Dasar Teori Pendingin

Beban pendingin:
1. Sensible beban panas yang dipengaruhi oleh perbedaan suhu yang lewat konstruksi
bangunan, electronic appliances, lampu, faktor manusia, dll.
2. Latent beban yang dipengaruhi karena kelembapan udara

A. Prinsip kerja mesin pendingin udara:



The machine has 3 main parts: compressor, condenser and evaporator. Compressor and
condenser are outdoor units, while evaporator (sometimes as part of a furnace for
heating) is indoor unit.

The working fluid arrives at the compressor as a cool, low-pressure gas. The compressor
squeezes the fluid. This packs the molecule of the fluid closer together. The closer the
molecules are together, the higher its energy and its temperature.

The working fluid leaves the compressor as a hot, high pressure gas and flows into the
condenser. In the condensing coil, the refrigerant releases its heat. A fan draws draws
outdoor air in trough louvers surrounding the outdoor cabinet and blows air across the
hot coil. As the air blows across the coil, it transfers heat to the outside air and
cools the refrigerant inside the coil. If you looked at the air conditioner part outside
a house, look for the part that has metal fins all around. The fins act just like a
radiator in a car and it helps the heat go away, or dissipate, more quickly.



When the working fluid leaves the condenser, its temperature is much cooler and it has
changed from a gas to a liquid under high pressure. The refrigerant then flows indoors
through tubing and passes through a small opening in the expansion valve. In this valve,
the refrigerant expands and the liquid's pressure drops and becomes a low-temperature,
low-pressure liquid that flows into the evaporator coil where it evaporates into a gas
by absorbing and extracting heat from the return air blown over the indoor coil by a
fan. The evaporator also has metal fins to help in exchange the thermal energy with the
surrounding air. At the same time, moisture in the air is removed as it condenses on the
indoor coil. Humidity removed from the air, as it makes contact with the indoor coil, is
collected in a pan at the bottom of the coil and flows to a drain.

By the time the working fluid leaves the evaporator, it is a cool, low pressure gas. It
then returns to the compressor to begin its trip all over again.

Connected to the evaporator is a fan that circulates the air inside the house to blow
across the evaporator fins. Hot air is lighter than cold air, so the hot air in the room
rises to the top of a room. There is a vent there where air is sucked into the air
conditioner and goes down ducts. The hot air is used to cool the gas in the evaporator.
As the heat is removed from the air, the air is cooled. It is then blown into the house
through other ducts usually at the floor level.

This continues over and over and over until the room reaches the temperature you want
the room cooled to. The thermostat senses that the temperature has reached the right
setting and turns off the air conditioner. As the room warms up, the thermostat turns
the air conditioner back on until the room reaches the temperature.

The liquid line is a small pipe with pencil size. The suction line is a larger pipe with
broom-handle size and it should be insulated by being covered with black foam-rubber
insulation type.

B. Jenis-jenis pendingin ruangan

1. AC Split
- Komponen AC dibagi 2 : indoor (filter udara, evaporator, evaporator blower,
expansion valve dan control unit) dan outdoor (compressor, condenser, condenser
blower dan refrigerant filter).
- Indoor dan outdoor dihubungkan oleh 2 saluran refrigerant 1 untuk menghubungkan
evaporator dan compressor, 1 untuk menghubungkan refrigerant filter dan expansion
valve.
- Ada juga kabel power untuk memasok listrik ke compressor dan condenser blower.
- Cocok untuk ruangan yang butuh ketenangan seperti bedroom, library or study room.
- Advantages:
o Bisa dipasang di ruangang yang tidah berhubungan dengan udara luar.
o Suara di dalam ruangan tidak berisik.
- Disadvantages:
o Assembly and disassembly membutuhkan tenaga terlatih.
o Maintenance membutuhkan peralatan khusus dan tenaga terlatih.
o Harga lebih mahal.



2. AC Window
- Semua komponen AC (filter udara, evaporator, evaporator blower, condenser,
condenser blower, compressor, expansion valve, refrigerant filter dan control unit)
terpasang pada satu base plate dan dimasukkan ke dalam kotak plat sehingga menjadi
satu kesatuan unit yang compact.
- Biasa dipilih karena space limitation seperti di rumah susun.
- Advantages:
o Assembly dan disassembly lebih mudah.
o Maintenance lebih mudah.
o Lebih murah harganya.
- Disadvantages:
o Karena semua komponen terpasang pada base plate yang posisinya dekat dengan
ruangan yang didinginkan, akan timbul suara berisik terutama dari compressor.
o Tidak semua ruangan dapat menggunakan AC window karena harus dipasang dengan
condenser menghadap ke open space supaya udara panas dapat terbuang.

3. AC Central
- Udara dari ruangan didinginkan pada cooling plant di luar ruangan tersebut,
kemudian udara dingin dialirkan kembali ke dalam ruangan tersebut,
- Cocok untuk gedung bertingkat berlantai banyak sepeti hotel atau mal.
- Advantages:
o Suara dalam ruangan tidak berisik sama sekali.
o Estetika ruangan bagus karena tidak ada unit indoor.
- Disadvantages:
o Planning, installation, operation dan maintenance membutuhkan skilled workers.
o Apabila ada kerusakan pada saat beroperasi, dampaknya akan terasa ke seluruh
ruangan.
o Pengaturan temperatur udara hanya dapat dilakukan pada centrak cooling plant.
o High investment cost, as well as operation and maintenance costs.

4. AC Standing
Cocok untuk situational and mobile occasions seperti pengajian atau seminar outdoor
karena unitnya yang movable.

C. Komponen utama sistem pendingin

1. Compressor

Berfungsi untuk mengalirkan refrigerant ke seluruh sistem pendingin. Sistem kerjanya
dengan mengubah tekanan sehingga perbedaan tekanan memungkinkan refrigerant mengalir
dari area bertekanan tinggi ke area bertekanan rendah.

Low T, low P refrigerant dari evaporator di-compress sehingga T dan P naik dan ditekan
keluar dari compressor menuju ke condenser.Tinggi rendahnya suhu diatur dengan
thermostat.

Jenis-jenis compressor:
Reciprocating compressor (compressor torak)
Pada saat langkah hisap piston, gas refrigerant yang bertekanan rendah ditarik
masuk melalui katup hisap yang terletak pada piston atau di kepala compressor. Pada
saat langkah buang, piston menekan refrigerant dan mendorongnya keluar melalui
katup buang yang terletak pada kepala silinder.


Rotary compressor
Rotor terdiri dari 2 baling-baling. Langkah hisap terjadi saat katup pemasukan
mulai terbuka dan berakhir saat katup pemasukan tertutup. Pada saat katup pemasukan
tertutup, dimulai langkah tekan sampai katup pengeluaran membuka, sedangkan pada
katup pemasukan secara bersamaan sudah terjadi langkah hisap dan seterusnya.



Blade compressor (kompresor sudu)
Biasa digunakan untuk lemari es,
freezer dan pengkondisian rumah tangga.
Juga untuk kompresor pembantu pada
bagian tekanan rendah sistem kompresi
bertingkat besar.







Tips:

Compressor is the most costly part of the air conditioning system to replace. Its
projected life is about 8 to 10 years. After the system has been turned on, the
compressor should start up smoothly. A straining, grunting, groaning or squealing noise
indicates problem condition that should be checked and investigated. It should operate
continuously without any noise (except a low hum) or squeaks. The compressor should also
not operate in short cycles (on and off repeatedly).


2. Condenser

Berfungsi untuk membuang kalor yang diserap dari evaporator dan panas yang diperoleh
dari compressor dan mengubah wujud gas menjadi cair.

Jenis-jenis condenser:

Air-cooled condenser
Kalor dipindahkan dari refrigerant ke udara dengan menggunakan natural or forced
circulation. Condenser dibuat dari pipa baja, tembaga dengan diberi sirip untuk
memperbaiki transfer kalor pada sisi udara. Refrigerant mengalir di dalamnya dan
udara megalir di luarnya. Digunakan untuk kapasitas kecil seperti refrigerator dan
small water cooler.

Water-cooled condenser
Ada 3 jenis:
Shell and tube
Sekumpulan pipa (tubes) dipasangkan di dalam shell (pipa galvanis) yang
berbentuk silinder di mana kedua jenis fluida saling bertukar kalor yang
mengalir secara terpisah (air dan freon). Air harus mengalir dengan
kecepatan tinggi untuk mendapatkan high heat transfer.


Shell and coil
Terdiri dari sebuah cangkang yang dilas elektrik dan berisi coil air,
kadang-kadang juga denga pipa bersirip.
Advantage:low manufacturing cost.
Disadvantage: difficult to service in the field. If a leak develops in the
coil, the shell head must be removed and the entire coil pulled from the
coil to find and repair the leak. Nuisance to clean

Double tube
Biasa digunakan dalam hubungan dengan cooling tower dan spray pond. Water
passes through the inner tube along with the exterior air condenses the
refrigerant in the outer tube creates double cooling that improves
efficiency of the condenser. Has counterflow design.
Advantage: easy to clean.



Evaporative-cooled condenser
Refrigerant melepaskan kalor ke air, lalu air melepaskan kalor ke udara dalam
bentuk uap air. Udara meniggalkan uap air dengan kelembapan tinggi seperti dalam
coling tower. Sistem ini menggabungkan fungsi condenser dan cooling tower. Banyak
digunakan di pabrik amoniak.

Recommendation:

Water-cooled condensers are generally not used for residential structures because they
are quite wasteful and costly to operate. If the central air-conditioning system
operates for twelve hours a day, this type of system can waste several thousand gallons
of water a day. If you find this type of condenser in the air-conditioning system, you
should consider its replacement.

In large air-conditioning systems such as those found in apartment buildings, water-
cooled condensers are not wasteful or costly to operate because the cooling water is
recirculated. After the water absorbs heat in the condenser, it is pumped up to a
cooling tower, often located on the roof, where it loses its heat and is then
recirculated to the condenser.


Diagnosis:

When the air-conditioning system is turned on, the fan associated with the condenser
should begin to operate at the same time as the compressor. Check if the fan is turning
or not by placing your hand over the unit to feel air rushing over your hand. After the
system has been operational for about fifteen minutes, the air being discharged through
the condensing coil should be warm since it removes heat that has been generated during
the compression of the refrigerant. Air that is not warm is usually an indication that
the compressor is not operating properly.

After the system has been operational for about fifteen minutes, look at the low-
pressure refrigerant line (the broom-handle size pipe) that is covered with insulation.
If a section of the pipe is exposed, grab it with your hand. If the compressor is
working properly and there is an adequate refrigerant charge, the pipe will be quite
cool to the touch. On many occasions, the pipe and end fittings will be "sweating" as a
result of condensation. This is a normal operating condition. However, a low-pressure
line covered with frost usually indicates a deficiency in refrigerant. Even though
cooling can be obtained with an air-conditioning system that is deficient in
refrigerant, the efficiency of the system is greatly reduced.

Occasionally you will find a sight glass on the small-diameter refrigerant line. It is a
small device installed directly into the high-pressure liquid refrigerant line that
allows the homeowner to see whether there is a problem with the flow of the liquid
refrigerant. The refrigerant is colourless, and if the system is operating properly,
nothing unusual will be noted when looking at the sight glass. However, when the system
is low in refrigerant, bubbles will show up in the liquid as it passes under the glass.

The location of the compressor-condenser is important for efficient operation. The
compressor should be located where it will receive a minimum of direct sunlight, since
the cooler the air flowing across the condenser, the more efficient the cycle. The
compressor should be positioned so that the condenser air intake is at least 12 inches
away from any obstruction or dense shrubbery. If not, there will not be an adequate
airflow for condenser cooling.


Airflow through unit must not be obstructed

The compressor-condenser can be a noisy piece of equipment and should be vibration-
mounted on a concrete slab or precast concrete blocks that will not settle. The unit
should be level. Excessive uneven settlement can cause fractures in refrigerant-line
fittings and thereby allow the refrigerant to escape.

Look for an electrical disconnect switch on the exterior wall near the compressor. The
purpose of this switch is to allow the maintenance man to disconnect the unit so that if
someone in the house unknowingly turns the thermostat down, the unit will not be
activated while he is making repairs.

The overall compressor-condenser unit should be checked to see whether it is in need of
a cleaning. These units require periodic cleaning because leaves, seed pods, twigs, and
dust tend to clog the condenser, thus restricting the airflow. The condenser has fins
like an automobile radiator's, which can clog easily.


3. Katup ekspansi (expansion valve)

Dipergunakan untuk menurunkan tekanan dan mengekspansi secara adiabatik (no heat
transfer - occurs because of ) cairan dengan P dan T tinggi sampai mencapai
tingkat P dan T rendah.Dalam hal ini, refrigerant ekspansi dari tekanan kondensasi ke
tekanan evaporasi. Refrigerant cair diinjeksikan melalui orifice dan segera berubah
menjadi kabut dengan P dan T rendah.
Expansion valve juga berfungsi sebagai alat kontrol refrigerasi yang berfungsi:
Mengatur jumlah refrigerant yang mengalir dari pipa cair menuju evaporator sesuai
dengan laju penguapan pada evaporator.
Mempertahankan perbedaan tekanan antara condenser dan evaporator agar penguapan
pada evaporator berlangsung pada tekanan kerjanya.

Pipa kapiler
- Merupakan salah satu alat ekspansi dengan 2 kegunaan menurunkan tekanan refrigerant
cair dan mengatur aliran refrigerant ke evaporator.
- Refrigerant cair masuk ke kapiler dan mengalir sehingga P berkurang akibat gesekan dan
percepatan refrigerant.
- Pipa kapiler melayani semua sistem refrigerasi berukuran kecil (hingga kapasitas
refrigerasi 10 kW).
- Mempunyai ukuran panjang 1-6 meter dengan diameter 0.5-2 mm.
- Ukuran pipa tergantung dari: kapasitas pendinginan, kondisi operasi dan jumlah
refrigerant dari mesin refrigerasi yang bersangkutan.
- Pada waktu compressor berhenti bekerja, pipa kapiler menghubungkan bagian tekanan
tinggi dengan tekanan rendah sehingga menyamakan tekanannya dan memudahkan start
berikutnya.



4. Evaporator (penguap)
Berfungsi sebagai penukar kalor dan menguapkan refrigerant dalam sistem sebelum dihisap
oleh compressor. Panas udara sekeliling dihisap oleh evaporator sehingga T udara
sekeliling turun. Suhu udara rendah ini dipindahkan ke tempat lain dengan dihembus oleh
kipas sehingga terjadi aliran udara.

Jenis-jenis evaporator sesuai dengan refrigerant yang ada di dalamnya:
Jenis ekspansi kering
Refrigerant yang diekspansikan melalui katup ekspansi pada waktu masuk ke
evaporator sudah dalam keadaan campuran cair dan uap, sehingga keluar dari
evaporator dalam keadaan uap air.
Jenis setengah basah
Kondisi refrigerant di antara evaporator jenis kering dan basah. Dalam evaporator
ini selalu terdapat refrigerant cair dalam pipa penguapnya.

Jenis basah
Sebagian besar dari evaporator terisi oleh cairan refrigerant.

Perpindahan kalor di dalam evaporator
Heat transfer within evaporator occurs is the sum of forced convection happening inside
and outside of tubes and conduction across the tubes. Combined heat transfer coefficient
can be determined by first calculating the heat transfer coefficient of the refrigerant
side and the air side. The total heat transfer coefficient is then calculated based on
the outer and inner surface areas of the pipes.

Diagnosis:

The evaporator will usually be located in the attic or the basement. When the unit is
located in the attic, you will often find the refrigerant lines from the compressor
running up along the outside of the structure and entering the building at the attic
level. When the evaporator coil is located in the basement, either as a separate unit or
in the furnace plenum, the refrigerant lines from the compressor are short and run
directly into the structure. If possible, the evaporator coil should be observed after
the unit has been operational for about thirty minutes. The coil might not always be
accessible because it may be covered with a sheet-metal casing that cannot be easily
disassembled.

If the evaporator is accessible, look at the coil and the associated refrigerant tubing.
The evaporator is used to cool and dehumidify the circulating air. If you notice a
frosting condition (a build-up of ice) on portions of the coil and refrigerant tubing
rather than dripping water, the system is not operating properly. The frosting is
usually the result of an insufficient airflow through the evaporator coil or an
inadequate amount of refrigerant in the system.

When the house is heated by forced warm air, the most common location for the evaporator
is in the furnace plenum hence called furnace-mounted evaporator. A furnace-mounted unit
takes advantage of the ducts that have been installed for heating the house and also
uses the heating-system blower to circulate the cool air. You can tell if the evaporator
coil is located inside the furnace plenum by whether there are refrigerant lines
entering the sheet-metal casing of the plenum. The refrigerant lines inside the casing
are connected directly to the evaporator coil. The most common type of coil that is
found in a furnace plenum is a two-section design, an A-coil (because of its shape).
Sometimes an inclined or horizontal coil is used.


Evaporator (cooling) coil mounted in furnace plenum.

Below the evaporator coil is a pan that collects the water condensing out of the
circulating air. The water is then removed by means of a plastic drain line that will be
visible when looking at the furnace plenum. Depending on the location of the furnace,
the condensate drain line will run to a nearby sink where the condensate drips down the
drain or will run through the foundation wall, where the condensate drips on the
outside. When the condensate drain line is extended through the foundation wall, there
should be a splash plate below the end of the pipe so that the dripping water can be
directed away from the foundation.

Sometimes the condensate drain line runs from the furnace down to a small hole in the
floor slab. The condensate trickling out of the drain line accumulates below the slab.
This method of removing the condensate is not very desirable in those areas where the
water will not readily drain because of high water table or high clay content in the
soil. Even though the amount of water discharging from the condensate drain is small,
the introduction of additional water could aggravate a condition that makes the lower
level of the structure vulnerable to water seepage.

The condensate drain line should terminate at the plenum with a U-shaped trap. Since the
condensate drain line is an open pipe leading directly into the cooling coil, the trap
(which is partially filled with water) prevents any of the cool air from escaping
through the pipe. Look for a trap.

Occasionally the condensate drain discharges into a small rectangular box located near
the furnace. This box is the reservoir for a lift pump. The purpose of the pump is to
lift the condensate to a level where it can then flow to any desired location. Without a
pump, it is often necessary to position the drain line so that it blocks a portion of
the room or interferes with foot traffic. Check the pump's operation. These pumps have a
float control that is activated when the water reaches a pre-set level. If there is only
a small amount of water in the reservoir, the pump can be checked by pouring water from
a glass into the reservoir.

Now look at the overall furnace plenum around the evaporator coil. Rust and mineral
deposits indicate a past or present problem in condensate removal. Water overflowing the
condensate drain pan can damage the heat exchanger below. If you see this condition, you
should have the furnace heat exchanger checked by a heating contractor for signs of
deterioration.

When the evaporator coil is located inside the furnace plenum, the blower for the
heating system is also used as the blower for circulating the cool air. Because cool air
is heavier than warm air, when the blower is used for air-conditioning, it should
operate at a higher speed. Most often, however, the furnace is equipped with a one-speed
motor. Consequently, the air-conditioning system is often not as effective as it might
be. A pair of double-or triple-sheaved hubs can be installed to allow multispeed
operation. When the blower is turned off by the master switch, check the tension in the
fan belt. There should be no excessive slack. Press the belt midway between the pulleys.
If the belt gives more than 34 inch to an inch, it is too loose, and adjustment is
needed. When the blower is operating, listen for any unusual noises or vibrations. You
might also ask the owner when the unit was last servicedthere is no substitute for
periodic maintenance.


5. Blower Coil

When the evaporator coil is housed in a separate casing that contains a blower for
circulating the cool air, the coil is commonly referred to as a blower coil. Most often,
the blower coil is located in the attic. However, it can be located in a closet or in
the basement. The blower coil should be vibration-mounted to prevent the noise of the
blower unit from being transmitted into the living area. Vibration mounting can be
achieved by placing the unit on rubber, cork, or styrofoam pads. The vibrations might
also be isolated in the attic by suspending the unit from the roof rafters.

The base of the blower coil is basically a condensate collection pan. The accumulated
condensate is removed by means of a drain line that will extend through the exterior
wall, terminating on the outside, or extend through the lower portion of the roof,
terminating in the gutter. Sometimes the condensate drain line terminates in the
plumbing vent stack located in the attic. In many communities, this type of termination
is not permitted because it is not in compliance with the plumbing code.

Attic-mounted blower coil. Unit is resting on a styrofoam pad to minimize vibrations.
Below the unit is an auxiliary condensate drain pan and associated drain line. Note
that the main condensate drain line does not have a U-shaped trap.

The purpose of the vent stack is to channel sewer gases in the plumbing system to the
outside. If the condensate drain line is connected to the vent stack and there is no
trap on the drain line, the sewer gases may back up into the condensate drain line,
enter the blower coil, and be circulated throughout the house. The condensate drain line
should have a U-shaped trap near its connection to the blower-coil housing. On many
installations, this trap is omitted. Look for it. If it is missing, one should be
installed.


Air-conditioning condensate drain line terminating in plumbing vent stack. In many
communities, this type of termination does not comply with the plumbing code.

When the blower coil is located in the attic, certain steps must be taken to prevent
cosmetic damage to the ceiling below in the event of a blockage in the main condensate

drain line. Some blower-coil housings have a fitting for an auxiliary drain line that is
located just above the main condensate drain fitting. If the main drain becomes clogged,
the level of the condensate will rise and be drawn off by the auxiliary drain.

For those blower coils that do not have a fitting in the housing for an auxiliary drain
line, there should be an auxiliary drain pan below the unit. The auxiliary pan will
collect any condensate that overflows from the main pan when there is a blockage in the
main drain line. Look for an auxiliary drain pan. In some parts of the country auxiliary
drain pans are installed when the blower coil is located over any furred space, even
when the blower housing has an auxiliary drain fitting. Unfortunately, many air-
conditioning contractors do not install the auxiliary drain or drain pan. Because rising
costs make it difficult to remain competitive, they cut costs wherever they can.

The auxiliary drain pan must have a separate drain line that discharges to the outside.
It should not be connected to the main drain line. If it is, it reflects poor-quality
workmanship; if the main drain line becomes clogged near the discharge end, the
auxiliary drain line will also not function.


Auxiliary condensate drain line connected to main condensate line. This negates the use
of an auxiliary drain and reflects poor-quality workmanship. If the main drain becomes
clogged near the discharge end, the auxiliary drain will not function. Note that the U-
shaped trap is missing.

Recommendation:

If the evaporator coil is accessible, it should be inspected for frost build-up. From an
efficiency point of view, the attic is the least desirable area for locating the blower
coil because of the high temperatures, easily reaching 140 F to 150 F that normally
occur during the summer. Even though the blower coil is insulated, there will be a heat
gain because of this high temperature. The overall attic temperature, however, can be
lowered by increasing the number or size of the attic vent openings. A ridge vent is
quite effective, as is a thermostatically controlled power ventilator.
General recommendation:

a. After the air-conditioning system has been operational for about fifteen minutes,
the temperature of the air discharging from the supply registers should be about 15
degrees lower than the temperature in the room. If the air does not have a slight
chill, it might be because there is a heat gain along the duct leading to that
register as a result of inadequate insulation, or the system may be undersized or
low in refrigerant.
b. While checking the temperature of the air leaving the supply registers, also check
the airflow. If the air discharging from the registers has a low flow and appears to
be sluggish, it might indicate that there is an obstruction within the system caused
by dirty filters or icing on the evaporator coils. Sometimes the condition is caused
by an undersized fan or the need for balancing the airflow between the registers.
c. The location of the supply registers is important for effective air-conditioning.
Being heavier than warm air, the cool air will tend to accumulate near the lower
portion of the room and the warm air near the top. As a result, there is usually a
temperature difference between the ceiling and floor. This stratification of heat
layers can be minimized by adequate circulation in the room. Adequate circulation
can be achieved by locating the supply registers on the opposite side of the room
from the return grille. When the return grille is near the supply register, the air
discharging from the supply is drawn in by the return grille and does not have a
chance to circulate adequately around the room.
d. In many houses, the rooms do not have individual return grilles. Instead there might
be a large central return located in the hall. In these cases, the supply registers
should be located on a wall that will allow the supply air to circulate completely
prior to being drawn off and returned to the central grille. Also, the doors to the
individual rooms must be undercut so that when they are closed, the supply air will
be able to flow to the return grille.
e. Ideally, air-conditioning supply registers should be located in or near the ceiling.
To minimize air-conditioning installation costs, rather than install new ducts many
new homes use the ducts and registers provided with a forced-air heating system.
These registers are usually located near or at the floor level and are quite
effective for heating purposes. However, when they are used for air-conditioning,
they are less effective and tend to increase the stratification effect. Some houses
with forced-warm-air heating have what are called high-low registers. The duct
supplying the heat register is extended vertically to a point near the ceiling level
where it terminates at another register. When the system is used for heating, the
damper controlling the upper register is manually closed, and the lower register is
opened. When the system is used for cooling, the damper controlling the lower
register is closed, and the upper register is opened. This type of arrangement is
very desirable and is often found in high-quality construction.

6. Ducts

There are two basic types of ducts used in residential structuressheet metal and glass
fibre. While checking the distribution portion of the air-conditioning system, look for
exposed ducts. The glass-fibre type of duct is by its very nature insulated. However,
the metal duct may or may not be insulated. The fact that there is exposed metal on the
outside does not mean that the duct is not insulated. The insulation might be located
inside the duct. Whether the metal duct is insulated can be determined by feeling the
duct when the system is operating (if no insulation, the duct will be quite cool) or by
striking the duct with your fingernail. If there is no insulation, you will hear a
ringing sound, and if there is insulation, you will hear a dull thud.

All ducts that lead through unfinished areas such as crawl spaces and attics must be
insulated so that the cool air flowing through the ducts will not absorb heat from its
surroundings. Pay particular attention to the joints for indications of air leakage. Any
open joints should be sealed with inexpensive duct tape. Also, whether the evaporator
coil is located inside the furnace plenum or in the attic, check the joints around the
housing for air leakage. Very often, there are open joints that must be sealed.

D. Termodinamika Sistem Refrigerasi

1. Siklus refrigerasi Carnot

Merupakan kebalikan dari mesin carnot. Mesin carnot menerima energi kalor dari
temperature tinggi, yang kemudian energy tersebut dirubah menjadi suatu kerja dan sisa
energi tersebut dibuang ke sumber panas temperature rendah. Siklus refrigerasi carnot
menerima energi pada temperature rendah dan mengeluarkan energi pada temperature tinggi.
Oleh sebab itu, pada siklus pendingin diperlukan penambahan kerja dari luar.





Proses-proses yang membentuk Carnot refrigeration cycle:
Adiabatic compression (1-2)
Isothermal heat release (2-3)
Adiabatic expansion (3-4)
Isothermal heat gain (4-1)

Tujuan utama: penyerapan kalor dari sumber bersuhu rendah pada proses 4-1 (isothermal
heat gain). Seluruh proses lainnya dibuat sedemikian rupa sehingga energi bersuhu rendah
dapat dikeluarkan ke lingkungan yang bersuhu tinggi.
2. Siklus kompresi uap standar (teoritis)




Asumsi yang digunakan:
a. Proses kompresi
Kompresi terjadi dari titik 1 ke 2. Pada siklus sederhana, refirigerant diasumsikan
tidak mengalami perubahan kondisi selama mengalir di jalur hisap. Proses kompresi
diasumsikan isentropic sehingga pada diagram berada pada satu garis entropi konstan,
dan titik 2 berada pada kondisi super panas. Proses ini memerlukan kerja dari luar dan
entalpi uap naik dari h1 ke h2. Besarnya kenaikan ini sama dengan besarnya kerja
kompresi yang dilakukan uap refrigerant.

b. Proses kondensasi
Proses 2-3 ini terjadi di kondensor di mana uap panas refrigerant dari kondensor
didinginkan oleh air sampai pada temperature kondensasi, kemudian uap tersebut
dikondensasikan. Pada titik 2, refrigerant pada kondisi uap jenuh pada tekanan dan
temperature kondensasi. Proses ini terjadi pada isobar (constant P) dan jumlah panas
yang dipindahkan selama proses ini adalah beda entalpi antara titik 2 dan 3.

c. Proses ekspansi
Proses berlangsung dari titik 3 ke 4. Pada proses ini terjadi penurunan tekanan
refrigerant dari tekanan kondensasi (di titik 3) menjadi tekanan evaporasi (di titik
4). Pada waktu cairan di ekspansi melalui katup ekspansi atau pipa kapiler ke
evaporator, temperature refrigerantjuga turun dari temperature kondensat ke temperatur
evaporasi. Ini merupakan proses adiabatic dimana entalpi fluida konstan sepanjang
proses. Refrigerant pada titik 4 berada pada kondisi campuran-uap.

d. Proses evaporasi
Proses 4-1 berlangsung pada evaporator dan dalam tekanan konstan. Pada titik 1 seluruh
refrigerant berada dalam kondisi uap jenuh. Selama proses 4-1, entalpi refrigerant
naik akibat penyerapan kalori dari ruang refrigerasi. Besarnya kalor yang diserap
adalah beda entalpi antara titik 1 dan 4 yang biasa disebut dengan efek pendinginan.

3. Siklus kompresi uap aktual

Perbedaan antara siklus standard dan actual terjadi karena asumsi yang diterapkan dalam
siklus standard.

Pada siklus actual terjadi pemanasan lanjut (superheating) uap refrigerant yang
meninggalkan evaporator sebelum masuk ke kondensor. Hal ini mungkin terjadi akibat 2
hal: tipe peralatan ekspansi yang digunakan atau karena penyerapan panas di jalur masuk
(suction line)antara evaporator dan kompresor,

Demikian juga pada refrigerant cair mengalami pendinginan lanjut atau bawah dingin (sub-
cooling) sebelum masuk katup ekspansi atau pipa kapiler.

Dua keadaan di atas adalah normal bahkan memiliki fungsi yang berguna yaitu memastikan
agar seluruh refrigerant yang memasuki kompresor atau alat ekspansi dalam keadaan 100%
uap atau 100% cair.

Perbedaan yang paling penting antara siklus standard dan aktual adalah pada siklus
standard, dianggap tidak ada penurunan tekanan pada kondensor dan evaporator sedangkan
pada siklus aktual terjadi penurunan tekanan karena adanya gesekan antara dinding pipa
dengan refrigerant. Akibatnya, compressor di antara titik 1 dan 2 memerlukan lebih
banyak kerja dibandingkan dengan siklus standard. Jadi pada siklus aktual, proses
kompresi bukan isentropic (tidak ada heat transfer antara refrigerant dan dinding pipa)
dan juga bukan polytropic.

E. Klasifikasi Sistem Refrigerasi

Berdasarkan prinsip kerjanya, sistem refrigerasi terbagi menjadi 3 jenis:

1. Sistem refrigerasi kompresi uap
Mengambil keuntungan dari kenyataan bahwa fluida yang bertekanan tinggi pada suhu
tertentu cenderung menjadi lebih dingin jika dibiarkan mengembang.Jika perubahan tekanan
cukup tinggi, maka gas yang ditekan akan menjadi lebih panas daripada sumber dingin di
luar (contoh: udara luar) dan gas yang mengembang akan menjadi lebih dingin daripada
suhu dingin yang dikehendaki. Dalam kasus ini, fluida digunakan untuk mendinginkan
lingkungan bersuhu rendah dan membuang panas ke lingkungan bersuhu tinggi.




1-2 Cairan refrigerant dalam evaporator menyerap panas dari sekitarnya, biasanya
udara, air atau cairan proses lain. Selama proses ini cairan merubah bentuknya dari cair
menjadi gas, dan pada keluaran evaporator gas ini diberi pemanasan berlebih/ superheated
gas.

2-3 Uap yang diberi panas berlebih masuk menuju kompresor dimana tekanannya dinaikkan.
Suhu juga akan meningkat, sebab bagian energi yang menuju proses kompresi dipindahkan ke
refrigerant.

3-4 Superheated gas bertekanan tinggi lewat dari kompresor menuju kondenser. Bagian
awal proses refrigerasi (3-3a) menurunkan panas superheated gas sebelum gas ini
dikembalikan menjadi bentuk cairan (3a-3b). Refrigerasi untuk proses ini biasanya
dicapai dengan menggunakan udara atau air. Penurunan suhu lebih lanjut terjadi pada
pekerjaan pipa dan penerima cairan (3b - 4), sehingga cairan refrigeran didinginkan ke
tingkat lebih rendah ketika cairan ini menuju alat ekspansi.

4-1 Cairan yang sudah didinginkan dan bertekanan tinggi melintas melalui peralatan
ekspansi, yang mana akan mengurangi tekanan dan mengendalikan aliran menuju Kondenser
harus mampu membuang panas gabungan yang masuk evaporator dan kondenser.

Dengan kata lain: (1 - 2) + (2 - 3) harus sama dengan (3 - 4). Melalui alat ekspansi
tidak terdapat panas yang hilang maupun yang diperoleh.

2. Sistem refrigerasi absorbsi
Dalam siklus refrigerasi absorbsi, dipergunakan penyerap untuk menyerap refrigerant yang
diuapkan di dalam evaporator sehingga menjadi suatu larutan absorbsi. Kemudian, larutan
absorbsi tersebut dimasukan ke dalam sebuah generator untuk memisahkan refrigerant dari
larutan absorbsi tersebut dengan cara memanasi, yang sekaligus akan menaikan tekanannya
sampai mencapai tingkat keadaan mudah diembunkan.



Dalam sistem ini terdapat 2 siklus siklus refrigerant (A-B-C-D) dan siklus pelarut
(B-C-E-F).

Pada titik A, refrigerant dalam keadaan tekanan dan temperatur rendah dan berfase cair.
Kemudian, di evaporator refrigeran menyerap kalor dari objek yang didinginkan sehingga
berubah menjadi gas (titik B). Gas refrigerant ini mengalir ke absorber sehingga
diabsorpsi oleh larutan LiBr, akbatnya larutan kaya akan refrigeran, keadaan ini disebut
dengan larutan kuat (strong solution), kemudian larutan kuat ini dipompakan ke generator
(titik C). Pada generator, kalor digunakan untuk memisahkan antara refrigerant dan
pelarut. Karena titik didih refrigerant lebih rendah dari pada pelarut maka refrigerant
menguap menuju kondenser. Uap refrigeran ini kemudian terkondensasi pada kondenser
dengan membuang kalor sehingga fasanya menjadi cair (titik D). Setelah itu refrigerant
cair ini diekspansi sehingga tekanannya menjadi rendah (titik A). Siklus ini terus
berlangsung sehingga efek refigerasi (proses A-B) terjadi secara kontinu. Disisi lain,
pada siklus pelarut (B-C-E-F), larutan yang miskin akan refrigerant (titik C)
diekspansikan untuk dialirkan ke absorber sehingga mengabsorb refrigerant menjadi
larutan kuat. Siklus ini pun berlangsung terus menerus.

Untuk keperluan pengkondisian udara biasanya digunakan sistem air (H2O) sebagai
refrigeran dan Larutan Litium Bromida (LiBr) sebagai pelarut. Sedangkan untuk keperluan
yang membutuhkan temperatur lebih rendah, seperti pembuatan es, digunakan ammonia (NH3)
sebagai refrigerant dan air (H2O) sebagai pelarut.

3. Sistem refrigerasi udara
Pada siklus ini, udara bertindak sebagai refrigerant di mana udara menyerap panas pada
tekanan konstan P, di dalam refrigerator. Udara panas keluar refrigerator, dikompresi
untuk dibuang panasnya ke lingkungan melalui cooler pada tekanan konstan P2 (P2 > P1).
Udara keluar cooler dikembalikan ke keadaan awal oleh mesin ekspansi untuk dapat
melakukan langkah awal pada siklus berikutnya.



F. Prosedur Pengisian Refrigerant

Pengisian refrigerant harus sesuai dengan takaran. Kelebihan refrigerant dalam sistem
dapat menyebabkan temperatur evaporasi yang tinggi akibat tekanan dari refrigerant yang
tinggi. Selain itu dapat menyebabkan kompresor rusak akibat kerja kompresor yang terlalu
berat dan adanya kemungkinan liquid suction. Sebaliknya bila jumlah refigeran yang
diisikan sedikit, dengan kata lain kurang dari yang ditentukan, maka sistem akan
mengalami kekurangan pendinginan.

Ada beberapa cara pengisian refrigerant di antaranya adalah:
a. Mengisi sistem berdasarkan berat refrigerant
b. Mengisi sistem berdasarkan banyaknya bunga es yang terjadi di evaporator
c. Mengisi sistem berdasarkan temperatur dan tekanan

CAUTION:
Wear safety goggles and protective gloves.
If air is mixed in refrigeration cycle, poor cooling may result and also if moisture
is mixed in refrigeration cycle, clogging (freezing) or rust may result.
Before charging the refrigerant, evacuate the system using vacuum pump to remove air
and moisture in the system. Moisture can be evaporated and removed easily even at
normal temperature, if the system is evacuated using vacuum pump.







1) Close all valves of manifold gauge


2) Install the low-/high-pressure hoses
to corresponding service ports on
vehicle.

CAUTION: Be sure that hoses are securely
connected.

3) Connect the centre hose of manifold
gauge with vacuum pump.

4) Activate the vacuum pump and open the
valves on low-/high-pressure sides.

CAUTION: Be sure to evacuate the system
using vacuum pump.

5) After at least 5 mins of evacuation,
if the low-pressure gauge reading
shows 100.0 kPa (750 mmHg, 29.5 inHg)
or higher, close the valves on centre
hose to stop the vacuum pump.

6) Leave it at least 5 to 10 mins after
closing the valves on low-/high-
pressure sides, and then check the
low-pressure gauge reading for any
changes. When the gauge reading
changes, this is a sign of leakage.
Check the pipe or hose connector
points, and repair it if necessary.
Repeat the procedure from 1) after
repairing the faulty part.

7) If there are no leaks, further
evacuate the system for another 20 to
30 mins.

8) Close all valves and stop the vacuum
pump.

9) Following the can tap operation
manual instructions, install it to
refrigerant can.

10) Disconnect the vacuum pump from
centre hose and connect the hose to
tap valve.

11) When a refrigerant recovery container
is used, measure the refrigerant
amount in use using a weighting scale
before connecting to centre hose.

12) Open the valve on refrigerant (HFC-
134a) source.

13) Loosen the centre hose connection on
manifold gauge (if applicable, press
a purge valve on manifold gauge) only
for a couple of seconds to allow the
air in the centre hose to escape by
the refrigerant (the process is
called purging).

14) Ensure that high-pressure valve of
manifold gauge is closed, and then
open the low-pressure side valve only
to charge the refrigerant.


CAUTION: Do not open high-pressure
valve. Be sure to open the low-pressure
valve.

15) Close the low-pressure valve when the
low-pressure gauge reading reaches
200 kPa (1500 mmHg, 59.1 inHg).

16) Using a leak tester, check the system
for refrigerant leaks

17) After confirming that there are no
leaks with the leak test, charge the
required amount of refrigerant.
18) If the refrigerant (HFC-134a) is
empty, close the low-pressure valve
and then close the valve on can tap
before replacing the empty source.
Restart charging operation after
replacing the refrigerant source with
a new one and purging.

19) Close the low-pressure valve if the
charge rate of refrigerant becomes
worse.

20) Confirm that both the low-/high-
pressure valves are closed. Start the
engine with A/C switch OFF.

21) Quickly repeat A/C switch ON-OFF
cycles a few times to prevent initial
compressor damage.
22) Set up the vehicle to the following
status:
A/C switch ON
Engine running at 1500 rpm
Blower speed setting to Hi
Temp. setting to MAX COOL
Air inlet setting to RECIRC
Window open

23) Open the low-pressure valve and
charge the specified amount of
refrigerant.

24) Close all valves and disconnect the
hoses from service port after
charging the refrigerant.

25) Install the cap to service port.

G. Tipe Refrigerant

R22 (CFC) tidak lagi digunakan karena termasuk Ozone Depleting Substance (ODS). R134a
sebagai alternatif sudah cukup baik akan tetapi tidak bias menggantukan R-12 secara
langsung tanpa melakukan modifikasi sistem refrigerasi (drop in substitute), relatif
mahal, masih berpotensi sebagai ODS dan sangat bergantung kepada pelumas sintetik yang
sering menyebabkan masalah dengan sifat higroskopis (kemampuan menyerap air baik melalui
absorbsi atau adsorpsi.

Alternatif lain adalah refrigerant hydrocarbon seperti propana (R-290), isobutana (R-
600a), n-butana (R-600). Campuran yang sering digunakan adalah R-290/600a, R-290/600 dan
R-290/600/600a.
Keuntungan:
Ramah lingkungan karena memiliki nilai Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) 0 dan Global
Warming Potential (GWP) yang hampir dapat diabaikan.
Properti termofisika dan karakteristik perpindahan kalor yang baik.
Kerapatan fase uap yang rendah.
Kelarutan yang baik dengan pelumas mineral.
Kerugian:
Mudah terbakar.

Salah satu refrigerant yang dapat digunakan adalah MUSICOOL. Hidrokarbon MUSICOOL (MC)
mampu menggantikan refrigerant sintetik (CFC, HCFC, HFC) secara langsung tanpa
penggantian komponen sistem refrigerasi. MC-12 menggantikan R-12, MC-22 menggantikan R-
22 dan MC-134 menggantikan R-134a. Sifat fisika dan termodinamik hidrokarbon MUSICOOL
memberikan kinerja sistem refrigerasi yang lebih baik, keawetan umur kompresor dan hemat
energy.

H. Commercial Cooling Load

The room cooling load is the rate at which heat must be removed from the room air to
maintain it at the design temperature and humidity.



The amount of heat that must be removed (the cooling load) is not always equal to the
amount of heat received at a given time (called the instantaneous heat gain). This
difference is a result of the heat storage and time lag effects. Of the total amount of
heat entering the building at any instant, only a portion of it heats the room air
immediately; the other part (the radiation) heats the building mass-the roof, walls,
floors, and furnishings. This is the heat storage effect. Only at a later time does the
stored heat portion contribute to heating the room air.

During the time of day at which the instantaneous heat gain is the highest (the
afternoon), the cooling load is less than the instantaneous heat gain. This is because
some of this heat is stored in the building mass and is not heating the room air. Later
in the day, the stored heat plus some of the new entering heat is released to the room
air, so the cooling load becomes greater than the instantaneous heat gain.

This effect is noticed in the huge southern European cathedrals built of massive, thick
stone walls. Even on a sunny, very hot day the church interior remains quite cool,
though it is not air-conditioned. The entering heat doesn't reach the interior it
merely heats the walls (heat storage). By the time the heat reaches the interior (time
lag), night has come. In this extreme example of time delay, the building may even have
a reverse heat flow at night-heat flows out from the hot walls to the cool outdoors.

The cooling load calculation procedure that will be explained here is called the
CLF/CLTD method since this procedure is relatively easy to understand and use.


a) Room Heat Gain

The heat gain components contributed to the room cooling load consists of:
1. Conduction through exterior walls, roof and glass
2. Conduction through interior partitions, ceilings and floors External heat gains
3. Solar radiation through glass
4. Lighting
5. People Internal heat gains
6. Equipment
7. Heat from infiltration of outside air through openings

The heat gains can also be categorised into sensible and latent heat gains. Sensible
heat gains result in increasing the air temperature; latent heat gains are due to
addition of water vapour, thus increasing humidity. Items 1 through 4 are solely
sensible gains. Items 5 and 7 are part sensible and part latent and item 6 can fall in
either category Or both, depending on the type of equipment.

b) Conduction Through Exterior Structure

The cooling loads caused by conduction heat gains through exterior roof, walls and glass
are each found from the following equation:

Where
= cooling load for roof, wall or glass (BTU/hr)
= overall heat transfer coefficient for roof, wall or glass (BTU/hr-ft
2
-
o
F)
= area of roof, wall or glass (ft
2
)

= corrected cooling load temperature difference (

o
F)
The cooling load temperature difference (CLTD) is not the actual temperature difference between the outdoor and indoor air. It
is a modified value that accounts for the heat storage/time lag effects. Tables below list CLTD values for some wall and roof
constructions.






























The CLTD values in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 above are based on the following conditions:
1. Indoor temperature is 78
o
F DB
2. Outdoor average temperature on the design day is 85
o
F DB
3. Date is July 21
st

4. Location is 40
o
N latitude

If the actual condition differs from any of the above, the CLTD must be corrected as
follows:

) (

)
Where

= corrected value of CLTD (

o
F)
= temperature from Table 6.1, 6.2, 6.5
= correction for latitude and month, from Table 6.4

= room temperature (
o
F)

= average outside temperature on a design day (

o
F)

The temperature

can be found as follows:

)
Where

= outside design dry bulb temperature (

o
F)
= daily temperature range (
o
F)

Both values of

and for various locations in Indonesia can be found in the table

below.




The hours listed in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 are Solar Time which is approximately equal to Standard Time.

















c) Conduction Through Interior Structure

The heat that flows from interior unconditioned spaces to the conditioned space through
partitions, floors, and ceilings can be found from equation:


Where
= heat gain (cooling load) through partition, floor or ceiling (BTU/hr)
= overall heat transfer coefficient for partition, floor or ceiling
(BTU/hr-ft
2
-
o
F)
= temperature difference between unconditioned and conditioned space (
o
F)

If the temperature of the unconditioned space is not known, an approximation often used
is to assume that it is at 5
o
F less than the outdoor temperature. Spaces with heat
sources, such as boiler rooms, may be at a much higher temperature.

d) Solar Radiation Through Glass

Radiant energy from the sun passes through transparent materials such as glass and
becomes a heat gain to the room. Its value varies with time, orientation, shading, and
storage effect. The solar cooling load can be found from the following equation:


Where
= radiation cooling load for glass (BTU/hr)
= maximum solar heat gain factor (BTU/hr-ft
2
)
= area of glass (ft
2
)
= shading coefficient
= cooling load factor for glass

The maximum solar heat gain factor (SHGF) is the maximum solar heat gain through single
clear glass at a given month, orientation, and latitude. Values are shown in Table 6.6
for the 21
st
day of each month.









The SHGF gives maximum heat gain values only for the type of glass noted and without any
shading devices. To account for heat gains with different fenestration arrangements, the
shading coefficient SC is introduced. Table 6.7 lists some values of SC.

The cooling load factor CLF accounts for the storage of part of the solar heat gain.
Values of CLF to be applied to the solar load calculation are shown in Tables 6.8, 6.9,
and 6.10. Note that there are separate listings for Light (L), Medium (M), and Heavy (H)
construction, as described. Table 6.8 is used without interior shading devices and with
carpeting. Table 6.9 is used without interior shading devices and no carpeting. Table
6.10 is used with interior shading devices (in this case the carpeting has no storage
effect).



































External Shading Effect

The values for the SHGF shown in Table 6.6 are for direct solar radiation-when the sun
shines on the glass. External shading from building projections (or other objects) may
shade all or part of the glass. In these cases, only an indirect radiation reaches the
glass from the sky and ground. The SHGF values for any shaded glass are the same as the
N (north) side of the building, which also receives only indirect radiation.

In order to find the total radiation through partly shaded glass, the shaded area
portion must first be found. Table 6.11 can be used to find the shading from overhead
horizontal projections. The values in the table are the vertical feet of shade for each
foot of horizontal projection. The following example illustrates the use of Table 6.11.




























e) Design Conditions

The cooling load calculations are based on inside and outside design conditions. Some
recommended values for inside design conditions are given in tables below.



Suhu Netral dan Batas Nyaman Responden Berdasarkan Kelompok Suku

Kelompok Suku
Suhu Netral (

) Batas Nyaman (

(
o
C)

(
o
C)

(
o
C)

(
o
C)

(
o
C)

(
o
C)
1. Aceh (n=6) 24.3 24.3 23.4 20.5-27.3 20.7-27.9 20.2-26.6
2. Tapanuli (n=23) 25.9 26.2 24.6 22.5-29.2 22.9-29.4 20.2-28.9
3. Minang (n=27) 26.9 27.4 25.7 23.7-30.1 24.1-30.6 21.7-29.6
4. Sumatera yang
lain (n=16)
27.0 27.3 25.9 23.7-30.3 23.9-30.7 21.8-30.1
5. Betawi (n=23) 27.0 27.3 25.9 23.7-30.3 23.9-30.7 21.8-30.1
6. Sunda (n=86) 26.4 26.6 25.0 23.9-28.9 23.9-29.3 21.8-28.3
7. Jawa (n=232) 26.4 26.7 25.2 22.8-29.9 23.2-30.2 21.0-29.4
8. Indonesia yang
lain (n=62)
26.9 27.4 26.2 22.6-31.2 22.5-32.2 21.3-31.1

The outdoor design conditions are based on reasonable maximums, using weather records.
The DB (dry bulb temperature) and coincident WB (wet bulb temperature) occurring at the
same time should be used as the corresponding design values. The separate DB and WB
values that are not listed together do not occur at the same time and therefore, should
not be used in load calculations.

f) Lighting

The equation for determining cooling load due to heat gain from lighting is


Where
= cooling load from lighting (BTU/hr)
= lighting capacity (Watts)
= ballast factor
= cooling load factor for lighting

The parameter is the rated capacity of the lights in use, expressed in Watts. The
value 3.4 converts Watts to BTU/hr.

The factor BF accounts for heat losses in the ballast in fluorescent lamps, or other
special losses. A typical value of BF is 1.25 for fluorescent lighting. For incandescent
lighting, there is no extra loss, and BF = 1.0.

The factor CLF accounts for storage of part of the lighting heat gain. The storage
effect depends on how long the lights and cooling system are operating, as well as the
building construction, type of lighting fixture, and ventilation rate.

No storage effect can be allowed for any of the following conditions:
1. Cooling system operates only during occupied hours
2. Cooling system operates more than 16 hours
3. Temperature of the space is allowed to rise during non-occupied hours (temperature
swing)

These conditions cover so many possible situations that it is suggested that heat
storage effects for lighting should be used with extreme caution. Building use patterns
often change and may be unpredictable.

Energy conservation operating techniques may also result in one of the conditions
discussed earlier, even though not planned for originally. For these reasons, the CLF
tables for lighting are not presented here. For those cases where they are applicable,
they may be found in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Volume. Otherwise use a value of CLF = 1.0.


g) People

The heat gain from people comprises 2 parts, sensible heat and the latent heat resulting
from perspiration. Some of the sensible heat may be absorbed by the heat storage effect,
but not the latent heat. The equations for cooling loads from from people are

Where

= sensible and latent heat gains (loads) (BTU/hr)

= sensible and latent heat gains per person (BTU/hr)

= number of people
= cooling load factor for people

The rate of heat gain from people depends on their physical activities. Table 6.13 lists
values for some typical activities. The rates are suitable for a 75
o
F DB room
temperature. Values vary slightly at other temperatures, as noted.

















The heat storage effect factor CLF applies to the sensible heat gain from people. If the
air conditioning system is shut down at night, however, no storage should be included,
and CLF = 1.0. Table 6.14 lists values of CLF for people.







h) Equipment and Appliances

The heat gain from equipment may sometimes be found directly from the manufacturer or
the nameplate data, with allowance for intermittent use. Some equipment produces both
sensible and latent heat. Some values of heat output for typical appliances are shown in
Table 6.15. CLF factors (not shown) apply if the system operates 24 hours.




The heat output from motors and the equipment driven by them results from the conversion
of the electrical energy to heat. The proportion of heat generated that is gained by the
air-conditioned space depends on whether the motor and driven loads are both in the
space or only one of them is. Table 6.16 lists heat outputs for each condition.



For any lighting and equipment that operates on a periodic intermittent basis, the heat
gains should be multiplied by the proportion of operating time. However, it is often not
possible to guarantee predicted operations, so using such factors should be approached
with caution.

i) Infiltration

Infiltration of air through cracks around windows or doors results in both a sensible
and latent heat gain to the rooms. Procedures and equations for calculating infiltration
heat gains are explained below.

Sensible heat gain effect of infiltration air
Infiltration occurs when outdoor air enters through building openings, due to wind
pressure. The openings of most concern to us are cracks around window sashes and door
edges, and open doors. Infiltration air entering a space in hot days would increase the
room air temperature. Therefore, heat must be lost from the room to overcome this
effect.

The amount of sensible heat gained from infiltrating air can be determined from the
sensible heat equation:

Where

= sensible heat gain from infiltration air (cooling loads) (BTU/hr)

= weight flow rate of outdoor air infiltration (lb/hr)
= specific heat air (BTU/lb-
o
F)
= temperature change between indoor and outdoor air (
o
F)

The weight-flow rate of air () in above equation is expressed in lb/hr. However, air
flow rates in HVAC work are usually measured in (

) (CFM). If the units are

converted, using the appropriate specific heat of air, the sensible heat equation is:

Where

= sensible heat gain from infiltration air (cooling loads) (BTU/hr)

= air infiltration (or ventilation) flow rate (ft
3
/min)
= temperature change between indoor and outdoor air (
o
F)

Latent heat gain effect of infiltration air
If infiltration air is more humid than the room air, the room air humidity may increase
to an unacceptable level for comfort. If the room air humidity is to be maintained,
water vapour must be removed. The removal of this moisture requires heat (latent heat of
condensation of water). This is expressed by the following equation:

)

Where

= latent heat required for infiltration or ventilation air (BTU/hr)

= air infiltration (or ventilation) flow rate (ft
3
/min)

= higher (outdoor) and lower (indoor) humidity ratio in grains water/lb dry
air (gr w/lb d.a.)

If the change in humidity is acceptable, then the latent heat gain can be neglected. The
humidity ratios can be read from psychometric chart.

Finding the infiltration rate
There are 2 methods used to estimate CFM of infiltration air: the crack method and the
air change method.

Crack Method The crack method assumes that a reasonably accurate estimate of the rate
of air infiltration per foot of crack opening can be measured or established. Energy
codes list maximum permissible infiltration rates for new construction or renovation
upgrading. Table 3.4 lists typical allowable infiltration rates, based on a 25 MPH wind.



The crack lengths and areas are determined from architectural plans or field
measurements. Example below illustrates use of the crack method. The quality of
installation and the maintenance of windows and doors greatly affect the resultant crack
infiltration. Poorly fitted windows may have up to five times the sash leakage shown in
Table 3.4.


Corner Room Infiltration When the infiltration rate is calculated for a room with two
adjacent exposed walls (a corner room) with door or window openings on both sides, we
assume that infiltration air comes through cracks on one side only, since the wind can
only come from one direction at any given time. The wind changes direction, of course,
but the infiltration effects cannot be additive, since they occur at different times.

If the wind comes obliquely (toward the corner), the projected crack lengths for each
side are less; the overall effect is the same as if the wind came directly from one side
only (using its actual crack lengths). If there are different types or sizes of openings
on each side, the side that has the greater CFM should be used for the calculation.

Door Usage For buildings that have frequent door usage (e.g., department stores), the
infiltration that results from door opening should be included. The rate of door usage
(number of people per minute) is first determined, with the advice of the architect or
owner. Some average infiltration rates are shown in Table 3.5.



For doors that are left indefinitely open, special means may be used to try to offset
infiltration. Unit heaters, which can blow warm air directly at the opening, and air
curtains, which direct a vertical warm air barrier across the opening, are two such
methods. However, it is difficult to determine the effect on the building heating load
of these methods.

Additional air infiltration may occur through a porous wall. If the walls have
significant porosity, sealant coatings or other coverings may be applied to them.

In high-rise buildings, a thermal stack effect may increase infiltration through
existing cracks. This occurs when the warmer inside air, which rises through the
building and exits out through cracks on upper stories, is replaced by colder outside
air entering through cracks on lower floors. Consult the ASHRAE Handbook for more
information.

Much publicity has been given to reducing infiltration in existing buildings by use of
weather-stripping and the sealing of cracks around frames, sillplates, wall
penetrations, and other openings.

Air Change Method This procedure for finding the infiltration rate is based on the
number of air changes per hour (ACH) in a room caused by the infiltration.

One air change is defined as being equal to the room air volume.

Determination of the expected number of air changes is based on experience and testing.
Suggested values range from 0.5 ACH to 1.5 ACH for buildings ranging from "tight" to
"loose" construction. Using the definition of an air change, equation below can be used
to find the air infiltration rate in CFM:

Where
= air infiltration (or ventilation) flow rate to room (ft
3
/min)
= number of air changes per hour for room
= room volume (ft
3
)

Crack Method vs Air Change Method
Some suggestions in choosing between these 2 methods:
1. The air change method is used primarily in residential construction heating load
estimates, but there is no reason why the "rack method cannot be used if reliable data
are available.
2. The crack method is generally used in non-residential construction. Reliable data from
window manufacturers and quality control of installation and maintenance may provide
good estimates using this method.

Ventilation (Outside Air) Load
Some outside air is usually brought into non-residential buildings through the
mechanical ventilation equipment (air handling units) in order to maintain the indoor
air quality. The outside ventilation air will be an additional part of the building
cooling load, since the entering air is at the outdoor temperature and humidity.

Sensible and latent heat gains (cooling loads) equation from infiltration can also used
to find the ventilation cooling load. However, the ventilation air is cooled (and
dehumidified, if required) in the air conditioning equipment, before it enters the room.
Therefore, it is part of the total building cooling load, but not part of the individual
room cooling loads. The procedures for determining the appropriate quantity of outside
ventilation air are explained in the later part.

Mechanical ventilation systems for large buildings are usually designed and operated so
that fans create a slightly positive air pressure in the building. This will reduce or
even prevent infiltration.

When it is felt that the building is relatively tight and pressurized, no allowance for
infiltration is made; only the outside air ventilation load is included.

A separate word of caution on pressurizing buildings: it is not uncommon to find that
over-pressurization results in doors that require great force to open or close.

Some non-residential buildings have fixed windows (no openable part). In this case, of
course, crack infiltration is limited to exterior doors only.

Air distributing systems in residences often use recirculated air only; in this case
there is no ventilation load component. Infiltration generally provides adequate fresh
air. However, in modem "tight" residences, there is concern that there may be inadequate
natural infiltration, resulting in long-term health problems from indoor air pollutants.
Outside ventilation air should be introduced in such cases.

Example below illustrates the calculation of ventilation loads.



Some suggestions in choosing between these 2 methods:

Most summer air conditioning systems have mechanical ventilation using some outside air,
which reduces or eliminates infiltration by creating a positive air pressure within the
building. Ventilation air is not a load on the room, but is a load on the central
cooling equipment. Many modern buildings have fixed (sealed) windows and therefore have
no infiltration loss, except for entrances.

j) Room Cooling Load

The room cooling load is the sum of each of the cooling load components (roof, walls,
glass. solar, people, equipment, and infiltration) in the room.

When calculating cooling loads, a prepared form is useful. The following abbreviations
will be used for convenience.

TCL, SCL, LCL = component total, sensible, latent cooling loads
RTCL, RSCL, RLCL = room total, sensible, latent cooling loads
BTCL, BSCL, BLCL = building total, sensible, latent cooling loads
CTCL, SCSL, CLCL = coil total, sensible, latent cooling loads

k) Room Peak Cooling Load

Because the air conditioning system must be sized to handle peak loads, we must know how
to find the room peak cooling load.

The external heat gain components vary in intensity with time of day and time of year
because of changing solar radiation as the orientation of the sun changes and because of
outdoor temperature changes. This results in a change in the total room cooling load.
Sometimes it is immediately apparent by inspecting the tables at what time the peak load
occurs, but often calculations are required at a few different times.

Some general guidelines can be offered to simplify this task. From the CLTD (cooling
load temperature difference), SHGF (sensible heat gain factor) and CLF (cooling load
factor) tables we can note the following:
1. For west-facing glass, maximum load is in mid-summer in the afternoon.
2. For east-facing glass, maximum solar load is in early or mid-summer in the morning
3. For south-facing glass, maximum solar load is in the fall or winter in early
afternoon.
4. For southwest-facing glass, maximum solar load is in the fall in the afternoon.
5. For roofs, maximum load is in the summer in the afternoon or evening.
6. For walls, maximum load is in the summer in the afternoon or evening.

These generalizations can be used to localize approximate times of room peak loads. For
instance, we might expect a south-facing room with a very large window area to have a
peak load in early afternoon in the fall-not in the summer! If the room had a small
glass area, however, the wall and glass heat conduction might dominate and the peak load
time would be a summer afternoon. Once the appropriate day and time are located, a few
calculations will determine the exact time and value of the peak load.





l) Building Peak Cooling Load

The building cooling load is the rate at which heat is removed from all air-conditioned
rooms in the building at the time the building cooling load is at its peak value.

If peak cooling loads for each room were added, the total would be greater than the peak
cooling load required for the whole building, because these peaks do not occur at the
same time. Therefore, the designer must also determine the time of year and time of day
at which the building cooling load is at a peak, and then calculate it. A reasoning and
investigation similar to that carried out in finding room peak loads is used.




From our previous discussion and a study of the tables, the following guidelines emerge:
1. For buildings that are approximately square-shaped in plan with similar construction
on all four walls, the peak load is usually in late afternoon in summer. This is
because the outside temperature is highest then, and there is no differential
influence of solar radiation on one side of a building.
2. For buildings with a long south or southwest exposure having large glass areas, the
peak load may occur in the fall, around mid-day, because radiation is highest then.
This case requires careful analysis.
3. For one-story buildings with very large roof areas, the peak load usually occurs in
the afternoon in summer.

Once the peak load time is determined, the total building heat gains can be calculated.
The search for the time and value of peak room

Diversity
On some projects, the actual building peak load may be less than the calculated value
because of load diversity. In some buildings, at the time of peak load, usage practice
may be such that all of the people are not present and some of the lights and equipment
are not operating. In these cases, a diversity factor or usage factor is sometimes
estimated and applied to the calculated building peak load in order to reduce it. For
example, if it is estimated that only 90% of the lighting is actually on at peak load
time, the calculated lighting load would be multiplied by a factor of 0.90. Choosing
proper diversity factors requires both experience and judgment about building use
practices.

m) Cooling Coil Load

After the building cooling load is determined, the cooling coil load is found.

The cooling coil load is the rate at which heat must be removed by the air conditioning
equipment cooling coil(s).

The cooling coil load will be greater than the building load because there are heat
gains to the air conditioning system itself. These gains may include:
1. Ventilation (outside air)
2. Heat gains to ducts
3. Heat produced by the air conditioning system fans and pumps
4. Air leakage from ducts

n) Ventilation

Some outside air is generally brought into a building for health and comfort reasons.
The sensible and latent heat of this air is usually greater than that of the room air,
so it becomes part of the cooling load. The excess heat is usually removed in the
cooling equipment, however, so it is part of the cooling coil load but not the building
load.

The equations for determining the sensible and latent cooling loads from ventilation air
are

)

Where

= sensible heat gain from infiltration air (cooling loads) (BTU/hr)

= air infiltration (or ventilation) flow rate (ft
3
/min)
= temperature change between indoor and outdoor air (
o
F)

= higher (outdoor) and lower (indoor) humidity ratio in grains water/lb dry
air (gr w/lb d.a.)

The total heat

removed from the ventilation air is

.

Recommended outdoor air ventilation rates for some applications are listed in Table 6.
17. This table has ventilation rates similar to many state codes and standards. The
ventilation rates in Table 6.17 are often higher than the minimum listed in earlier
standards.



If the peak load does not occur at the time of the day that the outdoor temperature is
at a maximum, a correction must be made to the outdoor temperature used for calculating
ventilation and infiltration loads. Table 6.18 lists this correction.










o) Heat Gain To Ducts

The conditioned air flowing through ducts will gain heat from the surroundings. If the
duct passes through conditioned spaces, the heat gain results in a useful cooling
effect, but for the ducts passing through unconditioned spaces it is a loss of sensible
heat that must be added to the building sensible cooling load (BSCL). The heat gain can
be calculated from the heat transfer equation below:



Where
= duct heat gain (BTU/hr)
= overall coefficient of heat transfer (BTU/hr)
= duct surface area (ft
2
)
= temperature difference between air in duct and surrounding air (
o
F)

It is recommended that cold air ducts passing through unconditioned areas be insulated
to at least an overall value of R-4 (U = 0.25).



If there is significant heat gain to return air ducts, it should also be calculated, but
it is only added to the coil sensible cooling load (CSCL), not the building sensible
cooling load (BSCL). Although the heat gain to supply ducts in conditioned spaces is not
wasted, care should be taken that it does not affect the distribution of cooling. If
there is a long run of duct with a number of outlets, the heat gains in the first
sections of duct might be significant enough such that the air temperature at the last
outlets can be too high. In this case, it might be useful to insulate the duct even
though it is in the conditioned area.

Some designers find it reasonably accurate to add a percentage to the supply duct heat
gain, rather than going through elaborate calculations. For insulated supply ducts, 1-3%
of the building sensible load (BSCL) is suggested, depending on the extent of ductwork.

p) Fan and Pump Heat

Some of the energy from the system fans and pumps is converted into heat through
friction and other effects, and becomes part of the sensible heat gain that should be
added to the load. For a draw-through fan arrangement (fan downstream from the cooling
coil), the heat is added to the BSCL, whereas for a blow-through arrangement (fan
upstream from the coil) the heat gets added to the CSCL load.

An approximate allowance for fan heat can be made as follows:
For 1 in. w.g. pressure add 2.5% to BSCL
For 2 in. w.g. pressure add 5% to BSCL
For 4 in. w.g. pressure add 10% to BSCL
The heat from the chilled water pump on small systems is generally small and may be
neglected, but for large systems it may range from 1-2% of sensible load. For central
systems with remote chilled water cooling coils, the pump heat is a load on the
refrigeration chiller, but not the cooling coil. This leads to a new term, the
refrigeration load.

The refrigeration load (RL) is the load on the refrigeration equipment.

For a direct expansion system, the refrigeration load and cooling coil load are equal.
For a chilled water system, the refrigeration load is the cooling coil(s) load plus the
chilled water pump heat.

q) Duct Air Leakage

Duct systems will leak air at joints. Unfortunately, many systems have unnecessarily
high air leakage due to sloppy installation. However, a careful job should limit duct
leakage to 5% or less of the total CFM. If ducts are outside the conditioned space, the
effect of leakage must be added to the BSCL and BLCL. If the air leaks into the
conditioned space, then it does useful cooling, but care should be taken that it is not
distributed to the wrong location.

r) Supply Air Conditions

After the sensible and latent heat gains are calculated, the required supply air
conditions (flow rate, temperature, and humidity) necessary to satisfy room conditions
are determined.






















SUMMARY OF COMMERCIAL COOLING LOAD CALCULATION PROCEDURES

1. Determine indoor and outdoor design conditions based on selected locations

2. Use architectural plans to measure dimensions of all surfaces through which there
will be external heat gains, for each room.

3. Calculate areas of all these surfaces.

4. Select heat transfer coefficient V-values for each element from appropriate tables,
or calculate from individual R-values.

5. Determine time of day and month of peak load for each room by calculating external
heat gains at times that they are expected to be a maximum. Search Tables 6.1
(Cooling Load Temperature Differences (CLTD) for Calculating Cooling Load from Flat
Roofs), 6.2 (CLTD for Calculating Cooling Load from Sunlit Walls), 6.6 (Maximum
Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF) for Sunlit Glasses, North Latitudes), and 6.8 (CLF for
Glass without Interior Shading, in North Latitude Spaces Having Carpeted Floors) to
find maximum values. Often calculations at a few different times will be required,
but the suggestions in Room Peak Cooling Load Section should be helpful.

6. Calculate each room peak load, using the values for the external heat gains
determined above and by calculating and adding the internal heat gains from people,
lights, and equipment. The architect or building owner will furnish the data needed
for the calculations. If there is infiltration, this must be added to the room load.

7. Find the time of building peak load using a similar search process as in item 5 and
the suggestions in Building Peak Cooling Load Section.

8. Calculate the building load at peak 'time, adding all external and internal gains
and infiltration, if any. Add supply duct heat gain (Heat Gain to Ducts Section),
duct heat leakage (Duct Air Leakage Section), and draw-through supply fan heat gain
(Fan and Pump Heat Section), if significant.

9. Find the cooling coil and refrigeration load by adding the ventilation load (Table
6.17 (Minimum Mechanical Ventilation Requirement Rates)) to the building heat gains;
add blow-through fan, return air fan, and pump heat gains, if significant.

10. Calculate required supply air conditions.