7 light ti$e
*ST?*DT "" *u&on standad?da7 light ti$e
'/0
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(newMti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=7st=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss
a$=) fo$
dual.
TOMC:(R(N'6MTIM'(S*SD(T
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133D 310C2013 p$
SQL- sele!t toM!ha(newMti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=est=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss
a$=) fo$
dual.
TOMC:(R(N'6MTIM'(S*SD(T
"""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133D 3D0C201D p$
t) CO(L'SC'
This will give the fist non"null date5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !oales!e(=21"Jan"S3=#=24"Jan"SS=)# !oales!e(null#=21"Jan"S3=#=14"
$a"
SW=#null) fo$ dual.
CO(L'SC'( CO(L'SC'(
""""""""""""" """"""""""""
21"Jan"S3 21"Jan"S3
MISC'LL(N'OUS BUNCTIONS
59 Uid
60 Use
61 9siTe
62 Ran&
63 DenseMan&
a) UID
This will etuns the intege value !oesponding to the use !uentl7 logged
in5
'/0
SQL- sele!t uid fo$ dual.
UID
""""""""""
42S
%) US'R
This will etuns the login;s use na$e5
'/0
SQL- sele!t use fo$ dual.
US'R
""""""""""""""""
S(F'T:
!) 9SIZ'
This will etuns the nu$%e of %7tes in the e/pession5
'/0
SQL- sele!t vsiTe(214)# vsiTe(=!o$pute=)# vsiTe(=21"Jan"S3=) fo$ dual.
9SIZ'(214) 9SIZ'(=COMAUT'R=) 9SIZ'(=21">(N"S3=)
""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""
4 W S
d) R(NF
This will give the non"seUuential an&ing5
'/0
SQL- sele!t ownu$#sal fo$ (sele!t sal fo$ e$p1 ode %7 sal des!).
RO6NUM S(L
"""""""""" """"""""""
2 C333
1 4333
4 4333
@ 1SVC
C 1WC3
D 1@C3
V 2D33
W 2C33
S 2433
23 21C3
22 21C3
21 2233
24 2333
2@ SC3
2C W33
SQL- sele!t an&(1SVC) within goup(ode %7 sal des!) fo$ e$p1.
R(NF(1SVC)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R)*S(LD'SC)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
@
d) D'NS'MR(NF
This will give the seUuential an&ing5

'/0
SQL- sele!t denseMan&(1SVC) within goup(ode %7 sal des!) fo$ e$p1.
D'NS'MR(NF(1SVC)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R)*S(LD'SC)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
4
CON9'RSION BUNCTIONS
64 )inMtoMnu$
65 Chatoowid
66 Rowidto!ha
67 ToMnu$%e
68 ToM!ha
69 ToMdate
a) )INMTOMNUM
This will !onvet the %ina7 value to its nu$ei!al eUuivalent5
S7nta/0 %inMtoMnu$( binary_bit!)
'/0
SQL- sele!t %inMtoMnu$(2#2#3) fo$ dual.
)INMTOMNUM(2#2#3)
""""""""""""""""""""""""
D
1 If all the %its ae Teo then it podu!es Teo5
2 If all the %its ae null then it podu!es an eo5
%) C:(RTORO6ID
This will !onvet a !haa!te sting to a!t li&e an intenal oa!le ow identifie
o owid5
!) RO6IDTOC:(R
This will !onvet an intenal oa!le ow identifie o owid to !haa!te sting5
d) TOMNUM)'R
This will !onvet a !ha o va!ha to nu$%e5
e) TOMC:(R
This will !onvet a nu$%e o date to !haa!te sting5
f) TOMD(T'
This will !onvet a nu$%e# !ha o va!ha to a date5
8ROUA BUNCTIONS
70 Su$
71 (vg
72 Ma/
73 Min
74 Count
8oup fun!tions will %e applied on all the ows %ut podu!es single output5
a) SUM
This will give the su$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 su$ (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t su$(sal) fo$ e$p1.
SUM(S(L)
""""""""""
4WD33
%) (98
This will give the aveage of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 avg (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t avg(sal) fo$ e$p1.
(98(S(L)
"""""""""""""""
1VCV52@1WD
!) M(+
This will give the $a/i$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 $a/ (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ e$p1.
M(+(S(L)
""""""""""
C333
d) MIN
This will give the $ini$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 $in (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $in(sal) fo$ e$p1.
MIN(S(L)
""""""""""
C33
e) COUNT
This will give the !ount of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 !ount (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !ount(sal)#!ount(E) fo$ e$p1.
COUNT(S(L) COUNT(E)
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""
2@ 2@
CONSTR(INTS
Constaints ae !ategoiTed as follows5
Do$ain integit7 !onstaints
1 Not null
2 Che!&
'ntit7 integit7 !onstaints
1 UniUue
2 Ai$a7 &e7
Refeential integit7 !onstaints
1 Boeign &e7
Constaints ae alwa7s atta!hed to a !olu$n not a ta%le5
6e !an add !onstaints in thee wa7s5
2 Colu$n level "" along with the !olu$n definition
3 Ta%le level "" afte the ta%le definition
4 (lte level "" using alte !o$$and
6hile adding !onstaints 7ou need not spe!if7 the na$e %ut the t7pe onl7# oa!le
will intenall7 na$e the !onstaint5
If 7ou want to give a na$e to the !onstaint# 7ou have to use the !onstaint
!lause5
NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values5
6e !an add this !onstaint in !olu$n level onl75
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) not null# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint nn not null# na$e
va!ha(23)#
$a&s nu$%e(4)).
C:'CF
This is used to inset the values %ased on spe!ified !ondition5
6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)
!he!&
($a&s - 433)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)
!onstaint !h !he!&($a&s - 433)).
T()L' L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!he!&
($a&s - 433)).
!onstaint !h !he!&($a&s - 433)).
(LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le student add !he!&($a&s-433).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint !h !he!&($a&s-433).
UNIQU'
This is used to avoid dupli!ates %ut it allow nulls5
6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) uniUue# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint un uniUue# na$e
va!ha(23)#
$a&s nu$%e(4)).
T()L' L'9'L

uniUue(no)).
!onstaint un uniUue(no)).
(LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le student add uniUue(no).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniUue(no).
ARIM(R* F'*
1 This is used to avoid dupli!ates and nulls5 This will wo& as
!o$%ination of uniUue and not null5
2 Ai$a7 &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the paent ta%le5
3 6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L

SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7# na$e
va!ha(23)#
$a&s nu$%e(4)).

T()L' L'9'L
pi$a7 &e7(no)).
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no)).
(LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le student add pi$a7 &e7(no).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no).
BOR'I8N F'*
1 This is used to efeen!e the paent ta%le pi$a7 &e7 !olu$n whi!h
allows dupli!ates5
2 Boeign &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the !hild ta%le5
3 6e !an add this !onstaint in ta%le and alte levels onl75
'/0
T()L' L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le e$p1(e$p1no nu$%e(1)# ena$e va!ha(23)# deptno
nu$%e(1)#
pi$a7 &e7(e$p1no)# foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno)).
nu$%e(1)#
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$p1no)# !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno)
efeen!es
dept(deptno)).

(LT'R L'9'L

SQL- alte ta%le e$p1 add foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno).
SQL- alte ta%le e$p1 add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es
dept(deptno).
On!e the pi$a7 &e7 and foeign &e7 elationship has %een !eated then 7ou !an
not e$ove an7 paent e!od if the dependent !hilds e/ists5

USIN8 ON D'LT' C(SC(D'
)7 using this !lause 7ou !an e$ove the paent e!od even it !hilds e/ists5
)e!ause when eve 7ou e$ove paent e!od oa!le auto$ati!all7 e$oves all its
dependent e!ods fo$ !hild ta%le# if this !lause is pesent while !eating foeign
&e7 !onstaint5
'/0
T()L' L'9'L
nu$%e(1)#
pi$a7 &e7(e$p1no)# foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on
delete
!as!ade).
nu$%e(1)#
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$p1no)# !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno)
efeen!es
dept(deptno) on delete !as!ade).

(LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le e$p1 add foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on
delete
!as!ade.
SQL- alte ta%le e$p1 add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es
dept(deptno) on
delete !as!ade.
COMAOSIT' F'*S
( !o$posite &e7 !an %e defined on a !o$%ination of !olu$ns5
6e !an define !o$posite &e7s on entit7 integit7 and efeential integit7
!onstaints5
Co$posite &e7 !an %e defined in ta%le and alte levels onl75
'/0
UNIQU' (T()L' L'9'L)

uniUue(no#na$e)).
!onstaint un uniUue(no#na$e)).

UNIQU' ((LT'R L'9'L)
SQL- alte ta%le student add uniUue(no#na$e).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniUue(no#na$e).
ARIM(R* F'* (T()L' L'9'L)
pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e)).
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e)).
ARIM(R* F'* ((LT'R L'9'L)
SQL- alte ta%le student add pi$a7 &e7(no#an$e).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e).
BOR'I8N F'* (T()L' L'9'L)
nu$%e(1)#
dna$e va!ha(23)# pi$a7 &e7(e$p1no)# foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e)
efeen!es
dept(deptno#dna$e)).
nu$%e(1)#
dna$e va!ha(23)# !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$p1no)# !onstaint f&
foeign
&e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es dept(deptno#dna$e)).

BOR'I8N F'* ((LT'R L'9'L)

SQL- alte ta%le e$p1 add foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es
dept(deptno#dna$e).
SQL- alte ta%le e$p1 add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e)
efeen!es
dept(deptno#dna$e).
D'B'RR()L' CONSTR(INTS
'a!h !onstaint has two additional atti%utes to suppot defeed !he!&ing of
!onstaints5
1 Defeed initiall7 i$$ediate
2 Defeed initiall7 defeed
Defeed initiall7 i$$ediate !he!&s fo !onstaint violation at the ti$e of inset5
Defeed initiall7 defeed !he!&s fo !onstaint violation at the ti$e of !o$$it5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint un uniUue(no) defeed initiall7 i$$ediate).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint un uniUue(no) defeed initiall7 defeed).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniUue(no) defea%le initiall7
defeed.

SQL- set !onstaints all i$$ediate.
This will ena%le all the !onstaints violations at the ti$e of inseting5
SQL- set !onstaints all defeed.
This will ena%le all the !onstaints violations at the ti$e of !o$$it5
OA'R(TIONS 6IT: CONSTR(INTS
Aossi%le opeations with !onstaints as follows5
3 'na%le
4 Disa%le
5 'nfo!e
6 Dop
'N()L'
This will ena%le the !onstaint5 )efoe ena%le# the !onstaint will !he!& the
e/isting data5
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student ena%le !onstaint un.
DIS()L'
This will disa%le the !onstaint5
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student ena%le !onstaint un.
'NBORC'
This will enfo!e the !onstaint athe than ena%le fo futue insets o updates5
This will not !he!& fo e/isting data while enfo!ing data5
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student enfo!e !onstaint un.
DROA
This will e$ove the !onstaint5
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student dop !onstaint un.
On!e the ta%le is dopped# !onstaints auto$ati!all7 will dop5
C(S' (ND D'B(ULT
C(S'
Case is si$ila to de!ode %ut easie to undestand while going though !oding
'/0
SQL- Sele!t sal#
Case sal
6hen C33 then Klow;
6hen C333 then Khigh;
'lse K$ediu$;
'nd !ase
Bo$ e$p1.
S(L C(S'
""""" """"""""
C33 low
1C33 $ediu$
1333 $ediu$
4C33 $ediu$
4333 $ediu$
C333 high
@333 $ediu$
C333 high
2W33 $ediu$
2133 $ediu$
1333 $ediu$
1V33 $ediu$
1133 $ediu$
4133 $ediu$
D'B(ULT
-e'ault !an %e !onsideed as a su%stitute %ehavio of not null !onstaint when
applied to new ows %eing enteed into the ta%le5
6hen 7ou define a !olu$n with the de'ault &e7wod followed %7 a value# 7ou ae
a!tuall7 telling the data%ase that# on inset if a ow was not assigned a value fo
this !olu$n# use the default value that 7ou have spe!ified5
Default is applied onl7 duing insetion of new ows5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) default 22#na$e va!ha(1)).
SQL- inset into student values(2#=a=).
SQL- inset into student(na$e) values(=%=).

NO N(M'
"""""" """""""""
2 a
22 %
SQL- inset into student values(null# K!;).
NO N(M'
"""""" """""""""
2 a
22 %
C
"" Default !an not oveide nulls5
()STR(CT D(T( T*A'S
So$e ti$es 7ou $a7 want t7pe whi!h holds all t7pes of data in!luding nu$%es#
!has and spe!ial !haa!tes so$ething li&e this5 *ou !an not a!hieve this using
pe"defined t7pes5
*ou !an define !usto$ t7pes whi!h holds 7ou desied data5
'/0
Suppose in a ta%le we have addess !olu$n whi!h holds hno and !it7
info$ation5
6e will define a !usto$ t7pe whi!h holds %oth nu$ei! as well as !ha data5

CR'(TIN8 (DT
SQL- !eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)). ?

CR'(TIN8 T()L' )(S'D ON (DT
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#addess add).

INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO (DT T()L'S
SQL- inset into student values(2#=a=#add(222#=h7d=)).
SQL- inset into student values(1#=%=#add(111#=%ang=)).
SQL- inset into student values(4#=!=#add(444#=delhi=)).

S'L'CTIN8 D(T( BROM (DT T()L'S
NO N(M' (DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*)
""" """"""" """""""""""""""""""""""""
2 a (DDR(222# =h7d=)
1 % (DDR(111# =%ang=)
4 ! (DDR(444# =delhi=)
SQL- sele!t no#na$e#s5addess5hno#s5addess5!it7 fo$ student s.
NO N(M' (DDR'SS5:NO (DDR'SS5CIT*
"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
2 a 222 h7d
1 % 111 %ang
4 ! 444 delhi
UAD(T' 6IT: (DT T()L'S
SQL- update student s set s5addess5!it7 H =%o$%a7= whee s5addess5hno H 444.
"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
2 a 222 h7d
1 % 111 %ang
4 ! 444 %o$%a7
D'L'T' 6IT: (DT T()L'S
SQL- delete student s whee s5addess5hno H 222.
"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
1 % 111 %ang
4 ! 444 %o$%a7
DROAAIN8 (DT
SQL- dop t7pe add.
O)>'CT 9I'6S (ND M'T:ODS
O)>'CT 9I'6S
If 7ou want to i$ple$ent o%Je!ts with the e/isting ta%le# o%Je!t views !o$e into
pi!tue5
*ou define the o%Je!t and !eate a view whi!h elates this o%Je!t to the e/isting
ta%le nothing %ut ob#ect view5
O%Je!t views ae used to elate the use defined o%Je!ts to the e/isting ta%le5
'/0
2) (ssu$e that the ta%le student has alead7 %een !eated with the following
!olu$ns
SQL?
1) Ceate the following t7pes
SQL- !eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(1)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?
SQL- !eate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va!ha(23)#addess add).?
4) Relate the o%Je!ts to the student ta%le %7 !eating the o%Je!t view
SQL- !eate view studentMov(no#studMinfo) as sele!t
no#stud(na$e#add(hno#!it7))
fo$ student.
@) Now 7ou !an inset data into student ta%le in two wa7s
a) )7 egula inset
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;sudha;#222#;h7d;).
%) )7 using o%Je!t view
SQL- Inset into studentMov values(2#stud(Ksudha;#add(222#;h7d;))).
M'T:ODS
*ou !an define $ethods whi!h ae nothing %ut fun!tions in t7pes and appl7 in the
ta%les whi!h holds the t7pes.
'/0
2) Defining $ethods in t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va!ha(23)#$a&s nu$%e(4)#
Me$%e fun!tion $a&sMf($a&s in nu$%e) etun nu$%e#
Aag$a esti!tMefeen!es($a&sMf#wnds#nds#wnps#fnps)).?
1) Defining t7pe %od7
SQL- Ceate t7pe %od7 stud as
Me$%e fun!tion $a&sMf($a&s in nu$%e) etun nu$%e is
)egin
Retun ($a&sG233).
'nd $a&sMf.
'nd.?
4) Ceate a ta%le using stud t7pe
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#info stud).
@) Inset so$e data into student ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#stud(Ksudha;#233)).
C) Using $ethod in sele!t
SQL- Sele!t s5info5$a&sMf(s5info5$a&s) fo$ student s.
"" :ee we ae using the pag$a esti!tMefeen!es to avoid the wites to the
Data%ase5
9(RR(*S (ND N'ST'D T()L'S
9(RR(*S
( va7ing aa7 allows 7ou to stoe epeating atti%utes of a e!od in a single ow
%ut with li$it5
'/0
2) 6e !an !eate vaa7s using oa!le t7pes as well as use defined t7pes5
a) 9aa7 using pe"defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe va as vaa7(C) of va!ha(23).?
%) 9aa7s using use defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?
SQL- Ceate t7pe va as vaa7(C) of add.?
1) Using vaa7 in ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#addess va).
4) Inseting values into vaa7 ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;sudha;#va(add(222#;h7d;))).
SQL- Inset into student
values(1#;Jagan;#va(add(222#;h7d;)#add(111#;%ang;))).
@) Sele!ting data fo$ vaa7 ta%le
SQL- Sele!t E fo$ student.
"" This will displa7 vaa7 !olu$n data along with vaa7 and adt.
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5E fo$ student s2# ta%le(s25addess) s.
"" This will displa7 in geneal fo$at
C) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in vaa7
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 fo$ student s2#ta%le(s25addess) s.
"" Update and delete not possi%le in vaa7s5
"" :ee we used ta%le fun!tion whi!h will ta&e the vaa7 !olu$n as input fo
podu!ing
output e/!luding vaa7 and t7pes5

N'ST'D T()L'S
( nested ta%le is# as its na$e i$plies# a ta%le within a ta%le5 In this !ase it is a
ta%le that is epesented as a !olu$n within anothe ta%le5
Nested ta%le has the sa$e effe!t of vaa7s %ut has no li$it5
'/0
2) 6e !an !eate nested ta%les using oa!le t7pes and use defined t7pes whi!h
has no
li$it5
a) Nested ta%les using pe"defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe nt as ta%le of va!ha(23).?
%) Nested ta%les using use defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?
SQL- Ceate t7pe nt as ta%le of add.?
1) Using nested ta%le in ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#addess nt)
nested ta%le
addess stoe as studentMte$p1.
4) Inseting values into ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values (2#;sudha;#nt(add(222#;h7d;))).
SQL- Inset into student values
(1#;Jagan;#nt(add(222#;h7d;)#add(111#;%ang;))).
@) Sele!ting data fo$ ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le
SQL- Sele!t E fo$ student.
"" This will displa7 nested ta%le !olu$n data along with nested ta%le and
adt.
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5E fo$ student s2# ta%le(s25addess) s.
"" This will displa7 in geneal fo$at
C) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in nested ta%le
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 fo$ student s2#ta%le(s25addess) s.
D) Inseting nested ta%le data to the e/isting ow
SQL- Inset into ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH2)
values(add(CCC#;!hennai;)).
V) Update in nested ta%les
SQL- Update ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH1) s set
s5!it7H;%o$%a7;
whee s5hno H 111.
W) Delete in nested ta%le
SQL- Delete ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH4) s whee
s5hnoH444.
D(T( MOD'L
1 (LLMCOLLMT*A'S
2 (LLMT*A'S
3 D)(MCOLLMT*A'S
4 D)(MT*A'S
5 US'RMCOLLMT*A'S
6 US'RMT*A'S
BL(S:)(CF QU'R*
Used to etieve the data whi!h has %een alead7 !o$$itted with out going fo
e!ove75
Blash%a!&s ae of two t7pes
1 Ti$e %ase flash%a!&
2 SCN %ased flash%a!& (SCN stands fo S7ste$ Change Nu$%e)
'/0
2) Using ti$e %ased flash%a!&
a) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
"" This will displa7 all the ows
%) SQL- Delete student.
!) SQL- Co$$it. "" this will !o$$it the wo&5
d) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
"" :ee it will displa7 nothing
e) Then e/e!ute the following po!edues
SQL- '/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5ena%leMatMti$e (s7sdate"1?2@@3)
f) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
"" :ee it will displa7 the lost data
"" The lost data will !o$e %ut the !uent s7ste$ ti$e was used
g) SQL- '/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5disa%le
"" :ee we have to disa%le the flash%a!& to ena%le it again
1) Using SCN %ased flash%a!&
a) De!lae a vaia%le to stoe SCN
SQL- 9aia%le s nu$%e
%) 8et the SCN
SQL- '/e!0 s0 H e/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5getMs7ste$M!hangeMnu$%e
!) To see the SCN
SQL- Aint s
d) Then e/e!ute the following po!edues
SQL- '/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5ena%leMatMs7ste$M!hangeMnu$%e(0s)
SQL- '/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5disa%le
'+T'RN(L T()L'S
*ou !an use e/tenal ta%le featue to a!!ess e/tenal files as if the7 ae ta%les
inside the data%ase5
6hen 7ou !eate an e/tenal ta%le# 7ou define its stu!tue and lo!ation with in
oa!le5
6hen 7ou Uue7 the ta%le# oa!le eads the e/tenal ta%le and etuns the esults
Just as if the data had %een stoed with in the data%ase5
(CC'SSIN8 '+T'RN(L T()L' D(T(
To a!!ess e/tenal files fo$ within oa!le# 7ou $ust fist use the !eate die!to7
!o$$and to define a die!to7 o%Je!t pointing to the e/tenal file lo!ation
Uses who will a!!ess the e/tenal files $ust have the ead and wite pivilege on
the die!to75
'/0
CR'(TIN8 DIR'CTOR* (ND OS L'9'L BIL'
SQL- SUlplus s7ste$?$anage
SQL- Ceate die!to7 sa&ethMdi as K?9isd%?visd%?S5153?e/tenal;.
SQL- 8ant all on die!to7 sa&ethMdi to sa&eth.
SQL- Conn sa&eth?sa&eth
SQL- Spool dept5lst
SQL- Sele!t deptno XX K#; XX dna$e XX K#; XX lo! fo$ dept.
SQL- Spool off
CR'(TIN8 '+T'RN(L T()L'
SQL- Ceate ta%le deptMe/t
(deptno nu$%e(1)#
Dna$e va!ha(2@)#
Lo! va!ha(24))
OganiTation e/tenal ( t7pe oa!leMloade
Default die!to7 sa&ethMdi
(!!ess paa$etes
( e!ods deli$ited %7 newline
Bields te$inated %7 P#Q
( deptno nu$%e(1)#
Dna$e va!ha(2@)#
Lo! va!ha(24)))
Lo!ation (K?9isd%?visd%?S5153?dept5lst;)).
S'L'CTIN8 D(T( BROM '+T'RN(L T()L'
SQL- sele!t E fo$ deptMe/t.
This will ead fo$ dept5lst whi!h is a opeating s7ste$ level file5
LIMIT(TIONS ON '+T'RN(L T()L'S
a) *ou !an not pefo$ inset# update# and delete opeations
b) Inde/ing not possi%le
b) Constaints not possi%le
)'N'BITS OB '+T'RN(L T()L'S
a) Queies of e/tenal ta%les !o$plete ve7 Uui!&l7 even though a full
ta%le s!an id eUuied with ea!h a!!ess
b) *ou !an Join e/tenal ta%les to ea!h othe o to standad ta%les
R'B D'R'B 9(LU'
R'B
1 The ef fun!tion allows efeen!ing of e/isting ow o%Je!ts5
2 'a!h of the ow o%Je!ts has an o%Je!t id value assigned to it5
3 The o%Je!t id assigned !an %e seen %7 using ef fun!tion5
D'R'B
1 The deef fun!tion pefo$s opposite a!tion5
2 It ta&es a efeen!e value of o%Je!t id and etuns the value of the
ow o%Je!ts5
9(LU'
1 'ven though the pi$a7 ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le# still it displa7s the ows
in geneal fo$at5
2 To displa7 the entie stu!tue of the o%Je!t# this will %e used5
'/0
2) !eate vendotMadt t7pe
SQL- Ceate t7pe vendoMadt as o%Je!t (vendoM!ode nu$%e(1)#
vendoMna$e
va!ha(1)# vendoMaddess va!ha(23)).?
1) !eate o%Je!t ta%les vendos and vendos2
SQL- Ceate ta%le vendos of vendoMadt.
SQL- Ceate ta%le vendos2 of vendoMadt.
4) inset the data into o%Je!t ta%les
SQL- inset into vendos values(2# Ka;# Kh7d;).
SQL- inset into vendos values(1# K%;# K%ang;).
SQL- inset into vendos2 values(4# K!;# Kdelhi;).
SQL- inset into vendos2 values(@# Kd;# K!hennai;).
@) !eate anothe ta%le odes whi!h holds the vendoMadt t7pe also5
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeMno nu$%e(1)# vendoMinfo ef vendoMadt).
O
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeMno nu$%e(1)# vendoMinfo ef vendoMadt
with
owid).
C) inset the data into odes ta%le
The vendoMinfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will stoe o%Je!t id of an7
ta%le
whi!h is efeen!ed %7 vendoMadt o%Je!t ( %oth vendos and vendos2)5
SQL- inset into odes values(22#(sele!t ef(v) fo$ vendos v whee
vendoM!ode
H 2)).
SQL- inset into odes values(21#(sele!t ef(v) fo$ vendos v whee
vendoM!ode
H 1)).
SQL- inset into odes values(24#(sele!t ef(v2) fo$ vendos2 v2 whee
vendoM!ode H 2)).
SQL- inset into odes values(2@#(sele!t ef(v2) fo$ vendos2 v2 whee
vendoM!ode H 2)).
D) To see the o%Je!t ids of vendo ta%le
SQL- Sele!t ef(9) fo$ vendos v.
V) If 7ou see the vendoMinfo of odes it will show onl7 the o%Je!t ids not the
values#
to see the values
SQL- Sele!t deef(o5vendoMinfo) fo$ odes o.
W) 'ven though the vendos ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le it will not show the adt along
with
data# to see the data along with the adt
SQL-Sele!t E fo$ vendos.
This will give the data without adt5
SQL-Sele!t value(v) fo$ vendos v.
This will give the !olu$ns data along with the t7pe5
R'B CONSTR(INTS
1 Ref !an also a!ts as !onstaint5
2 'ven though vendos2 also holding vendoMadt# the odes ta%le will
stoe the o%Je!t ids of vendos onl7 %e!ause it is !onstained to that
ta%le onl75
3 The vendoMinfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will stoe o%Je!t ids
of vendos onl75
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeMno nu$%e(1)# vendoMinfo ef vendoMadt s!ope
is
vendos).
O
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeMno nu$%e(1)# vendoMinfo ef vendoMadt
!onstaint f&
efeen!es vendos).
O)>'CT 9I'6S 6IT: R'B'R'NC'S
To i$ple$ent the o%Je!ts and the ef !onstaints to the e/isting ta%les# what we
!an do[ Si$pl7 dop the %oth ta%les and e!eate with o%Je!ts and ef !onstaints5
)ut 7ou !an a!hieve this with out dopping the ta%les and without losing the data
%7 !eating o%Je!t views with efeen!es5
'/0
a) Ceate the following ta%les
SQL- Ceate ta%le student2(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7#na$e
va!ha(1)#$a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- Ceate ta%le student1(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7#hno nu$%e(4)#!it7
va!ha(23)#id nu$%e(1)#foeign Fe7(id) efeen!es student2(no)).
%) Inset the e!ods into %oth ta%les
SQL- inset into student2(2#;a;#233).
SQL- inset into student2(1#;%;#133).
SQL- inset into student1(22#222#;h7d;#2).
SQL- inset into student1(21#111#;%ang;#1).
SQL- inset into student1(24#444#;%o$%a7;#2).
!) Ceate the t7pe
SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe stud as o%Je!t(no nu$%e(1)#na$e
va!ha(1)#$a&s
nu$%e(4)).?
d) 8eneating OIDs
SQL- Ceate o epla!e view student2Mov of stud with o%Je!t identifie(o id)
(no) as
Sele!t E fo$ Student2.
e) 8eneating efeen!es
SQL- Ceate o epla!e view student1Mov as sele!t no#hno#!it7#
$a&eMef(student2Mov#id) id fo$ Student1.
d) Que7 the following
SQL- sele!t Efo$ student2Mov.
SQL- sele!t ef(s) fo$ student2Mov s.
SQL- sele!t values(s) fo$ student2Mov.
SQ- sele!t Efo$ student1Mov.
SQL- sele!t deef(s5id) fo$ student1Mov s.
A(RTITIONS
( single logi!al ta%le !an %e split into a nu$%e of ph7si!all7 sepaate pie!es
%ased on anges of &e7 values5 'a!h of the pats of the ta%le is !alled a patition5
( non"patitioned ta%le !an not %e patitioned late5
T*A'S
1 Range patitions
2 List patitions
3 :ash patitions
4 Su% patitions
(D9(NT(8'S
1 Redu!ing downti$e fo s!heduled $aintenan!e# whi!h allows
$aintenan!e opeations to %e !aied out on sele!ted patitions while othe
patitions ae availa%le to uses5
2 Redu!ing downti$e due to data failue# failue of a pati!ula
patition will no wa7 affe!t othe patitions5
3 Aatition independen!e allows fo !on!uent use of the vaious
patitions fo vaious puposes5
(D9(NT(8'S OB A(RTITIONS )* STORIN8 T:'M IN DIBB'R'NT T()L'SA(C'S
1 Redu!es the possi%ilit7 of data !ouption in $ultiple patitions5
2 )a!& up and e!ove7 of ea!h patition !an %e done independentl75
DIS(D9(NT(8'S
1 ?Aatitioned ta%les !annot !ontain an7 !olu$ns with long o long aw
datat7pes# LO) t7pes o o%Je!t t7pes5
R(N8' A(RTITIONS
a) Ceating ange patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7
ange(no)
(patition p2 values less than(23)# patition p1 values less than(13)#
patition p4
values less than(43)#patition p@ values less than($a/value)).
EE if 7ou ae using $a/value fo the last patition# 7ou !an not add a patition5
%) Inseting e!ods into ange patitioned ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;). "" this will go to p2
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;%;). "" this will go to p1
SQL- Inset into student values(12#;!;). "" this will go to p4
SQL- Inset into student values(42#;d;). "" this will go to p@
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ ange patitioned ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(p2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with ange patitions
1 (dd
2 Dop
3 Tun!ate
4 Rena$e
5 Split
6 Move
7 '/!hange
e) (dding a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student add patition pC values less than(@3).
f) Dopping a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student dop patition p@.
g) Rena$ing a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student ena$e patition p4 to pD.
h) Tun!ate a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student tun!ate patition pD.
i) Splitting a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student split patition p1 at(2C) into (patition p12#patition
p11).
J) '/!hanging a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student e/!hange patition p2 with ta%le student1.
&) Moving a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student $ove patition p12 ta%lespa!e sa&ethMts.
LIST A(RTITIONS
a) Ceating list patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 list(no)
(patition p2 values(2#1#4#@#C)# patition p1 values(D#V#W#S#23)#patition p4
values(22#21#24#2@#2C)# patition p@ values(2D#2V#2W#2S#13)).
%) Inseting e!ods into list patitioned ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(D#;%;). "" this will go to p1
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;!;). "" this will go to p4
SQL- Inset into student values(2D#;d;). "" this will go to p@
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ list patitioned ta%le
d) Aossi%le opeations with list patitions
8 (dd
9 Dop
10 Tun!ate
11 Rena$e
12 Move
13 '/!hange
SQL- (lte ta%le student add patition pC values(12#11#14#1@#1C).
SQL- (lte ta%le student dop patition p@.
SQL- (lte ta%le student ena$e patition p4 to pD.
SQL- (lte ta%le student tun!ate patition pD.
i) '/!hanging a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student e/!hange patition p2 with ta%le student1.
J) Moving a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student $ove patition p1 ta%lespa!e sa&ethMts.
:(S: A(RTITIONS
a) Ceating hash patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7
hash(no)
patitions C.
:ee oa!le auto$ati!all7 gives patition na$es li&e
S*SMA2
S*SMA1
S*SMA4
S*SMA@
S*SMAC
%) Inseting e!ods into hash patitioned ta%le
it will inset the e!ods %ased on hash fun!tion !al!ulated %7 ta&ing the
patition &e7
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;).
SQL- Inset into student values(D#;%;).
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;!;).
SQL- Inset into student values(2D#;d;).
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ hash patitioned ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(s7sMp2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with hash patitions
14 (dd
15 Tun!ate
16 Rena$e
17 Move
18 '/!hange
SQL- (lte ta%le student add patition pD .
f) Rena$ing a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student ena$e patition pD to pV.
g) Tun!ate a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student tun!ate patition pV.
h) '/!hanging a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student e/!hange patition s7sMp2 with ta%le student1.
i) Moving a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student $ove patition s7sMp1 ta%lespa!e sa&ethMts.
SU)"A(RTITIONS 6IT: R(N8' (ND :(S:
Su%patitions !lause is used %7 hash onl75 6e !an not !eate su%patitions with
list and hash patitions5
a) Ceating su%patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s nu$%e(4))
Aatition %7 ange(no) su%patition %7 hash(na$e) su%patitions 4
(Aatition p2 values less than(23)#patition p1 values less than(13)).

This will !eate two patitions p2 and p1 with thee su%patitions fo ea!h
patition
A2 \ S*SMSU)A2
S*SMSU)A1
S*SMSU)A4
A1 \ S*SMSU)A@
S*SMSU)AC
S*SMSU)AD
EE if 7ou ae using $a/value fo the last patition# 7ou !an not add a patition5
%) Inseting e!ods into su%patitioned ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;%;). "" this will go to p1
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ su%patitioned ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student su%patition(s7sMsu%p2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with su%patitions
19 (dd
20 Dop
21 Tun!ate
22 Rena$e
23 Split
SQL- (lte ta%le student add patition p4 values less than(43).
SQL- (lte ta%le student dop patition p4.
SQL- (lte ta%le student ena$e patition p1 to p4.
SQL- (lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p2.
i) Splitting a patition
SQL- (lte ta%le student split patition p4 at(2C) into (patition p42#patition
p41).
D(T( MOD'L
2 (LLMINDMA(RTITIONS
3 (LLMINDMSU)A(RTITIONS
4 (LLMT()MA(RTITIONS
5 (LLMT()MSU)A(RTITIONS
6 D)(MINDMA(RTITIONS
7 D)(MINDMSU)A(RTITIONS
8 D)(MT()MA(RTITIONS
9 D)(MT()MSU)A(RTITIONS
10 US'RMINDMA(RTITIONS
11 US'RMINDMSU)A(RTITIONS
12 US'RMT()MA(RTITIONS
13 US'RMT()MSU)A(RTITIONS
8ROUA )* (ND :(9IN8
8ROUA )*
Using goup %7# we !an !eate goups of elated info$ation5
Colu$ns used in sele!t $ust %e used with goup %7# othewise it was not a goup
%7 e/pession5
'/0
SQL- sele!t deptno# su$(sal) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno.
D'ATNO SUM(S(L)
"""""""""" """"""""""
23 WVC3
13 23WVC
43 S@33
SQL- sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno#Jo%.
D'ATNO >O) SUM(S(L)
"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""
23 CL'RF 2433
23 M(N(8'R 1@C3
23 AR'SID'NT C333
13 (N(L*ST D333
13 CL'RF 2S33
13 M(N(8'R 1SVC
43 CL'RF SC3
43 M(N(8'R 1WC3
43 S(L'SM(N CD33
:(9IN8
This will wo& as whee !lause whi!h !an %e used onl7 with goup %7 %e!ause of
a%sen!e of whee !lause in goup %75
'/0
SQL- sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) tsal fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno#Jo% having
su$(sal) -
4333.
D'ATNO >O) TS(L
"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""
23 AR'SID'NT C333
13 (N(L*ST D333
43 S(L'SM(N CD33
SQL- sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) tsal fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno#Jo% having
su$(sal) -
4333 ode %7 Jo%.

D'ATNO >O) TS(L
"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""
13 (N(L*ST D333
23 AR'SID'NT C333
43 S(L'SM(N CD33
ORD'R OB '+'CUTION
1 8oup the ows togethe %ased on goup %7 !lause5
2 Cal!ulate the goup fun!tions fo ea!h goup5
3 Choose and eli$inate the goups %ased on the having !lause5
4 Ode the goups %ased on the spe!ified !olu$n5
ROLLUA 8ROUAIN8 CU)'
These ae the enhan!e$ents to the goup %7 featue5
USIN8 ROLLUA
This will give the salaies in ea!h depat$ent in ea!h Jo% !atego7 along wih the
total sala7 fo individual depat$ents and the total sala7 of all the depat$ents5
SQL- Sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 ollup(deptno#Jo%).
D'ATNO >O) SUM(S(L)
"""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""
23 CL'RF 2433
23 M(N(8'R 1@C3
23 AR'SID'NT C333
23 WVC3
13 (N(L*ST D333
13 CL'RF 2S33
13 M(N(8'R 1SVC
13 23WVC
43 CL'RF SC3
43 M(N(8'R 1WC3
43 S(L'SM(N CD33
43 S@33
1S31C
USIN8 8ROUAIN8
In the a%ove Uue7 it will give the total sala7 of the individual depat$ents %ut
with a
%lan& in the Jo% !olu$n and gives the total sala7 of all the depat$ents with
%lan&s in
deptno and Jo% !olu$ns5

To epla!e these %lan&s with 7ou desied sting gouping will %e used
SQL- sele!t de!ode(gouping(deptno)#2#=(ll
Depts=#deptno)#de!ode(gouping(Jo%)#2#=(ll
Jo%s=#Jo%)#su$(sal) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 ollup(deptno#Jo%).
D'COD'(8ROUAIN8(D'ATNO)#2#=(LLD'ATS=#D'A D'COD'(8R SUM(S(L)
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
23 CL'RF 2433
23 M(N(8'R 1@C3
23 AR'SID'NT C333
23 (ll Jo%s WVC3
13 (N(L*ST D333
13 CL'RF 2S33
13 M(N(8'R 1SVC
13 (ll Jo%s 23WVC
43 CL'RF SC3
43 M(N(8'R 1WC3
43 S(L'SM(N CD33
43 (ll Jo%s S@33
(ll Depts (ll Jo%s 1S31C
8ouping will etun 2 if the !olu$n whi!h is spe!ified in the gouping fun!tion
has %een
used in ollup5
8ouping will %e used in asso!iation with de!ode5
USIN8 CU)'
This will give the salaies in ea!h depat$ent in ea!h Jo% !atego7# the total sala7
fo individual depat$ents# the total sala7 of all the depat$ents and the salaies
in ea!h Jo% !atego75

SQL- sele!t de!ode(gouping(deptno)#2#;(ll
Depts;#deptno)#de!ode(gouping(Jo%)#2#;(ll
>o%s;#Jo%)#su$(sal) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 !u%e(deptno#Jo%).
D'COD'(8ROUAIN8(D'ATNO)#2#=(LLD'ATS=#D'A D'COD'(8R SUM(S(L)
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""
23 CL'RF 2433
23 M(N(8'R 1@C3
23 AR'SID'NT C333
23 (ll >o%s WVC3
13 (N(L*ST D333
13 CL'RF 2S33
13 M(N(8'R 1SVC
13 (ll >o%s 23WVC
43 CL'RF SC3
43 M(N(8'R 1WC3
43 S(L'SM(N CD33
43 (ll >o%s S@33
(ll Depts (N(L*ST D333
(ll Depts CL'RF @2C3
(ll Depts M(N(8'R W1VC
(ll Depts AR'SID'NT C333
(ll Depts S(L'SM(N CD33
(ll Depts (ll >o%s 1S31C
S'T OA'R(TORS
T*A'S
1 Union
2 Union all
3 Intese!t
4 Minus
UNION
This will !o$%ine the e!ods of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e stu!tue5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 union sele!t E fo$ student1.
UNION (LL
This will !o$%ine the e!ods of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e stu!tue %ut
in!luding dupli!ates5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 union all sele!t E fo$ student1.
INT'RS'CT
This will give the !o$$on e!ods of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e stu!tue5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 intese!t sele!t E fo$ student1.
MINUS
This will give the e!ods of a ta%le whose e!ods ae not in othe ta%les having
the sa$e stu!tue5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student2 $inus sele!t E fo$ student1.

9I'6S
( view is a data%ase o%Je!t that is a logi!al epesentation of a ta%le5 It is
deliveed fo$ a ta%le %ut has no stoage of its own and often $a7 %e used in the
sa$e $anne as a ta%le5
( view ta&es the output of the Uue7 and teats it as a ta%le# theefoe a view !an
%e thought of as a stoed Uue7 o a vitual ta%le5
T*A'S
1 Si$ple view
2 Co$ple/ view
Si$ple view !an %e !eated fo$ one ta%le whee as !o$ple/ view !an %e !eated
fo$ $ultiple ta%les5
6:* 9I'6S[
1 Aovides additional level of se!uit7 %7 esti!ting a!!ess to a
pedete$ined set of ows and?o !olu$ns of a ta%le5
2 :ide the data !o$ple/it75
3 Si$plif7 !o$$ands fo the use5
9I'6S 6IT:OUT DML
1 Read onl7 view
2 9iew with goup %7
3 9iew with aggegate fun!tions
4 9iew with ownu$
5 Aatition view
6 9iew with distin!t
'/0
SQL- Ceate view deptMv as sele!t Efo$ dept with ead onl7.
SQL- Ceate view deptMv as sele!t deptno# su$(sal) tMsal fo$ e$p1 goup %7
deptno.
SQL- Ceate view stud as sele!t ownu$ no# na$e# $a&s fo$ student.
SQL- Ceate view student as sele!t Efo$ student2 union sele!t Efo$ student1.
SQL- Ceate view stud as sele!t distin!t no#na$e fo$ student.
9I'6S 6IT: DML
1 9iew with not null !olu$n "" inset with out not null !olu$n not
possi%le
"" update not null !olu$n to null is not possi%le
"" delete possi%le
2 9iew with out not null !olu$n whi!h was in %ase ta%le "" inset not
possi%le
"" update# delete
possi%le
3 9iew with e/pession "" inset # update not possi%le
"" delete possi%le
4 9iew with fun!tions (e/!ept aggegate) "" inset# update not possi%le
"" delete possi%le
5 9iew was !eated %ut the undel7ing ta%le was dopped then we will
get the $essage li&e P view has eos Q5
6 9iew was !eated %ut the %ase ta%le has %een alteed %ut still the
view was with the initial definition# we have to epla!e the view to affe!t the
!hanges5
7 Co$ple/ view (view with $oe than one ta%le) "" inset not possi%le
"" update# delete possi%le (not
alwa7s)
CR'(TIN8 9I'6 6IT:OUT :(9IN8 T:' )(S' T()L'
SQL- Ceate fo!e view stud as sele!t EBo$ student.
"" On!e the %ase ta%le was !eated then the view is validated5
9I'6 6IT: C:'CF OATION CONSTR(INT
SQL- Ceate view stud as sele!t Efo$ student whee $a&s H C33 with !he!&
option
!onstaint C&.
" Inset possi%le with $a&s value as C33
" Update possi%le e/!luding $a&s !olu$n
" Delete possi%le
DROAAIN8 9I'6S
SQL- dop view deptMv.
D(T( MOD'L
(LLM9I'6
D)(M9I'6
US'RM9I'6S
S*NON*M (ND S'QU'NC'
S*NON*M
( s7non7$ is a data%ase o%Je!t# whi!h is used as an alias fo a ta%le# view o
seUuen!e5
T*A'S
3 Aivate
4 Au%li!
Aivate s7non7$ is availa%le to the pati!ula use who !eates5
Au%li! s7non7$ is !eated %7 D)( whi!h is availa%le to all the uses5
(D9(NT(8'S
1 :ide the na$e and owne of the o%Je!t5
2 Aovides lo!ation tanspaen!7 fo e$ote o%Je!ts of a disti%uted
data%ase5
CR'(T' (ND DROA
SQL- !eate s7non7$ s2 fo e$p1.
SQL- !eate pu%li! s7non7$ s1 fo e$p1.
SQL- dop s7non7$ s2.
S'QU'NC'
( seUuen!e is a data%ase o%Je!t# whi!h !an geneate uniUue# seUuential intege
values5
It !an %e used to auto$ati!all7 geneate pi$a7 &e7 o uniUue &e7 values5
( seUuen!e !an %e eithe in an as!ending o des!ending ode5
S7nta/0
Ceate seUuen!e ,!e._name- Nin!e$ent %t7 nO Nstat with nO N$a/value nO
N$invalue nO N!7!le?no!7!leO N!a!he?no!a!heO.
)7 defalult the seUuen!e stats with 2# in!e$ents %7 2 with $invalue of 2 and
with no!7!le# no!a!he5
Ca!he option pe"alloo!ates a set of seUuen!e nu$%es and etains the$ in
$e$o7 fo faste a!!ess5
'/0
SQL- !eate seUuen!e s.
SQL- !eate seUuen!e s in!e$ent %7 23 stat with 233 $invalue C $a/value
133 !7!le
!a!he 13.
USIN8 S'QU'NC'
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)).
SQL- inset into student values(s5ne/tval# Ksað).
1 Initiall7 !uval is not defined and ne/tval is stating value5
2 (fte that ne/tval and !uval ae alwa7s eUual5
CR'(TIN8 (LA:("NUM'RIC S'QU'NC'

SQL- !eate seUuen!e s stat with 22214@.
SQL- Inset into student values (s5ne/tval XX tanslate
(s5ne/tval#;214@CDVWS3;#;a%!defghiJ;)).
(LT'RIN8 S'QU'NC'
6e !an alte the seUuen!e to pefo$ the following5
1 Set o eli$inate $invalue o $a/value5
2 Change the in!e$ent value5
3 Change the nu$%e of !a!hed seUuen!e nu$%es5
'/0
SQL- alte seUuen!e s $invalue C.
SQL- alte seUuen!e s in!e$ent %7 1.
SQL- alte seUuen!e s !a!he 23.
DROAAIN8 S'QU'NC'
SQL- dop seUuen!e s.
>OINS
1 The pupose of a Join is to !o$%ine the data a!oss ta%les5
2 ( Join is a!tuall7 pefo$ed %7 the whee !lause whi!h !o$%ines the
spe!ified ows of ta%les5
3 If a Join involves in $oe than two ta%les then oa!le Joins fist two
ta%les %ased on the Joins !ondition and then !o$paes the esult with the
ne/t ta%le and so on5
T*A'S
1 'Uui Join
2 Non"eUui Join
3 Self Join
4 Natual Join
5 Coss Join
6 Oute Join
Left oute
Right oute
Bull oute
7 Inne Join
8 Using !lause
9 On !lause
(ssu$e that we have the following ta%les5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ dept.
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""" """""""""" """"""""""
23 $&t h7d
13 fin %ang
43 h %o$%a7
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1.
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) M8R D'ATNO
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
222 sa&eth anal7st @@@ 23
111 sudha !le& 444 13
444 Jagan $anage 222 23
@@@ $adhu enginee 111 @3
'QUI >OIN
( Join whi!h !ontains an KH; opeato in the Joins !ondition5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e#dept d whee
e5deptnoHd5deptno.
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
222 sa&eth anal7st $&t h7d
444 Jagan $anage $&t h7d
111 sudha !le& fin %ang
USIN8 CL(US'
SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo% #dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e Join dept d using(deptno).
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
ON CL(US'
SQL- sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e Join dept d
on(e5deptnoHd5deptno).
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
NON"'QUI >OIN
( Join whi!h !ontains an opeato othe than KH; in the Joins !ondition5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e#dept d whee e5deptno
H
d5deptno.
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
111 sudha !le& $&t h7d
@@@ $adhu enginee $&t h7d
@@@ $adhu enginee fin %ang
@@@ $adhu enginee h %o$%a7
S'LB >OIN
>oining the ta%le itself is !alled self Join5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e25e$p1no#e15ena$e#e25Jo%#e15deptno fo$ e$p1 e2#e$p1 e1
whee
e25e$p1noHe15$g.
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) D'ATNO
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
222 Jagan anal7st 23
111 $adhu !le& @3
444 sudha $anage 13
@@@ sa&eth enginee 23
N(TUR(L >OIN
Natual Join !o$paes all the !o$$on !olu$ns5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 natual Join dept.
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
CROSS >OIN
This will gives the !oss podu!t5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 !oss Join dept.
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
111 sudha !le& $&t h7d
@@@ $adhu enginee $&t h7d
222 sa&eth anal7st fin %ang
444 Jagan $anage fin %ang
@@@ $adhu enginee fin %ang
222 sa&eth anal7st h %o$%a7
111 sudha !le& h %o$%a7
444 Jagan $anage h %o$%a7
@@@ $adhu enginee h %o$%a7
OUT'R >OIN
Oute Join gives the non"$at!hing e!ods along with $at!hing e!ods5
L'BT OUT'R >OIN
This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!ods and the e!ods whi!h ae in left hand
side ta%le those that ae not in ight hand side ta%le5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e left oute Join dept d
O
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e#dept d whee
e5deptnoHd5deptno(G).
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
@@@ $adhu enginee
RI8:T OUT'R >OIN
This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!ods and the e!ods whi!h ae in ight hand
side ta%le those that ae not in left hand side ta%le5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e ight oute Join dept d
O
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e#dept d whee
e5deptno(G) H
d5deptno.
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
h %o$%a7
BULL OUT'R >OIN
This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!ods and the non"$at!hing e!ods fo$ %oth
ta%les5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 e full oute Join dept d
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
@@@ $adhu enginee
h %o$%a7
INN'R >OIN
This will displa7 all the e!ods that have $at!hed5
'/0
SQL- sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! fo$ e$p1 inne Join dept
using(deptno).
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
SU)QU'RI'S (ND '+ISTS
SU)QU'RI'S
1 Nesting of Uueies# one within the othe is te$ed as a su%Uue75
2 ( state$ent !ontaining a su%Uue7 is !alled a paent Uue75
3 Su%Uueies ae used to etieve data fo$ ta%les that depend on the
values in the ta%le itself5
T*A'S
1 Single ow su%Uueies
2 Multi ow su%Uueies
3 Multiple su%Uueies
4 Coelated su%Uueies
SIN8L' RO6 SU)QU'RI'S
In single ow su%Uue7# it will etun one value5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee sal - (sele!t sal fo$ e$p1 whee e$p1no H
VCDD).
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) M8R :IR'D(T' S(L COMM D'ATNO
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""" """""""""" """"""""""
VVWW SCOTT (N(L*ST VCDD 2S"(AR"WV 4333 13
VW4S FIN8 AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 C333 23
VS31 BORD (N(L*ST VCDD 34"D'C"W2 4333 13
MULTI RO6 SU)QU'RI'S
In $ulti ow su%Uue7# it will etun $oe than one value5 In su!h !ases we should
in!lude opeatos li&e an7# all# in o not in %etween the !o$paision opeato and
the su%Uue75
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee sal - an7 (sele!t sal fo$ e$p1 whee sal
%etween 1C33
and @333).
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """"""""""" """""""" """""""""" """"""""""
VCDD >ON'S M(N(8'R VW4S 31"(AR"W2 1SVC 13
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee sal - all (sele!t sal fo$ e$p1 whee sal
%etween 1C33
and @333).
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """"""""""""" """""" """""""""" """"""""""
MULTIAL' SU)QU'RI'S
Thee is no li$it on the nu$%e of su%Uueies in!luded in a whee !lause5 It allows
nesting of a Uue7 within a su%Uue75
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee sal H (sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ e$p1 whee sal ,
(sele!t
$a/(sal) fo$ e$p1)).
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""" """""""""" """"""""""
CORR'L(T'D SU)QU'RI'S
( su%Uue7 is evaluated on!e fo the entie paent state$ent whee as a
!oelated su%Uue7 is evaluated on!e fo eve7 ow po!essed %7 the paent
state$ent5
'/0
SQL- sele!t distin!t deptno fo$ e$p1 e whee C ,H (sele!t !ount(ena$e) fo$
e$p1
whee e5deptno H deptno).
D'ATNO
""""""""""
13
43
'+ISTS
'/ists fun!tion is a test fo e/isten!e5 This is a logi!al test fo the etun of ows
fo$ a Uue75
'/0
Suppose we want to displa7 the depat$ent nu$%es whi!h has $oe than @
e$p1lo7ees5
SQL- sele!t deptno#!ount(E) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno having !ount(E) - @.
D'ATNO COUNT(E)
""""""""" """"""""""
13 C
43 D
Bo$ the a%ove Uue7 !an 7ou want to displa7 the na$es of e$p1lo7ees[
SQL- sele!t deptno#ena$e# !ount(E) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno#ena$e having
!ount(E)
- @.
no ows sele!ted
The a%ove Uue7 etuns nothing %e!ause !o$%ination of deptno and ena$e
neve
etun $oe than one !ount5
The solution is to use e/ists whi!h follows5

SQL- sele!t deptno#ena$e fo$ e$p1 e2 whee e/ists (sele!t E fo$ e$p1 e1
whee e25deptnoHe15deptno goup %7 e15deptno having !ount(e15ena$e)
- @)
ode %7 deptno#ena$e.
D'ATNO 'N(M'
"""""""""" """"""""""
13 (D(MS
13 BORD
13 >ON'S
13 SCOTT
13 SMIT:
43 (LL'N
43 )L(F'
43 >(M'S
43 M(RTIN
43 TURN'R
43 6(RD
NOT '+ISTS
SQL- sele!t deptno#ena$e fo$ e$p1 e2 whee not e/ists (sele!t E fo$ e$p1 e1
whee e25deptnoHe15deptno goup %7 e15deptno having !ount(e15ena$e) -
@) ode
%7 deptno#ena$e.
D'ATNO 'N(M'
""""""""" """"""""""
23 CL(RF
23 FIN8
23 MILL'R
6(LFUA TR''S (ND INLIN' 9I'6
6(LFUA TR''S
Using hiea!hi!al Uueies# 7ou !an etieve data %ased on a natual hiea!hi!al
elationship %etween ows in a ta%le5 :oweve# whee a hiea!hi!al elationship
e/ists %etween the ows of a ta%le# a po!ess !alled tee wal&ing ena%les the
hiea!h7 to %e !onstu!ted5
'/0
SQL- sele!t ena$e XX =HH-= XX pio ena$e# level fo$ e$p1 stat with ena$e H
=FIN8=
!onne!t %7 pio e$p1noH$g.

'N(M'XX=HH-=XXARIOR'N(M L'9'L
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""
FIN8HH- 2
>ON'SHH-FIN8 1
SCOTTHH->ON'S 4
(D(MSHH-SCOTT @
BORDHH->ON'S 4
SMIT:HH-BORD @
)L(F'HH-FIN8 1
(LL'NHH-)L(F' 4
6(RDHH-)L(F' 4
M(RTINHH-)L(F' 4
TURN'RHH-)L(F' 4
>(M'SHH-)L(F' 4
CL(RFHH-FIN8 1
MILL'RHH-CL(RF 4
In the a%ove
Stat with !lause spe!ifies the oot ow of the ta%le5
Level pseudo !olu$n gives the 2 fo oot# 1 fo !hild and so on5
Conne!t %7 pio !lause spe!ifies the !olu$ns whi!h has paent"!hild elationship5
INLIN' 9I'6 OR TOA"N (N(L*SIS
In the sele!t state$ent instead of ta%le na$e# epla!ing the sele!t state$ent is
&nown as inline view5
'/0
SQL- Sele!t ena$e# sal# ownu$ an& fo$ (sele!t Efo$ e$p1 ode %7 sal).
'N(M' S(L R(NF
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
SMIT: W33 2
>(M'S SC3 1
(D(MS 2233 4
6(RD 21C3 @
M(RTIN 21C3 C
MILL'R 2433 D
TURN'R 2C33 V
(LL'N 2D33 W
CL(RF 1@C3 S
)L(F' 1WC3 23
>ON'S 1SVC 22
SCOTT 4333 21
BORD 4333 24
FIN8 C333 2@
LOCFS
Lo!&s ae the $e!hanis$s used to pevent destu!tive intea!tion %etween uses
a!!essing sa$e esou!e si$ultaneousl75 Lo!&s povides high degee of data
!on!uen!75
T*A'S
1 Row level lo!&s
2 Ta%le level lo!&s
RO6 L'9'L LOCFS
In the ow level lo!& a ow is lo!&ed e/!lusivel7 so that othe !annot $odif7 the
ow until the tansa!tion holding the lo!& is !o$$itted o olled %a!&5 This !an %e
done %7 using sele!t55fo update !lause5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee sal - 4333 fo update of !o$$5.
T()L' L'9'L LOCFS
( ta%le level lo!& will pote!t ta%le data thee%7 guaanteeing data integit7 when
data is %eing a!!essed !on!uentl7 %7 $ultiple uses5 ( ta%le lo!& !an %e held in
seveal $odes5
1 Shae lo!&
2 Shae update lo!&
3 '/!lusive lo!&
S:(R' LOCF
( shae lo!& lo!&s the ta%le allowing othe uses to onl7 Uue7 %ut not inset#
update o delete ows in a ta%le5 Multiple uses !an pla!e shae lo!&s on the sa$e
esou!e at the sa$e ti$e5
'/0
SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p1 in shae $ode.
S:(R' UAD(T' LOCF
It lo!&s ows that ae to %e updated in a ta%le5 It pe$its othe uses to
!on!uentl7 Uue7# inset # update o even lo!& othe ows in the sa$e ta%le5 It
pevents the othe uses fo$ updating the ow that has %een lo!&ed5
'/0
SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p1 in shae update $ode.
'+CLUSI9' LOCF
'/!lusive lo!& is the $ost esti!tive of ta%les lo!&s5 6hen issued %7 an7 use# it
allows the othe use to onl7 Uue75 It is si$ila to shae lo!& %ut onl7 one use
!an pla!e e/!lusive lo!& on a ta%le at a ti$e5
'/0
SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p1 in shae e/!lusive $ode.
NO6(IT
If one use lo!&ed the ta%le without nowait then anothe use t7ing to lo!& the
sa$e ta%le then he has to wait until the use who has initiall7 lo!&ed the ta%le
issues a !o$$it o oll%a!& state$ent5 This dela7 !ould %e avoided %7 appending a
nowait !lause in the lo!& ta%le !o$$and5
'/0
SQL- lo!& ta%le e$p1 in e/!lusive $ode nowait5
D'(DLOCF
( deadlo!& o!!us when two uses have a lo!& ea!h on sepaate o%Je!t# and the7
want to a!Uuie a lo!& on the ea!h othe;s o%Je!t5 6hen this happens# the fist
use has to wait fo the se!ond use to elease the lo!&# %ut the se!ond use will
not elease it until the lo!& on the fist use;s o%Je!t is feed5 In su!h a !ase# oa!le
dete!ts the deadlo!& auto$ati!all7 and solves the po%le$ %7 a%oting one of the
two tansa!tions5
IND'+'S
Inde/ is t7pi!all7 a listing of &e7wods a!!o$panied %7 the lo!ation of info$ation
on a su%Je!t5 6e !an !eate inde/es e/pli!itl7 to speed up SQL state$ent
e/e!ution on a ta%le5 The inde/ points die!tl7 to the lo!ation of the ows
!ontaining the value5
6:* IND'+'S[
Inde/es ae $ost useful on lage ta%les# on !olu$ns that ae li&el7 to appea in
whee !lauses as si$ple eUualit75
T*A'S
1 UniUue inde/
2 Non"uniUue inde/
3 )tee inde/
4 )it$ap inde/
5 Co$posite inde/
6 Revese &e7 inde/
7 Bun!tion"%ased inde/
8 Des!ending inde/
9 Do$ain inde/
10 O%Je!t inde/
11 Cluste inde/
12 Te/t inde/
13 Inde/ oganiTed ta%le
14 Aatition inde/
Lo!al inde/
Lo!al pefi/ed
Lo!al non"pefi/ed
2 8lo%al inde/
8lo%al pefi/ed
8lo%al non"pefi/ed
UNIQU' IND'+
UniUue inde/es guaantee that no two ows of a ta%le have dupli!ate values in the
!olu$ns that define the inde/5 UniUue inde/ is auto$ati!all7 !eated when
pi$a7 &e7 o uniUue !onstaint is !eated5
'/0
SQL- !eate uniUue inde/ studMind on student(sno).
NON"UNIQU' IND'+
Non"UniUue inde/es do not i$pose the a%ove esti!tion on the !olu$n values5
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMind on student(sno).
)TR'' IND'+ o (SC'NDIN8 IND'+
The default t7pe of inde/ used in an oa!le data%ase is the %tee inde/5 ( %tee
inde/ is designed to povide %oth apid a!!ess to individual ows and Uui!& a!!ess
to goups of ows within a ange5 The %tee inde/ does this %7 pefo$ing a
su!!ession of value !o$paisons5 'a!h !o$paison eli$inates $an7 of the ows5
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMind on student(sno).
)ITM(A IND'+
This !an %e used fo low !adinalit7 !olu$ns0 that is !olu$ns in whi!h the nu$%e
of distin!t values is s$all when !o$paed to the nu$%e of the ows in the ta%le5
'/0
SQL- !eate %it$ap inde/ studMind on student(se/).
COMAOSIT' IND'+
( !o$posite inde/ also !alled a !on!atenated inde/ is an inde/ !eated on $ultiple
!olu$ns of a ta%le5 Colu$ns in a !o$posite inde/ !an appea in an7 ode and
need not %e adJa!ent !olu$ns of the ta%le5
'/0
SQL- !eate %it$ap inde/ studMind on student(sno# sna$e).
R'9'RS' F'* IND'+
( evese &e7 inde/ when !o$paed to standad inde/# eveses ea!h %7te of the
!olu$n %eing inde/ed while &eeping the !olu$n ode5 6hen the !olu$n is
inde/ed in evese $ode then the !olu$n values will %e stoed in an inde/ in
diffeent %lo!&s as the stating value diffes5 Su!h an aange$ent !an help avoid
pefo$an!e degadations in inde/es whee $odifi!ations to the inde/ ae
!on!entated on a s$all set of %lo!&s5
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMind on student(sno# evese).
6e !an e%uild a evese &e7 inde/ into no$al inde/ using the noevese
&e7wod5
'/0
SQL- alte inde/ studMind e%uild noevese.
BUNCTION )(S'D IND'+
This will use esult of the fun!tion as &e7 instead of using !olu$n as the value fo
the &e75
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMind on student(uppe(sna$e)).
D'SC'NDIN8 IND'+
The ode used %7 )"tee inde/es has %een as!ending ode5 *ou !an !ategoiTe
data in )"tee inde/ in des!ending ode as well5 This featue !an %e useful in
appli!ations whee soting opeations ae eUuied5
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMind on student(sno des!).
T'+T IND'+
Que7ing te/t is diffeent fo$ Uue7ing data %e!ause wods have shades of
$eaning# elationships to othe wods# and opposites5 *ou $a7 want to sea!h fo
wods that ae nea ea!h othe# o wods that ae elated to thes5 These Uueies
would %e e/te$el7 diffi!ult if all 7ou had availa%le was the standad elational
opeatos5 )7 e/tending SQL to in!lude te/t inde/es# oa!le te/t pe$its 7ou to as&
ve7 !o$ple/ Uuestions a%out the te/t5
To use oa!le te/t# 7ou need to !eate a te(t inde( on the !olu$n in whi!h the te/t
is stoed5 Te/t inde/ is a
of ta%les and inde/es that stoe info$ation a%out the te/t stoed in the !olu$n5
T*A'S
Thee ae seveal diffeent t7pes of inde/es availa%le in oa!le Si5 The fist#
CONT'+T is suppoted in oa!le Wi as well as oa!le Si5 (s of oa!le Si# 7ou !an use
the CT+C(T te/t inde/ fo futhe enhan!e 7ou te/t inde/ $anage$ent and Uue7
!apa%ilities5
1 CONT'+T
2 CT+C(T
3 CT+RUL'
The CT+C(T inde/ t7pe suppots the tansa!tional s7n!honiTation of data %etween
the %ase ta%le and its te/t inde/5 6ith CONT'+T inde/es# 7ou need to $anuall7 tell
oa!le to update the values in the te/t inde/ afte data !hanges in %ase ta%le5
CT+C(T inde/ t7pes do not geneate s!oe values duing the te/t Uueies5
:O6 TO CR'(T' T'+T IND'+[
*ou !an !eate a te/t inde/ via a spe!ial vesion of the !eate inde/ !o$$an5 Bo
!onte/t inde/# spe!if7 the !t/s7s5!onte/t inde/ t7pe and fo !t/!at inde/# spe!if7
the !t/s7s5!t/!at inde/ t7pe5
'/0
Suppose 7ou have a ta%le !alled )OOFS with the following !olu$ns
Title# (utho# Info5
SQL- !eate inde/ %oo&Minde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!onte/t.
SQL- !eate inde/ %oo&Minde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!t/!at.
T'+T QU'RI'S
On!e a te/t inde/ is !eated on the info !olu$n of )OOFS ta%le# te/t"sea!hing
!apa%ilities in!ease d7na$i!all75
CONT(INS < C(TS'(RC:
CONT(INS fun!tion ta&es two paa$etes \ the !olu$n na$e and the sea!h sting5
S7nta/0
Contains(inde(ed_column, !earc)_!tr).
If 7ou !eate a CT+C(T inde/# use the C(TS'(RC: fun!tion in pla!e of CONT(INS5
C(TS'(RC: ta&es thee paa$etes \ the !olu$n na$e# the sea!h sting and the
inde/ set5
S7nta/0
Contains(inde(ed_column, !earc)_!tr, inde(_!et).
:O6 ( T'+T Q'UR* 6ORFS[
6hen a fun!tion su!h as CONT(INS o C(TS'(RC: is used in Uue7# the te/t potion of
the Uue7 is po!essed %7 oa!le te/t5 The e$ainde of the Uue7 is po!essed Just
li&e a egula Uue7 within the data%ase5 The esult of the te/t Uue7 po!essing
and the egula Uue7 po!essing ae $eged to etun a single set of e!ods to
the use5
S'(RC:IN8 BOR (N '+(CT M(TC: OB ( 6ORD
The following Uueies will sea!h fo a wod !alled Kppet7; whose s!oe is geate
than Teo5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7;# null) - 3.
Suppose if 7ou want to &now the s!oe of the Kpopet7; in ea!h %oo&# if s!oe
values fo individual sea!hes ange fo$ 3 to 23 fo ea!h o!!uen!e of the sting
within the te/t then use the s!oe fun!tion5
SQL- sele!t title# s!oe(23) fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7;# 23) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR (N '+(CT M(TC: OB MULTIAL' 6ORDS
The following Uueies will sea!h fo two wods5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 (ND havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 (ND havests;# null) - 3.
Instead of using (ND 7ou !ould have used an a$pesand(<)5 )efoe using this
$ethod# set define off so the < !haa!te will not %e seen as pat of a vaia%le
na$e5
SQL- set define off
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 < havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 havests;# null) - 3.
The following Uueies will sea!h fo $oe than two wods5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 (ND havests (ND
wo&es;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 havests wo&es;# null)
- 3.
The following Uueies will sea!h fo eithe of the two wods5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 OR havests;) - 3.
Instead of OR 7ou !an use a veti!al line (X)5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 X havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 X havests;# null) - 3.
In the following Uueies the (CCUM(a!!u$ulate) opeato adds togethe the s!oes
of the individual sea!hes and !o$paes the a!!u$ulated s!oe to the theshold
value5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 (CCUM havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 (CCUM havests;# null) -
3.
Instead of OR 7ou !an use a !o$$a(#)5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 # havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 # havests;# null) - 3.
In the following Uueies the MINUS opeato su%ta!ts the s!oe of the se!ond
te$;s sea!h fo$ the s!oe of the fist te$;s sea!h5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 MINUS havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 NOT havests;# null) - 3.
Instead of MINUS 7ou !an use \ and instead of NOT 7ou !an use ]5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kpopet7 " havests;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Kpopet7 ] havests;# null) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR (N '+(CT M(TC: OB ( A:R(S'
The following Uueies will sea!h fo the phase5 If the sea!h phase in!ludes a
eseved wod within oa!le te/t# the 7ou $ust use !ul7 %a!es (^_) to en!lose
te/t5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Ktansa!tions ând_ finan!es;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# Ktansa!tions ând_ finan!es;# null)
- 3.
*ou !an en!lose the entie phase within !ul7 %a!es# in whi!h !ase an7 eseved
wods within the phase will %e teated as pat of the sea!h !iteia5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# K^tansa!tions and finan!es_;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !atsea!h(info# K^tansa!tions and finan!es_;# null)
- 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:(T (R' N'(R '(C: OT:'R
The following Uueies will sea!h fo the wods that ae in %etween the sea!h
te$s5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&es N'(R havests;) - 3.
Instead of N'(R 7ou !an use .5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&es . havests;) - 3.
In CONT'+T inde/ Uueies# 7ou !an spe!if7 the $a/i$u$ nu$%e of wods %etween
the sea!h te$s5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# KN'(R((wo&es# havests)#23); - 3.
USIN8 6ILDC(RDS DURIN8 S'(RC:'S
*ou !an use wild!ads to e/pand the list of valid sea!h te$s used duing 7ou
Uue75 >ust as in egula te/t"sting wild!ad po!essing# two wild!ads ae
availa%le5
L " pe!ent sign. $ultiple"!haa!te wild!ad
M " undes!oe. single"!haa!te wild!ad
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&eL;) - 3.
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Kwo&MMM;) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:(T S:(R' T:' S(M' ST'M
Rathe than using wild!ads# 7ou !an use ste$"e/pansion !apa%ilities to e/pand
the list of te/t stings5 8iven the Kste$; of a wod# oa!le will e/pand the list of
wods to sea!h fo to in!lude all wods having the sa$e ste$5 Sa$ple e/pansions
ae show hee5
Ala7 " pla7s pla7ing pla7ed pla7ful
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# K`$anage;) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR BUZZ* M(TC:'S
( fuTT7 $at!h e/pands the spe!ified sea!h te$ to in!lude wods that ae spelled
si$ilal7 %ut that do not ne!essail7 have the sa$e wod ste$5 BuTT7 $at!hes ae
$ost helpful when the te/t !ontains $isspellings5 The $isspellings !an %e eithe in
the sea!hed te/t o in the sea!h sting spe!ified %7 the use duing the Uue75
The following Uueies will not etun an7thing %e!ause its sea!h does not !ontain
the wod Khadest;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# Khadest;) - 3.
It does# howeve# !ontains the wod Khavest;5 ( fuTT7 $at!h will etun the %oo&s
!ontaining the wod Khavest; even though Khavest; has a diffeent wod ste$
thant the wod used as the sea!h te$5
To use a fuTT7 $at!h# pe!ede the sea!h te$ with a Uuestion $a&# with no
spa!e %etween the Uuestion $a& and the %eginning of the sea!h te$5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# K[hadest;) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:(T SOUND LIF' OT:'R 6ORDS
SOUND'+# e/pands sea!h te$s %ased on how the wod sounds5 The SOUND'+
e/pansion $ethod uses the sa$e te/t"$at!hing logi! availa%le via the SOUND'+
fun!tion in SQL5
To use the SOUND'+ option# 7ou $ust pe!ede the sea!h te$ with an
e/!la$ation $a&(I)5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ %oo&s whee !ontains(info# KIgate;) - 3.
IND'+ S*NC:RONIZ(TION
6hen using CONT'+T inde/es# 7ou need to $anage the te/t inde/ !ontents. the te/t
inde/es ae not updated when the %ase ta%le is updated5 6hen the ta%le was
updated# its te/t inde/ is out of s7n! with the %ase ta%le5 To s7n! of the inde/#
e/e!ute the S*NCMIND'+ po!edue of the CT+MDDL pa!&age5
SQL- e/e! CT+MDDL5S*NCMIND'+(K%oo&Minde/;).
IND'+ S'TS
:istoi!all7# po%le$s with Uueies of te/t inde/es have o!!ued when othe
!iteia ae used alongside te/t sea!hes as pat of the whee !lause5 To i$pove
the $i/ed Uue7 !apa%ilit7# oa!le featues inde/ sets5 The inde/es within the
inde/ set $a7 %e stu!tued elational !olu$ns o on te/t !olu$ns5
To !eate an inde/ set# use the CT+MDDL pa!&age to !eate the inde/ set and add
inde/es to it5 6hen 7ou !eate a te/t inde/# 7ou !an then spe!if7 the inde/ set it
%elongs to5
SQL- e/e! CT+MDDL5CR'(T'MIND'+MS'T(K%oo&sMinde/Mset;).
The add non"te/t inde/es5
SQL- e/e! CT+MDDL5(DDMIND'+(K%oo&sMinde/Mset;# KtitleMinde/;).
Now !eate a CT+C(T te/t inde/5 Spe!if7 !t/s7s5!t/!at as the inde/ t7pe# and list the
inde/ set in the paa$etes !lause5
SQL- !eate inde/ %oo&Minde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!t/!at
paa$etes(Kinde/ set %oo&sMinde/Mset;).
IND'+"OR8(NIZ'D T()L'
(n inde/"oganiTed ta%le &eeps its data soted a!!oding to the pi$a7 &e7
!olu$n values fo the ta%le5 Inde/"oganiTed ta%les stoe thei data as if the
entie ta%le was stoed in an inde/5
(n inde/"oganiTed ta%le allows 7ou to stoe the entie ta%le;s data in an inde/5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student (sno nu$%e(1)#sna$e va!ha(23)#s$a&s
nu$%e(4)
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(sno) oganiTation inde/.
A(RTITION IND'+
Si$ila to patitioning ta%les# oa!le allows 7ou to patition inde/es too5 Li&e ta%le
patitions# inde/ patitions !ould %e in diffeent ta%lespa!es5
LOC(L IND'+'S
1 Lo!al &e7wod tells oa!le to !eate a sepate inde/ fo ea!h patition5
2 In the lo!al pefi/ed inde/ the patition &e7 is spe!ified on the left
pefi/5 6hen the undel7ing ta%le is patitioned %aes on# sa7 two !olu$ns
then the inde/ !an %e pefi/ed on the fist !olu$n spe!ified5
3 Lo!al pefi/ed inde/es !an %e uniUue o non uniUue5
4 Lo!al inde/es $a7 %e easie to $anage than glo%al inde/es5
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMinde/ on student(sno) lo!al.
8LO)(L IND'+'S
1 ( glo%al inde/ $a7 !ontain values fo$ $ultiple patitions5
2 (n inde/ is glo%al pefi/ed if it is patitioned on the left pefi/ of the
inde/ !olu$ns5
3 The glo%al !lause allows 7ou to !eate a non"patitioned inde/5
4 8lo%al inde/es $a7 pefo$ uniUueness !he!&s faste than lo!al
(patitioned) inde/es5
5 *ou !annot !eate glo%al inde/es fo hash patitions o su%patitions5
'/0
SQL- !eate inde/ studMinde/ on student(sno) glo%al.
Si$ila to ta%le patitions# it is possi%le to $ove the$ fo$ one devi!e to anothe5
)ut unli&e ta%le patitions# $ove$ent of inde/ patitions eUuies individual
e!onstu!tion of the inde/ o ea!h patition (onl7 in the !ase of glo%al inde/)5
'/0
SQL- alte inde/ studMind e%uild patition p1
1 Inde/ patitions !annot %e dopped $anuall75
2 The7 ae dopped i$pli!itl7 when the data the7 efe to is dopped
fo$ the patitioned ta%le5
MONITORIN8 US' OB IND'+'S
On!e 7ou tuned on the $onitoing the use of inde/es# then we !an !he!& whethe
the ta%le is hitting the inde/ o not5
To $onito the use of inde/ use the follwing s7nta/5
S7nta/0
alte inde/ inde(_name $onitoing usage.
then !he!& fo the details in 9Ò)>'CTMUS(8' view5
If 7ou want to stop $onitoing use the following5
S7nta/0
alte inde/ inde(_name no$onitoing usage.
D(T( MOD'L
1 (LLMIND'+'S
2 D)(MIND'+'S
3 US'RMIND'+'S
4 (LLMIND"COLUMNS
5 D)("INDMCOLUMNS
6 US'RMINDMCOLUMNS
7 (LLMA(RTMIND'+'S
8 D)(MA(RTMIND'+'S
9 US'RMA(RTMIND'+'S
10 9Ò)>'CTMUS(8'
SQLEALUS COMMN(NDS
These !o$$ands does not eUuie state$ent te$inato and appli!a%le to the
sessions # those will %e auto$ati!all7 !leaed when session was !losed5
)R'(F
This will %e used to %ea&up the data depending on the gouping5
S7nta/0
)ea& o %e Non ,!olu$n_name- on epotO

COMAUT'
This will %e used to pefo$ goup fun!tions on the data5
S7nta/0
Co$pute o !o$p NgoupMfun!tion of column_name on
breain"_column_name o
epotO
TTITL'
This will give the top title fo 7ou epot5 *ou !an on o off the ttitle5
S7nta/0
Ttitle o ttit Nleft X !ente X ightO title_name s&ip n ot)er_c)aracter!
Ttitle o ttit Non o offO
)TITL'
This will give the %otto$ title fo 7ou epot5 *ou !an on o off the %title5
S7nta/0
)title o %tit Nleft X !ente X ightO title_name s&ip n ot)er_c)aracter!
)title o %tit Non o offO
'/0
SQL- %e on deptno s&ip 2 on epot
SQL- !o$p su$ of sal on deptno
SQL- !o$p su$ of sal on epot
SQL- ttitle !ente ='MA1LO*'' D'T(ILS= s&ip2 !ente =""""""""""""""""=
SQL- %title !ente =EE T:(NFQ EE=
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 ode %7 deptno.
Output0
'MA1LO*'' D'T(ILS
"""""""""""""""""""""""
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """"""" """""""""""""" """""""" """""""""" """"""""""
VVW1 CL(RF M(N(8'R VW4S 3S">UN"W2 1@C3 23
VW4S FIN8 AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 C333
VS4@ MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 14">(N"W1 2433
"""""""""" EEEEEEEEEE
WVC3 su$
V4DS SMIT: CL'RF VS31 2V"D'C"W3 W33 13
VWVD (D(MS CL'RF VVWW 14"M(*"WV 2233
VS31 BORD (N(L*ST VCDD 34"D'C"W2 4333
VVWW SCOTT (N(L*ST VCDD 2S"(AR"WV 4333
VCDD >ON'S M(N(8'R VW4S 31"(AR"W2 1SVC
""""""""""
EEEEEEEEEE
23WVC su$
V@SS (LL'N S(L'SM(N VDSW 13"B')"W2 2D33 433 43
VDSW )L(F' M(N(8'R VW4S 32"M(*"W2 1WC3
VDC@ M(RTIN S(L'SM(N VDSW 1W"S'A"W2 21C3 2@33
VS33 >(M'S CL'RF VDSW 34"D'C"W2 SC3
VW@@ TURN'R S(L'SM(N VDSW 3W"S'A"W2 2C33 3
VC12 6(RD S(L'SM(N VDSW 11"B')"W2 21C3 C33
"""""""""" EEEEEEEEEE
S@33 su$
""""""""""
su$ 1S31C
EE T:(NFQ EE
CL'(R
This will !lea the e/isting %uffes o %ea& o !o$putations o !olu$ns
fo$atting5
S7nta/0
Clea o !le %uffe X %e X !o$p X !ol.
'/0
SQL- !lea %uffe
)uffe !leaed
SQL- !lea %e
)ea&s !leaed
SQL- !lea !o$p
Co$putes !leaed
SQL- !lea !ol
Colu$ns !leaed
C:(N8'
This will %e used to epla!e an7 stings in SQL state$ents5
S7nta/0
Change o !?old_!trin"?new_!trin"
If the old_!trin" epeats $an7 ti$es then new_!trin" epla!es the fist sting
onl75
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ det.
sele!t E fo$ det
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("33S@10 ta%le o view does not e/ist
SQL- !?det?dept
2E sele!t E fo$ dept
SQL- ?
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""
23 (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF
13 R'S'(RC: (LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
@3 OA'R(TIONS )OSTON
COLUMN
This will %e used to in!ease o de!ease the width of the ta%le !olu$ns5
S7nta/0
Colu$n o !ol ,column_name- fo$at ,num_'ormatXte(t_'ormat-
'/0
SQL- !ol deptno fo$at SSS
SQL- !ol dna$e fo$at a23
S(9'
This will %e used to save 7ou !uent SQL state$ent as SQL S!ipt file5
S7nta/0
Save o sav ,'ile_name-5Ne/tensionO epla!e o ep
If 7ou want to save the filena$e with e/isting filena$e the 7ou have to use
epla!e option5
)7 default it will ta&e !.l as the e/tension5
'/0
SQL- save ss
Ceated file ss5sUl
SQL- save ss epla!e
6ote file ss5sUl
'+'CUT'
This will %e used to e/e!ute stoed su%poga$s o pa!&aged su%poga$s5
S7nta/0
'/e!ute o e/e! ,!ubpro"ram_name-
'/0
SQL- e/e! sa$pleMpo!
SAOOL
This will e!od the data when 7ou spool on# upto when 7ou sa7 spool off5 )7
default it will give l!t as e/tension5
S7nta/0
Spool on X off X out X ,'ile_name-5N'/tensionO
'/0
SQL- spool on
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
SQL- spool off
SQL- ed on5lst
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
SQL- spool off
LIST
This will give the !uent SQL state$ent5
S7nta/0
List o li N!tart_line_numberO Nend_line_numberO
'/0
SQL- sele!t
1 E
4 fo$
@ dept.
SQL- list
2 sele!t
1 E
4 fo$
@E dept
SQL- list 2
2E sele!t
SQL- list 4
4E fo$
SQL- list 2 4
2 sele!t
1 E
4E fo$
INAUT
This will inset the new line to the !uent SQL state$ent5
S7nta/0
Input o in ,!trin"-
'/0
SQL- sele!t E
SQL- list
2E sele!t E
SQL- input fo$ dept
SQL- list
2 sele!t E
1E fo$ dept
(AA'ND
This will adds a new sting to the e/isting sting in the SQL state$ent without an7
spa!e5
S7nta/0
(ppend o app ,!trin"-
'/0
SQL- sele!t E
SQL- list
2E sele!t E
SQL- append fo$ dept
SQL- list
D'L'T'
This will delete the !uent SQL state$ent lines5
S7nta/0
Delete o del ,!tart_line_number- N,end_line_number-O
'/0
SQL- sele!t
1 E
4 fo$
@ dept
C whee
D deptno
V -23.
SQL- list
2 sele!t
1 E
4 fo$
@ dept
C whee
D deptno
VE -23
SQL- del 2
SQL- list
2 E
1 fo$
4 dept
@ whee
C deptno
DE -23
SQL- del 1
SQL- list
2 E
1 dept
4 whee
@ deptno
CE -23
SQL- del 1 @
SQL- list
2 E
1E -23
SQL- del
SQL- list
2 E
9(RI()L'
This will %e used to de!lae a vaia%le5
S7nta/0
9aia%le o va ,variable_name- ,variable_type-
'/0
SQL- va deptMna$e va!ha(2C)
SQL- sele!t dna$e into deptMna$e fo$ dept whee deptno H 23.
ARINT
This will %e used to pint the output of the vaia%les that will %e de!laed at SQL
level5
S7nta/0
Aint ,variable_name-
'/0
SQL- pint deptMna$e
D'ATMN(M'
""""""""""""""
(CCOUNTIN8
ST(RT
This will %e used to e/e!ute SQL s!ipts5
S7nta/0
stat ,filena$e_name-5sUl
'/0
SQL- stat ss5sUl
SQL- ass5sUl "" this will e/e!ute sUl s!ipt files onl75
:OST
This will %e used to intea!t with the OS level fo$ SQL5
S7nta/0
:ost NoperationO
'/0
SQL- host
SQL- host di
S:O6
Using this# 7ou !an see seveal !o$$ands that use the set !o$$and and status5
S7nta/0
Show all X ,!et_command-
'/0
SQL- show all
appinfo is OBB and set to bSQLEAlusb
aa7siTe 2C
auto!o$$it OBB
autopint OBB
autoe!ove7 OBB
autota!e OBB
%lo!&te$inato b5b (he/ 1e)
%title OBB and is the fist few !haa!tes of the ne/t S'L'CT state$ent
!$dsep OBB
!olsep b b
!o$pati%ilit7 vesion N(TI9'
!on!at b5b (he/ 1e)
!op7!o$$it 3
COA*T*A'C:'CF is ON
define b<b (he/ 1D)
des!i%e D'AT: 2 LIN'NUM OBB IND'NT ON
e!ho OBB
editfile bafiedt5%ufb
e$%edded OBB
es!ape OBB
B''D)(CF ON fo D o $oe ows
flagge OBB
flush ON
SQL- sho veif7
veif7 OBB
RUN
This will uns the !o$$and in the %uffe5
S7nta/0
Run X ?
'/0
SQL- un
SQL- ?
STOR'
This will save all the set !o$$and statuses in a file5
S7nta/0
Stoe set ,filena$e-5Ne/tensionO N!eateO X Nepla!eO X NappendO
'/0
SQL- stoe set $7Msettings5s!$d
Ceated file $7Msettings5s!$d
SQL- stoe set $7Msettings5!$d epla!e
6ote file $7Msettings5!$d
SQL- stoe set $7Msettings5!$d append
(ppended file to $7Msettings5!$d
BOLDM(BT'R
This will fold the !olu$ns one afte the othe5
S7nta/0
Colu$n ,column_name- foldMafte Nno_o'_line!O
'/0
SQL- !ol deptno foldMafte 2
SQL- !ol dna$e foldMafte 2
SQL- !ol lo! foldMafte 2
SQL- set heading off
23
(CCOUNTIN8
N'6 *ORF
13
R'S'(RC:
D(LL(S
43
S(L'S
C:IC(8O
@3
OA'R(TIONS
)OSTON
BOLDM)'BOR'
This will fold the !olu$ns one %efoe the othe5
S7nta/0
Colu$n ,column_name- foldM%efoe Nno_o'_line!O
D'BIN'
This will give the list of all the vaia%les !uentl7 defined5
S7nta/0
Define Nvaia%leMna$eO
'/0
SQL- define
D'BIN' MD(T' H b2D"M(*"3Vb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MCONN'CTMID'NTIBI'R H boa!leb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MUS'R H bSCOTTb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MARI9IL'8' H bb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MSQLALUSMR'L'(S' H b2332333133b (C:(R)
D'BIN' M'DITOR H bNotepadb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MOM9'RSION H bOa!le Data%ase 23g 'ntepise 'dition Release
2352535153 \ Aodu!tion 6ith the Aatitioning#
OL(A and
Data Mining optionsb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MOMR'L'(S' H b2332333133b (C:(R)
S'T COMM(NDS
These !o$$ands does not eUuie state$ent te$inato and appli!a%le to the
sessions # those will %e auto$ati!all7 !leaed when session was !losed5
LIN'SIZ'
This will %e used to set the linesiTe5 Default linesiTe is W35
S7nta/0
Set linesiTe ,value-
'/0
SQL- set linesiTe 233
A(8'SIZ'
This will %e used to set the pagesiTe5 Default pagesiTe is 2@5
S7nta/0
Set pagesiTe ,value-
'/0
SQL- set pagesiTe 43
D'SCRI)'
This will %e used to see the o%Je!t;s stu!tue5
S7nta/0
Des!i%e o des! ,ob#ect_name-
'/0
SQL- des! dept
Na$e Null[ T7pe
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""
D'ATNO NOT NULL NUM)'R(1)
DN(M' 9(RC:(R1(2@)
LOC 9(RC:(R1(24)
A(US'
6hen the displa7ed data !ontains hundeds o thousands of lines# when 7ou sele!t
it then it will auto$ati!all7 s!olls and displa7s the last page data5 To pevent this
7ou !an use this pause option5 )7 using this it will displa7 the data !oespoinding
to the pagesiTe with a %ea& whi!h will !ontinue %7 hitting the etun &e75 )7
default this will %e off5
S7nta/0
Set pause on X off
'/0
SQL- set pause on
B''D)(CF
This will give the info$ation egading how$an7 ows 7ou sele!ted the o%Je!t5 )7
default the feed%a!& $essage will %e displa7ed# onl7 when the o%Je!t !ontains
$oe than C ows5
S7nta/0
Set feed%a!& ,value-
'/0
SQL- set feed%a!& @
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
@ ows sele!ted5
:'(DIN8
If 7ou want to displa7 data without headings# then 7ou !an a!hieve with this5 )7
default heading is on5
S7nta/0
Set heading on X off
'/0
SQL- set heading off
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
S'R9'ROUTAUT
This will %e used to displa7 the output of the AL?SQL poga$s5 )7 default this will
%e off5
S7nta/0
Set seveoutput on X off
'/0
SQL- set seveoutput on
TIM'
This will %e used to displa7 the ti$e5 )7 default this will %e off5
S7nta/0
Set ti$e on X off
'/0
SQL- set ti$e on
2S0CD044 SQL-
TIMIN8
This will give the ti$e ta&en to e/e!ute the !uent SQL state$ent5 )7 default this
will %e off5
S7nta/0
Set ti$ing on X off
'/0
SQL- set ti$ing on
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
'lapsed0 3303303353D
SQLAROMAT
This will %e used to !hange the SQL po$pt5
S7nta/0
Set sUlpo$pt ,prompt-
'/0
SQL- set sUlpo$pt =OR(CL'-=
OR(CL'-
SQLC(S'
This will %e used to !hange the !ase of the SQL state$ents5 )7 default the !ase is
$i/ed5
S7nta/0
Set sUl!ase uppe X $i/ed X lowe
'/0
SQL- set sUl!ase uppe
SQLT'RMIN(TOR
This will %e used to !hange the te$inato of the SQL state$ents5 )7 default the
te$inato is .5
S7nta/0
Set sUlte$inato ,termination_c)aracter-
'/0
SQL- set sUlte$inato 0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ dept0
D'BIN'
)7 default if the < !haa!te finds then it will teat as %ind vaia%le and as& fo the
input5 Suppose 7ou want to teat it as a no$al !haa!te while inseting data#
then 7ou !an pevent this %7 using the define option5 )7 default this will %e on
S7nta/0
Set define on X off
'/0
SQL-inset into dept values(C3#=R<D=#=:*D=).
'nte value fo d0
old 20 inset into dept values(C3#=R<D=#=:*D=)
new 20 INS'RT INTO D'AT 9(LU'S(C3#=R=#=:*D=)
SQL- set define off
SQL-inset into dept values(C3#=R<D=#=:*D=). "" hee it won;t as& fo
value
N'6A(8'
This will shows how $an7 %lan& lines will %e left %efoe the epot5 )7 default it
will leave one %lan& line5
S7nta/0
Set newpage ,value-
'/0
SQL- set newpage 23
The Teo value fo newpage does not podu!e Teo %lan& lines instead it swit!hes
to a spe!ial popet7 whi!h podu!es a top"of"fo$ !haa!te (he/ 24) Just %efoe
the date on ea!h page5 Most $oden pintes espond to this %7 $oving
i$$ediatel7 to the top of the ne/t page# whee the piting of the epot will %egin5
:'(DS'A
This allow 7ou to indi!ate whee 7ou want to %ea& a page title o a !olu$n
heading that uns longe than one line5 The default heading sepaato is veti!al
%a (X)5
S7nta/0
Set headsep ,!eparation_c)ar-
'/0
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
SQL- set headsetp I
SQL- !ol dna$e heading =D'A(RTM'NT I N(M'=
SQL- ?
D'A(RTM'NT
D'ATNO N(M' LOC
"""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
'C:O
6hen using a %ind vaia%le# the SQL state$ent is $aintained %7 e!ho5 )7 default
this is off5
S7nta/0
Set e!ho on X off
9'RIB*
6hen using a %ind vaia%le# the old and new state$ents will %e $aintained %7
veif75 )7 default this is on5
S7nta/0
Set veif7 on X off
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno H <dno.
'nte value fo dno0 23
old 20 sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno H <dno
new 20 sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno H 23
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""
SQL- set veif7 off
SQL- sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno H <dno.
'nte value fo dno0 13
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
ANO
This will give displa7s the page nu$%es5 )7 default the value would %e Teo5
'/0
SQL- !ol hiedate newMvalue /toda7 nopint fo$at a2 tun!
SQL- ttitle left /toda7 ight =page= sUl5pno
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1 whee deptno H 23.
3S">UN"W2 page 2
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) M8R S(L COMM D'ATNO
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""" """"" """""""""" """"""""""
VVW1 CL(RF M(N(8'R VW4S 1@C3 23
VW4S FIN8 AR'SID'NT C333 23
VS4@ MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 2433 23
In the a%ove nopint tells SQLALUS not to displa7 this !olu$n when it pints the
esults of the SQL state$ent5 Dates that have %een efo$atted %7 TOMC:(R get a
default width of a%out 233 !haa!tes5 )7 !hanging the fo$at to a2 tun!# 7ou
$ini$iTe this effe!t5 N'6M9(LU' insets !ontents of the !olu$n etieved %7 the
SQL state$ent into a vaia%le !alled /toda75
SA'CI(L BIL'S
LO8IN5sUl
If 7ou would li&e SQLALUS to define 7ou own envion$ental settings# put all the
eUuied !o$$ands in a file na$ed login5sUl5 This is a spe!ial filena$e that SQLALUS
alwa7s loo&s fo wheneve it stats up5 If it finds login5sUl# it e/e!utes an7
!o$$ands in it as if 7ou had enteed then %7 hand5 *ou !an put an7 !o$$and in
login5sUl that 7ou !an use in SQLALUS# in!luding SQLALUS !o$$ands and SQL
state$ents5 (ll ot the$ e/e!uted %efoe SQLALUS gives 7ou the SQL- po$pt5
8LO8IN5sUl
This is used in the sa$e wa7s as LO8IN5sUl %ut to esta%lish default SQLALUS settings
fo all uses of a data%ase5
IMAORT(NT QU'RI'S
1) To find the nth ow of a ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee owid H (sele!t $a/(owid) fo$ e$p1 whee
ownu$
,H @).
O
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee ownu$ ,H @ $inus sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee
ownu$
,H 4.
2) To find dupli!ate ows
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee owid in (sele!t $a/(owid) fo$ e$p1 goup
%7
e$p1no# ena$e# $g# Jo%# hiedate# !o$$# deptno# sal).
O
SQL- Sele!t e$p1no#ena$e#sal#Jo%#hiedate#!o$$ # !ount(E) fo$ e$p1
goup %7
e$p1no#ena$e#sal#Jo%#hiedate#!o$$ having !ount(E) -H2.

3) To delete dupli!ate ows
SQL- Delete e$p1 whee owid in (sele!t $a/(owid) fo$ e$p1 goup %7
e$p1no#ena$e#$g#Jo%#hiedate#sal#!o$$#deptno).

4) To find the !ount of dupli!ate ows
SQL- Sele!t ena$e# !ount(E) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 ena$e having !ount(E) -H
2.
5) :ow to displa7 altenative ows in a ta%le[
SQL- sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee (owid#3) in (sele!t owid#$od(ownu$#1)
fo$ e$p1).
6) 8etting e$p1lo7ee details of ea!h depat$ent who is dawing
$a/i$u$ sal[
SQL- sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee (deptno#sal) in
( sele!t deptno#$a/(sal) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno).
7) :ow to get nu$%e of e$p1lo7ees in ea!h depat$ent # in whi!h
depat$ent is having $oe than 1C33 e$p1lo7ees[
SQL- Sele!t deptno#!ount(E) fo$ e$p1 goup %7 deptno having !ount(E)
-1C33.
8) To eset the ti$e to the %eginning of the da7
SQL- Sele!t toM!ha(tun!(s7sdate)#;dd"$on"7777 hh0$i0ss a$;) fo$
dual.
9) To find nth $a/i$u$ sal
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ e$p1 whee sal in (sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ (sele!t Efo$
e$p1 ode
%7 sal) whee ownu$ ,H C).

A?LSQL INTRODUCTION
C:(R(CT'RSTICS
1 :ighl7 stu!tued# eada%le and a!!essi%le language5
2 Standad and Aota%le language5
3 '$%edded language5
4 I$poved e/e!ution authoit75
23g B'(TUR'S
1 /ptimi,ed compiler
.
To !hange the opti$iTe settings fo the entie data%ase# set the data%ase
paa$ete ALSQLMOATIMIZ'ML'9'L5 9alid settings ae as follows
3 " No opti$iTation
2 " Modeate opti$iTation
1 " (ggessive opti$iTation
These settings ae also $odifia%le fo the !uent session5
SQL- alte session set plsUlMopti$TeMlevelH1.
Oa!le etains opti$iTe settings on a $odule"%7"$odule %asis5 6hen 7ou
e!o$pile a pati!ula $odule with nondefault settings# the settings will
sti!& allowing 7ou to e!o$pile late on using R'US' S'TTIN8S5
SQL- (lte po!edue po! !o$pile plsUlMopti$iTeMlevelH2.
SQL- (lte po!edue po! !o$pile euse settings.
2 Compile0time warnin"!.
Stating with oa!le data%ase 23g elease 2 7ou !an ena%le additional
!o$pile"ti$e wanings to help $a&e 7ou poga$s $oe o%ust5 The
!o$pile !an dete!t potential unti$e po%le$s with 7ou !ode# su!h as
identif7ing lines of !ode that will neve %e un5 This po!ess# also &nown as
lint c)ecin"5
To ena%le these wanings fo the entie data%ase# set the data%ase
paa$ete ALSQLM6(RNIN8S5 These settings ae also $odifia%le fo the
!uent session5
SQL- alte session set plsUlMwanings H Kena%le0all;.
The a%ove !an %e a!hieved using the %uilt"in pa!&age D)MSM6(RNIN85
3 Conditional compilation.
Conditional !o$pilation allows the !o$pile to allow to !o$pile sele!ted
pats of a poga$ %ased on !onditions 7ou povide with the ÌB die!tive5
4 $upport 'or non0!e.uential collection! in 1/2344.
5 5mproved datatype !upport.
6 6actrace an e(ception to it! line number.
6hen handling an eo# how !an 7ou find the line nu$%e on whi!h the
eo was oiginall7 aised[
In ealie elease# the onl7 wa7 to do this was allow 7ou e/!eption to go
unhandled and then view the full eo ta!e sta!&5
Now 7ou !an !all D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TM'RRORM)(CFTR(C' fun!tion to o%tain
that sta!& and $anipulate it poga$$ati!all7 within 7ou poga$5
7 $et operator! 'or ne!ted table!.
8 $upport 'or re"ular e(pre!!ion!.
Oa!le data%ase 23g suppots the use of egula e/pessions inside AL?SQL
!ode via fou new %uilt"in fun!tions5
R'8'+AMLIF'
R'8'+AMINSTR
R'8'+AMSU)STR
R'8'+AMR'AL(C'
9 7ro"rammer0de'ined .uotin" mec)ani!m.
Stating with oa!le data%ase 23g elease 2# 7ou !an define 7ou own
Uuoting $e!hanis$ fo sting liteals in %oth SQL and AL?SQL5
Use the !haa!tes U;(U followed %7 a single Uuote) to note the poga$$e"
defined delie$ete fo 7ou sting liteal5
'/0
D'CL(R'
v va!ha(23) 0H =!o$pute=.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(U=Ev H E= XX v).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(U=`v H `= XX v).
'ND.
Output0
v H !o$pute
v H !o$pute
10 8any new built0in paca"e!.
D)MSMSC:'DUL'R
Repesents a $aJo update to D)MSM>O)5 D)MSMSC:'DUL'R povides $u!h
i$poved fun!tionalit7 fo s!heduling and e/e!uting Jo%s defined via stoed
po!edues5
D)MSMCR*ATO
Offes the a%ilit7 to en!7pt and de!7pt !o$$on oa!le datat7pe# in!luding
R(6s# )LO)s# and CLO)s5 It also povides glo%aliTation suppot fo en!7pting
data a!oss diffeent !haa!tesets5
D)MSMMONITOR
Aovides an (AI to !ontol additional ta!ing and statisti!s gatheing of
sessions5
D)MSM6(RNIN8
Aovides an (AI into the AL?SQL !o$pile wanings $odule# allowing 7ou to
ead and !hange settings that !ontol whi!h wanings ae suppessed#
displa7ed# o teated as eos5
ST(ND(RD A(CF(8'
Oa!le has defined in this spe!ial pa!&age5 Oa!le defines Uuite a few identifies in
this pa!&age# in!luding %uilt"in e/!eptions# fun!tions and su%t7pes5
*ou !an efeen!e the %uilt"in fo$ %7 pefi/ing it with ST(ND(RD5
The %asi! unit in an7 AL?SQL poga$ is %lo!&5 (ll AL?SQL poga$s ae !o$posed of
%lo!&s whi!h !an o!!u seUuentiall7 o nested5
)LOCF STRUCTUR'
De!lae
"" de!laative se!tion
)egin
"" e/e!uta%le se!tion
'/!eption
"" e/!eption se!tion
'nd.
In the a%ove# de!laative and e/!eption se!tions ae optional5
)LOCF T*A'S
1 (non7$ous %lo!&s
2 Na$ed %lo!&s
La%eled %lo!&s
Su%poga$s
Tigges
(NON*MOUS )LOCFS
(non7$ous %lo!&s i$plies %asi! %lo!& stu!tue5
'/0
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(KM7 fist poga$;)0
'ND.
L()'L'D )LOCFS
La%eled %lo!&s ae anon7$ous %lo!&s with a la%el whi!h gives a na$e to the
%lo!&5
'/0
,,$7M%loo!&--
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(KM7 fist poga$;)0
'ND.
SU)ARO8R(MS
Su%poga$s ae po!edues and fun!tions5 The7 !an %e stoed in the data%ase as
stand"alone o%Je!ts# as pat of pa!&age o as $ethods of an o%Je!t t7pe5
TRI88'RS
Tigges !onsists of a AL?SQL %lo!& that is asso!iated with an event that o!!u in
the data%ase5
N'ST'D )LOCFS
( %lo!& !an %e nested within the e/e!uta%le o e/!eption se!tion of an oute %lo!&5
ID'NTIBI'RS
Identifies ae used to na$e AL?SQL o%Je!ts# su!h as vaia%les# !usos# t7pes and
su%poga$s5 Identifies !onsists of a lette# optionall7 followed %7 an7 seUuen!e
of !haa!tes# in!luding lettes# nu$%es# dolla signs# undes!oes# and pound
signs onl75 The $a/i$u$ length fo an identifie is 43 !haa!tes5
QUOT'D ID'NTIBI'RS
If 7ou want to $a&e an identifie !ase sensitive# in!lude !haa!tes su!h as spa!es
o use a eseved wod# 7ou !an en!lose the identifie in dou%le Uuotation $a&s5
'/0
D'CL(R'
bab nu$%e 0H C.
b(b nu$%e 0H D.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=( H = XX ().
'ND.
Output0
a H D
( H D
COMM'NTS
Co$$ents i$pove eada%ilit7 and $a&e 7ou poga$ $oe undestanda%le5
The7 ae ignoed %7 the AL?SQL !o$pile5 Thee ae two t7pes of !o$$ents
availa%le5
1 Single line !o$$ents
2 Multiline !o$$ents
SIN8L' LIN' COMM'NTS
( single"line !o$$ent !an stat an7 point on a line with two dashes and !ontinues
until the end of the line5
'/0
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(Khello;). "" sa$ple poga$
'ND.
MULTILIN' COMM'NTS
Multiline !o$$ents stat with the ?E deli$ite and ends with E? deli$ite5
'/0
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(Khello;). ?E sa$ple poga$ E?
'ND.
9(RI()L' D'CL'R(TIONS
9aia%les !an %e de!laed in de!laative se!tion of the %lo!&.
'/0
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e.
% nu$%e 0H C.
! nu$%e default D.
CONST(NT D'CL'R(TIONS
To de!lae a !onstant# 7ou in!lude the CONST(NT &e7wod# and 7ou $ust suppl7 a
default value5
'/0
D'CL(R'
% !onstant nu$%e 0H C.
! !onstant nu$%e default D.
NOT NULL CL(US'
*ou !an also spe!if7 that the vaia%le $ust %e not null5
'/0
D'CL(R'
% !onstant nu$%e not null0H C.
! nu$%e not null default D.
(NC:OR'D D'CL'R(TIONS
AL?SQL offes two &inds of an!hoing5
1 S!ala an!hoing
2 Re!od an!hoing
SC(L(R (NC:ORIN8
Use the LT*A' atti%ute to define 7ou vaia%le %ased on ta%le;s !olu$n of so$e
othe AL?SQL s!ala vaia%le5
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno dept5deptnoLt7pe.
Su%t7pe tMnu$%e is nu$%e.
a tMnu$%e.
Su%t7pe tMsno is student5snoLt7pe.
9Msno tMsno.
R'CORD (NC:ORIN8
Use the LRO6T*A' atti%ute to define 7ou e!od stu!tue %ased on a ta%le5
'/0
cD'CL(R'
9Mdept deptLowt7pe.
)'N'BITS OB (NC:OR'D D'CL(R(TIONS
1 S7n!honiTation with data%ase !olu$ns5
2 No$aliTation of lo!al vaia%les5
ARO8R(MM'R"D'BIN'D T*A'S
6ith the SU)T*A' state$ent# AL?SQL allows 7ou to define 7ou own su%t7pes o
aliases of pedefined datat7pes# so$eti$es efeed to as a%sta!t datat7pes5
Thee ae two &inds of su%t7pes5
1 Constained
2 Un!onstained
CONSTR(IN'D SU)T*A'
( su%t7pe that esti!ts o !onstains the values no$all7 allowd %7 the datat7pe
itself5
'/0
Su%t7pe positive is %ina7Mintege ange 25512@V@W4D@V.
In the a%ove de!laation a vaia%le that is de!laed as positive !an stoe onl7
ingege geate than Teo even though %ina7Mintege anges fo$
"12@V@W4D@V55G12@V@W4D@V5
UNCONSTR(IN'D SU)T*A'
( su%t7pe that does not esti!t the values of the oiginal datat7pe in vaia%les
de!laed with the su%t7pe5
'/0
Su%t7pe float is nu$%e.
D(T(T*A' CON9'RSIONS
AL?SQL !an handle !onvesions %etween diffeent fa$ilies a$ong the datat7pes5
Convesion !an %e done in two wa7s5
1 '/pli!it !onvesion
2 I$pli!it !onvesion
'+ALICIT CON9'RSION
This !an %e done using the %uilt"in fun!tions availa%le5
IMALICIT CON9'RSION
AL?SQL will auto$ati!all7 !onvet %etween datat7pe fa$ilies when possi%le5
'/0
D'CL(R'
a va!ha(23).
)'8IN
sele!t deptno into a fo$ dept whee dna$eH=(CCOUNTIN8=.
'ND.
In the a%ove vaia%le a is !ha t7pe and deptno is nu$%e t7pe even though#
oa!le will auto$ati!all7 !onvets the nu$ei! data into !ha t7pe assigns to the
vaia%le5
AL?SQL !an auto$ati!all7 !onvet %etween
1 Chaa!tes and nu$%es
2 Chaa!tes and dates
9(RI()L' SCOA' (ND 9ISI)ILIT*
The s!ope of a vaia%le is the potion of the poga$ in whi!h the vaia%le !an %e
a!!essed5 Bo AL?SQL vaia%les# this is fo$ the vaia%le de!laation until the end of
the %lo!&5 6hen a vaia%le goes out of s!ope# the AL?SQL engine will fee the
$e$o7 used to stoe the vaia%le5
The visi%ilit7 of a vaia%le is the potion of the poga$ whee the vaia%le !an %e
a!!essed without having to Uualif7 the efeen!e5 The visi%ilit7 is alwa7s within
the s!ope5 If it is out of s!ope# it is not visi%le5
'/20
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e. "" s!ope of a
)'8IN
""""""""
D'CL(R'
% nu$%e. "" s!ope of %
)'8IN
"""""
'ND.
""""""
'ND.
'/10
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e.
% nu$%e.
)'8IN
"" a # % availa%le hee
D'CL(R'
% !ha(23).
)'8IN
"" a and !ha t7pe % is availa%le hee
'ND.
"""""
'ND.
'/40
,,$7M%lo!&--
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e.
% nu$%e.
)'8IN
"" a # % availa%le hee
D'CL(R'
% !ha(23).
)'8IN
"" a and !ha t7pe % is availa%le hee
"" nu$%e t7pe % is availa%le using ,,$7M%lo!&--5%
'ND.
""""""
'ND.
AL?SQL CONTROL STRUCTUR'S
AL?SQL has a vaiet7 of !ontol stu!tues that allow 7ou to !ontol the %ehaviou of
the %lo!& as it uns5 These stu!tues in!lude !onditional state$ents and loops5
1 If"then"else
2 Case
Case with no else
La%eled !ase
Sea!hed !ase
3 Si$ple loop
4 6hile loop
5 Bo loop
6 8oto and La%els
IB"T:'N"'LS'
S7nta/0
If ,condition1- then
$e.uence o' !tatement!;
'lsif ,condition1- then
RR
'lse
'nd if.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e(1).
)'8IN
sele!t deptno into dno fo$ dept whee dna$e H =(CCOUNTIN8=.
if dno H 23 then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is N'6 *ORF=).
elsif dno H 13 then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is D(LL(S=).
elsif dno H 43 then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is C:IC(8O=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is )OSTON=).
end if.
'ND.
Output0
Lo!ation is N'6 *ORF
C(S'
S7nta/0
Case te!t0variable
6hen value1 then !e.uence o' !tatement!;
RR
6hen valuen then !e.uence o' !tatement!;
'lse !e.uence o' !tatement!;
'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e(1).
)'8IN
!ase dno
when 23 then
when 13 then
when 43 then
else
end !ase.
'ND.
Output0
C(S' 6IT:OUT 'LS'
S7nta/0
Case te!t0variable
RR
'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e(1).
)'8IN
!ase dno
when 23 then
when 13 then
when 43 then
when @3 then
end !ase.
'ND.
Output0
L()'L'D C(S'
S7nta/0
,,label--
Case te!t0variable
RR
'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e(1).
)'8IN
,,$7M!ase--
!ase dno
when 23 then
when 13 then
when 43 then
when @3 then
end !ase $7M!ase.
'ND.
Output0
S'(RC:'D C(S'
S7nta/0
Case
6hen ,condition1- then !e.uence o' !tatement!;
6hen ,condition2- then !e.uence o' !tatement!;
RR
6hen ,conditionn- then !e.uence o' !tatement!;
'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e(1).
)'8IN
!ase dno
when dno H 23 then
when dno H 13 then
when dno H 43 then
when dno H @3 then
end !ase.
'ND.
Output0
SIMAL' LOOA
S7nta/0
Loop
'/it when ,condition-.
'nd loop.
In the s7nta/ e/it when ,condition- is eUuivalent to
If ,condition- then
'/it.
'nd if.
'/0
D'CL(R'
i nu$%e 0H 2.
)'8IN
loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i H = XX i).
i 0H i G 2.
e/it when i - C.
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
i H 2
i H 1
i H 4
i H @
i H C
6:IL' LOOA
S7nta/0
6hile ,!ondition- loop
'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
i nu$%e 0H 2.
)'8IN
6hile i ,H C loop
i 0H i G 2.
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
i H 2
i H 1
i H 4
i H @
i H C
BOR LOOA
S7nta/0
Bo ,loop_counter_variable- in low_bound55)i")_bound loop
'nd loop.
'/20
)'8IN
Bo i in 255C loop
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
i H 2
i H 1
i H 4
i H @
i H C
'/10
)'8IN
Bo i in evese 255C loop
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
i H C
i H @
i H 4
i H 1
i H 2
NULL ST(T'M'NT
Usuall7 when 7ou wite a state$ent in a poga$# 7ou want it to do so$ething5
Thee ae !ases# howeve# when 7ou want to tell AL?SQL to do a%solutel7 nothing#
and that is whee the NULL !o$es5
The NULL state$ent deos nothing e/!ept pass !ontol to the ne/t e/e!uta%le
state$ent5
*ou !an use NULL state$ent in the following situations5
1 I$poving poga$ eada%ilit75
So$eti$es# it is helpful to avoid an7 a$%iguit7 inheent in an IB state$ent that
doesn;t !ove all possi%le !ases5 Bo e/a$ple# when 7ou wite an IB state$ent#
7ou do not have to in!lude an 'LS' !lause5
2 Nullif7ing a aised e/!eption5
6hen 7ou don;t want to wite an7 spe!ial !ode to handle an e/!eption# 7ou !an
use the NULL state$ent to $a&e sue that a aised e/!eption halts e/e!ution of
the !uent AL?SQL %lo!& %ut does not popagate an7 e/!eptions to en!losing
%lo!&s5
3 Using null afte a la%el5
In so$e !ases# 7ou !an pai NULL with 8OTO to avoid having to e/e!ute
additional state$ents5 Bo e/a$ple# I use a 8OTO state$ent to Uui!&l7 $ove to
the end of $7 poga$ if the state of $7 data indi!ates that no futhe
po!essing is eUuied5 )e!ause I do not have to do an7thing at the te$ination
of the poga$# I pla!e a NULL state$ent afte the la%el %e!ause at least one
e/e!uta%le state$ent is eUuied thee5 'ven though NULL deos nothing# it is
still an e/e!uta%le state$ent5
8OTO (ND L()'LS
S7nta/0
8oto label.
6hee label is a la%el defined in the AL?SQL %lo!&5 La%els ae en!losed in dou%le
angle %a!&ets5 6hen a goto state$ent is evaluated# !ontol i$$ediatel7 passes
to the state$ent identified %7 the la%el5
'/0
)'8IN
Bo i in 255C loop
if i H @ then
goto e/itMloop.
end if.
end loop.
,,e/itMloop--
Null.
'ND.
Output0
i H 2
i H 1
i H 4
i H @
R'STRICTIONS ON 8OTO
1 It is illegal to %an!h into an inne %lo!&# loop5
2 (t least one e/e!uta%le state$ent $ust follow5
3 It is illegal to %an!h into an if state$ent5
4 It is illegal to %an!h fo$ one if state$ent to anothe if state$ent5
5 It is illegal to %an!h fo$ e/!eption %lo!& to the !uent %lo!&5
AR(8M(S
Aoga$s ae !o$pile die!tives5 The7 seve as instu!tions to the AL?SQL
!o$pile5 The !o$pile will a!t on the pag$a duing the !o$pilation of the %lo!&5
S7nta/0
AR8(M( in!truction_to_compiler5
AL?SQL offes seveal pag$as0
1 (UTONOMOUSMTR(NS(CTION
2 '+C'ATIONMINIT
3 R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
4 S'RI(LL*MR'US()L'
SU)ARO8R(MS
AROC'DUR'S
( po!edue is a $odule that pefo$s one o $oe a!tions5
S7nta/0
Ao!edue Ns!he$a5Oname N(parameter1 N#parameter2 RO)O
Nauthid define X !uentMuseO is
"" Nde!laationsO
)egin
"" e/e!uta%le state$ents
N'/!eption
"" e/!eption handlesO
'nd Nna$eO.
In the a%ove aut)id !lause defines whethe the po!edue will e/e!ute unde the
authoit7 of the define of the po!edue o unde the authoit7 of the !uent
use5
BUNCTIONS
( fun!tion is a $odule that etuns a value5
S7nta/0
Bun!tion Ns!he$a5Oname N(parameter1 N#parameter2 RO)O
Retun etunMdatat7pe
Nauthid define X !uentMuseO
Ndete$inisti!O
NpaallelMena%leO is
"" Nde!laationsO
)egin
"" e/e!uta%le state$ents
N'/!eption
"" e/!eption handlesO
'nd Nna$eO.
In the a%ove aut)id !lause defines whethe the po!edue will e/e!ute unde the
authoit7 of the define of the po!edue o unde the authoit7 of the !uent
use5
-etermini!tic !lause defines# an opti$iTation hint that lets the s7ste$ use a saved
!op7 of the fun!tion;s etun esult# if availa%le5 The Uuet7 opti$iTe !an !hoose
whethe to use the saved !op7 o e"!all the fun!tion5
7arallel_enable !lause defines# an opti$iTation hint that ena%les the fun!tion to %e
e/e!uted in paallel when !alled fo$ within S'L'CT state$ent5
A(R(M'T'R MOD'S
1 In (Default)
2 Out
3 In out
IN
In paa$ete will a!t as pl9!.l con!tant5
OUT
1 Out paa$ete will a!t as unintiali,ed variable5
2 *ou !annot povide a default value to an out paa$ete5
3 (n7 assign$ents $ade to out paa$ete ae olled %a!& when an
e/!eption is aised in the poga$5
4 (n a!tual paa$ete !oesponding to an out fo$al paa$ete $ust
%e a vaia%le5
IN OUT
5 In out paa$ete will a!t as initiali,ed variable5
6 (n a!tual paa$ete !oesponding to an in out fo$al paa$ete
$ust %e a vaia%le5
D'B(ULT A(R(M'T'RS
Default Aaa$etes will not allow in the be"innin" and middle5
/ut and 5n /ut paa$etes !an not have default values5
'/0
po!edue p(a in nu$%e default C# % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e default
V) \ valid
po!edue p(a in nu$%e# % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e default V) \ valild
po!edue p(a in nu$%e# % in nu$%e# ! in nu$%e default V) \ valild
po!edue p(a in nu$%e# % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e) \ invalild
po!edue p(a in nu$%e default C# % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e) \
invalild
po!edue p(a in nu$%e default C# % in nu$%e# ! in nu$%e) \ invalild
NOT(TIONS
Notations ae of two t7pes5
Aositional notation
Na$e notation
6e !an !o$%ine positional and na$e notation %ut positional notation !an not %e
followed %7 the na$e notation5
'/0
Suppose we have a po!edue po!(a nu$%e#% nu$%e#! nu$%e) and we
have one
anon7$ous %lo!& whi!h !ontains v2#v1# and v4.
SQL- e/e! po! (v2#v1#v4) "" Aositional notation
SQL- e/e! po! (aH-v2#%H-v1#!H-v4) "" Na$ed notation
BORM(L (ND (CTU(L A(R(M'T'RS
1 Aaa$etes whi!h ae in !alling su%poga$ ae actual parameter!5
2 Aaa$etes whi!h ae in !alled su%poga$ ae 'ormal parameter!5
3 If an7 su%poga$ was !alled# on!e the !all was !o$pleted then the
values of fo$al
paa$etes ae !opied to the a!tual paa$etes5
'/20
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' S(MAL'(a in nu$%e#% out nu$%e#! in out
nu$%e) is
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !all=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX= % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).
% 0H 23.
! 0H 13.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte assign$ent=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX= % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).
'ND S(MAL'.
D'CL(R'
v2 nu$%e 0H @.
v1 nu$%e 0H C.
v4 nu$%e 0H D.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=)efoe !all=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v2 H = XX v2 XX = v1 H = XX v1 XX = v4 H = XX
v4).
sa$ple(v2#v1#v4).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !o$pletion of !all=).
v4).
'ND.
Output0
)efoe !all
v2 H @ v1 H C v4 H D
(fte !all
a H @ % H ! H D
(fte assign$ent
a H @ % H 23 ! H 13
(fte !o$pletion of !all
v2 H @ v1 H 23 v4 H 13
'/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' BUN(a in nu$%e#% out nu$%e#! in out nu$%e)
etun
nu$%e IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !all=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=)efoe assigne$ent Result H = XX
(aEnvl(%#2)E!)).
% 0H C.
! 0H V.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte assign$ent=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).
etun (aE%E!).
'ND BUN.
D'CL(R'
v2 nu$%e 0H 2.
v1 nu$%e 0H 1.
v4 nu$%e 0H 4.
v nu$%e.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=)efoe !all=).
v4).
v 0H fun(v2#v1#v4).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !all !o$pleted=).
v4).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Result H = XX v).
'ND.
Output0
)efoe !all
v2 H 2 v1 H 1 v4 H 4
(fte !all
a H 2 % H ! H 4
)efoe assigne$ent Result H 4
(fte assign$ent
a H 2 % H C ! H V
(fte !all !o$pleted
v2 H 2 v1 H C v4 H V
Result H 4C
R'STRICTIONS ON BORM(L A(R(M'T'RS
1 )7 de!laing with spe!ified siTe in a!tual paa$etes5
2 )7 de!laing fo$al paa$etes with Lt7pe spe!ifie5
USIN8 NOCOA*
1 :ocopy is a hint# not a !o$$and5 This $eans that the !o$pile $ight
silentl7 de!ide that it !an;t fulfill 7ou eUuest fo a nocopy paa$ete5
2 The !op7ing fo$ fo$al to a!tual !an %e esti!ted %7 issuing nocopy
Uualifie5
3 To pass the out and in out paa$etes %7 efeen!e use no!op7
Uualifie5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' AROC(a in out no!op7 nu$%e) IS
)'8IN
""""
'ND AROC.
C(LL (ND '+'C
Call is a SQL state$ent# whi!h !an %e used to e/e!ute su%poga$s li&e e/e!5
S7nta/0
Call !ubpro"ram_name(Nar"ument_li!tO) Ninto )o!t_variableO.
7 The paantheses ae alwa7s eUuied# even if the su%poga$ ta&es
no agu$ents5
8 6e !an not use !all with out and in out paa$etes5
9 Call is a SQL state$ent# it is not valid inside a AL?SQL %lo!&.
10 The INTO !lause is used fo the output vaia%les of fun!tions onl75
11 6e !an not use Ke/e!; with out o in out paa$etes5
12 '/e! is not valid inside a AL?SQL %lo!&.
'/20
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=hello wold=).
'ND AROC.
Output0
SQL- !all po!().
hello wold
'/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC(a in nu$%e#% in nu$%e) IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX %).
'ND AROC.
Output0
SQL- !all po!(C#D).
a H C % H D
'/40
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' BUNCTION BUN R'TURN 9(RC:(R IS
)'8IN
etun =hello wold=.
'ND BUN.
Output0
SQL- vaia%le v va!ha(13)
SQL- !all fun() into 0v.
SQL- pint v
hello wold
C(LL )* R'B'R'NC' (ND C(LL )* 9(LU'
4 In paa$etes %7 default call by re'erence whee as out and in out
call by value5
5 6hen paa$ete passed %7 efeen!e# a pointe to the a!tual
paa$ete is passed to the !oesponding fo$al paa$ete5
6 6hen paa$ete passed %7 value it !opies the value of the a!tual
paa$ete to the fo$al paa$ete5
7 Call %7 efeen!e is faste than the !all %7 value %e!ause it avoids the
!op7ing5
SU)ARO8R(MS O9'RLO(DIN8
1 Aossi%le with diffeent nu$%e of paa$etes5
2 Aossi%le with diffeent t7pes of data5
3 Aossi%le with sa$e t7pe with o%Je!ts5
4 Can not %e possi%le with diffeent t7pes of $odes5
5 6e !an oveload lo!al su%poga$s also5
'/0
SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe t2 as o%Je!t(a nu$%e).?
SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe t2 as o%Je!t(a nu$%e).?
D'CL(R'
i t2 0H t2(C).
J t1 0H t1(C).
AROC'DUR' A($ t2) IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX $5a).
'ND A.
AROC'DUR' A(n t1) IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=% H = XX n5%).
'ND A.
AROC'DUR' ARODUCT(a nu$%e#% nu$%e) IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aodu!t of a#% H = XX a E %).
'ND ARODUCT.
AROC'DUR' ARODUCT(a nu$%e#% nu$%e#! nu$%e) IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aodu!t of a#% H = XX a E % E !).
'ND ARODUCT.
)'8IN
p(i).
p(J).
podu!t(@#C).
podu!t(@#C#D).
'ND.
Output0
a H C
% H C
Aodu!t of a#% H 13
Aodu!t of a#% H 213
)'N'BITS OB O9'RLO(DIN8
Suppoting $an7 data !o$%inations
Bitting the poga$ to the use5
R'STRICTIONS ON O9'RLO(DIN8
1 Oveloaded poga$s with paa$ete lists that diffe onl7 %7 na$e
$ust %e !alled using na$ed notation5
2 The paa$ete list of oveloaded poga$s $ust diffe %7 $oe than
paa$ete $ode5
3 (ll of the oveloaded poga$s $ust %e defined within the sa$e
AL?SQL s!ope o %lo!&5
4 Oveloaded fun!tions $ust diffe %7 $oe than thei etun t7pe5
IMAORT(NT AOINTS ()OUT SU)ARO8R(MS
8 6hen a stoed su%poga$ is !eated# it is stoed in the data
dictionary5
9 The su%poga$ is stoed in !o$pile fo$ whi!h is &nown as p0code
in addition to the sou!e te/t5
10 The p"!ode has all of the efeen!es in the su%poga$ evaluated# and
the sou!e !ode is tanslated into a fo$ that is easil7 eada%le %7 AL?SQL
engine5
11 6hen the su%poga$ is !alled# the p"!ode is ead fo$ the dis&# if
ne!essa7# and e/e!uted5
12 On!e it eads fo$ the dis&# the p"!ode is stoed in the shaed pool
potion of the s7ste$ glo%al aea (S8()# whee it !an %e a!!essed %7 $ultiple
uses as needed5
13 Li&e all of the !ontents of the shaed pool# p"!ode is aged out of the
shaed pool a!!oding to a least e!entl7 used (LRU) algoith$5
14 Su%poga$s !an %e local5
15 Lo!al su%poga$s $ust %e de!laed in the de!laative se!tion of
AL?SQL %lo!& and !alled fo$ the e/e!uta%le se!tion5
16 Su%poga$s !an not have the de!laative se!tion sepaatel75
17 Stoed su%poga$s !an have lo!al su%poga$s.
18 Lo!al su%poga$s also !an have lo!al su%poga$s5
19 If the su%poga$ !ontains a vaia%le with the sa$e na$e as the
!olu$n na$e of the ta%le then use the dot $ethod to diffeentiate
(!ubpro"ram_name5sal)5
20 Su%poga$s !an %e invalidated5
AROC'DUR'S 9 BUNCTIONS
13 Ao!edues $a7 etun though out and in out paa$etes whee as
fun!tion $ust etun5
14 Ao!edues !an not have etun !lause whee as fun!tions $ust5
15 6e !an use !all state$ent die!tl7 fo e/e!uting po!edue whee as
we need to de!lae a vaia%le in !ase of fun!tions5
16 Bun!tions !an use in sele!t state$ents whee as po!edues !an not5
17 Bun!tions !an !all fo$ epots envion$ent whee as po!edues !an
not5
18 6e !an use e/e! fo e/e!uting po!edues whee as fun!tions !an
not5
19 Bun!tion !an %e used in d%$sMoutput whee as po!edue !an not5
20 Ao!edue !all is a standalone e/e!uta%le state$ent whee as
fun!tion !all is a pat of an e/e!uta%le state$ent5
STOR'D 9 LOC(L SU)ARO8R(MS
1 The stoed su%poga$ is stoed in !o$piled p"!ode in the data%ase#
when the po!edue is !alled it does not have to %e !o$piled5
The lo!al su%poga$ is !o$piled as pat of its !ontaining %lo!&5 If the
!ontaining
%lo!& is anon7$ous and is un $ultiple ti$es# the su%poga$ has to %e
!o$piled
ea!h ti$e5
1 Stoed su%poga$s !an %e !alled fo$ an7 %lo!& su%$itted %7 a use
who has e/e!ute pivileges on the su%poga$5
Lo!al su%poga$s !an %e !alled onl7 fo$ the %lo!& !ontaining the
su%poga$5
2 )7 &eeping the stoed su%poga$ !ode sepaate fo$ the !alling
%lo!&# the !alling %lo!& is shote and easie to undestand5
The lo!al su%poga$ and the !alling %lo!& ae one and the sa$e# whi!h !an
lead to
pat !onfusion5 If a !hange to the !alling %lo!& is $ade# the su%poga$ will
%e
e!o$piled as of the e!o$pilation of the !ontaining %lo!&5
3 The !o$piled p"!ode !an %e pinned in the shaed pool using the
D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL Aa!&age5 This !an i$pove pefo$an!e5
Lo!al su%poga$s !annot %e pinned in the shaed pool %7 the$selves5
4 Stand alone stoed su%poga$s !an not %e oveloaded# %ut pa!&aged
su%poga$s !an %e oveloaded within the sa$e pa!&age5
5 Lo!al su%poga$s !an %e oveloaded within the sa$e %lo!&5
'/20
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Stoed su%poga$=).
'ND.
Output0
SQL- e/e! p
Stoed su%poga$
'/10
D'CL(R'
AROC'DUR' A IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!al su%poga$=).
'ND.
)'8IN
p.
'ND.
Output0
Lo!al su%poga$
COMAILIN8 SU)ARO8R(MS
6 SQL- (lte po!edue A2 !o$pile.
7 SQL- (lte fun!tion B2 !o$pile.
SU)ARO8R(MS D'A'ND'CI'S
8 ( stoed su%poga$ is $a&ed as invalid in the data di!tiona7 if it
has !o$pile eos5
9 ( stoed su%poga$ !an also %e!o$e invalid if a DDL opeation is
pefo$ed on one of its dependent o%Je!ts5
10 If a su%poga$ is invalidated# the AL?SQL engine will auto$ati!all7
atte$p1t to e!o$pile in the ne/t ti$e it is !alled5
11 If we have two po!edues li&e A2 and A1 in whi!h A2 depends on A15
If we !o$pile A1 then A2 is invalidated5
SU)ARO8R(MS D'A'ND'NCI'S IN R'MOT' D(T()(S'S
1 6e will !all e$ote su%poga$ using !onne!t sting li&e A2aOR(CL'.
2 If we have two po!edues li&e A2 and A1 in whi!h A2 depends on A1
%ut A1 was in e$ote data%ase5 If we !o$pile A1 it will not invalidate A2
i$$ediatel7 %e!ause the data di!tiona7 does not ta!& e$ote
dependen!ies5
3 Instead the validit7 of e$ote o%Je!ts is !he!&ed at unti$e5 6hen A2
is !alled# the e$ote data di!tiona7 is Uueied to dete$ine the status of
A15
4 A2 and A1 ae !o$paed to see it A2 needs to %e e!o$piled# thee
ae two diffeent $ethods of !o$paision
Ti$esta$p Model
Signatue Model
TIM'ST(MA MOD'L
This is the default $odel used %7 oa!le5
6ith this $odel# the ti$esta$ps of the last $odifi!ations of the two o%Je!ts
ae
!o$paed5
The la!t_ddl_time field of u!er_ob#ect! !ontains the ti$esta$p5
If the %ase o%Je!t has a newe ti$esta$p than the dependent o%Je!t# the
dependent o%Je!t will %e e!o$piled5
ISSU'S 6IT: T:IS MOD'L
1 If the o%Je!ts ae in diffeent ti$e Tones# the !o$paison is invalid5
2 6hen A2 is in a !lient side AL?SQL engine su!h as oa!le fo$s# in this
!ase it $a7 not possi%le to e!o$pile A2# %e!ause the sou!e fo it $a7 not
%e in!luded with the fo$s5
SI8N(TUR' MOD'L
1 6hen a po!edue is !eated# a signatue is stoed in the data
di!tiona7 in addition to the p"!ode5
2 The signatue en!odes the t7pes and ode of the paa$etes5
3 6hen A2 is !o$piled the fist ti$e# the signatue of A1 is in!luded5
Thus# A2 onl7 needs to e!o$piled when the signatue of A1 !hanges5
4 In ode to use the signatue $odel# the paa$ete
R'MOT'MD'A'ND'NCI'SMMOD' $ust %e set to SI8N(TUR'5 This is a paa$ete in
the data%ase initialiTation file5
T:R'' 6(*S OB S'TTIN8 T:IS MOD'
1 (dd the line R'MOT'MD'A'ND'NCI'SMMOD'HSI8N(TUR' to the data%ase
initialiTation file5 The ne/t ti$e the data%ase is stated# the $ode will %e set
to SI8N(TUR' fo all sessions5
2 (lte s7ste$ set e$oteMdependen!iesM$ode H signatue.
This will affe!t the entie data%ase (all sessions) fo$ the ti$e the
state$ent is
issued5 *ou $ust have the (LT'R S*ST'M pivilege to issue this !o$$and5
1 (lte session set e$oteMdependen!iesM$ode H signatue.
This will onl7 affe!t 7ou session
ISSU'S 6IT: T:IS MOD'L
2 Signatues don;t get $odified if the default values of fo$al
paa$etes ae
!hanged5
3 Suppose A1 has a default value fo one of its paa$etes# and A2 is
using this
default value5 If the default in the spe!ifi!ation fo A1 is !hanged# A2 will
not %e
e!o$piled %7 default5 The old value fo the default paa$ete will still %e
used until
A2 is $anuall7 e!o$piled5
2 If A2 is !alling a pa!&aged po!edue A1# and a new oveloaded
vesion of A1 is added to the e$ote pa!&age# the signatue is not !hanged5
A2 will still use the old vesion(not the new oveloaded one) until A2 is
e!o$piled $anuall75
BOR6(RD D'CL'R(TION
)efoe going to use the po!edue in an7 othe su%poga$ o othe %lo!& # 7ou
$ust de!lae the potot7pe of the po!edue in de!laative se!tion5
'/20
D'CL(R'
AROC'DUR' A2 IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bo$ po!edue p2=).
p1.
'ND A2.
AROC'DUR' A1 IS
)'8IN
p4.
'ND A1.
AROC'DUR' A4 IS
)'8IN
'ND A4.
)'8IN
p2.
'ND.
Output0
p1.
E
'RROR at line C0
OR("3DCC30 line C# !olu$n 20
ALS"334240 =A1= not de!laed in this s!ope
OR("3DCC30 line C# !olu$n 20
AL?SQL0 State$ent ignoed
OR("3DCC30 line 23# !olu$n 20
ALS"334240 =A4= not de!laed in this s!ope
OR("3DCC30 line 23# !olu$n 20
AL?SQL0 State$ent ignoed
'/10
D'CL(R'
AROC'DUR' A1. "" fowad de!laation
AROC'DUR' A4.
AROC'DUR' A2 IS
)'8IN
p1.
'ND A2.
AROC'DUR' A1 IS
)'8IN
p4.
'ND A1.
AROC'DUR' A4 IS
)'8IN
'ND A4.
)'8IN
p2.
'ND.
Output0
Bo$ po!edue p2
Bo$ po!edue p1
Bo$ po!edue p4
ARI9IL'8'S (ND STOR'D SU)ARO8R(MS
'+'CUT' AR'9IL'8'
4 Bo stoed su%poga$s and pa!&ages the elevant pivilege is
'+'CUT'5
5 If use ( had the po!edue !alled e$p1Mpo! then use ( gants
e/e!ute pivilege on po!edue to use ) with the following !o$$and5
SQL- 8ant e/e!ute on e$p1Mpo! to use )5
6 Then use ) !an un the po!edue %7 issuing
SQL- '/e! use (5e$p1Mpo!
use( !eated the following po!edue
!uso ! is sele!t Efo$ student2.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
inset into student1 values(v5no#v5na$e#v5$a&s).
end loop.
'ND A.
use( ganted e/e!ute pivilege to use) using
SQL- gant e/e!ute on p to use)
Then use) e/e!uted the po!edue
SQL- '/e! use(5p
If suppose use) also having student1 ta%le then whi!h ta%le will populate
whethe use(;s o use);s5
The answe is use(;s student1 ta%le onl7 %e!ause %7 default the po!edue will
e/e!ute unde the pivlige set of its owne5
The a%ove po!edue is &nown as define;s po!edue5
:O6 TO AOAUL(T' US'R );s T()L'
7 Oa!le intodu!es 5nvoer;! and -e'iner;! ri")t!.
8 )7 default it will use the define;s ights5
9 (n invo&e;s ights outine !an %e !eated %7 using (UT:ID !lause to
populate the
use);s ta%le5
10 It is valid fo stand"alone su%poga$s# pa!&age spe!ifi!ations# and
o%Je!t t7pe
spe!ifi!ations onl75
use( !eated the following po!edue
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A
(UT:ID CURR'NTMUS'R IS
!uso is sele!t Efo$ student2.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
inset into student1 values(v5no#v5na$e#v5$a&s).
end loop.
'ND A.
Then gant e/e!ute pivilege on p to use)5
'/e!uting the po!edue %7 use)# whi!h populates use);s ta%le5
The a%ove po!edue is !alled invo&e;s po!edue5
Instead of !uentMuse of authid !lause# if 7ou use define then it will %e !alled
define; po!edue5
STOR'D SU)ARO8R(MS (ND ROL'S
we have two uses sa&eth and sudha in whi!h sa&eth has student ta%le and sudha
does not5
Sudha is going to !eate a po!edue %ased on student ta%le owned %7 sa&eth5
)efoe doing this sa&eth $ust gant the pe$issions on this ta%le to sudha5
SQL- !onn sa&eth?sa&eth
SQL- gant all on student to sudha.
then sudha !an !eate po!edue
SQL- !onn sudha?sudha
!uso ! is sele!t Efo$ sa&eth5student.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(KNo H K XX v5no).
end loop.
'ND A.
hee po!edue will %e !eated5
If the sa$e pivilege was ganted though a ole it wont !eate the po!edue5
'/a$ine the following !ode
SQL- !eate ole sa&ethMole.
SQL- gant all on student to sa&ethMole.
SQL- gant sa&ethMole to sudha.
then !onn sudha?sudha
!uso ! is sele!t Efo$ sa&eth5student.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(KNo H K XX v5no).
end loop.
'ND A.
The a%ove !ode will aise eo instead of !eating po!edue 5
This is %e!ause of eal7 %inding whi!h AL?SQL uses %7 default in whi!h efeen!es
ae evaluated in !o$pile ti$e %ut when 7ou ae using a ole this will affe!t
i$$ediatel75
ISSU'S 6IT: IN9OF'R;S RI8:TS
1 In an invo&e;s ights outine# e/tenal efeen!es in SQL state$ents
will %e esolved using the !alle;s pivilege set5
2 )ut efeen!es in AL?SQL state$ents ae still esolved unde the
owne;s pivilege set5
TRI88'RS# 9I'6S (ND IN9OF'R;S RI8:TS
1 ( data%ase tigge will alwa7s %e e/e!uted with define;s ights and
will e/e!ute unde the pivilege set of the s!he$a that owns the tiggeing
ta%le5
2 This is also tue fo AL?SQL fun!tion that is !alled fo$ a view5 In this
!ase# the fun!tion will e/e!ute unde the pivilege set of the view;s owne5
A(CF(8'S
( paca"e is a !ontaine fo elated o%Je!ts5 It has spe!ifi!ation and %od75 'a!h
of the$ is stoed sepaatel7 in data di!tiona75
A(CF(8' S*NT(+
Ceate o epla!e pa!&age ,paca"e_name- is
"" pa!&age spe!ifi!ation in!ludes su%poga$s signatues# !usos and
glo%al o
pu%li! vaia%les5
'nd ,paca"e_name-.
Ceate o epla!e pa!&age %od7 ,paca"e_name- is
"" pa!&age %od7 in!ludes %od7 fo all the su%poga$s de!laed in the spe!#
pivate
9aia%les and !usos5
)egin
"" initialiTation se!tion
'/!eption
"" '/!eption handling se!iton
'nd ,paca"e_name-.
IMAORT(NT AOIN8S ()OUT A(CF(8'S
1 The fist ti$e a pa!&aged su%poga$ is !alled o an7 efeen!e to a
pa!&aged vaia%le o t7pe is $ade# the pa!&age is instantiated5
2 'a!h session will have its own !op7 of pa!&aged vaia%les# ensuing
that two sessions e/e!uting su%poga$s in the sa$e pa!&age use diffeent
$e$o7 lo!ations5
3 In $an7 !ases initialiTation needs to %e un the fist ti$e the pa!&age
is instantiated within a session5 This !an %e done %7 adding initialiTation
se!tion to the pa!&age %od7 afte all the o%Je!ts5
4 Aa!&ages ae stoed in the data di!tiona7 and !an not %e lo!al5
5 Aa!&aged su%poga$s has an advantage ove stand alone
su%poga$5
6 6hen eve an7 efeen!e to pa!&age# the whole pa!&age p"!ode was
stoed in shaed pool of S8(5
7 Aa!&age $a7 have lo!al su%poga$s5
8 *ou !an in!lude authid !lause inside the pa!&age spe! not in the
%od75
9 The e/e!ution se!tion of a pa!&age is &now as initialiTation se!tion5
10 *ou !an have an e/!eption se!tion at the %otto$ of a pa!&age %od75
11 Aa!&ages su%poga$s ae not invalidated5
COMAILIN8 A(CF(8'S
1 SQL- (lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile.
2 SQL- (lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile spe!ifi!ation.
3 SQL- (lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile %od7.
A(CF(8' D'A'ND'NCI'S
1 The pa!&age %od7 depends on the so$e o%Je!ts and the pa!&age
heade5
2 The pa!&age heade does not depend on the pa!&age %od7# whi!h is
an advantage of pa!&ages5
3 6e !an !hange the pa!&age %od7 with out !hanging the heade5
A(CF(8' RUNTIM' ST(T'
Aa!&age unti$e state is diffe fo the following pa!&ages5
1 Seiall7 eusa%le pa!&ages
2 Non seiall7 eusa%le pa!&ages
S'RI(LL* R'US()L' A(CF(8'S
To fo!e the oa!le to use seiall7 eusa%le vesion then in!lude AR(8M(
S'RI(LL*MR'US()L' in %oth pa!&age spe! and %od7# '/a$ine the following pa!&age5
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' )OD* AF8 IS
pag$a seiall7Meusa%le.
!uso ! is sele!t ena$e fo$ e$p1.
AROC'DUR' 'MA1MAROC IS
vMena$e e$p15ena$eLt7pe.
vMflag %oolean 0H tue.
vMnu$ows nu$%e 0H 3.
)'8IN
if not !Lisopen then
open !.
end if.
while vMflag loop
fet!h ! into vMena$e.
vMnu$ows 0H vMnu$ows G 2.
if vMnu$ows H C then
vMflag 0H false.
end if.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX vMena$e).
end loop.
'ND 'MA1MAROC.
'ND AF8.
SQL- e/e! p&g5e$p1Mpo!
'na$e H SMIT:
'na$e H (LL'N
'na$e H 6(RD
'na$e H >ON'S
'na$e H M(RTIN
'na$e H SMIT:
'na$e H (LL'N
'na$e H 6(RD
'na$e H >ON'S
'na$e H M(RTIN
1 The a%ove pa!&age displa7s the sa$e output fo ea!h e/e!ution even
though the !uso is not !losed5
2 )e!ause the seiall7 eusa%le vesion esets the state of the !uso
ea!h ti$e it was !alled5
NON S'RI(LL * R'US()L' A(CF(8'S
This is the default vesion used %7 the oa!le# e/a$ine the following pa!&age5
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' AF8 IS
po!edue e$p1Mpo!.
'ND AF8.
!uso ! is sele!t ena$e fo$ e$p1.
AROC'DUR' 'MA1MAROC IS
vMena$e e$p15ena$eLt7pe.
vMflag %oolean 0H tue.
vMnu$ows nu$%e 0H 3.
)'8IN
if not !Lisopen then
open !.
end if.
while vMflag loop
fet!h ! into vMena$e.
vMnu$ows 0H vMnu$ows G 2.
if vMnu$ows H C then
vMflag 0H false.
end if.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX vMena$e).
end loop.
'ND 'MA1MAROC.
'ND AF8.
'na$e H SMIT:
'na$e H (LL'N
'na$e H 6(RD
'na$e H >ON'S
'na$e H M(RTIN
'na$e H )L(F'
'na$e H CL(RF
'na$e H SCOTT
'na$e H FIN8
'na$e H TURN'R
1 The a%ove pa!&age displa7s the diffeent output fo ea!h e/e!ution
even though the !uso is not !losed5
2 )e!ause the non"seiall7 eusa%le vesion e$ains the state of the
!uso ove data%ase !alls5
D'A'ND'NCI'S OB A(CF(8' RUNTIM' ST(T'
Dependen!ies !an e/ists %etween pa!&age state and anon7$ous %lo!&s5
'/a$ine the following poga$
Ceate this pa!&age in fist session
v nu$%e 0H C.
po!edue p.
'ND AF8.
AROC'DUR' A IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v H = XX v).
v 0H 23.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v H = XX v).
'ND A.
'ND AF8.
Conne!t to se!ond session# un the following !ode5
)'8IN
p&g5p.
'ND.
The a%ove !ode wil wo&5
8o %a!& to fist session and e!eate the pa!&age using !eate5
Then !onne!t to se!ond session and un the following !ode again5
)'8IN
p&g5p.
'ND.
This a%ove !ode will not wo& %e!ause of the following5
1 The anon7$ous %lo!& depends on p&g5 This is !o$pile ti$e
dependen!75
2 Thee is also a unti$e dependen!7 on the pa!&aged vaia%les# sin!e
ea!h session has its own !op7 of pa!&aged vaia%les5
3 Thus when p&g is e!o$piled the unti$e dependen!7 is followed#
whi!h invalidates the %lo!& and aises the oa!le eo5
4 Runti$e dependen!ies e/ist onl7 on pa!&age state5 This in!ludes
vaia%les and !usos de!laed in a pa!&age5
5 If the pa!&age had no glo%al vaia%les# the se!ond e/e!ution of the
anon7$ous %lo!& would have su!!eeded5
AURIT* L'9'LS
In geneal# !alls to su%poga$s ae po!edual# the7 !annot %e !alled fo$ SQL
state$ents5 :oweve# if a stand"alone o pa!&aged fun!tion $eets !etain
esti!tions# it !an %e !alled duing e/e!ution of a SQL state$ent5
Use"defined fun!tions ae !alled the sa$e wa7 as %uilt"in fun!tions %ut it $ust
$eet diffeent esti!tions5 These esti!tions ae defined in te$s of puit7 levels5
Thee ae fou t7pes of puit7 levels5
6NDS "" 6ites No Data%ase State
RNDS "" Reads No Data%ase State
6NAS "" 6ites No Aa!&age State
RNAS "" Reads No Aa!&age State
In addition to the pe!eding esti!tions# a use"defined fun!tion $ust also $eet
the following eUuie$ents to %e !alled fo$ a SQL state$ent5
The fun!tion has to %e stoed in the data%ase# eithe stand"alone o as pat
of a
pa!&age5
The fun!tion !an ta&e onl7 in paa$etes5
The fo$al paa$etes $ust use onl7 data%ase t7pes# not AL?SQL t7pes su!h
as
%oolean o e!od5
The etun t7pe of the fun!tion $ust also %e a data%ase t7pe5
The fun!tion $ust not end the !uent tansa!tion with !o$$it o oll%a!&#
o
oll%a!& to a savepoint pio to the fun!tion e/e!ution5
It also $ust not issue an7 alte session o alte s7ste$ !o$$ands5
R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
Bo pa!&aged fun!tions# howeve# the R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S pag$a is eUuied to
spe!if7 the puit7 level of a given fun!tion5
S7nta/0
AR(8M( R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S(!ubpro"ram_name or paca"e_name# 6NDS
N#6NASO
N#RNDSO N#RNASO).
'/0
fun!tion fun2 etun va!ha.
pag$a esti!tMefeen!es(fun2#wnds).
pag$a esti!tMefeen!es(fun1#wnds).
'ND AF8.
BUNCTION BUN2 etun va!ha IS
)'8IN
update dept set deptno H 22.
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN2.
)'8IN
update dept set dna$e H=aa=.
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN1.
'ND AF8.
The a%ove pa!&age %od7 will not !eated# it will give the following eos5
ALS"33@C10 Su%poga$ =BUN2= violates its asso!iated pag$a
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN2.
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN1.
'ND AF8.
Now the pa!&age %od7 will %e !eated5
D'B(ULT
If thee is no R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S pag$a asso!iated with a given pa!&aged
fun!tion# it will not have an7 puit7 level asseted5 :oweve# 7ou !an !hange the
default puit7 level fo a pa!&age5 The D'B(ULT &e7wod is used instead of the
su%poga$ na$e in the pag$a5
'/0
pag$a esti!tMefeen!es(default#wnds).
'ND AF8.
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN2.
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN1.
'ND AF8.
The a%ove pa!&age %od7 will not !eated# it will give the following eos %e!ause
the pag$a will appl7 to all the fun!tions5
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN2.
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN1.
'ND AF8.
Now the pa!&age %od7 will %e !eated5
TRUST
If the TRUST &e7wod is pesent# the esti!tions listed in the pag$a ae not
enfo!ed5 Rathe# the7 ae tusted to %e tue5
'/0
pag$a esti!tMefeen!es(fun2#wnds#tust).
pag$a esti!tMefeen!es(fun1#wnds#tust).
'ND AF8.
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN2.
)'8IN
etun =hello=.
'ND BUN1.
'ND AF8.
The a%ove pa!&age will %e !eated su!!essfull75
IMAORT(NT AOINTS ()OUT R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
This pag$a !an appea an7whee in the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation# afte the
fun!tion
de!laation5
It !an appl7 to onl7 one fun!tion definition5
Bo oveload fun!tions# the pag$a applies to the neaest definition pio to
the
Aag$a5
This pag$a is eUuied onl7 fo pa!&ages fun!tions not fo stand"alone
fun!tions5
The Aag$a !an %e de!laed onl7 inside the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation5
The pag$a is !he!&ed at !o$pile ti$e# not unti$e5
It is possi%le to spe!if7 without an7 puit7 levels when tust o !o$%ination
of
default and tust &e7wods ae pesent5
AINNIN8 IN T:' S:(R'D AOOL
The !)ared pool is the potion of the S8S that !ontains# a$ong othe things# the p"
!ode of !o$piled su%poga$s as the7 ae un5 The fist ti$e a stoed a stoe
su%poga$ is !alled# the p"!ode is loaded fo$ dis& into the shaed pool5 On!e the
o%Je!t is no longe efeen!ed# it is fee to %e aged out5 O%Je!ts ae aged out of the
shaed pool using an LRU(Least Re!entl7 Used) algoith$5
The D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL pa!&age allows 7ou to pin o%Je!ts in the shaed pool5 6hen
an o%Je!t is pinned# it will neve %e aged out until 7ou eUuest it# no $atte how
full the pool gets o how often the o%Je!t is a!!essed5 This !an i$pove
pefo$an!e# as it ta&es ti$e to eload a pa!&age fo$ dis&5
D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL has fou po!edues
1 F''A
2 UNF''A
3 SIZ'S
4 ()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD
F''A
The D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL5F''A po!edue is used to pin o%Je!ts in the pool5
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' F''A(ob#ect_name va!ha1#'la" !ha default KA;).
:ee the flag epesents diffeent t7pes of flag values fo diffeent t7pes of
o%Je!ts5
A "" Aa!&age# fun!tion o po!edue
Q "" SeUuen!e
R "" Tigge
C "" SQL Cuso
T "" O%Je!t t7pe
>S "" >ava sou!e
>C "" >ava !lass
>R "" >ava esou!e
>D "" >ava shaed data
UNF''A
UNF''A is the onl7 wa7 to e$ove a &ept o%Je!t fo$ the shaed pool# without
estating the data%ase5 Fept o%Je!ts ae neve aged out auto$ati!all75
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' UNF''A(ob#ect_name va!ha1# 'la" !ha default KA;).
SIZ'S
SIZ'S will e!ho the !ontents of the shaed pool to the s!een5
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' SIZ'S(min!i,e nu$%e).
O%Je!ts with geate than the min!i,e will %e etuned5 SIZ'S uses D)MSMOUTAUT to
etun the data5
()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD
6hen the data%ase dete$ines that thee is not enough $e$o7 in the shaed
pool to satisf7 a given eUuest# it will %egin aging o%Je!ts out until thee is enough
$e$o75 It enough o%Je!ts ae aged out# this !an have a pefo$an!e i$pa!t on
othe data%ase sessions5 The ()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD !an %e used to e$ed7
this5
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' ()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD(t)re!)old_!i,e nu$%e).
On!e this po!edue is !alled# oa!le will not stat aging o%Je!ts fo$ the pool
unless at least t)re!)old_!i,e %7tes is needed5
D(T( MOD'L BOR SU)ARO8R(MS (ND A(CF(8'S
1 US'RMO)>'CTS
2 US'RMSOURC'
3 US'RM'RRORS
4 D)(MO)>'CTS
5 D)(MSOURC'
6 D)(M'RRORS
7 (LLMO)>'CTS
8 (LLMSOURC'
9 (LLM'RRORS
CURSORS
Cur!or is a pointe to $e$o7 lo!ation whi!h is !alled as conte(t area whi!h
!ontains the info$ation ne!essa7 fo po!essing# in!luding the nu$%e of ows
po!essed %7 the state$ent# a pointe to the pased epesentation of the
state$ent# and the active !et whi!h is the set of ows etuned %7 the Uue75
Cuso !ontains two pats
:eade
)od7
:eade in!ludes !uso na$e# an7 paa$etes and the t7pe of data %eing loaded5
)od7 in!ludes the sele!t state$ent5
'/0
Cuso !(dno in nu$%e) etun deptLowt7pe is sele!t Efo$ dept.
In the a%ove
:eade \ !uso !(dno in nu$%e) etun deptLowt7pe
)od7 \ sele!t Efo$ dept
CURSOR T*A'S
1 I$pli!it (SQL)
2 '/pli!it
Aaa$eteiTed !usos
R'B !usos
CURSOR ST(8'S
1 Open
2 Bet!h
3 Close
CURSOR (TTRI)UT'S
1 Lfound
2 Lnotfound
3 Low!ount
4 Lisopen
5 L%ul&Mow!ount
6 L%ul&Me/!eptions
CURSOR D'CL'R(TION
S7nta/0
Cuso ,cur!or_name- is !elect !tatement.
'/0
Cuso ! is sele!t Efo$ dept.
CURSOR LOOAS
1 Si$ple loop
2 6hile loop
3 Bo loop
SIMAL' LOOA
S7nta/0
Loop
Bet!h ,cur!or_name- into ,record_variable-.
'/it when ,cur!or_name- L notfound.
,!tatement!-.
'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ student.
vMstud studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
open !.
loop
fet!h ! into vMstud.
e/it when !Lnotfound.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Na$e H = XX vMstud5na$e).
end loop.
!lose !.
'ND.
Output0
Na$e H sa&eth
Na$e H sinu
Na$e H satish
Na$e H sudha
6:IL' LOOA
S7nta/0
6hile ,cur!or_name- L found loop
Bet!h ,cur!or_name- nto ,record_variable-.
,!tatement!-.
'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
vMstud studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
open !.
while !Lfound loop
end loop.
!lose !.
'ND.
Output0
Na$e H sa&eth
Na$e H sinu
Na$e H satish
Na$e H sudha
BOR LOOA
S7nta/0
fo ,record_variable- in ,cur!or_name- loop
,!tatement!-.
'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
)'8IN
fo vMstud in ! loop
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Na$e H sa&eth
Na$e H sinu
Na$e H satish
Na$e H sudha
A(R(M'T(RIZ'D CURSORS
1 This was used when 7ou ae going to use the !uso in $oe than one
pla!e with diffeent values fo the sa$e whee !lause5
2 Cuso paa$etes $ust %e in $ode5
3 Cuso paa$etes $a7 have default values5
4 The s!ope of !uso paa$ete is within the sele!t state$ent5
'/0
D'CL(R'
!uso !(dno in nu$%e) is sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno H dno.
vMdept deptLowt7pe.
)'8IN
open !(13).
loop
fet!h ! into vMdept.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX vMdept5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX
vMdept5lo!).
end loop.
!lose !.
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H R'S'(RC: Lo! H D(LL(S
A(CF(8'D CURSORS 6IT: :'(D'R IN SA'C (ND )OD* IN A(CF(8' )OD*
1 !usos de!laed in pa!&ages will not !lose auto$ati!all75
2 In pa!&aged !usos 7ou !an $odif7 the sele!t state$ent without
$a&ing an7 !hanges to the !uso heade in the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation5
3 Aa!&aged !usos with $ust %e defined in the pa!&age %od7 itself#
and then use it as glo%al fo the pa!&age5
4 *ou !an not define the pa!&aged !uso in an7 su%poga$s5
5 Cuso de!laation in pa!&age with out %od7 needs the etun !lause5
'/20
!uso ! etun deptLowt7pe is sele!t E fo$ dept.
po!edue po! is
'ND AF8.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(FC(8' )OD* AF8 IS
!uso ! etun deptLowt7pe is sele!t E fo$ dept.
AROC'DUR' AROC IS
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Deptno H = XX v5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX
v5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX v5lo!).
end loop.
'ND AROC.
'ND AF8.
Output0
SQL- e/e! p&g5po!
Deptno H 23 Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF
Deptno H 13 Dna$e H R'S'(RC: Lo! H D(LL(S
Deptno H 43 Dna$e H S(L'S Lo! H C:IC(8O
Deptno H @3 Dna$e H OA'R(TIONS Lo! H )OSTON
'/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(FC(8' )OD* AF8 IS
!uso ! etun deptLowt7pe is sele!t E fo$ dept whee deptno
- 13.
AROC'DUR' AROC IS
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Deptno H = XX v5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX
v5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX v5lo!).
end loop.
'ND AROC.
'ND AF8.
Output0
SQL- e/e! p&g5po!
R'B CURSORS (ND CURSOR 9(RI()L'S
1 This is un!onstained !uso whi!h will etun diffeent t7pes depends
upon the use input5
2 Ref !usos !an not %e !losed i$pli!itl75
3 Ref !uso with etun t7pe is !alled !tron" cur!or5
4 Ref !uso with out etun t7pe is !alled wea cur!or5
5 *ou !an de!lae ef !uso t7pe in pa!&age spe! as well as %od75
6 *ou !an de!lae ef !uso t7pes in lo!al su%poga$s o anon7$ous
%lo!&s5
7 Cuso vaia%les !an %e assigned fo$ one to anothe5
8 *ou !an de!lae a !uso vaia%le in one s!ope and assign anothe
!uso vaia%le with diffeent s!ope# then 7ou !an use the !uso vaia%le
even though the assigned !uso vaia%le goes out of s!ope5
9 Cuso vaia%les !an %e passed as a paa$etes to the su%poga$s5
10 Cuso vaia%les $odes ae in o out o in out5
11 Cuso vaia%les !an not %e de!laed in pa!&age spe! and pa!&age
%od7 (e/!luding su%poga$s)5
12 *ou !an not use e$ote po!edue !alls to pass !uso vaia%les fo$
one seve to anothe5
13 Cuso vaia%les !an not use fo update !lause5
14 *ou !an not assign nulls to !uso vaia%les5
15 *ou !an not !o$pae !uso vaia%les fo eUualit7# ineUualit7 and
nullit75
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' R'BMCURSOR(T()L'MN(M' IN 9(RC:(R) IS
t7pe t is ef !uso.
! t.
vMdept deptLowt7pe.
t7pe is e!od(ena$e e$p15ena$eLt7pe#Jo% e$p15Jo%Lt7pe#sal
e$p15salLt7pe).
vMe$p1 .
vMstud student5na$eLt7pe.
)'8IN
if ta%leMna$e H =D'AT= then
open ! fo sele!t E fo$ dept.
elsif ta%leMna$e H ='MA1= then
open ! fo sele!t ena$e#Jo%#sal fo$ e$p1.
elsif ta%leMna$e H =STUD'NT= then
open ! fo sele!t na$e fo$ student.
end if.
loop
if ta%leMna$e H =D'AT= then
fet!h ! into vMdept.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Deptno H = XX vMdept5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX
vMdept5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX vMdept5lo!).
elsif ta%leMna$e H ='MA1= then
fet!h ! into vMe$p1.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX vMe$p15ena$e XX = >o% H = XX
vMe$p15Jo%
XX = Sal H = XX vMe$p15sal).
elsif ta%leMna$e H =STUD'NT= then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Na$e H = XX vMstud).
end if.
end loop.
!lose !.
'ND.
Output0
SQL- e/e! efM!uso(=D'AT=)
Deptno H 23 Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF
Deptno H 13 Dna$e H R'S'(RC: Lo! H D(LL(S
SQL- e/e! efM!uso(='MA1=)
'na$e H SMIT: >o% H CL'RF Sal H W33
'na$e H (LL'N >o% H S(L'SM(N Sal H 2D33
'na$e H 6(RD >o% H S(L'SM(N Sal H 21C3
'na$e H >ON'S >o% H M(N(8'R Sal H 1SVC
'na$e H M(RTIN >o% H S(L'SM(N Sal H 21C3
'na$e H )L(F' >o% H M(N(8'R Sal H 1WC3
'na$e H CL(RF >o% H M(N(8'R Sal H 1@C3
'na$e H SCOTT >o% H (N(L*ST Sal H 4333
'na$e H FIN8 >o% H AR'SID'NT Sal H C333
'na$e H TURN'R >o% H S(L'SM(N Sal H 2C33
'na$e H (D(MS >o% H CL'RF Sal H 2233
'na$e H >(M'S >o% H CL'RF Sal H SC3
'na$e H BORD >o% H (N(L*ST Sal H 4333
'na$e H MILL'R >o% H CL'RF Sal H 2433
SQL- e/e! efM!uso(=STUD'NT=)
Na$e H sa&eth
Na$e H sinu
Na$e H satish
Na$e H sudha
CURSOR '+AR'SSIONS
1 *ou !an use !uso e/pessions in e/pli!it !usos5
2 *ou !an use !uso e/pessions in d7na$i! SQL5
3 *ou !an use !uso e/pessions in R'B !uso de!laations and
vaia%les5
4 *ou !an not use !uso e/pessions in i$pli!it !usos5
5 Oa!le opens the nested !uso defined %7 a !uso e/pession
i$pli!itl7 as soon as it fet!hes the data !ontaining the !uso e/pession
fo$ the paent o oute !uso5
6 Nested !uso !loses if 7ou !lose e/pli!itl75
7 Nested !uso !loses wheneve the oute o paent !uso is e/e!uted
again o !losed o !an!eled5
8 Nested !uso !loses wheneve an e/!eption is aised while fet!hing
data fo$ a paent !uso5
9 Cuso e/pessions !an not %e used when de!laing a view5
10 Cuso e/pessions !an %e used as an agu$ent to ta%le fun!tion5
11 *ou !an not pefo$ %ind and e/e!ute opeations on !uso
e/pessions when using the !uso e/pessions in d7na$i! SQL5
USIN8 N'ST'D CURSORS OR CURSOR '+AR'SSIONS
'/0
D'CL(R'
!uso ! is sele!t ena$e#!uso(sele!t dna$e fo$ dept d whee e5e$p1no
H d5deptno) fo$ e$p1 e.
t7pe t is ef !uso.
!2 t.
!1 t.
v2 e$p15ena$eLt7pe.
v1 dept5dna$eLt7pe.
)'8IN
open !.
loop
fet!h !2 into v2.
e/it when !2Lnotfound.
fet!h !1 into v1.
e/it when !1Lnotfound.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX v2 XX = Dna$e H = XX v1).
end loop.
end loop.
!lose !.
'ND.
CURSOR CL(US'S
1 Retun
2 Bo update
3 6hee !uent of
4 )ul& !olle!t
R'TURN
Cuso ! etun deptLowt7pe is sele!t Efo$ dept.
O
Cuso !2 is sele!t Efo$ dept.
Cuso ! etun !2Lowt7pe is sele!t Efo$ dept.
O
T7pe t is e!od(deptno dept5deptnoLt7pe# dna$e dept5dna$eLt7pe).
Cuso ! etun t is sele!t deptno# dna$e fo$ dept.
BOR UAD(T' (ND 6:'R' CURR'NT OB
No$all7# a sele!t opeation will not ta&e an7 lo!&s on the ows %eing a!!essed5
This will allow othe sessions !onne!ted to the data%ase to !hange the data %eing
sele!ted5 The esult set is still !onsistent5 (t open ti$e# when the a!tive set is
dete$ined# oa!le ta&es a snapshot of the ta%le5 (n7 !hanges that have %een
!o$$itted pio to this point ae efle!ted in the a!tive set5 (n7 !hanges $ade
afte this point# even if the7 ae !o$$itted# ae not efle!ted unless the !uso is
eopened# whi!h will evaluate the a!tive set again5
:oweve# if the BOR UAD(T' !aluse is pesent# e/!lusive ow lo!&s ae ta&en on the
ows in the a!tive set %efoe the open etuns5 These lo!&s pevent othe sessions
fo$ !hanging the ows in the a!tive set until the tansa!tion is !o$$itted o
olled %a!&5 If anothe session alead7 has lo!&s on the ows in the a!tive set# then
S'L'CT R BOR UAD(T' opeation will wait fo these lo!&s to %e eleased %7 the othe
session5 Thee is no ti$e"out fo this waiting peiod5 The S'L'CTRBOR UAD(T' will
hang until the othe session eleases the lo!&5 To handle this situation# the NO6(IT
!lause is availa%le5
S7nta/0
Sele!t Rfo$ R fo update of !olu$nMna$e Nwait nO.
If the !uso is de!laed with the BOR UAD(T' !lause# the 6:'R' CURR'NT OB
!lause !an %e used in an update o delete state$ent5
S7nta/0
6hee !uent of !uso.
'/0
D'CL(R'
!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ dept fo update of dna$e.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
update dept set dna$e H =aa= whee !uent of !.
!o$$it.
end loop.
'ND.
)ULF COLL'CT
1 This is used fo aa7 fet!hes
2 6ith this 7ou !an etieve $ultiple ows of data with a single
oundtip5
3 This edu!es the nu$%e of !onte/t swit!hes %etween the pl?sUl and
sUl engines5
4 Redu!es the ovehead of etieving data5
5 *ou !an use %ul& !olle!t in %oth d7na$i! and stati! sUl5
6 *ou !an use %ul& !olle!t in sele!t# fet!h into and etuning into
!lauses5
7 SQL engine auto$ati!all7 initialiTes and e/tends the !olle!tions 7ou
efeen!e in the %ul& !olle!t !lause5
8 )ul& !olle!t opeation e$p1ties the !olle!tion efeen!ed in the into
!lause %efoe e/e!uting the Uue75
9 *ou !an use the li$it !lause of %ul& !olle!t to esti!t the no of ows
etieved5
10 *ou !an fet!h into $ulti%le !olle!tions with one !olu$n ea!h5
11 Using the etuning !lause we !an etun data to the anothe
!olle!tion5
)ULF COLL'CT IN B'TC:
'/0
D'CL(R'
T7pe t is ta%le of deptLowt7pe.
nt t.
)'8IN
Open !.
Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt.
Close !.
Bo i in nt5fist55nt5last loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX
nt(i)5lo!).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF
Dna$e H S(L'S Lo! H C:IC(8O
Dna$e H OA'R(TIONS Lo! H )OSTON
)ULF COLL'CT IN S'L'CT
'/0
D'CL(R'
Nt t.
)'8IN
Sele!t E %ul& !olle!t into nt fo$ dept.
fo i in nt5fist55nt5last loop
nt(i)5lo!).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H S(L'S Lo! H C:IC(8O
Dna$e H OA'R(TIONS Lo! H )OSTON
LIMIT IN )ULF COLL'CT
*ou !an use this to li$it the nu$%e of ows to %e fet!hed5
'/0
D'CL(R'
nt t.
)'8IN
Open !.
Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt li$it 1.
Close !.
nt(i)5lo!).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
MULTIAL' B'TC:'S IN INTO CL(US'
'/20
D'CL(R'
T7pe t is ta%le of dept5dna$eLt7pe.
nt t.
T7pe t2 is ta%le of dept5lo!Lt7pe.
nt2 t.
Cuso ! is sele!t dna$e#lo! fo$ dept.
)'8IN
Open !.
Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt#nt2.
Close !.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)).
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo! H = XX nt2(i)).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8
Dna$e H R'S'(RC:
Dna$e H S(L'S
Dna$e H OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H N'6 *ORF
Lo! H D(LL(S
Lo! H C:IC(8O
Lo! H )OSTON
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of dept5dna$eLt7pe.
t7pe t2 is ta%le of dept5lo!Lt7pe.
nt t.
nt2 t2.
)'8IN
Sele!t dna$e#lo! %ul& !olle!t into nt#nt2 fo$ dept.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)).
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo! H = XX nt2(i)).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8
Dna$e H R'S'(RC:
Dna$e H S(L'S
Dna$e H OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H N'6 *ORF
Lo! H D(LL(S
Lo! H C:IC(8O
Lo! H )OSTON
R'TURNIN8 CL(US' IN )ULF COLL'CT
*ou !an use this to etun the po!essed data to the ouput vaia%les o t7ped
vaia%les5
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of nu$%e(1).
nt t 0H t(2#1#4#@).
t7pe t2 is ta%le of va!ha(1).
nt2 t2.
t7pe t1 is ta%le of studentLowt7pe.
nt1 t1.
)'8IN
sele!t na$e %ul& !olle!t into nt2 fo$ student.
foall v in nt25fist55nt25last
update student set no H nt(v) whee na$e H nt2(v)
etuning
no#na$e#$a&s %ul& !olle!t into nt1.
fo v in nt15fist55nt15last loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ma&s H = XX nt1(v)).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Ma&s H 233
Ma&s H 133
Ma&s H 433
Ma&s H @33
AOINTS TO R'M'M)'R
1 Cuso na$e !an %e up to 43 !haa!tes in length5
2 Cusos de!laed in anon7$ous %lo!&s o su%poga$s !loses
auto$ati!all7 when that %lo!& te$inates e/e!ution5
3 L%ul&Mow!ount and L%ul&Me/!eptions !an %e used onl7 with foall
!onstu!t5
4 Cuso de!laations $a7 have e/pessions with !olu$n aliases5
5 These e/pessions ae !alled vitual !olu$ns o !al!ulated !olu$ns5
SQL IN AL?SQL
The onl7 state$ents allowed die!tl7 in pl?sUl ae DML and TCL5
)INDIN8
)inding a vaia%le is the po!ess of identif7ing the stoage lo!ation asso!iated
with an identifie in the poga$5
T7pes of %inding
1 'al7 %inding
2 Late %inding
3 )inding duing the !o$piled phase is eal7 %inding5
4 )inding duing the unti$e phase is late %inding5
5 In eal7 %inding !o$pile phase will ta&e longe %e!ause of %inding
wo& %ut the
'/e!ution is faste5
6 In late %inding it will shoten the !o$pile phase %ut lengthens the
e/e!ution ti$e5
7 AL?SQL %7 default uses eal7 %inding5
8 )inding also involves !he!&ing the data%ase fo pe$issions to a!!ess
the o%Je!t
Refeen!ed5
D*N(MIC SQL
1 If 7ou use DDL in pl?sUl it validates the pe$issions and e/isten!e if
eUuies duing !o$pile ti$e whi!h $a&es invalid5
2 6e !an avoid this %7 using D7na$i! SQL5
3 D7na$i! SQL allows 7ou to !eate a SQL state$ent d7na$i!all7 at
unti$e5
Two te!hniUues ae availa%le fo D7na$i! SQL5
1 Native D7na$i! SQL
2 D)MSMSQL pa!&age
USIN8 N(TI9' D*N(MIC SQL
USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T'
'/0
)'8IN
'/e!ute i$$ediate K!eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e
va!ha(23));.
o
'/e!ute i$$ediate (K!eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e
va!ha(23));).
'ND.
USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T' 6IT: AL?SQL 9(RI()L'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
v va!ha(233).
)'8IN
v 0H =!eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23))=.
e/e!ute i$$ediate v.
'ND.
USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T' 6IT: )IND 9(RI()L'S (ND USIN8 CL(US'
'/0
D'CL(R'
v va!ha(233).
)'8IN
v 0H =inset into student values(0v2#0v1#0v4)=.
e/e!ute i$$ediate v using D#=f=#D33.
'ND.
'+'CUTIN8 QU'RI'S 6IT: OA'N BOR (ND USIN8 CL(US'
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A(s$a&s in nu$%e) IS
s va!ha(233) 0H =sele!t Efo$ student whee $a&s - 0$=.
t7pe t is ef !uso.
! t.
v studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
open ! fo s using s$a&s.
loop
fet!h ! into v.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Student Ma&s H = XX v5$a&s).
end loop.
!lose !.
'ND.

Output0
SQL- e/e! p(233)
Student Ma&s H 133
Student Ma&s H 433
Student Ma&s H @33
QU'RI'S 6IT: '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T'
'/0
D'CL(R'
dMna$e dept5dna$eLt7pe.
l! dept5lo!Lt7pe.
v va!ha(233).
)'8IN
v 0H =sele!t dna$e fo$ dept whee deptno H 23=.
e/e!ute i$$ediate v into dMna$e.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H =XX dMna$e).
v 0H =sele!t lo! fo$ dept whee dna$e H 0dn=.
e/e!ute i$$ediate v into l! using dMna$e.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo! H = XX l!).
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8
Lo! H N'6 *ORF
9(RI()L' N(M'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
Ma&s nu$%e(4) 0H 233.
)'8IN
Delete student whee $a&s H $a&s. "" this will delete all the ows in
the
"" student ta%le
'ND.
This !an %e avoided %7 using the la%eled %lo!&s5
,,$7M%lo!&--
D'CL(R'
Ma&s nu$%e(4) 0H 233.
)'8IN
Delete student whee $a&s H $7M%lo!&5$a&s. "" delete ows whi!h
has
"" a $a&s of 233
'ND.
8'TTIN8 D(T( INTO AL?SQL 9(RI()L'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
92 nu$%e.
91 va!ha(1).
)'8IN
Sele!t no#na$e into v2#v1 fo$ student whee $a&s H 233.
'ND.
DML (ND R'CORDS
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A(sow in studentLowt7pe) IS
)'8IN
inset into student values sow.
'ND A.
D'CL(R'
s studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
s5no 0H 22.
s5na$e 0H =aa=.
s5$a&s 0H 233.
p(s).
'ND.
R'CORD )(S'D INS'RTS
'/0
D'CL(R'
sow studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
sow5no 0H V.
sow5na$e 0H =!!=.
sow5$a&s 0H C33.
inset into student values sow.
'ND.
R'CORD )(S'D UAD(T'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
sow studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
sow5no 0H D.
sow5na$e 0H =!!=.
sow5$a&s 0H C33.
update student set owHsow whee no H sow5no.
'ND.
USIN8 R'CORDS 6IT: R'TURNIN8 CL(US'
'/0
D'CL(R'
sow studentLowt7pe.
setun studentLowt7pe.
)'8IN
sow5no 0H W.
sow5na$e 0H =dd=.
sow5$a&s 0H C33.
inset into student values sow etuning no#na$e#$a&s into setun.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No H = XX setun5no).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No H = XX setun5na$e).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No H = XX setun5$a&s).
'ND.
Output0
No H W
No H dd
No H C33
USIN8 D)MSMSQL A(CF(8'
D)MSMSQL is used to e/e!ute d7na$i! SQL fo$ with in AL?SQL5 Unli&e native
d7na$i! SQL# it is not %uilt die!tl7 into the language# and thus is less effi!ient5
The D)MSMSQL pa!&age allows 7ou to die!tl7 !ontol the po!essing of a
state$ent within a !uso# with opeations su!h as opening and !losing a !uso#
pasing a state$ent# %inding input vaia%le# and defining output vaia%les5
'/20
D'CL(R'
!usoMid nu$%e.
flag nu$%e.
vMst$t va!ha(C3).
)'8IN
!usoMid 0H d%$sMsUl5openM!uso.
vMst$t 0H =!eate ta%le stud(sno nu$%e(1)#sna$e va!ha(23))=.
d%$sMsUl5pase(!usoMid#vMst$t#d%$sMsUl5native).
flag 0H d%$sMsUl5e/e!ute(!usoMid).
d%$sMsUl5!loseM!uso(!usoMid).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ta%le !eated=).
'ND.
Output0
Ta%le !eated
SQL- des! stud
Na$e Null[ T7pe
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""" """"""""
SNO NUM)'R(1)
SN(M' 9(RC:(R1(23)
'/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' D)MSMSQLMAROC(v2 student5noLt7pe#
v1 student5$a&sLt7pe) is
!usoMid nu$%e.
flag nu$%e.
vMupdate va!ha(C3).
)'8IN
!usoMid 0H d%$sMsUl5openM!uso.
vMupdate 0H =update student set $a&s H 0s$a&s whee no H 0sno=.
d%$sMsUl5pase(!usoMid#vMupdate#d%$sMsUl5native).
d%$sMsUl5%indMvaia%le(!usoMid#=0sno=#v2).
d%$sMsUl5%indMvaia%le(!usoMid#=0s$a&s=#v1).
flag 0H d%$sMsUl5e/e!ute(!usoMid).
d%$sMsUl5!loseM!uso(!usoMid).
'ND D)MSMSQLMAROC.
Output0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student. "" %efoe e/e!ution
NO N( M(RFS
"""" """""" "" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
SQL- e/e! d%$sMsUlMpo!(1#111)
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student. "" afte e/e!ution
NO N( M(RFS
"""" """""" "" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 111
4 ! 433
BOR(LL ST(T'M'NT
This !an %e used to get the data fo$ the data%ase at on!e %7 edu!ting the
nu$%e of !onte/t swit!hes whi!h is a tansfe of !ontol %etween AL?SQL and SQL
engine5
S7nta/0
Boall inde/Mva in
N 4ower_bound55upper_bound X
Indi!es of inde(in"_collection X
9alues of inde(in"_collection O
SQL state$ent.
BOR(LL 6IT: NON"S'QU'NTI(L (RR(*S
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of student5noLt7pe inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
i%t t.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H 2.
i%t(23) 0H 1.
foall i in i%t5fist55i%t5last
update student set $a&s H S33 whee no H i%t(i).
'ND.
The a%ove poga$ will give eo li&e Kele$ent at inde/ N1O does not e/ists5
*ou !an e!tif7 it in one of the two following wa7s5
US8(8' OB INDIC'S OB TO (9OID T:' ()O9' )':(9IOUR
This will %e used when 7ou have a !olle!tion whose defined ows spe!if7 whi!h
ows in the %inding aa7 7ou would li&e to po!essed5
'/0
D'CL(R'
i%t t.
t7pe t2 is ta%le of %oolean inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
i%t2 t2.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H 2.
i%t(23) 0H 1.
i%t(233) 0H 4.
i%t2(2) 0H tue.
i%t2(23) 0H tue.
i%t2(233) 0H tue.
foall i in indi!es of i%t2
update student set $a&s H S33 whee no H i%t(i).
'ND.
Ouput0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" %efoe e/e!ution
NO N( M(RFS
"""""""""" """"""""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" afte e/e!ution
NO N( M(RFS
"""""""""" """"""""""""
2 a S33
1 % S33
4 ! S33
US8(8' OB 9(LU'S OB TO (9OID T:' ()O9' )':(9IOUR
This will %e used when 7ou have a !olle!tion of integes whose !ontent identifies
the position in the %inding aa7 that 7ou want to %e po!essed %7 the BOR(LL
state$ent5
'/0
D'CL(R'
i%t t.
t7pe t2 is ta%le of plsMintege inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
i%t2 t2.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H 2.
i%t(23) 0H 1.
i%t(233) 0H 4.
i%t2(22) 0H 2.
i%t2(2C) 0H 23.
i%t2(2W) 0H 233.
foall i in values of i%t2
update student set $a&s H CDV whee no H i%t(i).
'ND.
Ouput0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" %efoe e/e!ution
NO N( M(RFS
"""""""""" """"""""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student "" afte e/e!ution
NO N( M(RFS
"""""""""" """"""""""""
2 a S33
1 % S33
4 ! S33

AOINTS ()OUT )ULF )INDS
1 Aassing the entie AL?SQL ta%le to the SQL engine in one step is &nown
as %ul& %ind5
2 )ul& %inds ae done using the foall state$ent5
3 If thee is an eo po!essing one of the ows in %ul& DML opeation#
onl7 that ow is olled %a!&5
AOINTS ()OUT R'TURIN8 CL(US'
1 This will %e used onl7 with DML state$ents to etun data into AL?SQL
vaia%les5
2 This will %e useful in situations li&e # when pefo$ing inset o
update o delete if 7ou want to &now the data of the ta%le whi!h has %een
effe!ted %7 the DML5
3 6ith out going fo anothe S'L'CT using R'TURNIN8 !lause we will get
the data whi!h will avoid a !all to RD)MS &enel5
COLL'CTIONS
Colle!tions ae also !o$posite t7pes# in that the7 allow 7ou to teat seveal
vaia%les as a unit5 ( !olle!tion !o$%ines vaia%les of the sa$e t7pe5
T*A'S
1 9aa7s
2 Nested ta%les
3 Inde/ " %7 ta%les ((sso!iate aa7s)
9(RR(*S
( vaa7 is datat7pe ve7 si$ila to an aa75 ( vaa7 has a fi/ed li$it on its siTe#
spe!ified as pat of the de!laation5 'le$ents ae inseted into vaa7 stating at
inde/ 2# up to $a/i$u$ lenth de!laed in the vaa7 t7pe5 The $a/i$u$ siTe of
the vaa7 is 1 giga %7tes5
S7nta/0
T7pe ,type_name& is vaa7 X va7ing aa7 (,limit&) of ,element_type&.
'/20
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is vaa7(23) of va!ha(1).
va t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=#=d=).
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX va5li$it).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX va5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX va5fist).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX va5last).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX va5ne/t(1)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aevious Inde/ H = XX va5pio(4)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=).
fo i in va5fist55va5last loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =O H = XX va(i)).
end loop.
flag 0H va5e/ists(4).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(4)).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 does not e/ists=).
end if.
va5e/tend.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).
flag 0H va5e/ists(C).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(C)).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C does not e/ists=).
end if.
flag 0H va5e/ists(D).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(D)).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D does not e/ists=).
end if.
va5e/tend(1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H = XX
va5!ount).
end loop.
va(C) 0H =e=.
va(D) 0H =f=.
va(V) 0H =g=.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS#
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=).
end loop.
va5e/tend(4#1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of thee inde/es# Count H = XX
va5!ount).
end loop.
va5ti$.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).
va5ti$(4).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H = XX va5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R TRIM# 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=).
end loop.
va5delete.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H = XX
va5!ount).
'ND.
Output0
Li$it H 23
Count H @
Bist Inde/ H 2
Last Inde/ H @
Ne/t Inde/ H 4
Aevious Inde/ H 1
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2O H a
vaN1O H %
vaN4O H !
vaN@O H d
Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent !
(fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H C
Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent
Inde/ D does not e/ists
(fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H V
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2O H a
vaN1O H %
vaN4O H !
vaN@O H d
vaNCO H
vaNDO H
vaNVO H
(BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# 9(RR(*
'L'M'NTS
vaN2O H a
vaN1O H %
vaN4O H !
vaN@O H d
vaNCO H e
vaNDO H f
vaNVO H g
(fte e/tend of thee inde/es# Count H 23
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2O H a
vaN1O H %
vaN4O H !
vaN@O H d
vaNCO H e
vaNDO H f
vaNVO H g
vaNWO H %
vaNSO H %
vaN23O H %
(fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H S
(fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H D
(BT'R TRIM# 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2O H a
vaN1O H %
vaN4O H !
vaN@O H d
vaNCO H e
vaNDO H f
(fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H 3
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is vaa7(@) of studentLowt7pe.
va t 0H t(null#null#null#null).
)'8IN
fo i in 255va5!ount loop
sele!t E into va(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sno H = XX va(i)5sno XX = Sna$e H = XX
va(i)5sna$e).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Sno H 2 Sna$e H sa&eth
Sno H 1 Sna$e H sinu
Sno H 4 Sna$e H div7a
Sno H @ Sna$e H $anogni
'/40
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is vaa7(@) of student5s$a&sLt7pe.
)'8IN
sele!t s$a&s into va(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=S$a&s H = XX va(i)).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
S$a&s H 233
S$a&s H 133
S$a&s H 433
S$a&s H @33
'/@0
D'CL(R'
t7pe is e!od(!2 student5sna$eLt7pe#!1 student5s$a&sLt7pe).
t7pe t is vaa7(@) of .
)'8IN
sele!t sna$e#s$a&s into va(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sna$e H = XX va(i)5!2 XX = S$a&s H = XX
va(i)5!1).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Sna$e H sa&eth S$a&s H 233
Sna$e H sinu S$a&s H 133
Sna$e H div7a S$a&s H 433
Sna$e H $anogni S$a&s H @33
'/C0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is vaa7(2) of add.
va t 0H t(null).
!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ e$p1lo7.
i nu$%e 0H 2.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
sele!t addess into va(i) fo$ e$p1lo7 whee ena$e H v5ena$e.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:no H = XX va(i)5hno XX = Cit7 H = XX
va(i)5!it7).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
:no H 22 Cit7 H h7d
:no H 11 Cit7 H %ang
:no H 44 Cit7 H &o!hi
'/D0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is vaa7(C) of va!ha(1).
va2 t.
va1 t 0H t().
)'8IN
if va2 is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va2 is null=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va2 is not null=).
end if.
if va1 is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va1 is null=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va1 is not null=).
end if.
'ND.
Output0
va2 is null
va1 is not null
N'ST'D T()L'S
( nested ta%le is thought of a data%ase ta%le whi!h has no li$it on its siTe5
'le$ents ae inseted into nested ta%le stating at inde/ 25 The $a/i$u$ siTe of
the vaa7 is 1 giga %7tes5
S7nta/0
T7pe ,type_name& is ta%le of ,table_type&.
'/20
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of va!ha(1).
nt t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=#=d=).
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
if nt5li$it is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Nested Ta%les=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX nt5li$it).
end if.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX nt5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX nt5fist).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX nt5last).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX nt5ne/t(1)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aevious Inde/ H = XX nt5pio(4)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=).
fo i in 255nt5!ount loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)).
end loop.
flag 0H nt5e/ists(4).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(4)).
else
end if.
nt5e/tend.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
flag 0H nt5e/ists(C).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(C)).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C does not e/ists=).
end if.
flag 0H nt5e/ists(D).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(D)).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D does not e/ists=).
end if.
nt5e/tend(1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
end loop.
nt(C) 0H =e=.
nt(D) 0H =f=.
nt(V) 0H =g=.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS#
N'ST'D
T()L' 'L'M'NTS=).
end loop.
nt5e/tend(C#1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of five inde/es# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
end loop.
nt5ti$.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount).
nt5ti$(4).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R TRIM# N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=).
end loop.
nt5delete(2).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of fist inde/# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
fo i in 155nt5!ountG2 loop
end loop.
nt5delete(@).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
fo i in 1554 loop
end loop.
fo i in C55nt5!ountG1 loop
end loop.
nt5delete.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
'ND.
Output0
No li$it to Nested Ta%les
Count H @
Bist Inde/ H 2
Last Inde/ H @
Ne/t Inde/ H 4
Aevious Inde/ H 1
N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS
ntN2O H a
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntN@O H d
Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent
Inde/ D does not e/ists
(fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H V
ntN2O H a
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntN@O H d
ntNCO H
ntNDO H
ntNVO H
(BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# N'ST'D T()L'
'L'M'NTS
ntN2O H a
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntN@O H d
ntNCO H e
ntNDO H f
ntNVO H g
(fte e/tend of five inde/es# Count H 21
ntN2O H a
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntN@O H d
ntNCO H e
ntNDO H f
ntNVO H g
ntNWO H %
ntNSO H %
ntN23O H %
ntN22O H %
ntN21O H %
(fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H 22
(fte ti$ of thee inde/s# Count H W
(BT'R TRIM# N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS
ntN2O H a
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntN@O H d
ntNCO H e
ntNDO H f
ntNVO H g
ntNWO H %
(fte delete of fist inde/# Count H V
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntN@O H d
ntNCO H e
ntNDO H f
ntNVO H g
ntNWO H %
(fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H D
ntN1O H %
ntN4O H !
ntNCO H e
ntNDO H f
ntNVO H g
ntNWO H %
(fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H 3
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of studentLowt7pe.
nt t 0H t(null#null#null#null).
)'8IN
sele!t E into nt(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sno H = XX nt(i)5sno XX = Sna$e H = XX
nt(i)5sna$e).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Sno H 2 Sna$e H sa&eth
Sno H 1 Sna$e H sinu
Sno H 4 Sna$e H div7a
Sno H @ Sna$e H $anogni
'/40
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of student5s$a&sLt7pe.
)'8IN
sele!t s$a&s into nt(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=S$a&s H = XX nt(i)).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
S$a&s H 233
S$a&s H 133
S$a&s H 433
S$a&s H @33
'/@0
D'CL(R'
t7pe is e!od(!2 student5sna$eLt7pe#!1 student5s$a&sLt7pe).
t7pe t is ta%le of .
)'8IN
sele!t sna$e#s$a&s into nt(i) fo$ student whee sno H i.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sna$e H = XX nt(i)5!2 XX = S$a&s H = XX
nt(i)5!1).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Sna$e H sa&eth S$a&s H 233
Sna$e H sinu S$a&s H 133
Sna$e H div7a S$a&s H 433
Sna$e H $anogni S$a&s H @33
'/C0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of add.
nt t 0H t(null).
!uso ! is sele!t E fo$ e$p1lo7.
i nu$%e 0H 2.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop
sele!t addess into nt(i) fo$ e$p1lo7 whee ena$e H v5ena$e.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:no H = XX nt(i)5hno XX = Cit7 H = XX nt(i)5!it7).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
:no H 22 Cit7 H h7d
:no H 11 Cit7 H %ang
:no H 44 Cit7 H &o!hi
'/D0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is vaa7(C) of va!ha(1).
nt2 t.
nt1 t 0H t().
)'8IN
if nt2 is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt2 is null=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt2 is not null=).
end if.
if nt1 is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt1 is null=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt1 is not null=).
end if.
'ND.
Output0
nt2 is null
nt1 is not null
S'T OA'R(TIONS IN N'ST'D T()L'S
*ou !an pefo$ set opeations in the nested ta%les5 *ou !an also pefo$ eUualit7
!o$paisions %etween nested ta%les5
Aossi%le opeations ae
1 UNION
2 UNION DISTINCT
3 INT'RS'CT
4 '+C'AT ( a!t li&e MINUS)
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of va!ha(1).
nt2 t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=).
nt1 t 0H t(=!=#=%=#=a=).
nt4 t 0H t(=%=#=!=#=a=#=!=).
nt@ t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=d=).
ntC t.
)'8IN
ntC 0H set(nt2).
fo i in ntC5fist55ntC5last loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)).
end loop.
ntC 0H set(nt4).
end loop.
ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset union nt@.
end loop.
ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset union nt4.
end loop.
ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset union distin!t nt4.
end loop.
ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset e/!ept nt@.
end loop.
ntC 0H nt@ $ultiset e/!ept nt2.
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
ntCN 2 O H a
ntCN 1 O H %
ntCN 4 O H !
ntCN 2 O H %
ntCN 1 O H !
ntCN 4 O H a
ntCN 2 O H a
ntCN 1 O H %
ntCN 4 O H !
ntCN @ O H a
ntCN C O H %
ntCN D O H d
ntCN 2 O H a
ntCN 1 O H %
ntCN 4 O H !
ntCN @ O H %
ntCN C O H !
ntCN D O H a
ntCN V O H !
ntCN 2 O H a
ntCN 1 O H %
ntCN 4 O H !
ntCN 2 O H !
ntCN 2 O H d
IND'+")* T()L'S
(n inde/"%7 ta%le has no li$it on its siTe5 'le$ents ae inseted into inde/"%7
ta%le whose inde/ $a7 stat non"seUuentiall7 in!luding negative integes5
S7nta/0
T7pe ,type_name& is ta%le of ,table_type& inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of va!ha(1) inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
i%t t.
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H =a=.
i%t("13) 0H =%=.
i%t(43) 0H =!=.
i%t(233) 0H =d=.
if i%t5li$it is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Inde/ %7 Ta%les=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX i%t5li$it).
end if.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX i%t5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX i%t5fist).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX i%t5last).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX i%t5ne/t(1)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aevious Inde/ H = XX i%t5pio(4)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN"13O H = XX i%t("13)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN2O H = XX i%t(2)).
flag 0H i%t5e/ists(43).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 43 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX i%t(43)).
else
end if.
flag 0H i%t5e/ists(C3).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C3 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX i%t(43)).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C3 does not e/ists=).
end if.
i%t5delete(2).
i%t5!ount).
i%t5delete(43).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of inde/ thit7# Count H = XX
i%t5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN"13O H = XX i%t("13)).
i%t5delete.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H =
XX
i%t5!ount).
'ND.
Output0
No li$it to Inde/ %7 Ta%les
Count H @
Bist Inde/ H "13
Last Inde/ H 233
Ne/t Inde/ H 43
Aevious Inde/ H 2
IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS
i%tN"13O H %
i%tN2O H a
i%tN43O H !
i%tN233O H d
Inde/ C3 does not e/ists
(fte delete of fist inde/# Count H 4
(fte delete of inde/ thit7# Count H 1
IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS
i%tN"13O H %
i%tN233O H d
(fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H 3
DIBB'R'NC'S (MON8 COLL'CTIONS
1 9aa7s has li$it# nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les has no li$it5
2 9aa7s and nested ta%les $ust %e initialiTed %efoe assign$ent of
ele$ents# in inde/"%7 ta%les we !an die!tl7 assign ele$ents5
3 9aa7s and nested ta%les stoed in data%ase# %ut inde/"%7 ta%les !an
not5
4 Nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les ae AL?SQL ta%les# %ut vaa7s !an
not5
5 Fe7s $ust %e positive in !ase of nested ta%les and vaa7s# in !ase of
inde/"%7 ta%les &e7s !an %e positive o negative5
6 Refeen!ing none/istent ele$ents aises SU)SCRIATM)'*ONDMCOUNT in
%oth nested ta%les and vaa7s# %ut in !ase of inde/"%7 ta%les
NOMD(T(MBOUND aises5
7 Fe7s ae seUuential in %oth nested ta%les and vaa7s# non"seUuential
in inde/"%7 ta%les5
8 Individual inde/es !an %e deleted in %oth nested ta%les and inde/"%7
ta%les# %ut in vaa7s !an not5
9 Individual inde/es !an %e ti$$ed in %oth nested ta%les and vaa7s#
%ut in inde/"%7 ta%les !an not5
10 Individual inde/es !an %e e/tended in %oth nested ta%les and vaa7s#
%ut in inde/"%7 ta%les !an not5
MULTIL'9'L COLL'CTIONS
Colle!tions of $oe than one di$ension whi!h is a !olle!tion of !olle!tions# &nown
as $ultilevel !olle!tions5
S7nta/0
T7pe ,type_name1& is ta%le of ,table_type& inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
T7pe ,type_name2& is vaa7(,limit-) X ta%le X of ,type_name1& < inde/
%7
%ina7Mintege.
'/20
D'CL(R'
t7pe t2 is ta%le of va!ha(1) inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
t7pe t1 is vaa7(C) of t2.
va t1 0H t1().
! nu$%e 0H SV.
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
va5e/tend(@).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX va5!ount).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX va5li$it).
fo J in 255va5!ount loop
va(i)(J) 0H !h(!).
! 0H ! G 2.
end loop.
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX va(i)(J)).
end loop.
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bist inde/ H = XX va5fist).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last inde/ H = XX va5last).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t inde/ H = XX va5ne/t(1)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aevious inde/ H = XX va5pio(4)).
flag 0H va5e/ists(1).
if flag H tue then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 1 e/ists=).
else
end if.
va5e/tend.
va(2)(C) 0H =U=.
va(1)(C) 0H ==.
va(4)(C) 0H =s=.
va(@)(C) 0H =t=.
va(C)(2) 0H =u=.
va(C)(1) 0H =v=.
va(C)(4) 0H =w=.
va(C)(@) 0H =/=.
va(C)(C) 0H =7=.
va5!ount).
end loop.
end loop.
va5ti$.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount).
va5ti$(1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H = XX
va5!ount).
end loop.
end loop.
va5delete.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H = XX
va5!ount).
'ND.
Output0
Count H @
Li$it H C
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2ON2O H a
vaN2ON1O H %
vaN2ON4O H !
vaN2ON@O H d
vaN1ON2O H e
vaN1ON1O H f
vaN1ON4O H g
vaN1ON@O H h
vaN4ON2O H i
vaN4ON1O H J
vaN4ON4O H &
vaN4ON@O H l
vaN@ON2O H $
vaN@ON1O H n
vaN@ON4O H o
vaN@ON@O H p
Bist inde/ H 2
Last inde/ H @
Ne/t inde/ H 4
Aevious inde/ H 1
Inde/ 1 e/ists
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2ON2O H a
vaN2ON1O H %
vaN2ON4O H !
vaN2ON@O H d
vaN2ONCO H U
vaN1ON2O H e
vaN1ON1O H f
vaN1ON4O H g
vaN1ON@O H h
vaN1ONCO H
vaN4ON2O H i
vaN4ON1O H J
vaN4ON4O H &
vaN4ON@O H l
vaN4ONCO H s
vaN@ON2O H $
vaN@ON1O H n
vaN@ON4O H o
vaN@ON@O H p
vaN@ONCO H t
vaNCON2O H u
vaNCON1O H v
vaNCON4O H w
vaNCON@O H /
vaNCONCO H 7
(fte ti$ of one inde/# Count H @
(fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H 1
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS
vaN2ON2O H a
vaN2ON1O H %
vaN1ON2O H e
vaN1ON1O H f
(fte delete of entie vaa7# Count H 3
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2.
nt t1 0H t1().
! nu$%e 0H DC.
v nu$%e 0H 2.
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
nt5e/tend(@).
if nt5li$it is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Nested Ta%les=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX nt5li$it).
end if.
fo J in 255nt5!ount loop
nt(i)(J) 0H !h(!).
! 0H ! G 2.
if ! H S2 then
! 0H SV.
end if.
end loop.
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX nt(i)(J)).
end loop.
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bist inde/ H = XX nt5fist).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last inde/ H = XX nt5last).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t inde/ H = XX nt5ne/t(1)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aevious inde/ H = XX nt5pio(4)).
flag 0H nt5e/ists(1).
if flag H tue then
else
end if.
nt5e/tend(1).
nt(2)(C) 0H =Q=.
nt(2)(D) 0H =R=.
nt(1)(C) 0H =S=.
nt(1)(D) 0H =T=.
nt(4)(C) 0H =U=.
nt(4)(D) 0H =9=.
nt(@)(C) 0H =6=.
nt(@)(D) 0H =+=.
nt(C)(2) 0H =*=.
nt(C)(1) 0H =Z=.
nt(C)(4) 0H =a=.
nt(C)(@) 0H =%=.
nt(C)(C) 0H =!=.
nt(C)(D) 0H =d=.
nt(D)(2) 0H =e=.
nt(D)(1) 0H =f=.
nt(D)(4) 0H =g=.
nt(D)(@) 0H =h=.
nt(D)(C) 0H =i=.
nt(D)(D) 0H =J=.
nt5!ount).
end loop.
end loop.
nt5ti$.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of one inde/e# Count H = XX nt5!ount).
nt5ti$(1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
end loop.
end loop.
nt5delete(1).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of se!ond inde/# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
loop
e/it when v H @.
fo J in 255nt5!ountG2 loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX v XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX nt(v)(J)).
end loop.
v 0H v G 2.
if vH 1 then
v 0H 4.
end if.
end loop.
nt5delete.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H = XX
nt5!ount).
'ND.
Output0
Count H @
No li$it to Nested Ta%les
ntN2ON2O H (
ntN2ON1O H )
ntN2ON4O H C
ntN2ON@O H D
ntN1ON2O H '
ntN1ON1O H B
ntN1ON4O H 8
ntN1ON@O H :
ntN4ON2O H I
ntN4ON1O H >
ntN4ON4O H F
ntN4ON@O H L
ntN@ON2O H M
ntN@ON1O H N
ntN@ON4O H O
ntN@ON@O H A
Bist inde/ H 2
Last inde/ H @
Ne/t inde/ H 4
Aevious inde/ H 1
Inde/ 1 e/ists
(fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H D
ntN2ON2O H (
ntN2ON1O H )
ntN2ON4O H C
ntN2ON@O H D
ntN2ONCO H Q
ntN2ONDO H R
ntN1ON2O H '
ntN1ON1O H B
ntN1ON4O H 8
ntN1ON@O H :
ntN1ONCO H S
ntN1ONDO H T
ntN4ON2O H I
ntN4ON1O H >
ntN4ON4O H F
ntN4ON@O H L
ntN4ONCO H U
ntN4ONDO H 9
ntN@ON2O H M
ntN@ON1O H N
ntN@ON4O H O
ntN@ON@O H A
ntN@ONCO H 6
ntN@ONDO H +
ntNCON2O H *
ntNCON1O H Z
ntNCON4O H a
ntNCON@O H %
ntNCONCO H !
ntNCONDO H d
ntNDON2O H e
ntNDON1O H f
ntNDON4O H g
ntNDON@O H h
ntNDONCO H i
ntNDONDO H J
(fte ti$ of one inde/e# Count H C
(fte ti$ of two inde/es# Count H 4
ntN2ON2O H (
ntN2ON1O H )
ntN2ON4O H C
ntN1ON2O H '
ntN1ON1O H B
ntN1ON4O H 8
ntN4ON2O H I
ntN4ON1O H >
ntN4ON4O H F
(fte delete of se!ond inde/# Count H 1
ntN2ON2O H (
ntN2ON1O H )
ntN2ON4O H C
ntN4ON2O H I
ntN4ON1O H >
ntN4ON4O H F
(fte delete of entie nested ta%le# Count H 3
'/40
D'CL(R'
t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2 inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
i%t t1.
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
if i%t5li$it is null then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Inde/"%7 Ta%les=).
else
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX i%t5li$it).
end if.
i%t(2)(2) 0H =a=.
i%t(@)(C) 0H =%=.
i%t(C)(2) 0H =!=.
i%t(D)(1) 0H =d=.
i%t(W)(4) 0H =e=.
i%t(4)(@) 0H =f=.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N2ON2O H = XX i%t(2)(2)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N@ONCO H = XX i%t(@)(C)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NCON2O H = XX i%t(C)(2)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NDON1O H = XX i%t(D)(1)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NWON4O H = XX i%t(W)(4)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N4ON@O H = XX i%t(4)(@)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bist Inde/ H = XX i%t5fist).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX i%t5last).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX i%t5ne/t(4)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Aio Inde/ H = XX i%t5pio(W)).
i%t(2)(1) 0H =g=.
i%t(2)(4) 0H =h=.
i%t(2)(@) 0H =i=.
i%t(2)(C) 0H =&=.
i%t(2)(D) 0H =l=.
i%t(2)(V) 0H =$=.
i%t(2)(W) 0H =n=.
fo i in 255W loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN2ON= XX i XX =O H = XX i%t(2)(i)).
end loop.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N@ONCO H = XX i%t(@)(C)).
flag 0H i%t5e/ists(4).
if flag H tue then
else
end if.
i%t5delete(2).
i%t5!ount).
i%t5delete(@).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H = XX
i%t5!ount).
i%t5delete.
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H =
XX
i%t5!ount).
'ND.
Output0
Count H 3
No li$it to Inde/"%7 Ta%les
IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS
i%t(N2ON2O H a
i%t(N@ONCO H %
i%t(NCON2O H !
i%t(NDON1O H d
i%t(NWON4O H e
i%t(N4ON@O H f
Bist Inde/ H 2
Last Inde/ H W
Ne/t Inde/ H @
Aio Inde/ H D
Count H D
i%tN2ON2O H a
i%tN2ON1O H g
i%tN2ON4O H h
i%tN2ON@O H i
i%tN2ONCO H &
i%tN2ONDO H l
i%tN2ONVO H $
i%tN2ONWO H n
i%t(N@ONCO H %
i%t(NCON2O H !
i%t(NDON1O H d
i%t(NWON4O H e
i%t(N4ON@O H f
Inde/ 4 e/ists
(fte delete of fist inde/# Count H C
(fte delete of fouth inde/# Count H @
i%t(NCON2O H !
i%t(NDON1O H d
i%t(NWON4O H e
i%t(N4ON@O H f
(fte delete of entie inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H 3
'/@0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2 inde/ %7 %ina7Mintege.
t7pe t4 is ta%le of t1.
nt t4 0H t4().
! nu$%e 0H DC.
)'8IN
nt5e/tend(1).
fo & in 255nt5!ount loop
nt(i)(J)(&) 0H !h(!).
! 0H ! G 2.
end loop.
end loop.
end loop.
fo & in 255nt5!ount loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =ON= XX & XX =O H =
XX
nt(i)(J)(&)).
end loop.
end loop.
end loop.
'ND.
Output0
Count H 1
ntN2ON2ON2O H (
ntN2ON2ON1O H )
ntN2ON1ON2O H C
ntN2ON1ON1O H D
ntN1ON2ON2O H '
ntN1ON2ON1O H B
ntN1ON1ON2O H 8
ntN1ON1ON1O H :
O)>'CTS US'D IN T:' '+(MAL'S
SNO SN(M' SM(RFS
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""
2 sa&eth 233
1 sinu 133
4 div7a 433
@ $anogni @33
SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(1)#!it7
va!ha(23)).?
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1lo7.
'N(M' >O) (DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""
RanJit !le& (DDR(22# =h7d=)
Satish $anage (DDR(11# =%ang=)
Sinu enginee (DDR(44# =&o!hi=)
'RROR :(NDLIN8
AL?SQL i$ple$ents eo handling with e/!eptions and e/!eption handles5
'/!eptions !an %e asso!iated with oa!le eos o with 7ou own use"defined
eos5 )7 using e/!eptions and e/!eption handles# 7ou !an $a&e 7ou AL?SQL
poga$s o%ust and a%le to deal with %oth une/pe!ted and e/pe!ted eos
duing e/e!ution5
'RROR T*A'S
1 Co$pile"ti$e eos
2 Runti$e eos
'os that o!!u duing the !o$pilation phase ae dete!ted %7 the AL?SQL engine
and epoted %a!& to the use# we have to !oe!t the$5
Runti$e eos ae dete!ted %7 the AL?SQL unti$e engine whi!h !an
poga$$ati!all7 aise and !aught %7 e/!eption handles5
'/!eptions ae designed fo un"ti$e eo handling# athe than !o$pile"ti$e
eo handling5
:(NDLIN8 '+C'ATIONS
6hen e/!eption is aised# !ontol passes to the e/!eption se!tion of the %lo!&5 The
e/!eption se!tion !onsists of handles fo so$e o all of the e/!eptions5 (n
e/!eption handle !ontains the !ode that is e/e!uted when the eo asso!iated
with the e/!eption o!!us# and the e/!eption is aised5
S7nta/0
'+C'ATION
6hen e/!eptionMna$e then
SeUuen!eMofMstate$ents.
6hen e/!eptionMna$e then
6hen othes then
'ND.
'+C'ATION T*A'S
3 Aedefined e/!eptions
4 Use"defined e/!eptions
AR'D'BIN'D '+C'ATIONS
Oa!le has pedefined seveal e/!eptions that !oesponds to the $ost !o$$on
oa!le eos5 Li&e the pedefined t7pes# the identifies of these e/!eptions ae
defined in the ST(ND(RD pa!&age5 )e!ause of this# the7 ae alead7 availa%le to the
poga$# it is not ne!essa7 to de!lae the$ in the de!laative se!ion5
'/20
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e.
% va!ha(1).
vM$a&s nu$%e.
t7pe t is vaa7(4) of va!ha(1).
va t 0H t(=a=#=%=).
va2 t.
)'8IN
"" NOMD(T(MBOUND
)'8IN
sele!t s$a&s into vM$a&s fo$ student whee sno H C3.
'+C'ATION
when noMdataMfound then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid student nu$%e=).
'ND.
"" CURSORM(LR'(D*MOA'N
)'8IN
open !.
open !.
'+C'ATION
when !usoMalead7Mopen then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Cuso is alead7 opened=).
'ND.
"" IN9(LIDMCURSOR
)'8IN
!lose !.
open !.
!lose !.
!lose !.
'+C'ATION
when invalidM!uso then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Cuso is alead7 !losed=).
'ND.
"" TOOMM(N*MRO6S
)'8IN
sele!t s$a&s into vM$a&s fo$ student whee sno - 2.
'+C'ATION
when tooM$an7Mows then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Too $an7 values ae !o$ing to $a&s
vaia%le=).
'ND.
"" Z'ROMDI9ID'
)'8IN
a 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
when TeoMdivide then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Divided %7 Teo " invalid opeation=).
'ND.
"" 9(LU'M'RROR
)'8IN
% 0H =sa&eth=.
'+C'ATION
when valueMeo then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid sting length=).
'ND.
"" IN9(LIDMNUM)'R
)'8IN
inset into student values(=a=#=sinu=#233).
'+C'ATION
when invalidMnu$%e then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid nu$%e=).
'ND.
"" SU)SCRIATMOUTSID'MLIMIT
)'8IN
va(@) 0H =!=.
'+C'ATION
when su%s!iptMoutsideMli$it then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ is geate than the li$it=).
'ND.
"" SU)SCRIATM)'*ONDMCOUNT
)'8IN
va(4) 0H =!=.
'+C'ATION
when su%s!iptM%e7ondM!ount then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ is geate than the !ount=).
'ND.
"" COLL'CTIONMISMNULL
)'8IN
va2(2) 0H =a=.
'+C'ATION
when !olle!tionMisMnull then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Colle!tion is e$p1t7=).
'ND.
""
'ND.
Output0
Invalid student nu$%e
Cuso is alead7 opened
Cuso is alead7 !losed
Too $an7 values ae !o$ing to $a&s vaia%le
Divided %7 Teo " invalid opeation
Invalid sting length
Invalid nu$%e
Inde/ is geate than the li$it
Inde/ is geate than the !ount
Colle!tion is e$p1t7
'/10
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e.
)'8IN
! 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid Opeation=).
when othes then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bo$ OT:'RS handle0 Invalid
Opeation=).
'ND.
Output0
Invalid Opeation
US'R"D'BIN'D '+C'ATIONS
( use"defined e/!eption is an eo that is defined %7 the poga$$e5 Use"
defined e/!eptions ae de!laed in the de!laative se!ion of a AL?SQL %lo!&5 >ust
li&e vaia%les# e/eptions have a t7pe '+C'ATION and s!ope5
R(ISIN8 '+C'ATIONS
Use"defined e/!eptions ae aised e/pli!itl7 via the R(IS' state$ent5
'/0
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN
aise e.
'+C'ATION
when e then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e is aised=).
'ND.
Output0
e is aised
)ULIT"IN 'RROR BUNCTIONS
SQLCOD' (ND SQL'RRM
1 SQLCOD' etuns the !uent eo !ode# and SQL'RRM etuns the
!uent eo $essage te/t.
2 Bo use"defined e/!eption SQLCOD' etuns 2 and SQL'RRM etuns
Puse"deifned e/!eptionQ5
3 SQL'RRM wiil ta&e onl7 negative value e/!ept 2335 If an7 positive
value othe than 233 etuns non"oa!le e/!eption5
'/20
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
vMdna$e va!ha(23).
)'8IN
"" US'R"D'BIN'D '+C'ATION
)'8IN
aise e.
'+C'ATION
when e then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQLCOD' XX = = XX SQL'RRM).
'ND.
"" AR'D'BIN'D '+C'ATION
)'8IN
sele!t dna$e into vMdna$e fo$ dept whee deptno H C3.
'+C'ATION
when noMdataMfound then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQLCOD' XX = = XX SQL'RRM).
'ND.
'ND.
Output0
2 Use"Defined '/!eption
233 OR("32@340 no data found
'/10
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM(233)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM("233)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM("C33)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM("S33)).
'ND.
Output0
OR("32@340 no data found
OR("33330 no$al# su!!essful !o$pletion
Use"Defined '/!eption
OR("332330 no data found
OR("33C330 Message C33 not found. podu!tHRD)MS. fa!ilit7HOR(
"1330 non"OR(CL' e/!eption
OR("33S330 invalid SQL state$ent
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TM'RRORMST(CF
1 The %uilt"in fun!tion# li&e SQL'RRM# etuns the $essage asso!iated
with the !uent eo5
2 It diffes fo$ SQL'RRM in two wa7s0
3 Its length is not esti!ted. it will etun the full eo $essage sting5
4 *ou !an not pass an eo !ode nu$%e to this fun!tion. it !annot %e
used to etun the $essage fo a ando$ eo !ode5
'/0
D'CL(R'
v nu$%e 0H =a%=.
)'8IN
null.
'+C'ATION
when othes then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(d%$sMutilit75fo$atMeoMsta!&).
'ND.
Output0
de!lae
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("3DC310 AL?SQL0 nu$ei! o value eo0 !haa!te to nu$%e
!onvesion eo
OR("3DC210 at line 1
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TMC(LLMST(CF
This fun!tion etuns a fo$atted sting showing the e/e!ution !all sta!& inside
7ou AL?SQL appli!ation5 Its usefulness is not esti!ted to eo $anage$ent. 7ou
will also find its hand7 fo ta!ing the e/e!tution of 7ou !ode5 *ou $a7 not use
this fun!tion in e/!eption %lo!&5
'/0
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(d%$sMutilit75fo$atM!allMsta!&).
'ND.
Output0
""""" AL?SQL Call Sta!& """""
O%Je!tMhandle lineMnu$%e o%Je!tMna$e
DSVD3@VW 1 anon7$ous %lo!&
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TM'RRORM)(CFTR(C'
It displa7s the e/e!ution sta!& at the point whee an e/!eption was aised5 Thus #
7ou !an !all this fun!tion with an e/!eption se!tion at the top level of 7ou sta!&
and still find out whee the eo was aised deep within the !all sta!&5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A2 IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=fo$ po!edue 2=).
aise valueMeo.
'ND A2.
)'8IN
p2.
'ND A1.
)'8IN
p1.
'+C'ATION
when othes then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(d%$sMutilit75fo$atMeoM%a!&ta!e
).
'ND A4.
Output0
SQL- e/e! p4
fo$ po!edue 4
fo$ po!edue 1
fo$ po!edue 2
OR("3DC210 at bS(F'T:5A2b# line @
'+C'ATIONMINIT AR(8M(
Using this 7ou !an asso!iate a na$ed e/!eption with a pati!ula oa!le eo5 This
gives 7ou the a%ilit7 to tap this eo spe!ifi!all7# athe than via an OT:'RS
handle5
S7nta/0
AR(8M( '+C'ATIONMINIT(e(ception_name# oracle_error_number).
'/0
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
pag$a e/!eptionMinit(e#"2@VD).
! nu$%e.
)'8IN
! 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
when e then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid Opeation=).
'ND.
Output0
Invalid Opeation
R(IS'M(AALIC(TIONM'RROR
*ou !an use this %uilt"in fun!tion to !eate 7ou own eo $essages# whi!h !an %e
$oe des!iptive than na$ed e/!eptions5
S7nta/0
R(IS'M(AALIC(TIONM'RROR(error_number# error_me!!a"e##
Neep_error!_'la"O).
The )oolean paa$ete eep_error!_'la" is optional5 If it is TRU'# the new eo is
added to the list of eos alead7 aised5 If it is B(LS'# whi!h is default# the new
eo will epla!e the !uent list of eos5
'/0
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e.
)'8IN
! 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
aiseMappli!ationMeo("13111#=Invalid Opeation=).
'ND.
Output0
D'CL(R'
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("131110 Invalid Opeation
OR("3DC210 at line V
'+C'ATION AROA(8(TION
'/!eptions !an o!!u in the de!laative# the e/e!uta%le# o the e/!eption se!tion of
a AL?SQL %lo!&5
'+C'ATION R(IS'D IN T:' '+'CU(T()L' S'CTION
'/!eptions aised in e/e!uata%le se!tion !an %e handled in !uent %lo!& o oute
%lo!&5
'/20
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN
)'8IN
aise e.
'ND.
'+C'ATION
when e then
'ND.
Output0
e is aised
'/10
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN
)'8IN
aise e.
'ND.
'ND.
Output0
'RROR at line 20
OR("3DC230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use"defined e/!eption
OR("3DC210 at line C
'+C'ATION R(IS'D IN T:' D'CL(R(TI9' S'CTION
'/!eptions aised in the de!laative se!ion $ust %e handled in the oute %lo!&5
'/20
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e(4) 0H =a%!d=.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:ello=).
'+C'ATION
when othes then
'ND.
Output0
'RROR at line 20
OR("3DC310 AL?SQL0 nu$ei! o value eo0 !haa!te to nu$%e
!onvesion eo
OR("3DC210 at line 1
'/10
)'8IN
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e(4) 0H =a%!d=.
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:ello=).
'+C'ATION
when othes then
'ND.
'+C'ATION
when othes then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bo$ oute %lo!&0 Invalid sting
length=).
'ND.
Output0
Bo$ oute %lo!&0 Invalid sting length
'+C'ATION R(IS'D IN T:' '+C'ATION S'CTION
'/!eptions aised in the de!laative se!ion $ust %e handled in the oute %lo!&5
'/20
D'CL(R'
e2 e/!eption.
e1 e/!eption.
)'8IN
aise e2.
'+C'ATION
when e2 then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e2 is aised=).
aise e1.
when e1 then
'ND.
Output0
e2 is aised
D'CL(R'
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("3DC210 at line S
'/10
D'CL(R'
e2 e/!eption.
e1 e/!eption.
)'8IN
)'8IN
aise e2.
'+C'ATION
when e2 then
aise e1.
when e1 then
'ND.
'+C'ATION
when e1 then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bo$ oute %lo!&0 e1 is aised=).
'ND.
Output0
e2 is aised
Bo$ oute %lo!&0 e1 is aised
'/40
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN
aise e.
'+C'ATION
when e then
aise e.
'ND.
Output0
e is aised
D'CL(R'
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("3DC210 at line W
R'STRICTIONS
*ou !an not pass e/!eption as an agu$ent to a su%poga$5
D(T()(S' TRI88'RS
Tigges ae si$ila to po!edues o fun!tions in that the7 ae na$ed AL?SQL
%lo!&s with de!laative# e/e!uta%le# and e/!eption handling se!tions5 ( tigge is
e/e!uted i$pli!itl7 wheneve the tiggeing event happens5 The a!t of e/e!uting a
tigge is &nown as fiing the tigge5
R'STRICTIONS ON TRI88'R'S
1 Li&e pa!&ages# tigges $ust %e stoed as stand"alone o%Je!ts in the
data%ase and !annot %e lo!al to a %lo!& o pa!&age5
2 ( tigge does not a!!ept agu$ents5
US' OB TRI88'RS
1 Maintaining !o$ple/ integit7 !onstaints not possi%le though
de!laative !onstaints ena%le at ta%le !eation5
2 (uditing info$ation in a ta%le %7 e!oding the !hanges $ade and
who $ade the$5
3 (uto$ati!all7 signaling othe poga$s that a!tion needs to ta&e
pla!e when !hanges ae $ade to a ta%le5
4 Aefo$ validation on !hanges %eing $ade to ta%les5
5 (uto$ate $aintenan!e of the data%ase5
T*A'S OB S
1 DML Tigges
2 Instead of Tigges
3 DDL Tigges
4 S7ste$ Tigges
5 Suspend Tigges
C(T'8ORI'S
Ti$ing "" )efoe o (fte
Level "" Row o State$ent
Row level tigge fies on!e fo ea!h ow affe!ted %7 the tiggeing state$ent5
Row level tigge is identified %7 the BOR '(C: RO6 !lause5
State$ent level tigge fies on!e eithe %efoe o afte the state$ent5
DML TRI88'R S*NT(+
Ceate o epla!e tigge ,tri""er name-
^)efoe X afte_ Înset o update o delete_ on ,table name-
NBo ea!h owO
N6hen (R)O
NDe!laeO
"" De!laation
)egin
"" Tigge %od7
N'/!eptionO
"" '/!eption se!tion
'nd ,tri""er name-.
DML TRI88'RS
( DML tigge is fied on an INS'RT# UAD(T'# o D'L'T'S opeation on a data%ase ta%le5
It !an %e fied eithe %efoe o afte the state$ent e/e!utes# and !an %e fied on!e
pe affe!ted ow# o on!e pe state$ent5
The !o$%ination of these fa!tos dete$ines the t7pes of the tigges5 These ae a
total of 21 possi%le t7pes (4 state$ents E 1 ti$ing E 1 levels)5
ST(T'M'NT L'9'L
State$ent level tigge fies onl7 on!e5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le state$ent level (!ount va!ha (C3)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R ST(T'M'NTML'9'LMTRI88'R
(fte update on student
)'8IN
Inset into state$ent level values(=State$ent level fied=).
'ND ST(T'M'NTML'9'LMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL- update student set s$a&sHC33.
4 ows updated5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ state$entMlevel.
COUNT
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
State$ent level fied
RO6 L'9'L
Row level tigge fies on!e fo ea!h ow affe!ted %7 the tiggeing state$ent5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le owMlevel(!ount va!ha(C3)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R RO6ML'9'LMTRI88'R
(fte update on student
)'8IN
Inset into owMlevel values (=Row level fied=).
'ND RO6ML'9'LMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL- update student set s$a&sHC33.
4 ows updated5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ state$entMlevel.
COUNT
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
Row level fied
Row level fied
Row level fied
ORD'R OB DML TRI88'R BIRIN8
1 )efoe state$ent level
2 )efoe ow level
3 (fte ow level
4 (fte state$ent level
'/0
Suppose we have a follwing ta%le5
NO N(M' M(RFS
""""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33
SQL- !eate ta%le fiingMode(ode va!ha(C3)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R )'BOR'MST(T'M'NT
%efoe inset on student
)'8IN
inset into fiingMode values(=)efoe State$ent Level=).
'ND )'BOR'MST(T'M'NT.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R )'BOR'MRO6
%efoe inset on student
fo ea!h ow
)'8IN
inset into fiingMode values(=)efoe Row Level=).
'ND )'BOR'MRO6.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (BT'RMST(T'M'NT
afte inset on student
)'8IN
inset into fiingMode values(=(fte State$ent Level=).
'ND (BT'RMST(T'M'NT.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (BT'RMRO6
fo ea!h ow
)'8IN
inset into fiingMode values(=(fte Row Level=).
'ND (BT'RMRO6.
Output0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ fiingMode.
no ows sele!ted
SQL- inset into student values(C#=e=#C33).
2 ow !eated5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ fiingMode.
ORD'R
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
)efoe State$ent Level
)efoe Row Level
(fte Row Level
(fte State$ent Level
NO N(M' M(RFS
"""" """""""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33
C e C33
CORR'L(TION ID'NTIBI'RS IN RO6"L'9'L TRI88'RS
Inside the tigge# 7ou !an a!!ess the data in the ow that is !uentl7 %eing
po!essed5 This is a!!o$plished though two !oelation identifies " 0old and
0new5
( correlation identi'ier is a spe!ial &ind of AL?SQL %ind vaia%le5 The !olon in font
of ea!h indi!ates that the7 ae %ind vaia%les# in the sense of host vaia%les used
in e$%edded AL?SQL# and indi!ates that the7 ae not egula AL?SQL vaia%les5 The
AL?SQL !o$pile will teat the$ as e!ods of t7pe
TiggeingMta%leLRO6T*A'5
(lthough s7nta!ti!all7 the7 ae teated as e!ods# in ealit7 the7 ae not5 0old
and 0new ae also &nown as p!eudorecord!# fo this eason5
TRI88'RIN8 ST(T'M'NT 0OLD 0N'6
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
INS'RT all fields ae NULL5 values that will %e inseted
6hen the state$ent is
!o$pleted5
UAD(T' oiginal values fo new values that will %e
updated
the ow %efoe the when the state$ent is
!o$pleted5
update5
D'L'T' oiginal values %efoe all fields ae NULL5
the ow is deleted5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le $a&s(no nu$%e(1) oldM$a&s nu$%e(4)#newM$a&s
nu$%e(4)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R OLDMN'6
%efoe inset o update o delete on student
fo ea!h ow
)'8IN
inset into $a&s values(0old5no#0old5$a&s#0new5$a&s).
'ND OLDMN'6.
Output0
NO N(M' M(RFS
""""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33
C e C33
SQL- sele!t E fo$ $a&s.
no ows sele!ted
SQL- inset into student values(D#=f=#D33).
2 ow !eated5
NO N(M' M(RFS
"""" """""""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33
C e C33
D f D33
NO OLDMM(RFS N'6MM(RFS
"""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""""
D33
SQL- update student set $a&sHCCC whee noHC.
2 ow updated5
NO N(M' M(RFS
""""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33
C e CCC
D f D33
"""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""""
D33
C C33 CCC
2 ow deleted5
NO N(M' M(RFS
"""" """""""" """"""""""
2 a 233
4 ! 433
@ d @33
C e CCC
D f D33
""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
D33
C C33 CCC
1 133
R'B'R'NCIN8 CL(US'
If desied# 7ou !an use the R'B'R'NCIN8 !lause to spe!if7 a diffeent na$e fo 0old
ane 0new5 This !lause is found afte the tiggeing event# %efoe the 6:'N !lause5
S7nta/0
R'B'R'NCIN8 Nold as oldMna$eO Nnew as newMna$eO
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R R'B'R'NC'MTRI88'R
efeen!ing old as oldMstudent new as newMstudent
fo ea!h ow
)'8IN
inset into $a&s

values(0oldMstudent5no#0oldMstudent5$a&s#0newMstudent5$a&s).
'ND R'B'R'NC'MTRI88'R.
6:'N CL(US'
6:'N !lause is valid fo ow"level tigges onl75 If pesent# the tigge %od7 will %e
e/e!uted onl7 fo those ows that $eet the !ondition spe!ified %7 the 6:'N !lause5
S7nta/0
6:'N tri""er_condition.
6hee tri""er_condition is a )oolean e/pession5 It will %e evaluated fo ea!h
ow5 The =new and =old e!ods !an %e efeen!ed inside tri""er_condition as well#
%ut li&e R'B'R'NCIN8# the !olon is not used thee5 The !olon is onl7 valid in the
tigge %od75
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R 6:'NMTRI88'R
efeen!ing old as oldMstudent new as newMstudent
fo ea!h ow
when (newMstudent5$a&s - C33)
)'8IN
inset into $a&s

values(0oldMstudent5no#0oldMstudent5$a&s#0newMstudent5$a&s).
'ND 6:'NMTRI88'R.
TRI88'R AR'DIC(T'S
Thee ae thee )oolean fun!tions that 7ou !an use to dete$ine what the
opeation is5
The pedi!ates ae
1 INS'RTIN8
2 UAD(TIN8
3 D'L'TIN8
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le pedi!ates(opeation va!ha(13)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R AR'DIC(T'MTRI88'R
)'8IN
if inseting then
inset into pedi!ates values(=Inset=).
elsif updating then
inset into pedi!ates values(=Update=).
elsif deleting then
inset into pedi!ates values(=Delete=).
end if.
'ND AR'DIC(T'MTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL- delete student whee noH2.
2 ow deleted5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ pedi!ates.
MS8
"""""""""""""""
Delete
SQL- inset into student values(V#=g=#V33).
2 ow !eated5
MS8
"""""""""""""""
Delete
Inset
SQL- update student set $a&s H VVV whee noHV.
2 ow updated5
MS8
"""""""""""""""
Delete
Inset
Update
INST'(D"OB TRI88'RS
Instead"of tigges fie instead of a DML opeation5 (lso# instead"of tigges !an %e
defined onl7 on views5 Instead"of tigges ae used in two !ases0
1 To allow a view that would othewise not %e $odifia%le to %e
$odified5
2 To $odif7 the !olu$ns of a nested ta%le !olu$n in a view5
'/0
SQL- !eate view e$p1Mdept as sele!t
e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo!#sal#e5deptno fo$
e$p1 e# dept d whee e5deptno H d5deptno.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R INST'(DMOBMTRI88'R
instead of inset on e$p1Mdept
)'8IN
inset into dept2 values(C3#=d=#=%ang=).
inset into

e$p12(e$p1no#ena$e#Jo%#sal#deptno)values(1111#=sa&eth=#=do!to=#W333#C3).
'ND INST'(DMOBMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL- inset into e$p1Mdept values(1111#=sa&eth=#=do!to=#W333#=d=#=%ang=#C3).
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1Mdept.
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) S(L DN(M' LOC
D'ATNO
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""
V4DS SMIT: CL'RF W33 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S 13
V@SS (LL'N S(L'SM(N 2D33 S(L'S C:IC(8O 43
VC12 6(RD S(L'SM(N 21C3 S(L'S C:IC(8O 43
VCDD >ON'S M(N(8'R 1SVC R'S'(RC: D(LL(S 13
VDC@ M(RTIN S(L'SM(N 21C3 S(L'S C:IC(8O 43
VDSW )L(F' M(N(8'R 1WC3 S(L'S C:IC(8O 43
VVW1 CL(RF M(N(8'R 1@C3 (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF 23
VVWW SCOTT (N(L*ST 4333 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S 13
VW4S FIN8 AR'SID'NT C333 (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF 23
VW@@ TURN'R S(L'SM(N 2C33 S(L'S C:IC(8O 43
VWVD (D(MS CL'RF 2233 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S 13
VS33 >(M'S CL'RF SC3 S(L'S C:IC(8O 43
VS31 BORD (N(L*ST 4333 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S 13
VS4@ MILL'R CL'RF 2433 (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF 23
1111 sa&eth do!to W333 d %ang C3
D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S
43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
C3 d %ang
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p1.
'MA1NO 'N(M' >O) M8R :IR'D(T' S(L COMM
D'ATNO
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""" """""""""""""" """"""""" """""""""
""""""""""
V4DS SMIT: CL'RF VS31 2 V"D'C"W3 W33
13
V@SS (LL'N S(L'SM(N VDSW 13"B')"W2 2D33 433
43
VC12 6(RD S(L'SM(N VDSW 11"B')"W2 21C3 C33
43
VCDD >ON'S M(N(8'R VW4S 31"(AR"W2 1SVC
13
VDC@ M(RTIN S(L'SM(N VDSW 1W"S'A"W2 21C3 2@33
43
VDSW )L(F' M(N(8'R VW4S 32"M(*"W2 1WC3
43
VVW1 CL(RF M(N(8'R VW4S 3S">UN"W2 1@C3
23
VVWW SCOTT (N(L*ST VCDD 2S"(AR"WV 4333
13
VW4S FIN8 AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 C333
23
VW@@ TURN'R S(L'SM(N VDSW 3W"S'A"W2 2C33 3
43
VWVD (D(MS CL'RF VVWW 14"M(*"WV 2233
13
VS33 >(M'S CL'RF VDSW 34"D'C"W2 SC3
43
VS31 BORD (N(L*ST VCDD 34"D'C"W2 4333
13
VS4@ MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 14">(N"W1 2433
23
1111 sa&eth do!to W333
C3
DDL TRI88'RS
Oa!le allows 7ou to define tigges that will fie when Data Definition Language
state$ents ae e/e!uted5
S7nta/0
Ceate o epla!e tigge ,tri""er_name-
^)efoe X afte_ ^DDL event_ on ^data%ase X s!he$a_
N6hen (R)O
NDe!laeO
"" de!laation
)egin
"" tigge %od7
N'/!eptionO
'nd ,tri""er_name-.
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le $7Mo%Je!ts(o%JMna$e va!ha(23)#o%JMt7pe
va!ha(23)#o%JMowne
va!ha(23)#o%JMti$e date).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R CR'(T'MTRI88'R
afte !eate on data%ase
)'8IN
inset into $7Mo%Je!ts
values(s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMna$e#s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMt7pe#
s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMowne# s7sdate).
'ND CR'(T'MTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ $7Mo%Je!ts.
no ows sele!ted
SQL- !eate ta%le stud2(no nu$%e(1)).
O)>MN(M' O)>MT*A' O)>MO6N'R O)>MTIM'
""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""
STUD2 T()L' S*S 12">UL"3V
SQL- !eate seUuen!e ss.
SQL- !eate view studMview as sele!t E fo$ stud2.
O)>MN(M' O)>MT*A' O)>MO6N'R O)>MTIM'
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""
STUD2 T()L' S*S 12">UL"3V
SS S'QU'NC' S*S 12">UL"3V
STUDM9I'6 9I'6 S*S 12">UL"3V
6:'N CL(US'
If 6:'N pesent# the tigge %od7 will %e e/e!uted onl7 fo those that $eet the
!ondition spe!ified %7 the 6:'N !lause5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R CR'(T'MTRI88'R
afte !eate on data%ase
when (s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMt7pe H KT()L';)
)'8IN
inset into $7Mo%Je!ts
values(s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMna$e#s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMt7pe#
s7s5di!tiona7Mo%JMowne# s7sdate).
'ND CR'(T'MTRI88'R.
S*ST'M TRI88'RS
S7ste$ tigges will fie wheneve data%ase"wide event o!!us5 The following ae
the data%ase event tigges5 To !eate s7ste$ tigge 7ou need (DMINIST'R
D(T()(S' TRI88'R pivilege5
1 ST(RTUA
2 S:UTDO6N
3 LO8ON
4 LO8OBB
5 S'R9'R'RROR
S7nta/0
^)efoe X afte_ ^Data%ase event_ on ^data%ase X s!he$a_
N6hen (R)O
NDe!laeO
"" de!laation se!tion
)egin
"" tigge %od7
N'/!eptionO
'nd ,tri""er_name-.
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le useMlogs(uMna$e va!ha(23)#logMti$e ti$esta$p).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (BT'RMLO8ON
afte logon on data%ase
)'8IN
inset into useMlogs values(use#!uentMti$esta$p).
'ND (BT'RMLO8ON.
Output0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ useMlogs.
no ows sele!ted
UMN(M' LO8MTIM'
"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
S(F'T: 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 (M
SQL- !onn s7ste$?oa!le
UMN(M' LO8MTIM'
"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
S(F'T: 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 (M
S*ST'M 11">UL"3V 2153V54@512W333 (M
SQL- !onn s!ott?tige
UMN(M' LO8MTIM'
"""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
S(F'T: 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 (M
S*ST'M 11">UL"3V 2153V54@512W333 (M
SCOTT 11">UL"3V 2153W5@453S4333 (M
S'R9'R'RROR
The S'R9'R'RROR event !an %e used to ta!& eos that o!!u in the data%ase5 The
eo !ode is availa%le inside the tigge though the S'R9'RM'RROR atti%ute
fun!tion5
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le $7Meos(eoM$sg va!ha(133)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R
afte seveeo on data%ase
)'8IN
inset into $7Meos values(d%$sMutilit75fo$atMeoMsta!&).
'ND S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL- !eate ta%le ss (no)).
!eate ta%le ss (no))
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("33S110 $issing o invalid option
SQL- sele!t E fo$ $7Meos.
'RRORMMS8
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
SQL- inset into student values(2#1#4).
inset into student values(2#1#4)
E
'RROR at line 20
SQL- sele!t E fo$ $7Meos.
'RRORMMS8
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
S'R9'RM'RROR (TTRI)UT' BUNCTION
It ta&es a single nu$%e t7pe of agu$ent and etuns the eo at the position on
the eo sta!& indi!ated %7 the agu$ent5 The position 2 is the top of the sta!&5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R
afte seveeo on data%ase
)'8IN
inset into $7Meos values(seveMeo(2)).
'ND S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R.
SUSA'ND TRI88'RS
This will fie wheneve a state$ent is suspended5 This $ight o!!u as the esult of
a spa!e issue su!h as e/!eeding an allo!ated ta%lepa!e Uuota5 This fun!tionalit7
!an %e used to addess the po%le$ and allow the opeatin to !ontinue5
S7nta/0
afte suspend on ^data%ase X s!he$a_
N6hen (R)O
NDe!laeO
"" de!laation se!tion
)egin
"" tigge %od7
N'/!eptionO
'nd ,tri""er_name-.
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%lespa!e $7Mspa!e datafile =f0d$7Mfile5d%f= siTe 1$.
SQL- !eate ta%le student(sno nu$%e(1)#sna$e va!ha(23)) ta%lespa!e
$7Mspa!e.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R SUSA'NDMTRI88'R
afte suspend on data%ase
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(K No oo$ to inset in 7ou ta%lespa!e=).
'ND SUSA'NDMTRI88'R.
Output0
Inset $oe ows in student ta%le then # 7ou will get
No oo$ to inset in 7ou ta%lespa!e
(UTONOMOUS TR(NS(CTION
Aio to Oa!leWi# thee was no wa7 in whi!h so$e SQL opeations within a
tansa!tion !ould %e !o$$itted independent of the est of the opeations5 Oa!le
allows this# howeve# though autonomou! tran!action!5 (n autonomou!
tran!action is a tansa!tion that is stated within the !onte/t of anothe
tansa!tion# &nown as paent tansa!tion# %ut is independent of it5 The
autono$ous tansa!tion !an %e !o$$itted o olled %a!& egadless ot the state of
the paent tansa!tion5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (UTONOMOUSMTR(NS(CTIONMTRI88'R
D'CL(R'
pag$a autono$ousMtansa!tion.
)'8IN
update student set $a&s H CCC.
!o$$it.
'ND (UTONOMOUSMTR(NS(CTIONMTRI88'R.
Output0
NO N( M(RFS
""""" """"" "" """"""""""
2 a 222
1 % 111
4 ! 433
SQL- inset into student values(@#=d=#@@@).
NO N( M(RFS
"""" """""" "" """"""""""
2 a CCC
1 % CCC
4 ! CCC
@ d @@@
R'STRICTIONS ON (UTONOMOUS TR(NS(CTION
1 If an autono$ous tansa!tion atte$p1ts to a!!ess a esou!e held %7
the $ain tansa!tion# a deadlo!& !an o!!u in 7ou poga$5
2 *ou !annot $a& all poga$s in a pa!&age as autono$ous with a
single AR(8M( de!laation5 *ou $ust indi!ate autono$ous tansa!tions
e/pli!it7 in ea!h poga$5
3 To e/it without eos fo$ an autono$ous tansa!tion poga$ that
has e/e!uted at least one INS'RT o UAD(T' o D'L'T'# 7ou $ust pefo$ an
e/pli!it !o$$it o oll%a!&5
4 The COMMIT and ROLL)(CF state$ents end the a!tive autono$ous
tansa!tion# %ut the7 do not fo!e the te$ination of the autono$ous
outine5 *ou !an have $ultiple COMMIT and?o ROLL)(CF state$ents inside
7ou autono$ous %lo!&5
5 *ou !an not oll%a!& to a savepoint set in the $ain tansa!tion5
6 The TR(NS(CTIONS paa$ete in the oa!le initialiTation file spe!ifies
the $a/i$u$ nu$%e of tansa!tions allowed !on!uentl7 in a session5 The
default value is VC fo this# %ut 7ou !an in!ease the li$it5
MUT(TIN8 T()L'S
Thee ae esti!tions on the ta%les and !olu$ns that a tigge %od7 $a7 a!!ess5
In ode to define these esti!tions# it is ne!essa7 to undestand $utating and
!onstaining ta%les5
( $utating ta%le is ta%le that is !uentlt7 %eing $odified %7 a DML state$ent and
the tigge event also DML state$ent5 ( $utating ta%le eo o!!us when a ow"
level tigge ties to e/a$ine o !hange a ta%le that is alead7 undegoing !hange5
( !onstaining ta%le is a ta%le that $ight need to %e ead fo$ fo a efeential
integit7 !onstaint5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R MUT(TIN8MTRI88'R
%efoe delete on student
fo ea!h ow
D'CL(R'
!t nu$%e.
)'8IN
sele!t !ount(E) into !t fo$ student whee no H 0old5no.
'ND MUT(TIN8MTRI88'R.
Output0
delete student whee no H 2
E
'RROR at line 20
OR("3@3S20 ta%le SCOTT5STUD'NT is $utating# tigge?fun!tion $a7 not
see it
OR("3DC210 at bSCOTT5Tb# line @
OR("3@3WW0 eo duing e/e!ution of tigge =SCOTT5T=
:O6 TO (9OID MUT(TIN8 T()L' 'RROR [
1 )7 using autono$ous tansa!tion
2 )7 using state$ent level tigge

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INTRODUCTION

SQL is divided into the following

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