Restriction of prey by predators

Animal distribution is based on their predators, animal will not live on one place if the place have a
lot of predator. The local distribution of some species to be limited by predation. Kitching studies
population of mussels at Lough Ine, an arm of sea on the south coast of Ireland, he got that the
effect of mussel population by crabs as the predator. Kitching transferred Mytilus (one of mussel
species) to lough, that are Lough, The rapids, Bays, and open coast. And the result show the Mytilus
disappeared quickly from the area which transferred piece of rock, and the only mussels at open
coast survive than others.
The continuous observation showed that three species of crabs and one starfish were principal
agents of this mortality. Then kitching put three crabs species and mussel in wire cages, show that
one crab cannot kill large Mytilus, but the others can open all size of mussels. Mussels on open
coast survive because distribution of predators (Crabs) is restricted by wave action, by strong
currents, and Low salinity.
Another kitching and eblings experiment, they studied the relationship between sea urchin and the
algae on which it grazes. Sea urchin lives in shallow part, just below the tide level. Algae are
abundant in areas where sea urchin is less common. Kitching and ebling transferred sea urchin to
areas of dense algal growth and they began to clear these area of algae as well.
After these experiments, kitching and ebling proposed the criteria to be fulfilled one could conclude
that a predator restricts the distribution of it prey:
1. Prey individuals will survive when tranplanted to a site where they dont normally occur if
they are protected from predators.
2. Distribution prey and suspected predator are inversely colerated.
3. Suspected predator is able to kill the prey, in field or laboratory.
4. Suspected predator showed to be responsible for destruction of the prey in transplantation
experiments.

Restriction of predators by prey
Some of predators feed not only one species, they may feed on variety of prey species, and because
of that, each prey species may be fed by many predatory species. It will restrict the distribution of
predators.
If the prey is to restrict the predators range, predator have to specialize and only feed one or two
species of prey. This kind of predator is called monophagous predator or a specialist predator.
Specialist predator mostly insect, and most of vertebrate are not specialist.
An example of species distribution that is limited by food source is Drosophila pachea, which breed
only in stem of senita cactus. D. pachea will not breed the usually medium for drospohila exept the
medium have the cactuss extract. Conversely, the medium that have senita cactuss extract is toxic
for other species of Drosphila.
Heed and Kircher (1965) demontrated therequired factor by D.pachea for growth and reproduction,
that are a unique strerol and schottenol. Every insect species requires a sterol in its diet, but
D.pachea require
2
-sterols, that is intermediate in the phytosterol biosynthetic pathway, and its
found in senita cactus.
Disease and Parasitism
Disease and parasitism may eliminate species from areas and decrease geographical distributions.
Many examples have given. One of them about the extinction of the endemic bird species of the
Hawaiian Island.
Warner (1968) postulated that both avian malaria and avian pox were both causing the extinction. It
based the observation that native birds are more susceptible than the introduced birds. Also, the
avian malarias vector (the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus) is more effective in the lowland area,
and that fact is coincident to Native birds which in early 1990s, they live in the midelevation forests
where malaria is most prevalent.



Allelopathy
Some factors can influence the local distribution (particularly in plants). One of them is allelophaty
agents. If one crop plants or a plant produce an allelopathy agents, it can prevent other plants to
grow.
In the early 1990s, Masey (1925) observed that the zone of dead alfalfa around a walnut tree
extended over an area two or three times greater than that cover by the tree canopy and suggested
0
50
100
150
200
500 1000 1500 2000
Introduced birds
Native birds
Elevation (m)
0
1
2
3
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7
500 1000 1500 2000
Parasites/10000 RBC
Parasites/10000
RBC
that this zone was determined by the outer limits of walnut roots. The roots produced some toxins
that killed smother crops (tomatoes, alfalfa, etc), but other plants (corn and beets) show no ill
effects.
Schneiderhan (1927) discover that the average limit of the toxic zone was about 15 meters in radius
from the walnut trunk.
In 1987, Pounder found evidence of antagonism between walnut and some other timber tree
species and discover that some species like alfalfa and tomatoes are killed, others like Kentucky
Bluegrass become more abundant than usual near the walnut trees. Actually, not all of walnut
species secrete toxic chemicals. Some species like English Walnut (Juglans regia) and California
Walnut (J. california) do not secrete the toxic chemicals (Garb 1961).
Not only walnut secrete the toxin. Some smother crops include Barley, Rye, Sorghum can inhibit
growth of several weeds. Overland (1966) showed that Barley (Hordeum vulgare) inhibited the
germination and growth of several weeds (example : chickweed (Stellaria media).
AVERAGE DRY WEIGHT/PLANT (g) AFTER 2 MONTHS OF GROWTH
Barley Chickweed No. of Chickweed Flowers
Control (each
grown alone)
1:1
Barley/Chickweed
mixture
4.15

4.85
3.20

1.43
100+

10

Extracts that was taken from living roots are more effective than dead roots. It occurs on some
weeds that produce the toxin. The observation was made by clipping some chaparral stands close to
the soil surface and removing the shrubs without disturbing the soil litter. In the next growing
season, some herbs luxuriantly grown at the beginning and stop increasing when the weed was
growing. And then, the weeds grow rapidly and the herbs became sparse.
Bartholomew (1970) then discovered that there is usually a bare in a chaparral. Animals concentrate
their feeding activity in this zone, close to the escape cover provided by the shrubs. And finally
Swank and Oechel (1991) postulated that the inhibit factors in chaparral to herbs not only because
the allelopathy which secrete by the weeds, but also include the herbivory, root competition,
inadequate water, and inadequate nutrients. The allelopathy factors is only the minor factor that
cause the inhibition.