OM - 05 & 06 - Fuels-3 - MFO - Properties PDF

Department of Maritime Studies
Dr.-Ing.
Wolfgang Busse
E-Mail: wolfgang.busse@hs-wismar.de
www.sf.hs-wismar.de
Operating Media and Dangerous Materials

Chapter 2: Fuels
Lesson 5 & 6 :
Marine Fuel Oil -
Properties, Performance &
Test methods
Operating Media & Dangerous Materials
Chapter 2: Fuels
Lesson 5 & 6 : Marine Fuel Oil - Properties, Performance & Test methods

29-Oct-13
2
Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Busse 2013
Fuel Oil Properties
Overview

Physical properties

appearance, colour, smell
density
viscosity
- dynamic, kinematic
boiling range
low-temperature behaviour
- pour point, cloud point
lubricity
evaporation loss
Ignition & combustion
properties
calorific value
- gross, net calorific value
flammability
- flash point, fire point
ignition quality of distillate
fuels
- cetane number, cetane index
ignition quality of residual
fuels
- CCAI, CII
coke-forming tendency
- carbon residue CCR
Chemical properties

C/H - ratio
water & salt content
sulphur content
hydrogen sulfide content
acid number
ash content
sediment , asphaltene
metals
- vanadium & sodium
catalytic fines
- aluminium & silicon
oxidation stability
compatibility
Chapter 2: Fuels

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Fuel Oil Properties
What do we need to know?

For effective decisions in application, assessment and handling of
marine fuel oils and to avoid serious operational problems, we need
a profound understanding of their properties and behaviour under
various operating conditions:

Definition (to have a common understanding)
Impact on engine operation, potential problems
Limits, standards & recommendations
Test methods laboratory and onboard
Handling & treatment (to avoid problems)
Problem detection & troubleshooting

Chapter 2: Fuels

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Fuel Oil Properties

Physical properties

appearance, colour, smell
density
viscosity - dynamic, kinematic
boiling range
low-temperature behaviour - pour point, cloud point
lubricity
evaporation loss
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General Appearance
Example:
colour yellowy, clear, free from visible impurities and water, typical smell

Colour

Color index
according ISO 2049

index 0 = water clear and
colourless
index 8 = intensive dark brown

Color index: 0,2 0,5 2,7 3,5 7,0

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Density
Overview

The official unit is kg/m3 at 15C, while kg/l at 15C is the most commonly
used unit.
Density is used in the calculation of the quantity of fuel delivered.
From a technical point of view, the density gives an indication of the
ignition quality of the fuel within a certain product class; this is particularly
the case for the low viscosity IFOs.
The product density is important for the onboard purification of the fuel; the
higher the density the more critical it becomes.
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Density
Definition
mass per volume unit at 15C und 101,325 kPa
[kg/m
3
], [g/cm
3
] = [g/ml]
specific material constant of mineral oils
dependent on temperature and pressure

Correction for test temperature <> 15C:

15
=
T
+ (T 15C)

T test temperature
= f () coefficient of thermal expansion
for mineral oils,
see the table

[g/cm
3
]

[g/(cm
3
K)
0,820 - 0,825 0,00068
0,825 0,840 0,00067
0,840 0,860 0,00066
0,860 0,870 0,00065
0,870 0,930 0,00064
0,930 1,000 0,00063
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Density
Impact on engine operation

Fuel density gives important information for:

Identification of a fuel
Converting mass volume
Examining the correct bunker quantity!
Converting dynamic viscosity kinematic viscosity
Estimation of the fuel energy content / calorific value
Estimation of the fuel ignitability (cetane index)
Adjustment of the fuel oil purificator

C/H-Ratio Density Calorific Value Ignitability
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Density
Test methods
EN ISO 3675
Laboratory determination of density Hydrometer method

EN ISO 3675 specifies a method for the laboratory determination of the
density at 15 C of mobile transparent liquids such as crude petroleum,
liquid petroleum products and mixtures, using a calibrated glass
hydrometer. The test temperature shall be in the range 10 30C.

Since hydrometers are calibrated to read correctly at the specified
temperature, scale readings made at other temperatures are only
hydrometer readings and not values of density at these other
temperatures.
However, the density at the standard temperature 15C can be
approximated using the correction formula and the coefficient of thermal
expansion for the sample oil.
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Density
Hydrometer
Chapter 2: Fuels

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Density
Test methods
Hydrometer method

The approximate density is measured with a search hydrometer
(wide measuring range); then the hydrometer with the fitting
specific measuring range is used.

Fill the sample into a measuring cylinder of sufficient height
and diameter;
Dip a thermometer (0,1 K division) and the hydrometer
bubble-free in; the hydrometer free vertically floating;
Read the temperature;
Read the hydrometer density scale at the liquid level;
For opaque liquids, read the hydrometer scale where the top
of the meniscus meets the stem of the hydrometer and apply
a correction.

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Viscosity
Overview

Kinematic viscosity is a measure for the fluidity of the product at a certain
temperature.
The viscosity of a fuel decreases with increasing temperature.
The viscosity at the moment the fuel leaves the injectors has to be within
the limits prescribed by the engine manufacturers to obtain an optimal
spray pattern.
Viscosity outside manufactures specifications at the injectors will lead to
poor combustion, deposit formation and energy loss.
The viscosity of the fuel has to be such that the required injection viscosity
can be reached by the ships preheating system.
Chapter 2: Fuels

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Viscosity
Definition
Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to flow or to deform under shear
stress at a quoted temperature. The resistance is caused by intermolecular
friction exerted when layers of fluids attempt to slide by one another.

The shearing stress between the layers of non turbulent fluid moving in straight parallel
lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid by the Newton's Law of Friction :

= dv/dy

is called dynamic viscosity
(or absolute viscosity)
SI unit [Pa s]
1 Pa s = 1 N s/m
2
= 1 kg/m s
For practical use in centiPoise (cP)
1 cP = 1 mPa s
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Definition
To move one fluid layer over the neighbouring layer, the shearing stress must be
compensated by the force F:
= dv/dy = F/A

F = A dv/dy [N]

dv/dy velocity gradient in s
-1
perpendicular to the direction of the force F

A contact area in m
2
between the two fluid layers
dynamic viscosity in N s/m
2

material constant, dependent on temperature and also on pressure

Viscosity
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Viscosity
Definition

Kinematic viscosity
The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the fluid's dynamic viscosity to its
density (a quantity in which no force is involved).

=
[
kg
ms

m
3
kg
] = [
m
2
s
]

For practical use in mm
2
/s = cSt (centiStokes)

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Viscosity
Viscosity Temperature Dependency
Viscosity (dynamic and kinematic) is highly dependent on temperature.
For a liquid - the kinematic viscosity will decrease with higher temperature.
For a gas - the kinematic viscosity will increase with higher temperature.
For viscosity data to be meaningful, the reference temperature must be
quoted.
In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for a distillate fuel is 40C, the
reference temperature for a residual fuel is 50C.
The viscosity depends on the type of oil. In general, a heavier fuel oil (higher
density) has a higher viscosity.
However, viscosity also depends on the chemical structure and composition of
the fuel. If two fuels with the same C/H-ratio are compared, the one with a high
percentage of long chain-like carbon structures (alkanes or paraffins) has a
higher viscosity than the one with a high percentage of cyclic molecules
(aromatics).
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Viscosity
Viscosity Temperature Diagram (Ubbelohde/Walther Diagram)
The required temperatures for the treatment of oil (fuel oil and lubricating oil)
can be taken from the Viscosity Temperature Diagram according
Ubbelohde/Walther.
The V-T curves for oils are exponential functions.
By double-logarithmic presentation, the functions will take the form of
straight lines.
log(log( + 0,7)) = A Blog (T) kinematic viscosity [mm
2
/s = cSt ]
T temperature [K], T = C + 273,15

By this, only two representative points (temperature, viscosity) are required
to draw the complete viscosity-temperature curve.
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Viscosity
Viscosity Temperature Diagram
linear divided
axes
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Viscosity
logarithmic axes
Ubbelohde/Walther
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Viscosity

Chapter 2: Fuels

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Viscosity

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Viscosity
Fuel injection: Adjusting the correct viscosity is essential for an optimal spray
pattern => injection quality => combustion quality => thermal efficiency.
Viscosity outside manufactures specifications will lead to poor
combustion, deposit formation and energy loss.
With too high viscosity, the fuel atomizes less efficiently and the engine
will be more difficult to start.
With too low viscosity, injector pump and injector leakages are increasing
=> lower the fuel delivery rate => loss of engine power
Storage and pumping of the fuel: maintaining pumpability
Kinematic viscosity 1000 mm
2
/s
600 mm
2
/s for positive displacement pumps
(better 450 mm
2
/s)
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Viscosity

Engine damage: Fuel with the wrong viscosity (either too high or too low) can
cause engine or fuel system damage:
High viscosity fuel will increase loads and wear off gear train, cam and
fuel pump assembly because of the higher injection pressure;
Low viscosity fuel may not provide adequate lubrication to plungers,
barrels and injectors.

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Viscosity

Injection viscosity

depending on the engine type (and manufacturers recommendation):
slow-speed 2-stroke diesel engine = 20 - 35 mm
2
/s
medium-speed 4-stroke diesel engine = 12 - 20 mm
2
/s
high-speed diesel engine = 2 - 4 mm
2
/s

Required preheating temperatures depending on viscosity temperature behaviour of
the fuel oil, e.g.
IF380
50
= 400 mm
2
/s = 100 to 117C
MDO
20
= 13 mm
2
/s no preheating required

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Viscosity

Practical upper and lower limits for marine fuels are for instance:

Viscosity determines whether the fuel can be transferred (often heating is required for
pumping), or whether it can be separated in a centrifuge and also the temperature range
that is required for satisfactory injection and combustion. Viscosity values for several
duties are:

In practice this means that heavy fuel oils must be heated to 50 - 80 C or even higher
before centrifuging and to 100 - 150 C before fuel injection.
Also the fuel injection lines of HFO diesel engines must be heated right up to the
injectors, otherwise no injection will occur, and fuel lines will be blocked during idle time.

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Viscosity
Test methods
DIN 51 562
Kinematic viscosity: Capillary flow viscometer according Ubbelohde
(Ubbelohde-Viscometer)

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Viscosity
Test methods

Ubbelohde-Viscometer
Clean the viscometer before use;
Fill the test sample (room temperature) through the pipe (2) into the
storage tank (1) up to a level between the two ring marks C and D;
Close pipe (3) with the finger;
Put a suction pump on pipe (4), and suck in from the test sample until a
level well above ring mark A;
Remove the suction pump and release pipe (3);
Measure the time the sample level needs to pass from ring mark A down
to ring mark B (use a stopwatch with 0,1s scale division);
Repeat the measurement three times and calculate the average flow time;

The kinematic viscosity is calculated by:
= K t [mm
2
/s]
K = instrument constant
t = average flow time

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Viscosity
Test methods
DIN 53 015
Dynamic viscosity: Falling-ball viscometer according Hppler

Measuring range
0,6 to 250 000 mPa s

Temperature range
-20C to +120C.

Balls of different
material (glass, Ni-Fe,
steel) each for a
specified measuring
range

Thermostat to adjust
constant temperature

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Viscosity
Test methods

Falling-ball Viscometer
Adjust the thermostat to the selected measuring temperature;
Fill the test sample bubble-free into the tube up to 1 to 1,5 cm below the top edge
of the tube;
Select the ball with the suitable measuring range and insert it carefully into the tube
(the falling time of the ball shall be between 30 and 300 s);
Close the tube with the stopper capillary, cover plate and clamping nut; tighten the
clamping nut hand-tight;
Mix the sample by turning the tube;
Adjust the viscometer with the help of the circular level;
Wait about 15 minutes for temperature adjustment;
Execute 3 measurements of the falling time between the two ring marks
(deviation < 1%);
Calculate the mean falling time t
F
as the arithmetic average;

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Viscosity
Test methods

Falling-ball Viscometer

The dynamic viscosity is calculated by:
= t
F
(
K

F
) K [mPa s] = [cP]
K = ball constant
t
F
= mean falling time [s]

K
= density of the ball [g/cm
3
]

F
= density of the fluid at test temperature [g/cm
3
]

The ball constant K can be determined using measurements carried out with distilled
water, as its viscosity is well-known: 1,002 mPa s at 20C

Attention: All components of the viscometer are calibrated to each other. Never
exchange components!

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Viscosity
Test methods

Determination of the Viscosity -
Temperature Dependency

The viscosity-temperature behaviour of
the fuel oil or lubricating oil is
determined by graphical presentation in
the Viscosity Temperature Diagram
(Ubbelohde/Walther Diagram):

Measure the kinematic viscosity at
two or more different temperatures
T,
Put down the (T, ) measurement
points on the double-logarithmic
Viscosity Temperature Diagram;
Connect the measuring points by the
best interpolating straight line.

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Boiling Characteristic
Definition

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure
is 1,013 bar (standard pressure).
Pure liquids have a boiling point. Mineral oils (mixtures of various
hydrocarbons) have a boiling range.
The boiling characteristic of mineral oils is represented by a boiling curve:
the collected amount of distillate [% vol] as a function of the increasing
boiling temperature [C]
The boiling range (distillation range) of diesel fuel is determined according
to DIN 51 751.

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Distillation range

Example
Gasoline

Compare Diesel Oil: IBP at 180C, FBP at 380C,
the course as linear as possible
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Rate of distillation dV/dT

Example
Gasoline

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Distillation range

Comparison of various fuels

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Distillation range - characteristic values

initial boiling point IBP = boiling begin, temperature at which the fuel starts to
evaporate
final boiling point FBP = boiling end, temperature at which the highest-boiling fraction
is evaporated
10% point (T10) = temperature at which 10% of the fuel is evaporated
for engine starting the lower the better
for engine acceleration the lower the better
for gasoline shall be high - to avoid ice forming at the
carburettor nozzle
avoid condensate at the cylinder wall the lower the better
avoid dilution of lubricating oil should be lower than 340C

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The boiling characteristic informs about the ability of the fuel to evaporate and
to form an ignitable mixture.
high importance for gasoline engines (Otto-Process), to form an ignitable
mixture of evaporated fuel and air;
For cold-start a certain volatility is advantageous. However, if the low-boiling
content is too high, the diesel fuel will evaporate near to the injection valve
insufficiently spread out in the combustion chamber.
To much high-boiling components (FBP too high, mainly caused by
aromatics) induces larger diameter of the fuel drops after injection => higher
ignition delay => lower combustion quality => lower engine efficiency and
more soot in exhaust gas

Higher-boiling fuel components need more heat to evaporate taken from
the environment (combustion chamber). Only evaporated fuel has perfect
and complete combustion; the liquid parts oxidize with heavy soot formation.
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Test method
Distillation apparatus
(according Kraemer and Spilker)

Comprising:
Bunsen burner
distillation flask
thermometer
water counter-current cooling in
double-wall tube
funnel and measuring cylinder

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Test method
Distillation range according to DIN 51 751
Conduct the experiment:

Fill 100 ml of the test sample into the
distillation flask;
The tip of the thermometer shall be positioned
in the level of the drain pipe at the side;
Add 4 to 5 boiling stones (zeolite) to the
sample in order to prevent superheating
(boiling delay);
Turn on the cooling;
Adjust the burner so that after about 10 min the first drop of condensate is falling the
temperature in this moment is the boiling begin (initial boiling point IBP);
Now adjust the burner so that per minute about 10ml distillate are passing over;
Read the temperature every 10ml;
Repeat until max. 95% of the sample are passed over; however, stop the process at
360C or if cracking happens (brown vapour, decreasing temperature)

Attention: wear safety goggles!
Chapter 2: Fuels

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Test method
Distillation range according to DIN 51 751

Evaluate the experiment:

Draw the boiling curve, the collected amount of distillate [% vol] as a function of the
boiling temperature [C]. Use graph paper or a graphical analysis software.
Take the characteristic values from the boiling curve: IBP, FBP, T10, T50, T90.
T10, T50, T90 together with the fuel density are used to calculate the cetane index
CI of the distillate fuel.
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Low-Temperature Behaviour
Cloud point
EN 23015, DIN ISO 3015
Temperature at which a cloud of paraffinic crystals appears in the fluid, when
cooled-down under defined test conditions

Pour point
DIN ISO 3016
the lowest temperature at which the fluid is just about flowing, when cooled-down
under defined test conditions (at lower temperature it stops flowing)

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Cloud point
Overview
The bunker fuel cloud point is the temperature at which wax begins to
crystallize from a clear distillate.
These wax crystals will cause rapid filter blockage.
Under ISO 8217 a maximum cloud point temperature of minus 16C is
required for the DMX distillate so that emergency equipment can be
started at a very low ambient temperature.

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Pour point
Overview
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel will continue to flow
when it is cooled under specified standard conditions.
For residual fuels, the typical pour point is less than 10C, however there
are occasional instances of 35 - 40C.
The pour point is a characteristic of the crude processed and can also be
affected by the manner in which the fuel is manufactured.
The pour point can be simply determined although the result cannot be
considered to be absolute, it will at least establish if the fuel has a high
pour point.

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Pour point
If a fuel is below the pour point, wax will begin to separate out which will
block filters. Wax will also build up on tank bottoms and on heating coils.
When heat is re-applied it can be difficult to get the wax to re-dissolve
because of its insulating nature, therefore manual cleaning of tanks
becomes necessary.
With marine diesels with a high content of heavier n-paraffins vigilance is
required if strong temperature changes are expected (wax settling can
occur, even when the pour point specification is met).
Contrary to straight run type heavy fuels (pour point typically in the +20C
range), bunker fuels from a complex refinery generally have pour points
below 0C (range 10 to 20C). This is reflected in the fact that bunker
fuel tanks are generally not completely heated any more, but only before
the fuel transfer pump. This can then lead to problems, if a vessel receives
high pour straight run bunker fuel.

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Pour point
To avoid the operational difficulties, it is necessary to store the fuel at least
10C above the pour point. The transfer pumps in the fuel system are
usually designed to operate at a maximum viscosity of 800 - 1000 cSt. For
efficient transfer, the fuel should therefore be heated to the right viscosity.
For less viscous fuels, i.e. RMA 10 and RMB 30, the important parameter
for handling purposes when tank heating is not fitted is the pour point.

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Pour point
For distillate marine diesel, the cold temperature behavior is controlled in
ISO 8217 by a pour point maximum.

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Fuel Oil Properties

Ignition & combustion properties

calorific value - gross, net calorific value
flammability - flash point, fire point
ignition quality of distillate fuels - cetane number, cetane index
ignition quality of residual fuels - CCAI, CII
coke-forming tendency - carbon residue MCR, CCR
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Calorific value
Overview
The calorific value (heating value) is loosely defined as the amount of
heat that is released during combustion of one kilogram of fuel.
It depends on the chemical structure of a fuel. As a fuel is a mixture of
many hydrocarbons and other elements, the precise mixture of which is
normally not known. Hence the calorific value needs to be measured.
Contents of other elements such as water, sulphur and ash have an
adverse effect on the calorific value. Assumed that after combustion the
water is present as vapour, the condensation heat is not included and the
value is referred to as the net calorific value (lower heating value).
Examples of lower heating values are:
o gasoline 44000 kJ/kg
o MDF 42000 kJ/kg
o HFO 40500 kJ/kg

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Calorific value
Overview

Calorific Value
Reaction energy (heat) released from the complete and perfect
combustion of a definite mass [kg] or amount [mol] of a solid or liquid
fuel
For gaseous fuels, the calorific value is related to 1m
3
gas at standard
condition.
Gross Calorific Value (Higher Heating Value HHV)
includes the condensation heat of the water vapour in the exhaust gas
Net Calorific Value (Lower Heating Value LHV)
does not include the condensation heat of the water vapour in the
exhaust gas

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Calorific value
Typical values
Fuel Density
kg/l
HHV per mass
kJ/kg
LHV per mass
kJ/kg
LHV per vol.
kJ/l
Gasoline 0,73 46050 43540 31820
Petroleum 0,83 43960 41870 34750
Diesel fuel 0,84 0,88 45640 - 45220 43120 - 42290 36420 - 37260
MDF 0,92 0,98 43540 - 42700 41030 - 40190 37680 - 39330
Heating oil 0,90 1,10 43120 - 41870 41450 - 40190 37260 - 43960
BC tar oil 0,85 1,05 43540 - 41870 41450 - 39350 35170 - 41449
HC tar oil 1,00 1,16 39774 - 35587 36518 - 34331 38518 - 37681
Methanol 0,80 22315 19468 15491
Ethanol 0,79 29726 26795 21352
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Calorific value
Test methods

The calorific value can be determined:
(1) by measuring, using a calorimeter (bomb calorimeter)
measuring the temperature increase in a defined
test environment of the combustion
(2) by calculating, using an approximate formula
utilizing the relationship density calorific value

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Calorific value
Test methods
DIN 51 900 1-3 : Determination of the
Gross Calorific Value using a bomb
calorimeter and calculation of the Net
Calorific Value

There is only heat exchange between System-I
and System-II, and there is no heat or work
exchange with the environment) =>

The heat Q
I
released from System-I equals
the heat Q
II
received from System-II:

Q
I
+ Q
II
= 0

For the calculation see /3/, pages 21-24

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Calorific value
Calorific value and Density
The general trend of the calorific value is that it decreases with increasing
density:
density [kg/l] calorific value [kJ/kg]
When expressed as heat released per volume the calorific value [kJ/l]
increases at increasing density, because the decrease in calorific value
[kJ/kg] is much less than the increase of density associated with it:
density [kg/l] calorific value [kJ/l]

The consequence is that given a certain tank capacity the energy stored
on board a ship is greater for heavy fuels despite their lower heating value.
Provided that the ship can carry the extra weight and assuming that the
efficiency of the engine is not lowered too much, the range of the vessel is
increased when using heavier fuel.

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Calorific value
Calculation of the Calorific value from the Density (approximately)
For distillate fuels, net calorific value [kJ/kg], can be calculated from:
LHV = (46.423 8.792
15
2
+ 3.170
15
) [1 0,01(w + a + s)] + 0,0942s 0,024w

where:
15
density at 15C [g/ml]
w water content [%mass]
a ash content [%mass]
s sulphur content [%mass]

or according to Anselm:
LHV = 46.225 9.128
15
2
+ 3.685
15

For residual fuels :
LHV = (46.704 8.802
15
2
+ 3.167
15
) [1 0,01(w + a + s)] + 0,0942s 0,024w

LHV [kJ/l] = LHV [kJ/kg] *
15

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Flammability
Flash point
flammability by spark-ignition
gives an information on fire and explosion risk
DIN EN ISO 2592
The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature (corrected to
101,3 kPa barometric pressure) at which it can vaporize to form an ignitable
mixture in air. Measuring a flash point requires an ignition source.
Not to be confused with the auto-ignition temperature, which does not require an
ignition source!
Liquids with a flash point less than 60.5 or 37.8 C are considered flammable,
while liquids with a flash point above those temperatures are considered
combustible.

Fire point
= the temperature at which the vapor continues to burn after being ignited

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Flash point
Overview
Flash point is the temperature at which the vapors of a fuel ignite (under
specified test conditions), when a test flame is applied.
A fuel flash point is defined to minimize fire risk during normal storage and
handling.
The flash point of a fuel is governed by prescriptive international
legislation. For marine users, Safety Of Life At Sea regulations set out the
limitations that apply to fuel oil.
The minimum flash point for fuel in the machinery space of merchant ships
is 60C. Even when residual fuels are at a temperature below their
measured flash point, they are capable of producing light hydrocarbons in
the tank headspace causing the vapour composition to be near to, or
within, the flammable range.
A low fuel flash point can be indicative of fuel contamination by a more
volatile product.

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57
Flash point

SOLAS II- 2, regulation 4 includes the following statements:
Except as otherwise permitted [by this paragraph], no oil fuel with a
flashpoint of less than 60C shall be used.
In emergency generators, oil fuel with a flashpoint of not less than 43C
may be used.
DMX, a special low cloud point gasoil, may only be stored onboard in drums
because of its <60C flash point.

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Flash point
Test methods
DIN EN 22719
Pensky-Martens Method Flash point determination in the closed cup

For flash points higher than 65C the Pensky-Martens closed cup method is used.

Fill the oil sample bubble-free up to the level mark into the test vessel;
The heating-up rate shall be 5 K/min;
The stirrer ensures thorough mixing;
From about 40 K below the expected flash point, reduce the heating-up rate to 3 4
K/min;
From 15 K below the expected flash point, every 2 K, lower the ignition flame down to
the vapour room by turning the handle;
The flash point is the temperature at which the first time a (mostly blue) flame spreads
out over the entire surface;
Repeat the measurement the difference of both tests shall be less than 2,8 K.

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Flash point
Pensky-Martens closed cup flash point test
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60
Flash point
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61
Flash point
Chapter 2: Fuels

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62
Flash point
PM 4 - Semi-Automatic
Flash-Point Tester
Pensky-Martens Method

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63
Flash point
Test methods
DIN ISO 2592
Cleveland Method Flash point determination in the open cup
The open cup test method is applicable for mineral oils with a flash point higher than
79C.
Fill the oil sample bubble-free up to the level mark into the test vessel;
Adjust the thermometer at the half distance between the vessel axis and the vessel
wall, in a height 6 mm above the vessel bottom (level mark on the thermometer 2 mm
below the vessel top;
The heating-up rate shall be 14 - 17 K/min at the begin;
From about 56 K below the expected flash point , reduce the heating-up rate to 5 - 6
K/min;
From about 28 K below the expected flash point, every 2 K, move the ignition flame
(length = 4mm) for about 1 s over the test vessel; the distance between the flame and
the vessel top shall be no more than 2 mm;
The flash point is the temperature at which the first time a (mostly blue) flame spreads
out over the entire surface;
Repeat the measurement the difference of both tests shall be less than 8 K.
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Flash point
Cleveland open cup flash point test
Chapter 2: Fuels

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65
Flash point
Cleveland open cup flash point test
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66
Ignition Quality
Ignition delay

Fuel takes a finite time from the start of the
injection to the start of combustion.
During this period, fuel is intimately mixed
with the hot compressed air in the cylinder
where it begins to vaporise.
After a short delay known as the ignition
delay, the heat of compression causes
spontaneous ignition to occur.

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Ignition Quality
Definition
Ignition quality is the property of the fuel to self-ignite in a engine with diesel
working principle.
For self-ignition, every fuel needs spray, pressure, temperature and a certain
time for preparing combustion conditions =>
Ignition delay is the time from the begin of injection to the detectable begin of
combustion.
Combustion quality: speed, degree and products of energy conversion
Ignition quality + combustion quality determine the quality of the
thermodynamic process =>
both are influenced not solely by the fuel oil but by the complex working
conditions of the engine (total fuel oil quality, air supply, engine construction
and adjustment, technical condition of the engine,)

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Ignition Quality
With a long ignition delay, rapid uncontrolled bunker fuel combustion
follows as the accumulated vapour formed during the initial injection phase
is vigorously burned.
The longer the ignition delay, the more fuel will have been injected and
vaporised during this pre-mixed phase and the more explosive will be the
initial combustion.
Rapid pre-mixed combustion causes very rapid rates of pressure rise in the
cylinder resulting in shock waves, which can cause broken piston rings and
overheating of metal surfaces.
Large diesel engines are designed to withstand a certain rate of pressure
rise within the cylinder although the figure will vary between different
designs.
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Ignition Quality
Low ignition quality may cause:
trouble at engine start-up and during
low-load operation, particularly if the
engine is not sufficiently preheated;
long ignition delay, a fast pressure
rise p/ and very high maximum
pressures; rough engine running
deposits on the piston top, on the
exhaust valves, in the exhaust
system, and in the turbocharger (=>
decreased turbocharger efficiency
and higher thermal load on the
engine).

crank angle
c
y
l
i
n
d
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

However, modern diesel engines with a higher compression ratio and optimized
combustion process are not so sensitive to the ignition properties of heavy fuel oils
compared to engines of older design.
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Ignition Quality of Distillate Fuels
- Cetane number, Cetane index
Overview
These parameters are only applicable for gasoil and distillate fuels.
It is a measure for the ignition quality of the fuel in a diesel engine: The
higher the rpm of the engine, the higher the required cetane number.
The cetane number is determined on a standardized test engine.
The cetane index an approximate value of the cetane number based on
the density and the distillation of the fuel can be calculated and is
usually used.
The cetane index is not applicable when cetane-improving additives have
been used.

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71
Cetane Number (CN)
The cetane number is a measure of the ignition quality of a distillate fuel.
used for assessing the suitability of a fuel for the use in a diesel engine, and as
design feature in diesel engine construction

Test method of Cetane Number (EN ISO 5165)
with a standardized test engine: 4-stroke, 1-cylinder diesel engine, e.g. BASF
or CFR test engine
Comparing the ignition properties of the fuel in the test engine with blends of
two standardized reference fuels: n-cetane = hexadecane (CN = 100, very
good ignition properties) and -methylnaphthalene (CZ = 0, very low ignition
quality )
CN is the volume share of n-cetane in the reference mixture which has the
same ignition delay as the tested fuel.

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Cetane Number

1-cylinder CFR test
engine

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73
Cetane Number

Properties of the
reference fuels

n-cetane
(hexadecane)
C
16
H
34
-methyl-
naphthalene
C
11
H
10

structural formula

cetane number CN 100 0
boiling range [C] 286 - 288 240 - 242
melting point [C] +16 -20
density at 20C [g/ml] 0,775 1,02
viscosity at 20C [mm
2
/s] 5,25 3,85
aniline point [C] +92,2 -48
net calorific value [kJ/kg] 44.130 38.100

Good ignition is
still assured for
values in the
range of 40 to 60.
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Cetane Index (CI)
Cetane index CI is used as a substitute for the cetane number of diesel fuel, to
quantify the ignition quality of distillate fuels
The cetane index is calculated based on the fuel's density and distillation range.

2-parameter method (ASTM D976) = older method, still in use for rough assessment

CI = 454,74 - 1641,416*
15
+ 774,74*
15
2
- 0,554*T50 + 97,803*(log
10
(T50))
2

T50 boiling temperature in C at which 50% of the fuel is evaporated

15
density in g/ml at standard conditions 15C und 101,325 kPa

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Cetane Index (CI)

4-parameter method (DIN EN ISO 4264, ASTM D4737) = more accurate
CI = 45,2 + 0,0892*(T10-215) + (0,131+0,901*B)*(T50-260) +
(0,0523-0,42*B)*(T90-310) + 0,00049*((T10-215)
2
- (T90-310)
2
) + 107*B + 60*B
2

B = e
-3,5 * (
15

- 0,850)
- 1


15
density in g/ml at standard conditions 15C und 101,325 kPa

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Cetane Index (CI)
Applicability
Cetane index cannot be applied to pure hydrocarbons
also not for coal-based distillates
cetane improver dont have an effect on the cetane index
Applicable for products from tar sands or shale oil

Application range
Cetane number 32,5 - 56,5
Density 0,805 - 0,895 g/ml
T10 171 - 259 C
T50 212 - 308 C
T90 251 - 363 C

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Marine distillate fuels usually are offered with
CI 40 for Marine Gas Oil (MGO)
CI 35 for Marine Diesel Oil (MDO)

Minimum CN depending on the diesel engine type:
Slow-speed 2-stroke CN 20 32
Medium-speed 4-stroke CN 32 39
High-speed 4-stroke CN 42 45

The negative impact of low CN fuels can be eased by
preheating the engine
higher charging air and cooling water temperatures
adding suitable ignition improver to the fuel

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Ignition Quality of Residual Fuels
Overview
For the ignition quality of residual fuels two empirical measures have been
developed: the Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index (CCAI) and the
Calculated Ignition Index (CIl). The equations of both indices use the
density and viscosity of the fuel.
The CII gives values in the same range as the CI for distillate fuels, and
the CCAI gives values in the range of 760-870.
CCAI is an indicator of the ignition delay of an Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO)
bunker fuel.
CCAI is calculated from the density and the viscosity of the fuel oil.
Although it is not an official specification, it has found its way in many
users bunker fuel specification requirements.
Some manufacturers specify CCAI limits for their engines, depending on
engine type and application.

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79
Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index (CCAI)

The methods for determining CN or CI of distillate fuels are not suitable for
the assessment of the ignition quality of residual fuels; other methods have to
be established.
Motor experiments with residual fuels have demonstrated good correlation
between the ignition delay and the carbon aromaticity = the ratio of the C-
content in ring molecules to the overall C-content of the fuel.
Based on the knowledge about the physical and chemical properties of the
various types of hydrocarbons, the Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index
(CCAI) has been developed.
CCAI is a function of the density and the viscosity of the residual fuel oil.

Aromaticity Ignition delay CCAI
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80
Test method of CCAI
(ISO 8217:2010(E), Annex F Ignition characteristics of residual marine fuels)

CCAI =
15
- 140,7 * log
10
log
10
(
50
+ 0,85) 80,6

50
kinematic viscosity at 50C in mm
2
/s

15
density in kg/m
3
at standard conditions 15C und 101,325 kPa

Of the two parameters, density has the major effect.
The CCAI number is scaled such that at a viscosity of 1 cSt, the CCAI equals the
density. For higher viscosities the CCAI decreases, indicating better ignition
performance.

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81

normal operation expected

possible difficulties

risk of problems

engine damage expected
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82
The correlation between CCAI and effective ignition quality is weak.
Ignition performance requirements of residual fuels in large diesel engines are
primarily determined by engine type and, more significantly, engine operating
conditions. Fuel factors influence ignition characteristics to a much lesser
extent. A CCAI value that may be problematical for an engine under some
conditions may perform quite satisfactorily under others.
However, CCAI has now been included in ISO 8217:2010 in order to avoid
residual fuel oils with uncharacteristic density/viscosity relationships, which
can lead to an extended ignition delay & engine damage. In particular engine
operation under part load conditions using high CCAI fuel should be avoided.
After calculating the CCAI or CII of a fuel, the operator must then judge the
acceptability of that fuel for effective operation in the engine. If required,
further guidance regarding acceptable ignition quality values should be
obtained from the engine manufacturer.
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Ignition Quality of
Residual Fuels
Manufacturer
recommendations
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84
Carbon residue
Overview
The carbon residue of a fuel (in %mass) is the tendency to form carbon
deposits under high temperature in an inert atmosphere.
It is known that the correlation between carbon residue and diesel engine
performance is poor. However, in the absence of any other parameter, this
property is included in fuel specifications, indicating the carbonaceous
deposit-forming tendencies of the fuel. Many factors can affect the
combustion process in diesel engines, including engine loading, engine
tuning and the ignition qualities of the fuel which all have an effect on the
deposit tendencies of a particular fuel.
The carbon residue value of a fuel depends on the refinery processes
employed in its manufacture. For straight run fuels, the value is typically 10
to 12 %mass, while for fuels from secondary refining processing the value
depends on the severity of the processes applied. In some areas it can be
as high as 20 %mass.

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Carbon residue

Carbon residue (coke) is a black, hard material with a high C-content, also
containing ash components.

The carbon residue has impact on:
the combustion behaviour of the fuel
deposits in the combustion chamber, turbocharger, injection valves
the exhaust gas emission
soiling of the lubricating oil

The carbon residue can also be acid if sulphur is present.

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Carbon residue
Modern engines are tolerant to a wide range of MCR (micro carbon residue)
values.
However, some older engines, typically of the 1970s, are such that difficulties
may be experienced burning fuels with an MCR greater than 12% mass,
especially at low loads. Above this level, there is likely to be increased
carbonaceous deposit, which will affect the performance of the engine.
Operational experience has shown that the present generation of large,
medium and slow speed engines designed for residual fuel can tolerate a wide
range of MCR values without any adverse effect.

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87
Carbon residue
The carbon residue determination is a typical laboratory test performed
under specified reduced air supply and does not represent combustion
conditions in an engine. It gives an indication of the amount of hydrocarbons
in the fuel which have difficult combustion characteristics, but there is no
conclusive correlation between carbon residue figures and actual field
experience.
Potential problems can (depending on the CR amount) be encountered by:
Optimizing mixture formation and combustion by variation of the injection
timing and by higher injection pressure at part-load;
Increasing temperatures of scavenging air and cooling water at part-load;
Utilization of lubricating oils with higher detergents & dispersants content.

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88
Carbon residue
Test methods

Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR): DIN 51551
Ramsbottom Carbon Residue (RCR): ASTM D 524
Micro Carbon Residue (MCR): ISO 10370
applied for marine distillate and residual fuels

A sample of the fuel is enclosed into a test vessel and
heated (smouldered) without air supply under defined
conditions up to red heat.
After cooling down the carbon residue is determined
and related to the original amount of fuel. The unit is
[% mass].
Test apparatus according
to Conradson
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Carbon residue
Test methods

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29-Oct-13
90
Carbon residue
Test methods
ISO 10370
Petroleum products Determination of carbon residue Micro method
The principle of the method is placing a weighed oil sample in a glass vial,
heating it to 500 C under an inert (nitrogen) gas stream in a controlled
manner for a specific time, sweeping away the volatiles formed during the
reactions by the inert gas, weighing the carbonaceous residue remaining.
The method may be used to determine amounts of carbon residues in the
range of 0,10 %mass to 30,0 %mass, left after evaporation and pyrolysis.
On materials, which may yield a carbon residue below 0,10 %mass, a 10
%vol distillation residue is prepared by the procedure described in ISO 3405
before analysis.

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Carbon residue
Test methods
ISO 10370
Petroleum products Determination of carbon residue Micro method

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92
Fuel Oil Properties

Chemical properties

C/H - ratio

water & salt content metals - vanadium & sodium
sulphur content catalytic fines - aluminium &
silicon
hydrogen sulfide content H
2
S sediment , asphaltene
acid number oxidation stability
ash content compatibility
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93
C/H-Ratio
Definition
Ratio
C
H
=
w(C)
w(H)
=
%mass C
%mass H
; values from the elemental analysis
The mass ratio C:H is a characteristic feature of every fuel. It is related to the density and
to the energy content, and it gives information about the ignition behaviour of the fuel.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For gaseous fuels, the composition is expressed as analysis of the gas components in the
mixture. For liquid fuels, the composition is described by the elemental analysis (e.g.
CHNS combustion analyser) or by characteristic properties such as density, calorific value
and C/H-ratio.
The elemental analysis gives the mass shares w(i) of the constituting elements:
w(i) =
mass of element i
total mass

Usually the elemental analysis of fuel oil comprises the mass shares of carbon w(C),
hydrogen w(H), nitrogen w(N), oxygen w(O), sulphur w(S), water w(H
2
O), and ash w(ash)

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Water content
Overview
Water is a common contaminant in fuel oil.
Water can be introduced into the fuel supply chain from a number of
sources.
Apart from water content in the fuel oil due to transport, there can be a
further contamination in the storage tank due to water condensation as a
result of temperature changes, or tank leakage.
In practice, the nature of the water present may be fresh, brackish or salt.
The worldwide salt content of seawater varies however. In first order
terms, 100 mg/kg (PPM) is associated with 1% seawater contamination in
the fuel.

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95
Water content
Water does not yield any energy. The percentage of water in the fuel can
be translated into a corresponding increase of fuel oil consumption.
Disposal costs of the water removed by the treatment system: Such water
is unlikely to pass through a 15 mg/kg (PPM) oily water separator, so it has
to be retained for disposal later, with a cost to the ship operator.
Water will damage fuel injection equipment, cause corrosion and failure to
exhaust valves and turbochargers.
If after purification the water content remains too high, water vapor lock
can occur and pumps can cut out.
If water-contaminated fuel reaches the injectors, combustion can be erratic
(unsteady).
Water in fuel which remains standing in lines for a longer period can cause
corrosion.

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Water content
Fuels are hygroscopic => they attract water!
Formation of oil/water emulsions
=> corrosion in fuel oil tanks and in the injection system (electrolytic effect)
=> stabilized emulsions from tank bottom can cause serious treatment problems
Formation of bacteria colonies in the contact area fuel/water
=> corrosion in the fuel oil tanks;
Cavitation in the injection system;
High-molecular fuel components can form sludge deposits (sediments),
particularly if water is present;
Increase of the water content during transport and storage by condense water
Sea water contains various metal compounds (e.g. NaCl, MgCl
2
, MgSO
4
) => can
considerably increase the ash content in the fuel => soiling and deposits in the
combustion chamber, on the valves and in the turbocharger.
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Water content
The vast majority of fuels contain less than 0.2% water; significantly below
the ISO8217: 2010 limit of 0,5% for residual fuels in the RMB to RME
categories.
Do not pay for any water in the fuel over and above the limit stated in the
appropriate standard.

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Water content
Handling & treatment avoiding problems
The settling tank will remove gross water as long as it is not emulsified.
Warm fuel will shed water faster than cold fuel in the settling tanks. The
drains should be checked regularly, especially on first use of a new fuel
delivery.
Remaining water is removed by centrifugal purification. A well-operated
centrifuge should remove the vast majority of water. Operating
temperatures in the centrifuge should be maintained as high as possible
for efficient separation, usually around 95 - 98C, but not above as this
can result in steam bubbles which can cause erratic behaviour and loss of
the water seal. It should also be remembered that water can be removed
from high-density fuels of up to 1010 kg/m3 using modern purifiers without
gravity disc, whereas traditional types are only suitable for fuels up to 991
kg/m3.
With effective treatment of the fuel in settling tank and separator, the water
content can be reduced down to <0,1%.
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Sulphur content
Overview
Marine fuels contain limited amounts of sulphur in organic compounds.
The sulphur content of a marine fuel depends on the crude oil origin and
the refining process.
When a fuel burns, sulphur is converted into sulphur oxides, first to SO
2
,
then about 0,5 to 2,0% to SO
3
(depending on the air excess) mainly
emitted through the exhaust system;
Part of the sulphur oxides reach the lubricating oil via the blow-by gas.
They are corrosive to engine piston linings and must be neutralized by the
cylinder lubricant.
Marine engine lubricants are developed to cope with this acidity (high BN).
If the correct lubricant is used, the sulphur content of a marine fuel is
technically not important (although it has environmental implications in
sensitive areas such as the Baltic Sea).

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Sulphur content
The sulphur chemically bound in the fuel is neutral and cannot cause
corrosion at iron materials
During combustion the chemically bound S is oxidized to SO
2
and further
to SO
3

SO
3
increases the dew point of the combustion gas / water steam mixture
When the temperature of the mixture falls below its dew point sulphuric
acid is formed which leads to => corrosion
SO
2
+ 0
2
SO
3
+ H
2
O ; SO
3
+ H
2
O H
2
SO
4

prevent the problems: Check the dew point, exhaust gas temperature
shall be > 180C
Positive effect of sulphur: lubricity; with S < 0,1% lower wear

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Ash content
Overview
Ash is the mineral residue which remains as oxide after complete
combustion of the fuel. The unit is [%mass].
The ash content is a measure of the metals present in the fuel, either as
inherent to the fuel, or as contamination.
The ash-forming components in mineral oils mainly consist of organic and
inorganic metal compounds based on Vanadium, Sodium, Nickel,
Magnesium, Iron, Potassium and Calcium. They concentrate in the residues
from the crude oil processing.
Further ash-forming metals, Aluminium and Silicon, are in a small amount
introduced with the Cat fines (Zeolite) during catalytic cracking.
Sodium and Vanadium ashes cause high-temperature corrosion, see Metals
Aluminium and Silicon (Cat fines) cause extreme abrasive wear, see
Catalytic fines.

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Ash content
See ISO 8217 in its latest edition

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103
Ash content
Test methods
ISO 6245
Determination of the oxide ash content in fuel, in the range 0,01 0,2 %mass

A fuel sample is ignited in a suitable test vessel (platinum cup) and burned
until only ash and carbon remain.
The carbon is further combusted (in a muffle furnace at 775 25C).
The mass of the ash is related to the mass of the fuel sample.
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Metals Vanadium & Sodium
Overview
Vanadium is found in certain heavy fuel oil molecules (asphaltenes).
Upon combustion vanadium oxides (V
2
O
5
) are formed and some of them
have critical melting temperatures.
Part of the fuel ash is (bound to the combustion soot) emitted with the
exhaust gas. But some of the fuel ashes have a tendency to form deposits
on hot components of the diesel engine and the turbocharger, mostly
together with carbon residues from the combustion.
The most critical are the double oxides/sulphates with sodium (sodium
vanadate) having a melting point close to the component temperatures of
piston, exhaust valves and turbocharger turbine.
Vanadium and sodium at certain concentrations and temperatures form
eutectic compounds, causing high-temperature corrosion on the hot
components when their melting point is exceeded.
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Metals Vanadium & Sodium
See ISO 8217 in its latest edition

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106
Catalytic fines - Aluminium & Silicon

Overview
Heavy Cycle Oil (HCO) is used worldwide in complex refining as a
blending component for heavy fuel. Mechanically damaged catalyst
particles (cat fines = aluminium silicate) cannot be removed completely in
a cost-effective way, and are found in blended heavy fuel.
Particles of 2 to 50 m are deposited in the fuel oil. They are porous =>
low apparent density => difficult to settle them down;
Cat fine lead to excessive abrasive wear in the injection pump, injection
valve and in the piston/cylinder group
Up to a certain extent they can be removed on board by separating
(purifier clarifier connection).
Fuel pre-cleaning onboard ships have a removal efficiency of
approximately 80% for catalyst fines. In order to avoid abrasive wear of
fuel pumps and injectors, a maximum limit of 80 mg/kg for Al+Si has been
defined in ISO 8217.

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Overview

Catalytic cracking process

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108


Catalytic fines embedded in the surface of a piston ring

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109


Wear on a cylinder liner

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110
Sediment, Asphaltene
Overview
Inorganic sediment: Inorganic material naturally occurring in crude oil is
removed in the refineries prior to the atmospheric distillation. Some minor
contamination (e.g. iron oxides, sand) of a finished heavy fuel cannot be
excluded.
Organic sediment: can occur in DMB and DMC marine diesel and in
intermediate fuel oils. The cause of the formation of organic sediment
resides in the thermal cracking of the heaviest molecules of crude,
generally in visbreaking operations.
Existent sediment: is already part of the delivered bunker fuel;
Potential sediment: The total potential sediment gives the total amount of
sediment that can be formed under normal storage conditions, excluding
external influences (sediment after ageing).

-
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Overview
The biggest risk for sediment formation in heavy fuel is due to potential
coagulation of organic material inherent to the fuel itself:
Asphaltenes, the heaviest molecules of crude oil, can become unstable by
thermal cracking, and must be carefully monitored by the refineries.
A decrease in aromaticity of the fuel matrix by blending with paraffinic
cutterstocks can also deteriorate the stability of the asphaltenes.
Visbroken asphaltenes, if insufficiently stable, can form sludge deposits
(sediment). The coagulation is influenced by time and temperature, and
facilitated by the presence of water.
An unstable fuel will only reach its final sediment formation after a certain
storage time.

-
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112
If the total potential sediment of the heavy fuel oil markedly exceeds the
specification value (0,10 %mass maximum for all grades of IFOs and
HFOs), problems with the fuel cleaning system can occur, fuel filters can
get plugged and combustion become erratic.
In cases of heavy fuel instability, it is only a relative small fraction of the
asphaltenes which forms sediment, but this organic sediment includes in
its mass some of the fuel itself, and water (onboard purifying problems),
and the amount of generated sludge can become quite high.
Coagulating asphaltenes can cause heave sludge production in the
separator, residue deposits in the combustion chamber and high particle
emissions with the exhaust gas.

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113
Test methods
Extraction method (DIN 51 789, DIN ISO 3735, ASTM D 473)
Sedimentes are all insoluble residues after extraction of a fuel sample mit
boiling toluol. These are only external (organic and inorganic contaminations).
The unit is %mass.
Centrifugal method (DIN 51 793, DIN ISO 3735, ASTM D96 or ASTM D1796)
determines the total of sediments and water
Asphaltene according to DIN 51 595
The sediment present in a sample of heavy fuel at a certain moment is given
by the total existent sediment test, but there is no certainty that this figure
corresponds to the condition of the bulk of the fuel at that same time.
The total potential sediment test shows the total amount of sediment that can
be formed under normal storage conditions, excluding external influences.

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Test methods

ISO 10307-1:2009 total existent sediment test
Petroleum products -- Total sediment in residual fuel oils -- Part 1:
Determination by hot filtration
specifies a method for the determination of total sediment in residual fuel oils
having a maximum viscosity of 55 mm2/s at 100 C, and for blends of distillate
fuels containing residual components;

ISO 10307-2:2009 total potential sediment test
Petroleum products -- Total sediment in residual fuel oils -- Part 2:
Determination using standard procedures for ageing
specifies two procedures A (thermal) and B (chemical) for the
accelerated ageing of residual fuel oils. When combined with the hot filtration
method specified in ISO 10307-1, these procedures permit the prediction of
fuel oil stability, as affected by sedimentation, during storage and handling of
the fuel oils.

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Utilization of fuel oil on board
Deepen your knowledge:

Research on current operational problems of fuel oil
utilization on board.
How do the following factors influence the utilization of fuel
oil in the international and in the Indonesian fleet:
the increasing fuel oil costs on the world bunker market;
new international regulations on exhaust gas emissions
from ships.

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Questions ?

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Literature
1. Compendium Marine Engineering. Seehafen-Verlag, Hamburg, 2009.
Chapter 1.16 Operating Media, pp 373 - 390
2. Chevron: FAMM Fuel and Marine Marketing. Everything you need to know
about marine fuels. March 2001. ( Download from www.dieselduck.net )
3. Design of Propulsion and Electric Power Generation Systems. IMarEST.
ISBN 1-902536-47-9, Chapter 6.3 Marine fuels
4. Steernberg, Forget: The effects of a changing oil industry on MFO quality.
In: Schiff & Hafen No. 12 December 2007, pp 78-81

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Web links
1. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dynamic-absolute-kinematic-viscosity-
d_412.html
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubbelohde_viscometer
3. http://www.condition-monitoring.com/information_centre.htm
4. http://www.dieselnet.com/tech/fuel_diesel.php

OM - 05 & 06 - Fuels-3 - MFO - Properties PDF

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