CHAPTER 35: PLANT STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND DEVEOPMENT

The Plant Bod

1. Describe several examples of a plants structural responses to environmental change.
For example, underwater leaves are feathery, an adaptation that protects them from damage
by lessening their resistance to moving water. In contrast, the surface leaves are pads that aid
in flotation. Both leaves have genetically identical cells, but dissimilar environments result in
the turning on or off of different genes during leaf development. Another example is most
cactus species, regardless of local environment, have leaves that are so highly reduced to
spines that the stems are the primary photosynthetic organs, which enhances the reproductive
success of cacti because with the reduced leaf surface areas, they lose less water.
2. Describe the relationships between the evolution of multicellular plants and that of
animals.
lants, li!e most animals, have organs composed of different tissues, which are composed of
cell of different types.
". Describe and compare the three basic organs of plants. Explain how these basic organs
are interdependent.
#oots$ A root is a multicellular organ that anchors a vascular pant in the soil, absorbs
minerals and water, and often stores carbohydrates. A taproot system consists of one
main vertical root that gives rise to lateral roots or branch roots. Adventitious roots
arise from stems or leaves. %eedless vascular plants and monocots have a fibrous root
system characteri&ed by thin lateral roots with no main root. In most plants,
absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root hairs, where vast numbers of
tiny root hairs increase the surface area. 'any plants have modified roots.
%tems$ A stem is an organ consisting of an alternating system of nodes, the points at
which leaves are attached, and internodes, the stem segments between nodes. (he
axillary bud, which is in the upper angle formed by each leaf and the stem, is a
structure that can form a lateral shoot or branch. 'ost axillary buds of a young shoot
are dormant )not growing*. An apical+terminal bud is located near the shoot tip and
causes the elongation of a young shoot. Apical dominance helps maintain dormancy
in most nonapical buds. 'any plants have modified stems.
,eaves$ In most vascular plants, the leaf is the main photosynthetic organ. )-reen
stems also perform photosynthesis.* ,eaves generally consist of a flattened blade and
a stal! called the petiole, which .oin the leaf to a node of the stem. 'onocots and
eudicots differ in the arrangement of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves$ most
monocots have parallel veins, and most eudicots have branching veins. In classifying
angiosperms, taxonomists may use morphology )external form* as criterion. %ome
plant species have evolved leaves modified leaves that serve various functions.
(hese basic organs are interdependent because roots support stems and leaves and send
water and minerals, leaves ma!e food, and stems support and exchange the two.
/. List the basic functions of roots. Describe and compare the structures and functions of
fibrous roots, taproots, root hairs, and adventitious roots.
(he basic functions of roots are anchoring a vascular pant in the soil, absorbing minerals
and water, and often storing carbohydrates. Fibrous roots are thin, thread0li!e roots that
spread out below the soil surface. (hey don1t usually penetrate deeply and are therefore
best adapted to shallow soils or regions where rainfall is light and doesn1t moisten the soil
much below the surface layer. (aproots, which develop from embryonic roots, is one
main vertical root that stores sugars and starches that plants will consume during
flowering and fruit production. #oot hairs, which are extensions of epidermal cells, are
located near the tips of roots, where the absorption of water and minerals primarily occur,
and increase the surface area of the root. Adventitious roots grow in unusual locations,
such as stems or leaves. Instead of giving rise to a main root when the embryonic root
dies in seedless vascular plants and in most monocots, many small roots grow from the
stem. %uch roots are adventitious.
2. Describe the basic structure of plant stems.
lant stems have leaves attached at nodes alternating with internodes. Apical buds emerge
.ust above the leaves. At the tip, the terminal bud contains the apical meristem.
3. Explain the phenomenon of apical dominance.
Apical dominance is the inhibition of axillary buds by an apical bud. (he proximity of the
axillary buds to the apical bud is partly responsible for their dormancy. 4hen axillary
buds brea! dormancy, they start growing. A growing axillary bud gives rise to a lateral
shoot, complete with its own apical bud, leaves, and axillary buds. #emoving the apical
bud usually stimulates the growth of axillary buds, resulting in more lateral shoots.
5. Describe the structures and functions of four types of modified shoots.
#hi&omes$ A hori&ontal shoot that grows .ust below the surface for storage and
dormancy. 6ertical shoots emerge from axillary buds on the rhi&ome.
Bulbs$ 6ertical underground shoots consisting mostly of enlarges bases of leaves that
store food. 7ave a short underground stem with leaves for storage and dormancy.
%tolons$ 7ori&ontal shoots that grow along the surface. 8#unners9 that enable a plant
to reproduce asexually, as plantlets form at nodes along each runner. -rown across
the ground and may root.
(ubers$ (he enlarged ends of rhi&omes or stolons speciali&ed for storing food.
:. Describe and distinguish between the leaves of monocots and eudicots.
,eaves on monocots lac! petioles; instead the base of the leaf forms a sheath that
envelopes that stem. 'onocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement of veins. 'ost
monocots have parallel ma.or veins that run the length of the blade, and eudicots
generally have a branched networ! of ma.or veins.
<. Describe and distinguish between the three tissue systems of plant organs.
=ermal tissue system$ (he plant1s outer protective covering, forms the first line of
defense against physical damage and pathogens. In nonwoody plants, it1s usually a
single tissue called the epidermis, a layer of tightly pac!ed cells. In leaves and most
stems, the cuticle, a waxy coating on the epidermal surface, helps prevent water loss.
In woody plants, protective tissue called the periderm replaces the epidermis in older
regions of stems and roots. Also, the epidermis has speciali&ed characteristics in each
organ.
6ascular tissue system$ It carries out long0distance transport of materials between the
root and shoot systems. (he two types of vascular tissue are xylem and phloem.
>ylem conducts water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots.
hloem transports sugars, the product of photosynthesis, from where they are made
)usually the leaves* to where they are needed )usually roots, sites of growth, such as
developing leaves and fruits*. (he vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stele.
In angiosperms, the root stele is a solid central vascular cylinder of xylem and
phloem, whereas the stele of the stems and leaves consists of vascular bundles,
separate strands containing xylem and phloem.
-round tissue system$ (issues that are neither dermal nor vascular. -round tissue that
is internal to the vascular is !nown as pith, and ground tissue that is external to the
vascular tissue is called the cortex. (he ground tissue system included various cells
speciali&ed for functions such as storage, photosynthesis, and support.
1?. Describe and distinguish between the three basic cell types of plant tissues.
arenchyma cells$ 'ature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively
thin and flexible, and most lac! secondary walls. 'ature parenchyma cells generally
have a large central vacuole. arenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic
functions of the plant, synthesi&ing and storing various organic products. %ome
parenchyma cells in stems and roots have colorless plastids that store starch.
arenchyma cells compose the fleshy tissue of many fruits. 'ost parenchyma cells
retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other types of plant cells under
particular conditions.
@ollenchyma cells$ @ollenchyma cells, grouped in strands or cylinders, help support
young parts of the plant shoot. @ollenchyma cells have thic!er primary walls than
parenchyma cells, though the walls are unevenly thic!ened. Aoung stems and petioles
have strands of collenchyma cells .ust below their epidermis. @ollenchyma cells lac!
secondary wall, and their primary walls don1t have the hardening agent lignin. (hese
cells, therefore, provide flexible support without restraining growth. 4hen matured,
collenchyma cells are living and flexible, elongating with the stems and leaves they
support, unli!e sclerenchyma cells.
%clerenchyma cells$ %clerenchyma cells function as supporting elements in the plants
but with thic! secondary walls that are usually strengthened by lignin. (hey are much
more rigid than collenchyma cells. 'ature sclerenchyma cells can1t elongate, and
they occur in regions of the plant that have stopped growing in length. 'any
sclerenchyma cells are dead at functional maturity, but they produce secondary walls
before the protoplast )the living part of a cell* dies. (he rigid walls remain as a
8s!eleton9 that supports the plant. (he two types of sclerenchyma cells are sclereids
and fibers; they are speciali&ed entirely for support and strengthening. %clereids are
shorter than fibers and irregular in shape, have thic!, lignified secondary walls,
impart hardness to nutshells and seed coasts and gritty texture to pear fruits. Fibers
are long, slender, and tapered and usually arranged in threads.
The Process of Plant Growth and Development
11. Distinguish between plant growth and plant development.
lant growth is the process by which a plant increases in the number and si&e of leaves
and stems. -rowth occurs throughout the plant1s life, !nown as indeterminate growth.
lants are capable of indeterminate growth because they have meristems )apical or
lateral*. Apical meristems cause plant to grow in length, !nown as primary growth.
,ateral meristems cause growth in thic!ness, !nown as secondary growth. 'ost plants
grow continuously, but do die. lant development is the process of a plant changing from
one growth stage to another. (he process of plant development includes the formation of
a complete embryo from a &ygote; seed germination; the elaboration of a mature
vegetative plant from the embryo; the formation of flowers, fruits, and seeds; and many
of the plant1s responses to its environment.
12. Distinguish between annual, biennial, and perennial plants.
Annual$ Annuals complete their life cycle from germination to flowering seed
production to death )in a year or less*. 'any wildflowers and most staple food crops,
including legumes and cereal grains, such as wheat and rice are annuals.
Biennial$ Biennials generally reBuire two growing seasons to complete their life
cycle, flowering and fruiting only in their second year. #adishes and carrots, even
though harvested after the first year, are biennials.
erennial$ erennials live many years and include trees, shrubs, and some grasses.
4hen perennials die, it is usually not from old age but from an infection or some
environmental trauma, such as fire or sever drought.
1". Explain how plants are capable of indeterminate growth.
lants are capable of indeterminate growth because they have perpetually embryonic
tissues called meristems. (here are two main types$ apical meristems and lateral
meristems. Apical meristems provide additional cells that enable the plant to grow in
lengthCprimary growth, which allows the root to extend throughout the soil and shoots
to increase their exposure to light. ,ateral meristems1 activity called the vascular
cambium and cor! cambium causes the growth in thic!ness or secondary growth. (he
vascular cambium adds layers to vascular tissue called secondary xylem )wood* and
secondary phloem. (he cor! cambium replaces the epidermis with the thic!er, tougher
periderm.
1/. Define and distinguish between primary and secondary growth.
rimary growth is caused by apical meristems that provide additional cells that enable the
plant to grow in length. %econdary growth, or growth in thic!ness, is caused by the
activity of lateral meristems called the vascular cambium and cor! cambium. (he
vascular cambium adds layers to vascular tissue called secondary xylem )wood* and
secondary phloem. (he cor! cambium replaces the epidermis with the thic!er, tougher
periderm.
12. Describe in detail the primary growth of tissues of roots and shoots. Describe the specific
tissue organization of leaves.
rimary growth of tissues of roots occurs behind the tip of a root, which is covered by a
root cap, in three &ones$ cell division, elongation, and differentiation. (he &one of cell
division includes the apical meristem and its derivatives. Dew root cells are produced in
this region, including the root cap. A millimeter behind the tip of the root is the &one of
elongation, where root cells elongate, sometimes to more than ten times their original
length. @ell elongation in this &one pushes the tip further into the soil. 'eanwhile, the
root apical meristem !eeps adding cells to the younger end of the &one of elongation.
Before the root cells finish lengthening, many begin speciali&ing in structure and
function. In the &one of differentiation )&one of maturation* cells complete their
differentiation and become distinct cell types. (he primary growth of roots produces the
epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. In most roots, the stele is the vascular
cylinder. (he ground tissue fills the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and
epidermis. (he innermost layer of the cortex is called the endodermis ,ateral roots arise
from within the pericycle, the outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder. As for primary
growth of shoots, a shoot apical meristem is a dome0shaped mass of dividing cells at the
shoot tip. ,eaves develop from leaf primordia along the sides of apical meristem.
Axillary buds develop from meristematic cells left at the bases of leaf primordia.
13. Describe in detail the secondary growth of the tissues of shoots and roots.
%econdary growth occurs in stems and roots of woody plants, but rarely in leaves. (he
secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cor!
cambium. (he vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells one cell layer thic!.
It develops from parenchyma cells. In cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a
ring of initials. (he initials increase the vascular cambium1s circumference and add
secondary xylem to the inside of the secondary phloem to the outside. %econdary xylem
accumulates as wood and consists of tracheids, vessel elements )only in angiosperms*,
and fibers. Early wood, formed in the spring, has thin wall cells and maximi&e water
delivery. ,ate wood, formed in late summer, has thic!0walled cells and contributes more
to stem support. In temperate regions, the vascular cambium of perennials is dormant
through the winter. As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem,
or heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals. (he outer layers, or sapwood, still
transport minerals through xylem. Flder secondary phloem sloughs off and doesn1t
accumulate. (he cor! cambium gives rises to the secondary plant body1s protective
covering, or periderm, which consists of the cor! cambium and layers of cor! cells that it
produces. Bar! consists of all the tissues external to the vascular cambium, including
secondary phloem and periderm. ,enticels in the periderm allow for gas exchange
between living stem or root cells and the outside air.
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development
15. Explain why Arabidopsis is an excellent model for the study of plant development.
Describe the result of recent research on this plants development.
Arabidopsis, a weed of the mustard family that is small enough to allow researchers to
cultivate thousands of plants in a few sBuare meters of lab space. Arabidopsis was the
first plant to have its entire genome seBuenced. =etermining the function of many
Arabidopsis genes has greatly expanded our understanding of plant development. (o fill
the gaps in our !nowledge, plant biologists have launched a Buest to determine the
function of every one of the plant1s genes.
1:. Describe and distinguish between morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth.
'orphogenesis$ (he development of body form and organi&ation. @ells must be
organi&ed into multicellular arrangements of tissues and organs for development to
proceed properly. attern formation is the development of specific structures in
specific locations. It1s determined by positional information in the form of signals
indicating to each cell its location. ositional information may be provided by
gradients of molecules. olarity provides one type of positional information.
olari&ation is initiated by an asymmetrical first division of the plant &ygote.
7omeotic genes control morphogenesis in plants and other multicellular organisms.
=ifferentiation$ In differentiation, cells of developing organism synthesi&e different
proteins and diverge in structure and function even though they have a common
genome. @ellular differentiation to a large extent depends on the positional
information and is affected by homeotic genes.
-rowth$ lants pass through developmental phases, called phase changes, developing
from a .uvenile phase to an adult phase. hase changes occur within the shoot apical
meristem. (he most obvious morphological changes typically occur in leaf si&e and
shape. Flower formation involves the phase change from vegetative growth to
reproductive growth. (ransition from vegetative growth is associated with the
switching on of floral meristem identity genes )plant homeotic genes*.
1<. Explain why a! the plane and symmetry of cell division, b! the orientation of cell
expansion, and c! cortical microtubules are important determinants of plant growth and
development.
a* If the planes of division are parallel to the plane of the first division, a single file of
cells is produced. If the planes of division vary randomly, asymmetrical cell division
occurs.
b* lant cells grow rapidly and 8cheaply9 by inta!e and storage of water in vacuoles.
lant cells expand primarily along the plant1s main axis. @ellulose microfibrils in the
cell wall restrict the direction of cell elongation.
c* (he immature epidermal cells that are in contact with two underlying cells of the root
cortex differentiate into root hair cells, whereas immature epidermal cells in contact
with only one cortical cell differentiate into mature hairless cells. =ifferential
expression of a homeotic gene called -,AB#A02 is reBuired for appropriate hair
distribution.
2?. Explain how pattern formation is determined in plants.
In plants, pattern formation is determined by positional information in the form of signals
that continuously indicate to each cell its location within a developing structure.
21. Explain how cellular differentiation is controlled by gene expression.
@ellular differentiation is controlled by gene expression because cells of developing
organism can synthesi&e different proteins and diverge in structure and function even
though they share a common genome. If a mature cell removed from a root or leaf can
dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise to the diverse cell types of a plant, then it
must process all the genes necessary to ma!e any !ind of plant cell.
22. Explain how a cells location influences its developmental fate.
(he activation or inactivation of specific genes involved in cellular differentiation
depends largely on positional information )where a particular cell is located relative to
other cells*. (he cell1s final position in an emerging organ determines the !ind of cell it
will become.
2". Define phase change and explain its importance to the development of plants.
hase change is the morphological changes that arise from the transitions of plants from
developing from a .uvenile phase to an adult vegetative phase to an adult reproductive
phase in shoot apical meristem activity. =uring the transition from a .uvenile phase to an
adult phase, the most obvious morphological changes typically occur in leaf si&e and
shape.
2/. Explain how a vegetative shoot tip changes into a floral meristem.
(he change from a vegetative shoot tip to a floral meristem is triggered by a combination
of environmental cues and internal signals. (ransition from vegetative to flowering is
associated with the switching on of floral meristem identity genes. %everal organ identity
genes )plant homeotic genes* regulate the development of floral pattern.
Vo!a"#la$
#oot system$ All of a plant1s roots, which anchor it in the soil, absorb and transport minerals in
water, and store food
%hoot system$ (he aerial portion of a plant body, consisting of stems, leaves, and )in
angiosperms* flowers.
Fibrous root$ (hin, moderately branching roots growing from the stem.
(aproot$ A main vertical root that develops from an embryonic root and gives rise to later
)branch* roots.
#oot hair$ An extension of a root epidermal cell, growing .ust behind the root top and increasing
surface area for absorption of water and minerals.
Adventitious$ A plant organ that grows in an unusual location, such as roots arising from stems
or leaves.
Dode$ A point along the stem of plant at which leaves are attached.
Internode$ A segment of a plant stem between the points where leaves are attached.
Axillary bud$ A structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch. (he bud appears
in the angle formed between a leaf and a stem.
(erminal bud$ a bud at the tip of a plant stem, also called an apical bud.
Apical dominance$ @oncentration of growth the tip of a plant shoot, where a terminal bud
partially inhibits axillary bud growth.
Blade$ )1* A leafli!e structure of a seaweed that provides most of the surface area for
photosynthesis. )2* (he flattened portion of a typical leaf.
etiole$ (he stal! of a leaf, which .oins the leaf to a node of a stem.
=ermal tissue$ (he outer protective covering of plants
Epidermis$ (he dermal tissue system of nonwoody plants, usually consisting of single layer of
tightly pac!ed cells.
@uticle$ A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that acts as an adaptation that
prevents desiccation in terrestrial plants.
6ascular tissue$ lant tissue consisting of cells .oined into tubes that transport water and nutrients
throughout the plant body.
>ylem$ 6ascular plant tissue consisting mainly of tubular dead cells that conduct most of the
water and minerals upward from the roots to the rest of the plant.
hloem$ 6ascular plant tissue consisting of living cells arranged into elongated tubes that
transport sugar and other organic nutrients through the system.
(racheid$ A long, tapered water0conducting cell found in the xylem of nearly all vascular plants.
Function tracheids are no longer living.
6essel elements$ A short, wide, water0conducting cell in the xylem of most angiosperms and after
nonflowering vascular plants. =ead at maturity, vessel elements are aligned end to end to form
micropipes called vessels.
its$ #egion of the plant cell wall in which the secondary well is interrupted, exposing the
underlying primary cell wall.
>ylem vessels$ 6essels in plants that transport water and minerals from the roots to parts of the
plant where it1s needed, through transpiration and turgor pressure in roots.
%ieve0tube member$ A living cell that conducts sugars and other organic nutrients in the phloem
of angiosperms; also called a sieve0tube member. @onnected end to end, they form sieve lands.
%ieve plates$ An end wall in a sieve0tube element, which facilitates the glow of phloem sap in
angiosperm sieve tubes.
@ompanion cell$ A type of plant cell that is connected to a sieve0tube element by many
plasmodesmata and whose nucleus and ribosomes may serve one or more ad.acent sieve0tube
elements.
-round tissue$ lant tissues that are neither vascular nor derma, fulfilling a variety of function,
such as storage, photosynthesis, and support.
ith$ -round tissue that is internal to the vascular tissue in a stem; in many monocot roots,
parenchyma cells that form the central core of the vascular cylinder.
@ortex$ -round tissue that is between the vascular tissue and dermal tissue in a root or eudicot
stem
rotoplast$ A plant, bacterial, or fungal cell that had its cell wall completely or partially removed
using either mechanical or en&ymatic means.
arenchyma cell$ A relatively unspeciali&ed plant cell type that carries out most of the
metabolism, synthesi&es and stores organic products, and develops into a more differentiated cell
type.
@ollenchyma cell$ A flexible plant cell type that occurs in strands of cylinders that support young
parts of the plant without restraining growth.
%clerenchyma cell$ A rigid, supportive plant cell type usually lac!ing a protoplast and possessing
thic! secondary wal!s strengthened by lignin and maturity.
Fiber$ A lignified cell type that reinforces the xylem of angiosperms and functions in mechanical
support, a slender, tapered sclerenchyma cell that usually occurs in bundles.
%clereid$ A short, irregular sclerenchyma cell in nutshells and seed coats. %chereids are scattered
throughout the parenchyma of some plants.
-rowth$ (he process by which a plant increases in the number and si&e of leaves and stems.
-rowth occurs throughout the plant1s life, !nown as indeterminate growth. lants are capable of
indeterminate growth because they have meristems )apical or lateral*. Apical meristems cause
plant to grow in length, !nown as primary growth. ,ateral meristems cause growth in thic!ness,
!nown as secondary growth. 'ost plants grow continuously, but do die.
=evelopment$ (he process of a plant changing from one growth stage to another. (he process of
plant development includes the formation of a complete embryo from a &ygote; seed
germination; the elaboration of a mature vegetative plant from the embryo; the formation of
flowers, fruits, and seeds; and many of the plant1s responses to its environment.
Annual$ A flowering plant that completes its entire life cycle in a single year or growing season.
Biennial$ A flowering plant that reBuires two years to complete its life cycle.
arennial$ A flowering plant that lives for many years.
'eristem$ lant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plants lives, allowing for
intermediate growth.
Apical meristem$ Embryonic plants tissue in the tips of roots and the buds of shoots. (he
dividing cells of an apical meristem enable the plant to grow in length.
rimary growth$ -rowth produced by apical meristems, lengthening stems and roots.
%econdary truth$ -rowth produced by lateral meristems, thic!ening the roots and shoots of
woody plants.
,ateral meristem$ A meristem that thic!ens the roots and shoots of woody plants. (he vascular
cambium and cor! cambium are lateral meristems.
rimary plant body$ (he tissues produced by apical meristems, which lengthen stems and roots.
#oot cap$ A cone of cells at the tip of a plant root that protects that apical meristem.
Gone of cell division$ roduces the cells that give rise to the primary body of the plant. 'ost cell
divisions occur along the edges of the area between active division and the cap )Buiescent
center*.
Huiescent center$ (he area where cell divide more slowly.
rotoderm$ (he primary meristem in vascular plants that gives rise to epidermis.
rocambium$ (he part of the primary meristem of a plant that forms cambium and primary
vascular tissues.
-round meristem$ (he primary meristem in vascular plants that gives rise to the nonvascular
tissues, such as cortex, pericycle, and pith. 4ithin the seeds of angiosperms, it surrounds the
procambium.
Gone of elongation$ @ells in &one stretch and lengthen as small vacuoles within the sytoplasm
coalesce and fill with water. Fne or two large vacuoles occupy almost all of the cell volume in
fully elongated cells. @ellular expansion in this &one is responsible for pushing the root cap and
apical tip forward through the soil.
Gone of maturation$ (he elongating cells complete their differentiation into the tissues of the
primary body in this &one. (hey greatly increase the absorptive surface of roots during the
growth period when large amounts of water and nutrients are needed. An individual root hair
lives for only a day or two, but new ones form constantly nearer the tip as old ones die in the
upper part of the &one.
%tele$ (he vascular tissue of a stem or root.
Endodermis$ (he innermost layer of the cortex in plant roots; a cylinder one cell thic! that forms
that boundary between the cortex and the vascular cylinder.
,ateral root$ A root that arises from the pericycle of an established root.
ericycle$ (he outermost layer in the vascular cylinder from which lateral roots arise.
6ascular bundles$ A strand of primary conductive plant tissue consisting essentially of xylem and
phloem that forms the fluid0conducting channels of vascular tissue in the rhi&omes, stems, and
leaf veins of vascular plants, the arrangement varying with the type of plant.
%tomata$ 'icroscopic pores surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that
allow gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant.
-uard cells$ (he two cells that flan! the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of
the pore.
'esophyll$ (he ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and
speciali&ed for photosynthesi&ed.
%econdary plant body$ (he tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cor! cambium, which
thic!en the stems and roots of woody plants.
6ascular cambium$ A cylinder of meristematic tissue in woody plants that adds layers of
secondary vascular tissue called secondary xylem )wood* and secondary phloem.
@or! cambium$ A cylinder of meristematic tissue in woody plants that replaces the epidermi with
thic!er, tougher cor! cells.
#ay initials$ @ubical initials in the vascular cambium that give rise to the components of the ray
)radial* system of the secondary xylem and secondary phloem, such as ray parenchyma cells.
Fusiform initials$ Elongate initials in the vascular cambium that give rise to the components of
the axial )longitudinal* system of the secondary xylem and secondary phloem, such as vessel
elements, tracheids, and sieve tube elements. (hey also give rise to the ray initials.
eriderm$ (he protective coat that replaces the epidermis in woody plant during secondary
growth, formed of the cor! and cor! cambium.
,enticel$ A small raised area in the bar! of stems and roots that enables gas exchange between
living cells and the outside air.
Bar!$ Al tissues external to the vascular cambium, consisting mainly of the secondary phloem
and layers of periderm.
'orphogenesis$ (he development of body shape and organi&ation.
=ifferentiation$ =ifferentiation in plants refers to the processes by which distinct cell types arise
from precursor cells and become different from each other.
Asymmetrical cell division$ roduces two daughter cells with different cellular fates. %tem cells
divide asymmetrically to give rise to two distinct daughter cells$ one copy of original stem cell as
well as a second daughter, it must rely on intrinsic asymmetry.
reprophase band$ 'icrotubules in the cortex )outer cytoplasm* of a cell that are concentrated
into a ring.
attern formation$ (he development of a multicellular organism1s spatial organi&ation, the
arrangement of organs and tissues in their characteristic places in three0dimensional space.
ositional information$ 'olecular cues that control pattern formation in an animal or pant
embryonic structure by indicating a cell1s location relative to the organism1s body axes. (hese
cues elicit a response by genes that regulate development.
olarity$ A lac! of symmetry; structural differences in opposite ends of an organism or structure,
such as the root end and shoot end of a plant.
hase change$ A shift from one developmental phase to another.
'eristem identity gene)s*$ A plant gene that promotes the switch from vegetative growth to
flowering.
Frgan identity gene)s*$ A plant homeotic gene that uses positional information to determine
which emerging leaves develop into which types of floral organs.