Mechanical Properties of Metals

1. Introduction
Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when they are used.
Mechanical engineers calculate those forces and material scientists how
materials deform (elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of
applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions.
Materials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by testing
materials. Results from the tests depend on the size and shape of material
to be tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of performing the
test. That is why we use common procedures, or standards, which are
published by the ASTM.
2. Concepts of Stress and Strain
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit
area, also called normalization to the area. Force divided by area is
called stress. In tension and compression tests, the relevant area is that
perpendicular to the force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
o= F/A
0
tensile or compressive stress
t= F/A
0
shear stress
The unit is the Megapascal = 10
6
Newtons/m
2
.
There is a change in dimensions, or deformation elongation, AL as a
result of a tensile or compressive stress. To enable comparison with
specimens of different length, the elongation is also normalized, this
time to the length L. This is called strain, c.
c = AL/L
The change in dimensions is the reason we use A
0
to indicate the initial
area since it changes during deformation. One could divide force by the
actual area, this is called true stress (see Sec. 6.7).
For torsional or shear stresses, the deformation is the angle of
twist, u (Fig. 6.1) and the shear strain is given by:
= tg u
3. StressStrain Behavior
Elastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material returns to
the dimension it had before the load was applied. Valid for small strains
(except the case of rubbers).
Deformation is reversible, non permanent
Plastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material does not
return to its previous dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible
deformation.
In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship
is called Hooke's law:
o= E c
That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's
modulus or modulus of elasticity. In some cases, the relationship is not
linear so that E can be defined alternatively as the local slope:
E =do/dc
Shear stresses produce strains according to:
t= G
where G is the shear modulus.
Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to
the second derivative of the interatomic potential, or the first derivative
of the force vs. internuclear distance (Fig. 6.6). By examining these
curves we can tell which material has a higher modulus. Due to thermal
vibrations the elastic modulus decreases with temperature. E is large for
ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for polymers (weak covalent
bond). Since the interatomic distances depend on direction in the
crystal, E depends on direction (i.e., it is anisotropic) for single crystals.
For randomlyoriented policrystals, E is isotropic.
4. Anelasticity
Here the behavior is elastic but not the stress-strain curve is not
immediately reversible. It takes a while for the strain to return to zero.
The effect is normally small for metals but can be significant for
polymers.
5. Elastic Properties of Materials
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to
compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral and axial strains is called
the Poisson's ratio v.
v= c
lateral
/c
axial

The elastic modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are related
by E = 2G(1+v)
6. Tensile Properties
Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being
proportional to the stress. The point at which this happens is the yield
point because there the material yields, deforming permanently
(plastically).
Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress
at the yield point is called yield stress, and is an important measure of
the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the yield stress is
chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 (strain offset, Fig.
6.9.)
The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the
atomic bond is stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations,
which involves breaking and reforming bonds.
Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.
Tensile strength. When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-
strain passes through a maximum, called the tensile strength (o
TS
) , and
then falls as the material starts to develop aneck and it finally breaks at
the fracture point (Fig. 6.10).
Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important
property than the tensile strength, since once the it is passed, the
structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite
of brittleness. Ductility can be given either as percent maximum
elongation c
max
or maximum area reduction.
%EL = c
max
x 100 %
%AR = (A
0
- A
f
)/A
0

These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back
together).
Resilience. Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit
volume is the
area under the strain-stress curve in the elastic region.
Toughness. Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit
volume is the total area under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by
an impact test (Ch. 8).
7. True Stress and Strain
When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after
reaching the tensile strength. The material starts necking (the transverse
area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond o
TS
. The ratio of
the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the
engineering stress. If the ratio is to the actual area (that changes with
stress) one obtains the true stress.
8. Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically)
and the stress is then released, the material ends up with a permanent
strain. If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds elastically at
the beginning up to a new yield point that is higher than the original
yield point (strain hardening, Ch. 7.10). The amount of elastic strain that
it will take before reaching the yield point is called elastic strain
recovery (Fig. 6. 16).
9. Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation
Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile stresses,
but in the case of compressive stresses there is no maximum in
the oc curve, since no necking occurs.
10. Hardness
Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or
scratch). Thus, it is a measure of plastic deformation, as is the tensile
strength, so they are well correlated. Historically, it was measured on an
empirically scale, determined by the ability of a material to scratch
another, diamond being the hardest and talc the softer. Now we use
standard tests, where a ball, or point is pressed into a material and the
size of the dent is measured. There are a few different hardness tests:
Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy
and non-destructive (except for the small dent).
11. Variability of Material Properties
Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the
test equipment, procedures, operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But,
even if all those parameters are controlled within strict limits, a variation
remains in the materials, due to uncontrolled variations during
fabrication, non homogenous composition and structure, etc. The
measured mechanical properties will show scatter, which is often
distributed in a Gaussian curve (bell-shaped), that is characterized by the
mean value and the standard deviation (width).
12. Design/Safety Factors
To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of
an average value of, say, the tensile strength, the probability that the
yield strength is above the minimum value tolerable. This leads to the
use of a safety factor N > 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4). Thus, a working value for the
tensile strength would be o
W
=o
TS
/ N.
Important Terms:
Anelasticity
Ductility
Elastic deformation
Elastic recovery
Engineering strain
Engineering stress
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Plastic deformation
Poissons ratio
Proportional limit
Shear
Tensile strength
Toughness
Yielding
Yield strength
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, details of the different types of
hardness tests, but should know that hardness for a given material correlates with
tensile strength. Variability of material properties

Chapter 1. Introduction
1 .1 Historical Perspective
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them.
In the origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like
stone, clay, skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying,
the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave
advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap
process to make steel around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern
infrastructure of the industrial world.
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering
Understanding of how materials behave like they do, and why they differ in properties was only
possible with the atomistic understanding allowed by quantum mechanics, that first explained
atoms and then solids starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus
on the relationship between the properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of
Materials Science. The development of this science allowed designing materials and provided a
knowledge base for the engineering applications (Materials Engineering).
Structure:
- At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways. (Gives different properties
for graphite than diamond both forms of carbon.)
- At the microscopic level: arrangement of small grains of material that can be identified
by microscopy. (Gives different optical properties to transparent vs. frosted glass.)
Properties are the way the material responds to the environment. For instance, the mechanical,
electrical and magnetic properties are the responses to mechanical, electrical and magnetic
forces, respectively. Other important properties are thermal (transmission of heat, heat
capacity), optical (absorption, transmission and scattering of light), and the chemical stability in
contact with the environment (like corrosion resistance).
Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment), mechanical forces, etc. to
affect their microstructure and, therefore, their properties.
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
- To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and
performance.
- To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
- To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most "immaterial", like
software or system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter
the economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering
are in materials manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems.
1.4 Classification of Materials
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the
complexity. One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that
we will use is according to the way the atoms are bound together:
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues"
the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to
light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical
properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to
visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.
Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually
based on H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100
400 C), and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, Teflon,
polyester) and rubber.
Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure
identifies composites, made of different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass,
concrete, wood) to achieve specific properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is
biocompatible and used, for instance, to replace human body parts.
1.5 Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and
normally expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for
computer disks, special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.
1.6 Modern Material's Needs
- Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural
materials
- Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear
waste processing.
- Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
- Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
- Civil construction materials for unbreakable windows.
- Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.
2.2 Fundamental Concepts
Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electron and protons are
negative and positive charges of the same magnitude, 1.6 10
-19
Coulombs.
The mass of the electron is negligible with respect to those of the proton and the
neutron, which form the nucleus of the atom. The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit
(amu) = 1.66 10
-27
kg, and equals 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon
nucleus has Z=6, and A=6, where Z is the number of protons, and A the number of
neutrons. Neutrons and protons have very similar masses, roughly equal to 1 amu. A
neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons, Z.
A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in
amu of the atoms. Thus, a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams. The number of
atoms in a mole is called the Avogadro number, N
av
= 6.023 10
23
. Note that N
av
= 1
gram/1 amu.
Calculating n, the number of atoms per cm
3
in a piece of material of density o (g/cm
3
).
n = N
av
o / M
where M is the atomic mass in amu (grams per mol). Thus, for graphite (carbon) with
a density o = 1.8 g/cm
3
, M =12, we get 6 10
23
atoms/mol 1.8 g/cm
3
/ 12 g/mol) =
9 10
22
C/cm
3
.
For a molecular solid like ice, one uses the molecular mass, M(H
2
O) = 18. With a
density of 1 g/cm
3
, one obtains n = 3.3 10
22
H
2
O/cm
3
. Note that since the water
molecule contains 3 atoms, this is equivalent to 9.9 10
22
atoms/cm
3
.
Most solids have atomic densities around 6 10
22
atoms/cm
3
. The cube root of that
number gives the number of atoms per centimeter, about 39 million. The mean
distance between atoms is the inverse of that, or 0.25 nm. This is an important number
that gives the scale of atomic structures in solids.
2.3 Electrons in Atoms
The forces in the atom are repulsions between electrons and attraction between
electrons and protons. The neutrons play no significant role. Thus, Z is what
characterizes the atom.
The electrons form a cloud around the neutron, of radius of 0.05 2 nanometers.
Electrons do not move in circular orbits, as in popular drawings, but in 'fuzzy' orbits.
We cannot tell how it moves, but only say what is the probability of finding it at some
distance from the nucleus. According to quantum mechanics, only certain orbits are
allowed (thus, the idea of a mini planetary system is not correct). The orbits are
identified by a principal quantum number n, which can be related to the size, n = 0 is
the smallest; n = 1, 2 .. are larger. (They are "quantized" or discrete, being specified
by integers). The angular momentum l is quantized, and so is the projection in a
specific direction m. The structure of the atom is determined by the Pauli exclusion
principle, only two electrons can be placed in an orbit with a givenn, l, m one for
each spin. Table 2.1 in the textbook gives the number of electrons in each shell (given
by n) and subshells (given by l).
2.4 The Periodic Table
Elements are categorized by placing them in the periodic table. Elements in a column
share similar properties. The noble gases have closed shells, and so they do not gain
or lose electrons near another atom. Alkalis can easily lose an electron and become a
closed shell; halogens can easily gain one to form a negative ion, again with a closed
shell. The propensity to form closed shells occurs in molecules, when they share
electrons to close a molecular shell. Examples are H
2
, N
2
, and NaCl.
The ability to gain or lose electrons is termed electronegativity or electropositivity, an
important factor in ionic bonds.
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies
The Coulomb forces are simple: attractive between electrons and nuclei, repulsive
between electrons and between nuclei. The force between atoms is given by a sum of
all the individual forces, and the fact that the electrons are located outside the atom
and the nucleus in the center.
When two atoms come very close, the force between them is always repulsive,
because the electrons stay outside and the nuclei repel each other. Unless both atoms
are ions of the same charge (e.g., both negative) the forces between atoms is always
attractive at large internuclear distances r. Since the force is repulsive at small r, and
attractive at small r, there is a distance at which the force is zero. This is the
equilibrium distance at which the atoms prefer to stay.
The interaction energy is the potential energy between the atoms. It is negative if the
atoms are bound and positive if they can move away from each other. The interaction
energy is the integral of the force over the separation distance, so these two quantities
are directly related. The interaction energy is a minimum at the equilibrium position.
This value of the energy is called the bond energy, and is the energy needed to
separate completely to infinity (the work that needs to be done to overcome the
attractive force.) The strongest the bond energy, the hardest is to move the atoms, for
instance the hardest it is to melt the solid, or to evaporate its atoms.
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds
Ionic Bonding
This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another
is positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction. An
example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl
-
and
less around Na, forming Na
+
. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic
bonding is usually combined with covalent bonding. In this case, the fractional ionic
bonding is defined as %ionic = 100 [1 exp(-0.25 (X
A
X
B
)
2
], where X
A
and
X
B
are the electronegativities of the two atoms, A and B, forming the molecule.
Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate the
valency. The simplest example is the H
2
molecule, where the electrons spend more
time in between the nuclei than outside, thus producing bonding.
Metallic Bonding
In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons from the valence band. Those
electrons form a electron sea, which binds the charged nuclei in place, in a similar
way that the electrons in between the H atoms in the H
2
molecule bind the protons.
2.7 Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)
Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed:
the + nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the
dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A produces a fluctuating electric field that
is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that its outer
electrons are on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the side) of
the dipole in A. This bond is called van der Waals bonding.
Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
A polar molecule like H
2
O (Hs are partially +, O is partially ), will induce a dipole
in a nearby atom, leading to bonding.
Permanent Dipole Bonds
This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the molecule is positively
charged and can bond to the negative side of another dipolar molecule, like the O side
of the H
2
O dipole.
2.8 Molecules
If molecules formed a closed shell due to covalent bonding (like H
2
, N
2
) then the
interaction between molecules is weak, of the van der Waals type. Thus, molecular
solids usually have very low melting points.
Review - Classification of materials
See table-chapter2.gif
Terms:
- Atomic mass unit (amu)
- Atomic number
- Atomic weight
- Bonding energy
- Coulombic force
- Covalent bond
- Dipole (electric)
- Electron state
- Electronegative
- Electropositive
- Hydrogen bond
- Ionic bond
- Metallic bond
- Mole
- Molecule
- Periodic table
- Polar molecule
- Primary bonding
- Secondary bonding
- Valence electron
Crystal Structures
3.2 Fundamental Concepts
Atoms self-organize in crystals, most of the time. The crystalline lattice, is a periodic
array of the atoms. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. Examples
of crystalline solids are metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite.
Examples of amorphous solids are glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si,
most plastics
To discuss crystalline structures it is useful to consider atoms as being hard spheres,
with well-defined radii. In this scheme, the shortest distance between two like atoms
is one diameter.
3.3 Unit Cells
The unit cell is the smallest structure that repeats itself by translation through the
crystal. We construct these symmetrical units with the hard spheres. The most
common types of unit cells are the faced-centered cubic (FCC), the body-centered
cubic (FCC) and the hexagonal close-packed (HCP). Other types exist, particularly
among minerals. The simple cube (SC) is often used for didactical purpose, no
material has this structure.
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Important properties of the unit cells are
- The type of atoms and their radii R.
- cell dimensions (side a in cubic cells, side of base a and height c in HCP) in
terms of R.
- n, number of atoms per unit cell. For an atom that is shared with m adjacent
unit cells, we only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m.
- CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to
which an atom is bonded.
- APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell
actually occupied by the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume
of cell.
Unit Cell n CN a/R APF
SC 1 6 2 0.52
BCC 2 8 4\ 3 0.68
FCC 4 12 2\ 2 0.74
HCP 6 12 0.74
The closest packed direction in a BCC cell is along the diagonal of the cube; in a FCC
cell is along the diagonal of a face of the cube.
3.5 Density Computations
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of the
atoms (n atoms x M
atom
) and dividing by V
c
the volume of the cell (a
3
in the case of a
cube). If the mass of the atom is given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the
Avogadro number to get M
atom
. Thus, the formula for the density is:

3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy
Some materials may exist in more than one crystal structure, this is called
polymorphism. If the material is an elemental solid, it is called allotropy. An example
of allotropy is carbon, which can exist as diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon.
3.7 3.10 Crystallography Not Covered
3.11 Close-Packed Crystal Structures
The FCC and HCP are related, and have the same APF. They are built by packing
spheres on top of each other, in the hollow sites (Fig. 3.12 of book). The packing is
alternate between two types of sites,ABABAB.. in the HCP structure, and alternates
between three types of positions, ABCABC in the FCC crystals.
Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Materials
3.12 Single Crystals
Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal. Then it has a
regular geometric structure with flat faces.
3.13 Polycrystalline Materials
A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other. It is
called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each
other. Where they meet is called agrain boundary.
3.14 Anisotropy
Different directions in the crystal have a different packing. For instance, atoms along
the edge FCC crystals are more separated than along the face diagonal. This
causes anisotropy in the properties of crystals; for instance, the deformation depends
on the direction in which a stress is applied.
3.15 X-Ray Diffraction Determination of Crystalline Structure not covered
3.16 Non-Crystalline Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean
random, since the distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard
spheres. Also, in many cases there is some form of short-range order. For instance, the
tetragonal order of crystalline SiO
2
(quartz) is still apparent in amorphous SiO
2
(silica
glass.)
Terms:
- Allotropy
- Amorphous
- Anisotropy
- Atomic packing factor (APF)
- Body-centered cubic (BCC)
- Coordination number
- Crystal structure
- Crystalline
- Face-centered cubic (FCC)
- Grain
- Grain boundary
- Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
- Isotropic
- Lattice parameter
- Non-crystalline
- Polycrystalline
- Polymorphism
- Single crystal
- Unit cell

Imperfections in Solids
4.1 Introduction
Materials are often stronger when they have defects. The study of defects is divided
according to their dimension:
0D (zero dimension) point defects: vacancies and interstitials. Impurities.
1D linear defects: dislocations (edge, screw, mixed)
2D grain boundaries, surfaces.
3D extended defects: pores, cracks.
Point Defects
4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials
A vacancy is a lattice position that is vacant because the atom is missing. It is created
when the solid is formed. There are other ways of making a vacancy, but they also
occur naturally as a result of thermal vibrations.
An interstitial is an atom that occupies a place outside the normal lattice position. It
may be the same type of atom as the others (self interstitial) or an impurity atom.
In the case of vacancies and interstitials, there is a change in the coordination of atoms
around the defect. This means that the forces are not balanced in the same way as for
other atoms in the solid, which results in lattice distortion around the defect.
The number of vacancies formed by thermal agitation follows the law:
N
V
= N
A
exp(-Q
V
/kT)
where N
A
is the total number of atoms in the solid, Q
V
is the energy required to form a
vacancy, k is Boltzmann constant, and T the temperature in Kelvin (note, not in
o
C
or
o
F).
When Q
V
is given in joules, k = 1.38 10
-23
J/atom-K. When using eV as the unit of
energy, k = 8.62 10
-5
eV/atom-K.
Note that kT(300 K) = 0.025 eV (room temperature) is much smaller than typical
vacancy formation energies. For instance, Q
V
(Cu) = 0.9 eV/atom. This means that
N
V
/N
A
at room temperature is exp(-36) = 2.3 10
-16
, an insignificant number. Thus, a
high temperature is needed to have a high thermal concentration of vacancies. Even
so, N
V
/N
A
is typically only about 0.0001 at the melting point.
4.3 Impurities in Solids
All real solids are impure. A very high purity material, say 99.9999% pure (called 6N
six nines) contains ~ 6 10
16
impurities per cm
3
.
Impurities are often added to materials to improve the properties. For instance, carbon
added in small amounts to iron makes steel, which is stronger than iron. Boron
impurities added to silicon drastically change its electrical properties.
Solid solutions are made of a host, the solvent or matrix) which dissolves the solute
(minor component). The ability to dissolve is called solubility. Solid solutions are:
- homogeneous
- maintain crystal structure
- contain randomly dispersed impurities (substitutional or interstitial)
Factors for high solubility
- Similar atomic size (to within 15%)
- Similar crystal structure
- Similar electronegativity (otherwise a compound is formed)
- Similar valence
Composition can be expressed in weight percent, useful when making the solution,
and in atomic percent, useful when trying to understand the material at the atomic
level.
Miscellaneous Imperfections
4.4 DislocationsLinear Defects
Dislocations are abrupt changes in the regular ordering of atoms, along a line
(dislocation line) in the solid. They occur in high density and are very important in
mechanical properties of material. They are characterized by the Burgers vector,
found by doing a loop around the dislocation line and noticing the extra interatomic
spacing needed to close the loop. The Burgers vector in metals points in a close
packed direction.
Edge dislocations occur when an extra plane is inserted. The dislocation line is at the
end of the plane. In an edge dislocation, the Burgers vector is perpendicular to the
dislocation line.
Screw dislocations result when displacing planes relative to each other through shear.
In this case, the Burgers vector is parallel to the dislocation line.
4.5 Interfacial Defects
The environment of an atom at a surface differs from that of an atom in the bulk, in
that the number of neighbors (coordination) decreases. This introduces unbalanced
forces which result in relaxation (the lattice spacing is decreased)
or reconstruction (the crystal structure changes).
The density of atoms in the region including the grain boundary is smaller than the
bulk value, since void space occurs in the interface.
Surfaces and interfaces are very reactive and it is usual that impurities segregate there.
Since energy is required to form a surface, grains tend to grow in size at the expense
of smaller grains to minimize energy. This occurs by diffusion, which is accelerated at
high temperatures.
Twin boundaries: not covered
4.6 Bulk or Volume Defects
A typical volume defect is porosity, often introduced in the solid during processing. A
common example is snow, which is highly porous ice.
4.7 Atomic Vibrations
Atomic vibrations occur, even at zero temperature (a quantum mechanical effect) and
increase in amplitude with temperature. Vibrations displace transiently atoms from
their regular lattice site, which destroys the perfect periodicity we discussed in
Chapter 3.
Macroscopic Examination
Sections 4.8 to 4-10 were not covered.

Terms:
- Alloy
- Atom percent
- Atomic vibration
- Boltzmanns constant
- Burgers vector
- Composition
- Dislocation line
- Edge dislocation
- Grain size
- Imperfection
- Interstitial solid solution
- Microstructure
- Point defect
- Screw dislocation
- Self-Interstitial
- Solid solution
- Solute
- Solvent
- Substitutional solid solution
- Vacancy
- Weight percent


5.1 Introduction
Many important reactions and processes in materials occur by the motion of atoms in the solid
(transport), which happens by diffusion.
Inhomogeneous materials can become homogeneous by diffusion, if the temperature is high
enough (temperature is needed to overcome energy barriers to atomic motion.
5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms
Atom diffusion can occur by the motion of vacancies (vacancy diffusion) or impurities (impurity
diffusion). The energy barrier is that due to nearby atoms which need to move to let the atoms go
by. This is more easily achieved when the atoms vibrate strongly, that is, at high temperatures.
There is a difference between diffusion and net diffusion. In a homogeneous material, atoms also
diffuse but this motion is hard to detect. This is because atoms move randomly and there will be
an equal number of atoms moving in one direction than in another. In inhomogeneous materials,
the effect of diffusion is readily seen by a change in concentration with time. In this case there is
a net diffusion. Net diffusion occurs because, although all atoms are moving randomly, there are
more atoms moving in regions where their concentration is higher.
5.3 Steady-State Diffusion
The flux of diffusing atoms, J, is expressed either in number of atoms per unit area and per unit
time (e.g., atoms/m
2
-second) or in terms of mass flux (e.g., kg/m
2
-second).
Steady state diffusion means that J does not depend on time. In this case, Ficks first law holds
that the flux along direction x is:
J = D dC/dx
Where dC/dx is the gradient of the concentration C, and D is the diffusion constant. The
concentration gradient is often called the driving force in diffusion (but it is not a force in the
mechanistic sense). The minus sign in the equation means that diffusion is down the
concentration gradient.
5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion
This is the case when the diffusion flux depends on time, which means that a type of atoms
accumulates in a region or that it is depleted from a region (which may cause them to accumulate
in another region).
5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion
As stated above, there is a barrier to diffusion created by neighboring atoms that need to move to
let the diffusing atom pass. Thus, atomic vibrations created by temperature assist diffusion. Also,
smaller atoms diffuse more readily than big ones, and diffusion is faster in open lattices or in
open directions. Similar to the case of vacancy formation, the effect of temperature in diffusion
is given by a Boltzmann factor: D = D
0
exp(Q
d
/kT).
5.6 Other Diffusion Paths
Diffusion occurs more easily along surfaces, and voids in the material (short circuits like
dislocations and grain boundaries) because less atoms need to move to let the diffusing atom
pass. Short circuits are often unimportant because they constitute a negligible part of the total
area of the material normal to the diffusion flux. .

Terms:
- Activation energy
- Concentration gradient
- Diffusion
- Diffusion coefficient
- Diffusion flux
- Driving force
- Ficks first and second laws
- Interdiffusion
- Interstitial diffusion
- Self-diffusion
- Steady-state diffusion
- Vacancy diffusion


Chapter 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
1. Introduction
The key idea of the chapter is that plastic deformation is due to the
motion of a large number of dislocations. The motion is called slip.
Thus, the strength (resistance to deformation) can be improved by
putting obstacles to slip.
2. Basic Concepts
Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist in
combination of the two (Ch. 4.4). Their motion (slip) occurs by
sequential bond breaking and bond reforming (Fig. 7.1). The number of
dislocations per unit volume is the dislocation density, in a plane they
are measured per unit area.
3. Characteristics of Dislocations
There is strain around a dislocation which influences how they interact
with other dislocations, impurities, etc. There is compression near the
extra plane (higher atomic density) and tensionfollowing the dislocation
line (Fig. 7.4)
Dislocations interact among themselves (Fig. 7.5). When they are in the
same plane, they repel if they have the same sign and annihilate if they
have opposite signs (leaving behind a perfect crystal). In general, when
dislocations are close and their strain fields add to a larger value, they
repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it takes energy
to strain a region of the material).
The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic
deformation. Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, and from
defects, grain boundaries and surface irregularities.
4. Slip Systems
In single crystals there are preferred planes where dislocations move
(slip planes). There they do not move in any direction, but in preferred
crystallographic directions (slip direction). The set of slip planes and
directions constitute slip systems.
The slip planes are those of highest packing density. How do we explain
this? Since the distance between atoms is shorter than the average, the
distance perpendicular to the plane has to be longer than average. Being
relatively far apart, the atoms can move more easily with respect to the
atoms of the adjacent plane. (We did not discuss direction and plane
nomenclature for slip systems.)
BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems, that is more ways for
dislocation to propagate. Thus, those crystals are more ductile than HCP
crystals (HCP crystals are more brittle).
5. Slip in Single Crystals
A tensile stress owill have components in any plane that is not perpendicular to the
stress. These components are resolved shear stresses. Their magnitude depends on
orientation (see Fig. 7.7).
t
R
= ocos |cos
If the shear stress reaches the critical resolved shear stress t
CRSS
, slip (plastic
deformation) can start. The stress needed is:
o
y
=t
CRSS /
(cos |cos )
max

at the angles at which t
CRSS
is a maximum. The minimum stress needed for yielding is
when | = = 45 degrees: o
y
=2t
CRSS
. Thus, dislocations will occur first at slip
planes oriented close to this angle with respect to the applied stress (Figs. 7.8 and 7.9).
6. Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials
Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal. When plastic deformation
occurs in a grain, it will be constrained by its neighbors which may be
less favorably oriented. As a result, polycrystalline metals are stronger
than single crystals (the exception is the perfect single crystal, as in
whiskers.)
7. Deformation by Twinning
This topic is not included.
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
General principles. Ability to deform plastically depends on ability of
dislocations to move. Strengthening consists in hindering dislocation
motion. We discuss the methods of grain-size reduction, solid-solution
alloying and strain hardening. These are for single-phase metals. We
discuss others when treating alloys. Ordinarily, strengthening reduces
ductility.
8. Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
This is based on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into
another grain, especially if it is very misaligned. Atomic disorder at the
boundary causes discontinuity in slip planes. For high-angle grain
boundaries, stress at end of slip plane may trigger new dislocations in
adjacent grains. Small angle grain boundaries are not effective in
blocking dislocations.
The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that
impedes dislocation motion. Grain-size reduction usually improves
toughness as well. Usually, the yield strength varies with grain
size d according to:
o
y
= o
0
+ k
y
/ d
1/2

Grain size can be controlled by the rate of solidification and by plastic
deformation.
9. Solid-Solution Strengthening
Adding another element that goes into interstitial or substitutional
positions in a solution increases strength. The impurity atoms cause
lattice strain (Figs. 7.17 and 7.18) which can "anchor" dislocations. This
occurs when the strain caused by the alloying element compensates that
of the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential energy. It costs
strain energy for the dislocation to move away from this state (which is
like a potential well). The scarcity of energy at low temperatures is why
slip is hindered.
Pure metals are almost always softer than their alloys.
10. Strain Hardening
Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at
temperatures well below the melting point (cold working). (This is
different from hot working is the shaping of materials at high
temperatures where large deformation is possible.) Strain hardening
(work hardening) is the reason for the elastic recovery discussed in Ch.
6.8.
The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases
with plastic deformation (cold work) due to multiplication. The average
distance between dislocations then decreases and dislocations start
blocking the motion of each one.
The measure of strain hardening is the percent cold work (%CW), given
by the relative reduction of the original area, A
0
to the final value A
d
:
%CW = 100 (A
0
A
d
)/A
0

Recovery, recrystallization and Grain Growth
Plastic deformation causes 1) change in grain size, 2) strain hardening,
3) increase in the dislocation density. Restoration to the state before
cold-work is done by heating through two processes: recovery and
recrystallization. These may be followed by grain growth.
11. Recovery
Heating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation
motion relieves internal strain energy and reduces the number of
dislocation. The electrical and thermal conductivity are restored to the
values existing before cold working.
12. Recrystallization
Strained grains of cold-worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by
more regularly-spaced grains. This occurs through short-range diffusion
enabled by the high temperature. Since recrystallization occurs by
diffusion, the important parameters are both temperature and time.
The material becomes softer, weaker, but more ductile (Fig. 7.22).
Recrystallization temperature: is that at which the process is complete
in one hour. It is typically 1/3 to 1/2 of the melting temperature. It falls
as the %CW is increased. Below a "critical deformation",
recrystallization does not occur.
13. Grain Growth
The growth of grain size with temperature can occur in all polycrystalline materials. It
occurs by migration of atoms at grain boundaries by diffusion, thus grain growth is
faster at higher temperatures. The "driving force" is the reduction of energy, which is
proportional to the total area. Big grains grow at the expense of the small ones.
Important Terms:
Cold working
Critical resolved shear stress
Dislocation density
Grain growth
Lattice strain
Recovery
Recrystallization
Recrystallization temperature
Resolved shear stress
Slip
Slip system
Strain hardening
Solid-solution strengthening


Chapter 8. Failure
1. Introduction
Failure of materials may have huge costs. Causes included improper materials
selection or processing, the improper design of components, and improper use.
2. Fundamentals of Fracture
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces due to stress, at temperatures
below the melting point. The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether the
elongation is large or small.
Steps in fracture (response to stress):
- track formation
- track propagation
Ductile vs. brittle fracture
Ductile Brittle
deformation extensive little
track propagation slow, needs stress fast
type of materials most metals (not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals
warning permanent elongation none
strain energy higher lower
fractured surface rough smoother
necking yes no
- Ductile Fracture
Stages of ductile fracture
- Initial necking
- small cavity formation (microvoids)
- void growth (elipsoid) by coalescence into a crack
- fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45
o

- final shear fracture (cup and cone)
The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic deformation.
- Brittle Fracture
There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very fast. In most brittle materials,
crack propagation (by bond breaking) is along specific crystallographic planes (cleavageplanes).
This type of fracture is transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted
texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain. In some materials, fracture is
intergranular.
5. Principles of Fracture Mechanics

Fracture occurs due to stress concentration at flaws, like surface scratches, voids,
etc. If a is the length of the void and the radius of curvature, the enhanced stress
near the flaw is:
o
m
~ 2 o
0
(a/)
1/2

where o
0
is the applied macroscopic stress. Note that a is 1/2 the length of the
flaw, not the full length for an internal flaw, but the full length for a surface flaw.
The stress concentration factor is:
K
t
= o
m
/o
0 ~
2 (a/)
1/2

Because of this enhancement, flaws with small radius of curvature are
called stress raisers.
6. Impact Fracture Testing
Normalized tests, like the Charpy and Izod tests measure the impact energy required to fracture a
notched specimen with a hammer mounted on a pendulum. The energy is measured by the
change in potential energy (height) of the pendulum. This energy is called notch toughness.
Ductile to brittle transition occurs in materials when the temperature is dropped below
a transition temperature. Alloying usually increases the ductile-brittle transition temperature
(Fig. 8.19.) For ceramics, this type of transition occurs at much higher temperatures than for
metals.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the catastrophic failure due to dynamic (fluctuating) stresses. It can happen in bridges,
airplanes, machine components, etc. The characteristics are:
- long period of cyclic strain
- the most usual (90%) of metallic failures (happens also in ceramics and
polymers)
- is brittle-like even in ductile metals, with little plastic deformation
- it occurs in stages involving the initiation and propagation of cracks.
- Cyclic Stresses
These are characterized by maximum, minimum and mean stress, the stress
amplitude, and the stress ratio (Fig. 8.20).
- The SN Curve
SN curves (stress-number of cycles to failure) are obtained using apparatus like
the one shown in Fig. 8.21. Different types of SN curves are shown in Fig. 8.22.
Fatigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials (like some ferrous and
Ti allows). In this case, the SN curve becomes horizontal at large N . This
means that there is a maximum stress amplitude (the fatigue limit) below which
the material never fails, no matter how large the number of cycles is.
For other materials (e.g., non-ferrous) the SN curve continues to fall with N.
Failure by fatigue shows substantial variability (Fig. 8.23).
Failure at low loads is in the elastic strain regime, requires a large number of
cycles (typ. 10
4
to 10
5
). At high loads (plastic regime), one has low-cycle fatigue
(N < 10
4
- 10
5
cycles).
- Crack Initiation and Propagation
Stages is fatigue failure:
I. crack initiation at high stress points (stress raisers)
II. propagation (incremental in each cycle)
III. final failure by fracture
N
final
= N
initiation
+ N
propagation

Stage I - propagation
- slow
- along crystallographic planes of high shear stress
- flat and featureless fatigue surface

Stage II - propagation
crack propagates by repetive plastic blunting and sharpening of the crack tip. (Fig. 8.25.)
- . Crack Propagation Rate (not covered)
- . Factors That Affect Fatigue Life
- Mean stress (lower fatigue life with increasing o
mean
).
- Surface defects (scratches, sharp transitions and edges). Solution:
- polish to remove machining flaws
- add residual compressive stress (e.g., by shot peening.)
- case harden, by carburizing, nitriding (exposing to appropriate gas at high
temperature)
- . Environmental Effects
- Thermal cycling causes expansion and contraction, hence thermal stress, if
component is restrained. Solution:
o eliminate restraint by design
o use materials with low thermal expansion coefficients.
- Corrosion fatigue. Chemical reactions induced pits which act as stress raisers.
Corrosion also enhances crack propagation. Solutions:
o decrease corrosiveness of medium, if possible.
o add protective surface coating.
o add residual compressive stresses.
Creep
Creep is the time-varying plastic deformation of a material stressed at high temperatures.
Examples: turbine blades, steam generators. Keys are the time dependence of the strain and the
high temperature.
- . Generalized Creep Behavior
At a constant stress, the strain increases initially fast with time (primary or transient
deformation), then increases more slowly in the secondary region at a steady rate (creep rate).
Finally the strain increases fast and leads to failure in the tertiary region. Characteristics:
- Creep rate: dc/dt
- Time to failure.
- . Stress and Temperature Effects
Creep becomes more pronounced at higher temperatures (Fig. 8.37). There is
essentially no creep at temperatures below 40% of the melting point.
Creep increases at higher applied stresses.
The behavior can be characterized by the following expression, where K,
n and Q
c
are constants for a given material:
dc/dt = K o
n
exp(-Q
c
/RT)
- . Data Extrapolation Methods (not covered.)
- . Alloys for High-Temperature Use
These are needed for turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear reactors, etc. The
important factors are a high melting temperature, a high elastic modulus and large grain size (the
latter is opposite to what is desirable in low-temperature materials).
Some creep resistant materials are stainless steels, refractory metal alloys (containing elements
of high melting point, like Nb, Mo, W, Ta), and superalloys (based on Co, Ni, Fe.)
Terms:
Brittle fracture
Charpy test
Corrosion fatigue
Creep
Ductile fracture
Ductile-to-brittle transition
Fatigue
Fatigue life
Fatigue limit
Fatigue strength
Fracture mechanics
Fracture toughness
Impact energy
Intergranular fracture
Izod test
Stress intensity factor
Stress raiser
Thermal fatigue
Transgranular fracture

9.1 Introduction
Definitions
Component: pure metal or compound (e.g., Cu, Zn in Cu-Zn alloy, sugar,
water, in a syrup.)
Solvent: host or major component in solution.
Solute: dissolved, minor component in solution.
System: set of possible alloys from same component (e.g., iron-carbon system.)
Solubility Limit: Maximum solute concentration that can be dissolved at a
given temperature.
Phase: part with homogeneous physical and chemical characteristics
9.2 Solubility Limit
Effect of temperature on solubility limit. Maximum content: saturation.
Exceeding maximum content (like when cooling) leads to precipitation.
9.3 Phases
One-phase systems are homogeneous. Systems with two or more phases are
heterogeneous, or mixtures. This is the case of most metallic alloys, but also
happens in ceramics and polymers.
A two-component alloy is called binary. One with three components, ternary.
9.4 Microstructure
The properties of an alloy do not depend only on concentration of the phases but how
they are arranged structurally at the microscopy level. Thus, the microstructure is
specified by the number of phases, their proportions, and their arrangement in space.
A binary alloy may be
a. a single solid solution
b. two separated, essentially pure components.
c. two separated solid solutions.
d. a chemical compound, together with a solid solution.
The way to tell is to cut the material, polish it to a mirror finish, etch it a weak acid
(components etch at a different rate) and observe the surface under a microscope.
9.5 Phase Equilibria
Equilibrium is the state of minimum energy. It is achieved given sufficient
time. But the time to achieve equilibrium may be so long (the kinetics is so
slow) that a state that is not at an energy minimum may have a long life and
appear to be stable. This is called a metastable state.
A less strict, operational, definition of equilibrium is that of a system that does
not change with time during observation.
Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
Give the relationship of composition of a solution as a function of temperatures
and the quantities of phases in equilibrium. These diagrams do not indicate the
dynamics when one phase transforms into another. Sometimes diagrams are
given with pressure as one of the variables. In the phase diagrams we will
discuss, pressure is assumed to be constant at one atmosphere.
9.6 Binary Isomorphous Systems
This very simple case is one complete liquid and solid solubility,
an isomorphous system. The example is the Cu-Ni alloy of Fig. 9.2a. The complete
solubility occurs because both Cu and Ni have the same crystal structure (FCC), near
the same radii, electronegativity and valence.
The liquidus line separates the liquid phase from solid or solid + liquid phases. That
is, the solution is liquid above the liquidus line.
The solidus line is that below which the solution is completely solid (does not contain
a liquid phase.)
Interpretation of phase diagrams
Concentrations: Tie-line method
a. locate composition and temperature in diagram
b. In two phase region draw tie line or isotherm
c. note intersection with phase boundaries. Read compositions.
Fractions: lever rule
a. construct tie line (isotherm)
b. obtain ratios of line segments lengths.
Note: the fractions are inversely proportional to the length to the boundary for the
particular phase. If the point in the diagram is close to the phase line, the fraction of
that phase is large.
Development of microstructure in isomorphous alloys
a) Equilibrium cooling
Solidification in the solid + liquid phase occurs gradually upon cooling from the
liquidus line. The composition of the solid and the liquid change gradually during
cooling (as can be determined by the tie-line method.) Nuclei of the solid phase form
and they grow to consume all the liquid at the solidus line.
b) Non-equilibrium cooling
Solidification in the solid + liquid phase also occurs gradually. The composition of the
liquid phase evolves by diffusion, following the equilibrium values that can be
derived from the tie-line method. However, diffusion in the solid state is very slow.
Hence, the new layers that solidify on top of the grains have the equilibrium
composition at that temperature but once they are solid their composition does not
change. This lead to the formation of layered (cored) grains (Fig. 9.14) and to the
invalidity of the tie-line method to determine the composition of the solid phase (it
still works for the liquid phase, where diffusion is fast.)
9.7 Binary Eutectic Systems
Interpretation: Obtain phases present, concentration of phases and their fraction (%).
Solvus line: limit of solubility
Eutectic or invariant point. Liquid and two solid phases exist in equilibrium at
the eutectic composition and the eutectic temperature.
Note:
- the melting point of the eutectic alloy is lower than that of the components
(eutectic = easy to melt in Greek).
- At most two phases can be in equilibrium within a phase field.
- Single-phase regions are separated by 2-phase regions.
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys
Case of lead-tin alloys, figures 9.99.14. A layered, eutectic structure develops when
cooling below the eutectic temperature. Alloys which are to the left of the eutectic
concentration (hipoeutectic) or to the right (hypereutectic) form a proeutectic phase
before reaching the eutectic temperature, while in the solid + liquid region. The
eutectic structure then adds when the remaining liquid is solidified when cooling
further. The eutectic microstructure is lamellar (layered) due to the reduced diffusion
distances in the solid state.
To obtain the concentration of the eutectic microstructure in the final solid solution,
one draws a vertical line at the eutectic concentration and applies the lever rule
treating the eutectic as a separate phase (Fig. 9.16).
9.8 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds
A terminal phase or terminal solution is one that exists in the extremes of
concentration (0 and 100%) of the phase diagram. One that exists in the middle,
separated from the extremes, is called anintermediate phase or solid solution.
An important phase is the intermetallic compound, that has a precise chemical
compositions. When using the lever rules, intermetallic compounds are treated
like any other phase, except they appear not as a wide region but as a vertical
line.
9.9 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions
The eutectoid (eutectic-like) reaction is similar to the eutectic reaction but
occurs from one solid phase to two new solid phases. It also shows as V on top
of a horizontal line in the phase diagram. There are associated eutectoid
temperature (or temperature), eutectoid phase, eutectoid and proeutectoid
microstructures.
Solid Phase 1 Solid Phase 2 + Solid Phase 3
The peritectic reaction also involves three solid in equilibrium, the transition is
from a solid + liquid phase to a different solid phase when cooling. The inverse
reaction occurs when heating.
Solid Phase 1 + liquid Solid Phase 2
9.10 Congruent Phase Transformations
Another classification scheme. Congruent transformation is one where there is
no change in composition, like allotropic transformations (e.g., oFe to -Fe)
or melting transitions in pure solids.
9.11 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams
Ternary phase diagrams are three-dimensional. Ceramic phase diagrams will be
discussed in Ch. 13.
9.12 The Gibbs Phase Rule (not discussed)
The I ronCarbon Diagram
9.13 The IronIron Carbide (FeFe3C) Phase Diagram
This is one of the most important alloys for structural applications. The diagram Fe
C is simplified at low carbon concentrations by assuming it is the FeFe
3
C diagram.
Concentrations are usually given in weight percent. The possible phases are:
- o-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution
- -austenite (FCC) Fe-C solution
- o-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution
- liquid Fe-C solution
- Fe
3
C (iron carbide) or cementite. An intermetallic compound.
The maximum solubility of C in o- ferrite is 0.022 wt%. oferrite is only stable at
high temperatures. It is not important in practice. Austenite has a maximum C
concentration of 2.14 wt %. It is not stable below the eutectic temperature (727 C)
unless cooled rapidly (Chapter 10). Cementite is in reality metastable, decomposing
into o-Fe and C when heated for several years between 650 and 770 C.
For their role in mechanical properties of the alloy, it is important to note that:
Ferrite is soft and ductile
Cementite is hard and brittle
Thus, combining these two phases in solution an alloy can be obtained with
intermediate properties. (Mechanical properties also depend on the microstructure,
that is, how ferrite and cementite are mixed.)
9.14 Development of Microstructures in IronCarbon Alloys
The eutectoid composition of austenite is 0.76 wt %. When it cools slowly it
forms perlite, a lamellar or layered structure of two phases: o-ferrite and
cementite (Fe
3
C).
Hypoeutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid ferrite plus the eutectoid perlite.
Hypereutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid cementite plus perlite.
Since reactions below the eutectoid temperature are in the solid phase, the
equilibrium is not achieved by usual cooling from austenite. The new
microstructures that form are discussed in Ch. 10.
9.15 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements
As mentioned in section 7.9, alloying strengthens metals by hindering the motion of
dislocations. Thus, the strength of FeC alloys increase with C content and also with
the addition of other elements.

Terms:
Austenite
Cementite
Component
Congruent transformation
Equilibrium
Eutectic phase
Eutectic reaction
Eutectic structure
Eutectoid reaction
Ferrite
Free energy
Hypereutectoid alloy
Hypoeutectoid alloy
Intermediate solid solution
Intermetallic compound
Invariant point
Isomorphous
Lever rule
Liquidus line
Metastable
Microconstituent
Pearlite
Peritectic reaction
Phase
Phase diagram
Phase equilibrium
Primary phase
Proeutectoid cementite
Proeutectoid ferrite
Solidus line
Solubility limit
Solvus line
System
Terminal solid solution
Tie line

10.1 Introduction
The goal is to obtain specific microstructures that will improve the mechanical properties of a
metal, in addition to grain-size refinement, solid-solution strengthening, and strain-hardening.
10.2 Basic Concepts
Phase transformations that involve a change in the microstructure can occur through:
- Diffusion
- Maintaining the type and number of phases (e.g., solidification of a pure metal, allotropic
transformation, recrystallization, grain growth.
- Alteration of phase composition (e.g., eutectoid reactions, see 10.5)
- Diffusionless
- Production of metastable phases (e.g., martensitic transformation, see 10.5)
10.3 The Kinetics of Solid-State Reactions
Change in composition implies atomic rearrangement, which requires diffusion. Atoms are
displaced by random walk. The displacement of a given atom, d, is not linear in time t (as would
be for a straight trajectory) but is proportional to the square root of time, due to the tortuous
path: d = c(Dt)
1/2
where c is a constant and D the diffusion constant. This time-dependence of
the rate at which the reaction (phase transformation) occurs is what is meant by the term
reaction kinetics.
D is called a constant because it does not depend on time, but it depends on temperature as we
have seen in Ch. 5. Diffusion occurs faster at high temperatures.
Phase transformation requires two processes: nucleation and growth. Nucleation involves the
formation of very small particles, or nuclei (e.g., grain boundaries, defects). This is similar to
rain happening when water molecules condensed around dust particles. During growth, the
nuclei grow in size at the expense of the surrounding material.
The kinetic behavior often has the S-shape form of Fig. 10.1, when plotting percent of material
transformed vs. the logarithm of time. The nucleation phase is seen as an incubation period,
where nothing seems to happen. Usually the transformation rate has the form r = A e
-Q/RT
(similar
to the temperature dependence of the diffusion constant), in which case it is said to be thermally
activated.
10.4 Multiphase Transformations
To describe phase transformations that occur during cooling, equilibrium phase diagrams are
inadequate if the transformation rate is slow compared to the cooling rate. This is usually the
case in practice, so that equilibrium microstructures are seldom obtained. This means that the
transformations are delayed (e.g., case of supercooling), and metastable states are formed. We
then need to know the effect of timeon phase transformations.
Microstructural and Property Changes in Fe-C Alloys
10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
We use as an example the cooling of an eutectoid alloy (0.76 wt% C) from the austenite (-
phase) to pearlite, that contains ferrite (o) plus cementite (Fe
3
C or iron carbide). When cooling
proceeds below the eutectoid temperature (727
o
C) nucleation of pearlite starts. The S-shaped
curves (fraction of pearlite vs. log. time, fig. 10.3) are displaced to longer times at higher
temperatures showing that the transformation is dominated by nucleation (the nucleation period
is longer at higher temperatures) and not by diffusion (which occurs faster at higher
temperatures).
The family of S-shaped curves at different temperatures can be used to construct the TTT (Time-
Temperature-Transformation) diagrams (e.g., fig. 10.4.) For these diagrams to apply, one needs
to cool the material quickly to a given temperature T
o
before the transformation occurs, and keep
it at that temperature over time. The horizontal line that indicates constant
temperature T
o
intercepts the TTT curves on the left (beginning of the transformation) and the
right (end of the transformation); thus one can read from the diagrams when the transformation
occurs. The formation of pearlite shown in fig. 10.4 also indicates that the transformation occurs
sooner at low temperatures, which is an indication that it is controlled by the rate of nucleation.
At low temperatures, nucleation occurs fast and grain growth is reduced (since it occurs by
diffusion, which is hindered at low temperatures). This reduced grain growth leads to fine-
grained microstructure (fine pearlite). At higher temperatures, diffusion allows for larger grain
growth, thus leading to coarse pearlite.
At lower temperatures nucleation starts to become slower, and a new phase is
formed, bainite. Since diffusion is low at low temperatures, this phase has a very fine
(microscopic) microstructure.
Spheroidite is a coarse phase that forms at temperatures close to the eutectoid temperature. The
relatively high temperatures caused a slow nucleation but enhances the growth of the nuclei
leading to large grains.
A very important structure is martensite, which forms when cooling austenite very fast
(quenching) to below a maximum temperature that is required for the transformation. It forms
nearly instantaneously when the required low temperature is reached; since no thermal activation
is needed, this is called an athermal transformation. Martensite is a different phase, a body-
centered tetragonal (BCT) structure with interstitial C atoms. Martensite is metastable and
decomposes into ferrite and pearlite but this is extremely slow (and not noticeable) at room
temperature.
In the examples, we used an eutectoid composition. For hypo- and hypereutectoid alloys, the
analysis is the same, but the proeutectoid phase that forms before cooling through the eutectoid
temperature is also part of the final microstructure.
10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams - not covered
10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Fe-C Alloys
The strength and hardness of the different microstructures is inversely related to the size of the
microstructures. Thus, spheroidite is softest, fine pearlite is stronger than coarse pearlite, bainite
is stronger than pearlite and martensite is the strongest of all. The stronger and harder the phase
the more brittle it becomes.
10.8 Tempered Martensite
Martensite is so brittle that it needs to be modified in many practical cases. This is done by
heating it to 250-650
o
C for some time (tempering) which produces tempered martensite, an
extremely fine-grained and well dispersed cementite grains in a ferrite matrix.
Terms:
Alloy steel
Athermal transformation
Bainite
Coarse pearlite
Fine pearlite
Isothermal transformation diagram
Kinetics
Martensite
Nucleation
Phase transformation
Plain carbon steel
Spheroidite
Supercooling
Superheating
Tempered martensite
Thermally activated transformation
Transformation rate

Annealing Processes
11.1 Introduction

Annealing is a heat treatment where the material is taken to a high temperature, kept there for
some time and then cooled. High temperatures allow diffusion processes to occur fast. The time
at the high temperature (soaking time) is long enough to allow the desired transformation to
occur. Cooling is done slowly to avoid the distortion (warping) of the metal piece, or even
cracking, caused by stresses induced by differential contraction due to thermal inhomogeneities.
Benefits of annealing are:
- relieve stresses
- increase softness, ductility and toughness
- produce a specific microstructure
11.2 Process Annealing
Deforming a piece that has been strengthened by cold working requires a lot of energy.
Reverting the effect of cold work by process annealing eases further deformation. Heating
allows recovery and recrystallization but is usually limited to avoid excessive grain growth and
oxidation.
11.3 Stress Relief
Stresses resulting from machining operations of non-uniform cooling can be eliminated by stress
relief annealing at moderately low temperatures, such that the effect of cold working and other
heat treatments is maintained.
11.4 Annealing of Ferrous Alloys
Normalizing (or austenitizing) consists in taking the Fe-C alloy to the austenitic phase which
makes the grain size more uniform, followed by cooling in air.
Full anneal involves taking hypoeutectoid alloys to the austenite phase and hypereutectoid alloys
over the eutectoid temperature (Fig. 11.1) to soften pieces which have been hardened by plastic
deformation, and which need to be machined.
Spheroidizing consists in prolongued heating just below the eutectoid temperature, which results
in the soft spheroidite structure discussed in Sect. 10.5. This achieves maximum softness that
minimizes the energy needed in subsequent forming operations.
Heat Treatment of Steels
1.5 Hardenability
To achieve a full conversion of austenite into hard martensite, cooling needs to be fast enough to
avoid partial conversion into perlite or bainite. If the piece is thick, the interior may cool too
slowly so that full martensitic conversion is not achieved. Thus, the martensitic content, and the
hardness, will drop from a high value at the surface to a lower value in the interior of the piece.
Hardenability is the ability of the material to be hardened by forming martensite.
Hardenability is measured by the Jominy end-quench test (Fig. 11.2). Hardenability is then
given as the dependence of hardness on distance from the quenched end. High hardenability
means that the hardness curve is relatively flat.
11.6 Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry
The cooling rate depends on the cooling medium. Cooling is fastest using water, then oil, and
then air. Fast cooling brings the danger of warping and formation of cracks, since it is usually
accompanied by large thermal gradients.
The shape and size of the piece, together with the heat capacity and heat conductivity are
important in determining the cooling rate for different parts of the metal piece. Heat capacity is
the energy content of a heated mass, which needs to be removed for cooling. Heat conductivity
measures how fast this energy is transported to the colder regions of the piece.
Precipitation Hardening
Hardening can be enhanced by extremely small precipitates that hinder dislocation motion. The
precipitates form when the solubility limit is exceeded. Precipitation hardening is also called age
hardening because it involves the hardening of the material over a prolonged time.
11.7 Heat Treatments
Precipitation hardening is achieved by:

a) solution heat treatment where all the solute atoms are dissolved to form a single-phase
solution.
b) rapid cooling across the solvus line to exceed the solubility limit. This leads to a
supersaturated solid solution that remains stable (metastable) due to the low temperatures,
which prevent diffusion.
c) precipitation heat treatment where the supersaturated solution is heated to an intermediate
temperature to induce precipitation and kept there for some time (aging).

If the process is continued for a very long time, eventually the hardness decreases. This is called
overaging.
The requirements for precipitation hardening are:
- appreciable maximum solubility
- solubility curve that falls fast with temperature
- composition of the alloy that is less than the maximum solubility
11.8 Mechanism of Hardening
Strengthening involves the formation of a large number of microscopic nuclei, called zones. It is
accelerated at high temperatures. Hardening occurs because the deformation of the lattice
around the precipitates hinder slip. Aging that occurs at room temperature is called natural
aging, to distinguish from the artificial aging caused by premeditated heating.
11.9 Miscellaneous Considerations
Since forming, machining, etc. uses more energy when the material is hard, the steps in the
processing of alloys are usually:
- solution heat treat and quench
- do needed cold working before hardening
- do precipitation hardening
Exposure of precipitation-hardened alloys to high temperatures may lead to loss of strength by
overaging.
Terms:
Annealing
Artificial aging
Austenitizing
Full annealing
Hardenability
Jominy end-quench test
Overaging
Natural aging
Precipitation hardening
Precipitation heat treatment
Process annealing
Solution heat treatment
Spheroidizing
Stress relief

13.1 Introduction
Ceramics are inorganic and non-metallic materials that are commonly electrical and thermal
insulators, brittle and composed of more than one element (e.g., two in Al
2
O
3
)
Ceramic Structures
13.2 Crystal Structures
Ceramic bonds are mixed, ionic and covalent, with a proportion that depends on the particular
ceramics. The ionic character is given by the difference of electronegativity between the cations
(+) and anions (-). Covalent bonds involve sharing of valence electrons. Very ionic crystals
usually involve cations which are alkalis or alkaline-earths (first two columns of the periodic
table) and oxygen or halogens as anions.
The building criteria for the crystal structure are two:
- maintain neutrality
- charge balance dictates chemical formula
- achieve closest packing
the condition for minimum energy implies maximum attraction and minimum repulsion. This
leads to contact, configurations where anions have the highest number of cation neighbors and
viceversa.
The parameter that is important in determining contact is the ratio of cation to anion radii, rC/rA.
Table 13.2 gives the coordination number and geometry as a function of r
C
/r
A
. For example, in
the NaCl structure (Fig. 13.2), r
C
= r
Na
= 0.102 nm, r
A
=r
Cl
.= 0.181 nm, so r
C
/r
A
.= 0.56. From
table 13.2 this implies coordination number = 6, as observed for this rock-salt structure.
Other structures were shown in class, but will not be included in the test.
13.3 Silicate Ceramics
Oxygen and Silicon are the most abundant elements in Earths crust. Their combination
(silicates) occur in rocks, soils, clays and sand. The bond is weekly ionic, with Si
4+
as the cation
and O
2-
as the anion. r
Si
= 0.04 nm, r
O
.= 0.14 nm, so r
C
/r
A
= 0.286. From table 13.2 this implies
coordination number = 4, that is tetrahedral coordination (Fig. 13.9).
The tetrahedron is charged: Si
4+
+ 4 O
2-
(Si O
4
)
4-
. Silicates differ on how the tetrahedra are
arranged. In silica, (SiO
2
), every oxygen atom is shared by adjacent tetrahedra. Silica can be
crystalline (e.g., quartz) or amorphous, as in glass.
Soda glasses melt at lower temperature than amorphous SiO
2
because the addition of Na
2
O
(soda) breaks the tetrahedral network. A lower melting point makes it easy to form glass to
make, for instance, bottles.
13.4 Carbon
Carbon is not really a ceramic, but an allotropic form, diamond, may be thought as a type of
ceramic. Diamond has very interesting and even unusual properties:
- diamond-cubic structure (like Si, Ge)
- covalent C-C bonds
- highest hardness of any material known
- very high thermal conductivity (unlike ceramics)
- transparent in the visible and infrared, with high index of refraction
- semiconductor (can be doped to make electronic devices)
- metastable (transforms to carbon when heated)
Synthetic diamonds are made by application of high temperatures and pressures or by chemical
vapor deposition. Future applications of this latter, cheaper production method include hard
coatings for metal tools, ultra-low friction coatings for space applications, and microelectronics.
Graphite has a layered structure with very strong hexagonal bonding within the planar layers
(using 3 of the 3 bonding electrons) and weak, van der Waals bonding between layers using the
fourth electron. This leads to easy interplanar cleavage and applications as a lubricant and for
writing (pencils). Graphite is a good electrical conductor and chemically stable even at high
temperatures. Applications include furnaces, rocket nozzles, electrodes in batteries.
A recently (1985) discovered formed of carbon is the C
60
molecule, also known as fullerene or
bucky-ball (after the architect Buckminster Fuller who designed the geodesic structure that
C
60
resembles.) Fullerenes and related structures like bucky-onions amd nanotubes are
exceptionally strong. Future applications are as a structural material and possibly in
microelectronics, due to the unusual properties that result when fullerenes are doped with other
atoms.
13.5 Imperfections in Ceramics
Imperfections include point defects and impurities. Their formation is strongly affected by the
condition of charge neutrality (creation of unbalanced charges requires the expenditure of a large
amount of energy.
Non-stoichiometry refers to a change in composition so that the elements in the ceramic are not
in the proportion appropriate for the compound (condition known as stoichiometry). To
minimize energy, the effect of non-stoichiometry is a redistribution of the atomic charges (Fig.
13.1).
Charge neutral defects include the Frenkel and Schottky defects. A Frenkel-defect is a vacancy-
interstitial pair of cations (placing large anions in an interstitial position requires a lot of energy
in lattice distortion). A Schottky-defect is the a pair of nearby cation and anion vacancies.
Introduction of impurity atoms in the lattice is likely in conditions where the charge is
maintained. This is the case of electronegative impurities that substitute a lattice anions or
electropositive substitutional impurities. This is more likely for similar ionic radii since this
minimizes the energy required for lattice distortion. Defects will appear if the charge of the
impurities is not balanced.
13.6 Ceramic Phase Diagrams (not covered)
13.7 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics
The brittle fracture of ceramics limits applications. It occurs due to the unavoidable presence of
microscopic flaws (micro-cracks, internal pores, and atmospheric contaminants) that result
during cooling from the melt. The flaws need to crack formation, and crack propagation
(perpendicular to the applied stress) is usually transgranular, along cleavage planes. The flaws
cannot be closely controlled in manufacturing; this leads to a large variability (scatter) in the
fracture strength of ceramic materials.
The compressive strength is typically ten times the tensile strength. This makes ceramics good
structural materials under compression (e.g., bricks in houses, stone blocks in the pyramids), but
not in conditions of tensile stress, such as under flexure.
Plastic deformation in crystalline ceramics is by slip, which is difficult due to the structure and
the strong local (electrostatic) potentials. There is very little plastic deformation before fracture.
Non-crystalline ceramics, like common glass deform by viscous flow (like very high-density
liquids). Viscosity decreases strongly with increases temperature.
13.8 Stress-Strain Behavior (not covered)
13.9 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation (not covered)
13.10 Miscellaneous Mechanical Considerations (not covered)
Terms:
Anion
Cation
Defect structure
Frenkel defect
Electroneutrality
Octahedral position
Schottky defect
Stoichiometry
Tetrahedral position
Viscosity 14.1 Introduction
Ceramics properties that are different from those of metals lead to different uses. In structures,
designs must be done for compressive loads. The transparency to light of many ceramics leads
to optical uses, like in windows, photographic cameras, telescopes and microscopes. Good
thermal insulation leads to use in ovens, the exterior tiles of the Shuttle orbiter, etc. Good
electrical isolation are used to support conductors in electrical and electronic applications. The
good chemical inertness shows in the stability of the structures thousands of years old.
14.2 Glass Properties
A special characteristic of glasses is that solidification is gradual, through a viscous stage,
without a clear melting temperature. The specific volume does not have an abrupt transition at a
temperature but rather shows a change in slope at the glass-transition temperature (Fig. 14.3).
The melting point, working point, softening point and annealing point are defined in terms of
viscosity, rather than temperature (Fig. 14.4), and depend on glass composition..
14.3 Glass Forming (not covered)
14.4 Heat Treating Glasses
Similar to the case of metals, annealing is used at elevated temperatures is used to remove
stresses, like those caused by inhomogeneous temperatures during cooling.
Strengthening by glass tempering is done by heating the glass above the glass transition
temperature but below the softening point and then quenched in an air jet or oil bath. The
interior, which cools later than the outside, tries to contract while in a plastic state after the
exterior has become rigid. This causes residual compressive stresses on the surface and tensile
stresses inside. To fracture, a crack has first to overcome the residual compressive stress,
making tempered glass less susceptible to fracture. This improvement leads to use in automobile
windshields, glass doors, eyeglass lenses, etc.
14.5 - 14.12 Not included.
Terms:
Glass tempering
Glass transition temperature
Melting point
Thermal tempering
15.1 Introduction
Polymers are common in nature, in the form of wood, rubber, cotton, leather, wood, silk,
proteins, enzymes, starches, cellulose. Artificial polymers are made mostly from oil. Their use
has grown exponentially, especially after WW2. The key factor is the very low production cost
and useful properties (e.g., combination of transparency and flexibility, long elongation).
15.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules
Most polymers are organic, and formed from hydrocarbon molecules. These molecules can have
single, double, or triple carbon bonds. A saturated hydrocarbon is one where all bonds are
single, that is, the number of atoms is maximum (or saturated). Among this type are the paraffin
compounds, C
n
H
2n+2
(Table 15.1). In contrast, non-saturated hydrocarbons contain some double
and triple bonds.
Isomers are molecules that contain the same molecules but in a different arrangement. An
example is butane and isobutane.
15.3 Polymer Molecules
Polymer molecules are huge, macromolecules that have internal covalent bonds. For most
polymers, these molecules form very long chains. The backbone is a string of carbon atoms,
often single bonded.
Polymers are composed of basic structures called mer units. A molecule with just one mer is a
monomer.
15.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Examples of polymers are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), poly-tetra-chloro-ethylene (PTFE or
Teflon), polypropylene, nylon and polystyrene. Chains are represented straight but in practice
they have a three-dimensional, zig-zag structure (Fig. 15.1b).
When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a homopolymer. When there is more than
one type of mer present, the molecule is a copolymer.
15.5 Molecular Weight
The mass of a polymer is not fixed, but is distributed around a mean value, since polymer
molecules have different lengths. The average molecular weight can be obtained by averaging
the masses with the fraction of times they appear (number-average) or with the mass fraction of
the molecules (called, improperly, a weight fraction).
The degree of polymerization is the average number of mer units, and is obtained by dividing the
average mass of the polymer by the mass of a mer unit.
Polymers of low mass are liquid or gases, those of very high mass (called high-polymers, are
solid). Waxes, paraffins and resins have intermediate masses.
15.6 Molecular Shape
Polymers are usually not linear; bending and rotations can occur around single C-C bonds
(double and triple bonds are very rigid) (Fig. 15.5). Random kings and coils lead to
entanglement, like in the spaghetti structure shown in Fig. 15.6.
15.7 Molecular Structure
Typical structures are (Fig. 15.7):
- linear (end-to-end, flexible, like PVC, nylon)
- branched
- cross-linked (due to radiation, vulcanization, etc.)
- network (similar to highly cross-linked structures).
15.8 Molecular Configurations
The regularity and symmetry of the side-groups can affect strongly the properties of polymers.
Side groups are atoms or molecules with free bonds, called free-radicals, like H, O, methyl, etc.
If the radicals are linked in the same order, the configuration is called isostatic
In a stereoisomer in a syndiotactic configuration, the radical groups alternative sides in the
chain.
In the atactic configuration, the radical groups are positioned at random.
15.9 Copolymers
Copolymers, polymers with at least two different types of mers can differ in the way the mers are
arranged. Fig. 15.9 shows different arrangements: random, alternating, block, and graft.
15.10 Polymer Crystallinity
Crystallinity in polymers is more complex than in metals (fig. 15.10). Polymer molecules are
often partially crystalline (semicrystalline), with crystalline regions dispersed within amorphous
material. .
Chain disorder or misalignment, which is common, leads to amorphous material since twisting,
kinking and coiling prevent strict ordering required in the crystalline state. Thus, linear polymers
with small side groups, which are not too long form crystalline regions easier than branched,
network, atactic polymers, random copolymers, or polymers with bulky side groups.
Crystalline polymers are denser than amorphous polymers, so the degree of crystallinity can be
obtained from the measurement of density.
15.11 Polymer Crystals
Different models have been proposed to describe the arrangement of molecules in semicrytalline
polymers. In the fringed-micelle model, the crystallites (micelles) are embedded in an amorphous
matrix (Fig.15.11). Polymer single crystals grown are shaped in regular platelets (lamellae) (Fig.
15.12). Spherulites (Fig. 15.4) are chain-folded crystallites in an amorphous matrix that grow
radially in spherical shape grains.
Terms:
Alternating copolymer
Atactic configuration
Bifunctional mer
Block copolymer
Branched polymer
Chain-folded model
Cis (structure)
Copolymer
Crosslinked polymer
Crystallite
Degree of polymerization
Graft copolymer
Homopolymer
Isomerism
Isotactic configuration
Linear polymer
Macromolecule
Mer
Molecular chemistry
Molecular structure
Molecular weight
Monomer
Network polymer
Polymer
Polymer crystallinity
Random copolymer
Saturated
Spherulite
Stereoisomerism
Syndiotactic configuration
Trans (structure)
Trifunctional mer
Unsaturated
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Stress-Strain Behavior
The description of stress-strain behavior is similar to that of metals, but a very important
consideration for polymers is that the mechanical properties depend on the strain rate,
temperature, and environmental conditions.
The stress-strain behavior can be brittle, plastic and highly elastic (elastomeric or rubber-like),
see Fig. 16. 1. Tensile modulus (modulus) and tensile strengths are orders of magnitude smaller
than those of metals, but elongation can be up to 1000 % in some cases. The tensile strength is
defined at the fracture point (Fig. 16.2) and can be lower than the yield strength.
Mechanical properties change dramatically with temperature, going from glass-like brittle
behavior at low temperatures (like in the liquid-nitrogen demonstration) to a rubber-like behavior
at high temperatures (Fig. 16.3).
In general, decreasing the strain rate has the same influence on the strain-strength characteristics
as increasing the temperature: the material becomes softer and more ductile.
16.3 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
Many semicrystalline polymers have the spherulitic structure and deform in the following steps
(Fig. 16.4):
- elongation of amorphous tie chains
- tilting of lamellar chain folds towards the tensile direction
- separation of crystalline block segments
- orientation of segments and tie chains in the tensile direction
The macroscopic deformation involves an upper and lower yield point and necking. Unlike the
case of metals, the neck gets stronger since the deformation aligns the chains so increasing the
tensile stress leads to the growth of the neck. (Fig. 16.5).
16.4 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Polymers
The tensile modulus decreases with increasing temperature or diminishing strain rate.
Obstacles to the steps mentioned in 16.4 strengthen the polymer. Examples are cross-linking
(aligned chains have more van der Waals inter-chain bonds) and a large mass (longer molecules
have more inter-chain bonds). Crystallinity increases strength as the secondary bonding is
enhanced when the molecular chains are closely packed and parallel. Pre-deformation by
drawing, analogous to strain hardening in metals, increases strength by orienting the molecular
chains. For undrawn polymers, heating increases the tensile modulus and yield strength, and
reduces the ductility - opposite of what happens in metals.
16.5 Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena
Crystallization rates are governed by the same type of S-curves we saw in the case of metals
(Fig. 16.7). Nucleation becomes slower at higher temperatures.
The melting behavior of semicrystalline polymers is intermediate between that of crystalline
materials (sharp density change at a melting temperature) and that of a pure amorphous material
(slight change in slope of density at the glass-transition temperature). The glass transition
temperature is between 0.5 and 0.8 of the melting temperature.
The melting temperature increases with the rate of heating, thickness of the lamellae, and
depends on the temperature at which the polymer was crystallized.
Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain bonds, so the glass and melting temperatures depend
on:
- chain stiffness (e.g., single vs. double bonds)
- size, shape of side groups
- size of molecule
- side branches, defects
- cross-linking
Rigid chains have higher melting temperatures.
16.6 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
Thermoplastic polymers (thermoplasts) soften reversibly when heated (harden when cooled
back)
Thermosetting polymers (thermosets) harden permanently when heated, as cross-linking hinder
bending and rotations. Thermosets are harder, more dimensionally stable, and more brittle than
thermoplasts.
16.7 Viscoelasticity
At low temperatures, amorphous polymers deform elastically, like glass, at small elongation. At
high temperatures the behavior is viscous, like liquids. At intermediate temperatures, the
behavior, like a rubbery solid, is termed viscoelastic.
Viscoelasticity is characterized by the viscoelastic relaxation modulus
E
r
= o(t)/c
0
.
If the material is strained to a value c
0.
it is found that the stress needs to be reduced with time to
maintain this constant value of strain (see figs. 16.11 and 16.12).
In viscoelastic creep, the stress is kept constant at o
0
and the change of deformation with
time c(t) is measured. The time-dependent creep modulus is given by
E
c
= o
0
/c(t).
16.8 Deformation and Elastomers
Elastomers can be deformed to very large strains and the spring back elastically to the original
length, a behavior first observed in natural rubber. Elastic elongation is due to uncoiling,
untwisting and straightening of chains in the stress direction.
To be elastomeric, the polymer needs to meet several criteria:
- must not crystallize easily
- have relatively free chain rotations
- delayed plastic deformation by cross-linking (achieved by vulcanization).
- be above the glass transition temperature
16.9 Fracture of Polymers
As other mechanical properties, the fracture strength of polymers is much lower than that of
metals. Fracture also starts with cracks at flaws, scratches, etc. Fracture involves breaking of
covalent bonds in the chains. Thermoplasts can have both brittle and ductile fracture behaviors.
Glassy thermosets have brittle fracture at low temperatures and ductile fracture at high
temperatures.
Glassy thremoplasts often suffer grazing before brittle fracture. Crazes are associated with
regions of highly localized yielding which leads to the formation of interconnected microvoids
(Fig. 16.15). Crazing absorbs energy thus increasing the fracture strength of the polymer.
16.10 Miscellaneous Characteristics
Polymers are brittle at low temperatures and have low impact strengths (Izod or Charpy tests),
and a brittle to ductile transition over a narrow temperature range.
Fatigue is similar to the case of metals but at reduced loads and is more sensitive to frequency
due to heating which leads to softening.
16.11 Polymerization
Polymerization is the synthesis of high polymers from raw materials like oil or coal. It may occur
by:
- addition (chain-reaction) polymerization, where monomer units are attached one at a time
- condensation polymerization, by stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions that produce
the mer units.

16.12 16.14 not covered
16.15 Elastomers
In vulcanization, crosslinking of the elastomeric polymer is achieved by an irreversible chemical
reaction usually at high temperatures (hence vulcan), and usually involving the addition of
sulfur compounds. The S atoms are the ones that form the bridge cross-links. Elastomers are
thermosetting due to the cross-linking.
Rubbers become harder and extend less with increasing sulfur content. For automobile
applications, synthetic rubbers are strengthened by adding carbon black.
In silicone rubbers, the backbone C atoms are replaced by a chain of alternating silicon and
oxygen atoms. These elastomers are also cross-linked and are stable to higher temperatures than
C-based elastomers.
16.16 16.18 not covered
Terms:
Addition polymerization
Condensation polymerization
Elastomer
Glass transition temperature
Plastic
Relaxation modulus
Thermoplastic polymer
Thermoplastic elastomer
Thermosetting polymer
Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
Viscoelasticity
Vulcanization

17.1 Introduction
The idea is that by combining two or more distinct materials one can engineer a new material
with the desired combination of properties (e.g., light, strong, corrosion resistant). The idea that a
better combination of properties can be achieved is called the principle of combined action.
New - High-tech materials, engineered to specific applications
Old - brick-straw composites, paper, known for > 5000 years.
A type of composite that has been discussed is perlitic steel, which combines hard, brittle
cementite with soft, ductile ferrite to get a superior material.
Natural composites: wood (polymer-polymer), bones (polymer-ceramics).
Usual composites have just two phases:
- matrix (continuous)
- dispersed phase (particulates, fibers)
Properties of composites depend on
- properties of phases
- geometry of dispersed phase (particle size, distribution, orientation)
- amount of phase
Classification of composites: three main categories:
- particle-reinforced (large-particle and dispersion-strengthened)
- fiber-reinforced (continuous (aligned) and short fibers (aligned or random)
- structural (laminates and sandwich panels)
Particle-reinforced composites
These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two categories depending on the size
of the particles:
- large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the matrix, if well
bonded.
- dispersion-strengthened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar to what was
discussed under precipitation hardening. The matrix bears the major portion of the
applied load and the small particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic
deformation.
17.2 Large-Particle Composites
Properties are a combination of those of the components. The rule of mixtures predicts that an
upper limit of the elastic modulus of the composite is given in terms of the elastic moduli of the
matrix (E
m
) and the particulate (E
p
) phases by:
E
c
= E
m
V
m
+ E
p
V
p

where V
m
and V
p
are the volume fraction of the two phases. A lower bound is given by:
E
c
= E
m
E
p
/ (E
p
V
m
+ E
m
V
p
)
Fig. 17.3 - modulus of composite of WC particles in Cu matrix vs. WC concentration.
Concrete
The most common large-particle composite is concrete, made of a cement matrix that bonds
particles of different size (gravel and sand.) Cement was already known to the Egyptians and the
Greek. Romans made cement by mixing lime (CaO) with volcanic ice.
In its general from, cement is a fine mixture of lime, alumina, silica, and water. Portland cement
is a fine powder of chalk, clay and lime-bearing minerals fired to 1500
o
C (calcinated). It forms a
paste when dissolved in water. It sets into a solid in minutes and hardens slowly (takes 4 months
for full strength). Properties depend on how well it is mixed, and the amount of water: too little -
incomplete bonding, too much - excessive porosity.
The advantage of cement is that it can be poured in place, it hardens at room temperature and
even under water, and it is very cheap. The disadvantages are that it is weak and brittle, and that
water in the pores can produce crack when it freezes in cold weather.
Concrete is cement strengthened by adding particulates. The use of different size (stone and
sand) allows better packing factor than when using particles of similar size.
Concrete is improved by making the pores smaller (using finer powder, adding polymeric
lubricants, and applying pressure during hardening.
Reinforced concrete is obtained by adding steel rods, wires, mesh. Steel has the advantage of a
similar thermal expansion coefficient, so there is reduced danger of cracking due to thermal
stresses. Pre-stressed concrete is obtained by applying tensile stress to the steel rods while the
cement is setting and hardening. When the tensile stress is removed, the concrete is left under
compressive stress, enabling it to sustain tensile loads without fracturing. Pre-stressed concrete
shapes are usually prefabricated. A common use is in railroad or highway bridges.
Cermets
are composites of ceramic particles (strong, brittle) in a metal matrix (soft, ductile) that enhances
toughness. For instance, tungsten carbide or titanium carbide ceramics in Co or Ni. They are
used for cutting tools for hardened steels.
Reinforced rubber
is obtained by strengthening with 20-50 nm carbon-black particles. Used in auto tires.
17.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
Use of very hard, small particles to strengthen metals and metal alloys. The effect is like
precipitation hardening but not so strong. Particles like oxides do not react so the strengthening
action is retained at high temperatures.
Fiber-reinforced composites
In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength per unit weight
(specific strength). This can be achieved by composites consisting of a low-density (and soft)
matrix reinforced with stiff fibers.
The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with respect to the stress direction.
The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the interfacial bond.
17.4 Influence of Fiber Length
Normally the matrix has a much lower modulus than the fiber so it strains more. This occurs at a
distance from the fiber. Right next to the fiber, the strain is limited by the fiber. Thus, for a
composite under tension, a shear stress appears in the matrix that pulls from the fiber. The pull is
uniform over the area of the fiber. This makes the force on the fiber be minimum at the ends and
maximum in the middle, like in the tug-of-war game.
To achieve effective strengthening and stiffening, the fibers must be larger than a critical
length l
c
, defined as the minimum length at which the center of the fiber reaches the ultimate
(tensile) strength o
f
, when the matrix achieves the maximum shear strength t
m
:
l
c
=s
f
d /2 t
m

Since it is proportional to the diameter of the fiber d, a more unified condition for effective
strengthening is that the aspect ratio of the fiber is l/d > o
f
/2 t
m
.
17.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation
The composite is stronger along the direction of orientation of the fibers and weakest in a
direction perpendicular to the fiber. For discontinuous, random fibers, the properties are
isotropic.
17.6 The Fiber Phase (not covered)
17.7 The Matrix Phase (not covered)
17.8 Polymer Matrix Composites
Largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of fabrication, low cost and good
properties.
Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and lightweight, but not
very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications include auto and boat bodies,
aircraft components.
Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the highest specific
module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use.
Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft components.
Kevlar, and aremid-fiber composite (Fig. 17.9) can be used as textile fibers. Applications include
bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and clutch linings.
Wood
This is one of the oldest and the most widely used structural material. It is a composite of strong
and flexible cellulose fibers (linear polymer) surrounded and held together by a matrix of lignin
and other polymers. The properties are anisotropic and vary widely among types of wood. Wood
is ten times stronger in the axial direction than in the radial or tangential directions.
17.9 Metal-Matrix Composites (not covered)
17.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites (not covered)
17.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites (not covered)
17.12 Hybrid Composites (not covered)
17.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites (not covered)
17.14 Laminar Composites
Sheets (panels) with different orientation of high strength directions are stacked and glued
together, producing a material with more isotropic strength in the plane. Examples are plywood
and modern skis.
17.15 Sandwich Panels
Strong, stiff end sheets are bonded to lightweight core structure, for instance honeycomb (Fig.
17.16) which provides strength to shear. It is used in roofs, walls, and aircraft structures.
Terms:
Ceramic-matrix composite
Cermet
Concrete
Dispersed phase
Dispersion-strengthened composite
Fiber
Fiber-reinforced composite
Hybrid composite
Laminar composite
Large-particle composite
Longitudinal direction
Matrix phase
Metal-matrix composite
Polymer-matrix composite
Pre-stressed concrete
Principle of combined action
Reinforced concrete
Rule of mixtures
Sandwich panel
Specific modulus
Specific strength
Structural composite
Transverse direction
Whisker

Electrical Conduction
19.2 Ohms Law
When an electric potential V is applied across a material, a current of magnitude I flows. In most
metals, at low values of V, the current is proportional to V, according to Ohm's law:
I =V/R
where R is the electrical resistance. R depends on the intrinsic resistivity of the material and on
the geometry (length l and area A through which the current passes).
R =l/A
19.3 Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity is the inverse of the resistivity: o = 1/.
The electric field in the material is E=V/l, Ohm's law can then be expressed in terms of the
current density j = I/A as:
j =o E
The conductivity is one of the properties of materials that varies most widely, from 10
7
(O-m)
typical of metals to 10
-20
(O-m) for good electrical insulators. Semiconductors have
conductivities in the range 10
-6
to 10
4
(O-m).
19.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction
In metals, the current is carried by electrons, and hence the name electronic conduction. In ionic
crystals, the charge carriers are ions, thus the name ionic conduction (see Sect. 19.15).
19.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids
When atoms come together to form a solid, their valence electrons interact due to Coulomb
forces, and they also feel the electric field produced by their own nucleus and that of the other
atoms. In addition, two specific quantum mechanical effects happen. First, by Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle, constraining the electrons to a small volume raises their energy, this is
called promotion. The second effect, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, limits the number of
electrons that can have the same property (which include the energy). As a result of all these
effects, the valence electrons of atoms form wide valence bands when they form a solid. The
bands are separated by gaps, where electrons cannot exist. The precise location of the bands and
band gaps depends on the type of atom (e.g., Si vs. Al), the distance between atoms in the solid,
and the atomic arrangement (e.g., carbon vs. diamond).
In semiconductors and insulators, the valence band is filled, and no more electrons can be added,
following Pauli's principle. Electrical conduction requires that electrons be able to gain energy in
an electric field; this is not possible in these materials because that would imply that the electrons
are promoted into the forbidden band gap.
In metals, the electrons occupy states up to the Fermi level. Conduction occurs by promoting
electrons into the conduction band, that starts at the Fermi level, separated by the valence band
by an infinitesimal amount.
19.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models
Conduction in metals is by electrons in the conduction band. Conduction in insulators is by
electrons in the conduction band and by holes in the valence band. Holes are vacant states in the
valence band that are created when an electron is removed.
In metals there are empty states just above the Fermi levels, where electrons can be promoted.
The promotion energy is negligibly small so that at any temperature electrons can be found in the
conduction band. The number of electrons participating in electrical conduction is extremely
small.
In insulators, there is an energy gap between the valence and conduction bands, so energy is
needed to promote an electron to the conduction band. This energy may come from heat, or from
energetic radiation, like light of sufficiently small wavelength.
A working definition for the difference between semiconductors and insulators is that in
semiconductors, electrons can reach the conduction band at ordinary temperatures, where in
insulators they cannot. The probability that an electron reaches the conduction band is about
exp(-E
g
/2kT) where E
g
is the band gap and kT has the usual meaning. If this probability is, say, <
10
-24
one would not find a single electron in the conduction band in a solid of 1 cubic centimeter.
This requires E
g
/2kT > 55. At room temperature, 2kT = 0.05 eV; thus E
g
> 2.8 eV can be used as
the condition for an insulator.
Besides having relatively small E
g
, semiconductors have covalent bond, whereas insulators
usually are partially ionic bonded.
19.7 Electron Mobility
Electrons are accelerated in an electric field E, in the opposite direction to the field because of
their negative charge. The force acting on the electron is -eE, where e is the electric charge. This
force produces a constant acceleration so that, in the absence of obstacles (in vacuum, like inside
a TV tube) the electron speeds up continuously in an electric field. In a solid, the situation is
different. The electrons scatter by collisions with atoms and vacancies that change drastically
their direction of motion. Thus electrons move randomly but with a net drift in the direction
opposite to the electric field. The drift velocity is constant, equal to the electric field times a
constant called the mobility ,
v
d
=
e
E
which means that there is a friction force proportional to velocity. This friction translates into
energy that goes into the lattice as heat. This is the way that electric heaters work.
The electrical conductivity is:
o = n |e|
e

where n is the concentration of electrons (n is used to indicate that the carriers of electricity are
negative particles).
19.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals
The resistivity then depends on collisions. Quantum mechanics tells us that electrons behave like
waves. One of the effects of this is that electrons do not scatter from a perfect lattice. They
scatter by defects, which can be:
o atoms displaced by lattice vibrations
o vacancies and interstitials
o dislocations, grain boundaries
o impurities
One can express the total resistivity
tot
by the Matthiessen rule, as a sum of resistivities due to
thermal vibrations, impurities and dislocations. Fig. 19.8 illustrates how the resistivity increases
with temperature, with deformation, and with alloying.
19.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys
The best material for electrical conduction (lower resistivity) is silver. Since it is very expensive,
copper is preferred, at an only modest increase in . To achieve low it is necessary to remove
gases occluded in the metal during fabrication. Copper is soft so, for applications where
mechanical strength is important, the alloy CuBe is used, which has a nearly as good . When
weight is important one uses Al, which is half as good as Cu. Al is also more resistant to
corrosion.
When high resistivity materials are needed, like in electrical heaters, especially those that operate
at high temperature, nichrome (NiCr) or graphite are used.
19.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction
Semiconductors can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic means that electrical conductivity does not
depend on impurities, thus intrinsic means pure. In extrinsic semiconductors the conductivity
depends on the concentration of impurities.
Conduction is by electrons and holes. In an electric field, electrons and holes move in opposite
direction because they have opposite charges. The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is:
o=n |e|
e
+ p |e|
h

where p is the hole concentration and
h
the hole mobility. One finds that electrons move much
faster than holes:

e
>
h

In an intrinsic semiconductor, a hole is produced by the promotion of each electron to the
conduction band. Thus:
n = p
Thus, o =2 n |e| (
e
+
h
) (only for intrinsic semiconductors).
19.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction
Unlike intrinsic semiconductors, an extrinsic semiconductor may have different concentrations
of holes and electrons. It is called p-type if p>n and n-type if n>p. They are made by doping, the
addition of a very small concentration of impurity atoms. Two common methods of doping are
diffusion and ion implantation.
Excess electron carriers are produced by substitutional impurities that have more valence
electron per atom than the semiconductor matrix. For instance phosphorous, with 5 valence
electrons, is an electrondonor in Si since only 4 electrons are used to bond to the Si lattice when
it substitutes for a Si atom. Thus, elements in columns V and VI of the periodic table are donors
for semiconductors in the IV column, Si and Ge. The energy level of the donor state is close to
the conduction band, so that the electron is promoted (ionized) easily at room temperature,
leaving a hole (the ionized donor) behind. Since this hole is unlike a hole in the matrix, it does
not move easily by capturing electrons from adjacent atoms. This means that the conduction
occurs mainly by the donated electrons (thus n-type).
Excess holes are produced by substitutional impurities that have fewer valence electrons per
atom than the matrix. This is the case of elements of group II and III in column IV
semiconductors, like B in Si. The bond with the neighbors is incomplete and so they can capture
or accept electrons from adjacent silicon atoms. They are called acceptors. The energy level of
the acceptor is close to the valence band, so that an electron may easily hop from the valence
band to complete the bond leaving a hole behind. This means that conduction occurs mainly by
the holes (thus p-type).
19.12 The Temperature Variation of Conductivity and Carrier Concentration
Temperature causes electrons to be promoted to the conduction band and from donor levels, or
holes to acceptor levels. The dependence of conductivity on temperature is like other thermally
activated processes:
o = A exp(E
g
/2kT)
where A is a constant (the mobility varies much more slowly with temperature). Plotting ln o vs.
1/T produces a straight line of slope E
g
/2k from which the band gap energy can be determined.
Extrinsic semiconductors have, in addition to this dependence, one due to the thermal promotion
of electrons from donor levels or holes from acceptor levels. The dependence on temperature is
also exponential but it eventually saturates at high temperatures where all the donors are emptied
or all the acceptors are filled.
This means that at low temperatures, extrinsic semiconductors have larger conductivity than
intrinsic semiconductors. At high temperatures, both the impurity levels and valence electrons
are ionized, but since the impurities are very low in number and they are exhausted, eventually
the behavior is dominated by the intrinsic type of conductivity.
19.13 The Hall Effect (not covered)
19.14 Semiconductor Devices
A semiconductor diode is made by the intimate junction of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor
(an n-p junction). Unlike a metal, the intensity of the electrical current that passes through the
material depends on the polarity of the applied voltage. If the positive side of a battery is
connected to the p-side, a situation called forward bias, a large amount of current can flow since
holes and electrons are pushed into the junction region, where they recombine (annihilate). If the
polarity of the voltage is flipped, the diode operates under reverse bias. Holes and electrons are
removed from the region of the junction, which therefore becomes depleted of carriers and
behaves like an insulator. For this reason, the current is very small under reverse bias. The
asymmetric current-voltage characteristics of diodes (Fig. 19.20) is used to convert alternating
current into direct current. This is called rectification.
A p-n-p junction transistor contains two diodes back-to-back. The central region is very thin and
is called the base. A small voltage applied to the base has a large effect on the current passing
through the transistor, and this can be used to amplify electrical signals (Fig. 19.22). Another
common device is the MOSFET transistor where a gate serves the function of the base in a
junction transistor. Control of the current through the transistor is by means of the electric field
induced by the gate, which is isolated electrically by an oxide layer.
19.15 Conduction in Ionic Materials
In ionic materials, the band gap is too large for thermal electron promotion. Cation vacancies
allow ionic motion in the direction of an applied electric field, this is referred to as ionic
conduction. High temperatures produce more vacancies and higher ionic conductivity.
At low temperatures, electrical conduction in insulators is usually along the surface, due to the
deposition of moisture that contains impurity ions.
19.16 Electrical Properties of Polymers
Polymers are usually good insulators but can be made to conduct by doping. Teflon is an
exceptionally good insulator.
Dielectric Behavior
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be made to exhibit an electric dipole structure
(displace the negative and positive charge so that their center of gravity is different).
19.17 Capacitance
When two parallel plates of area A, separated by a small distance l, are charged by +Q, Q, an
electric field develops between the plates
E = D/cc
0

where D = Q/A. c
0
is called the vacuum permittivity and cthe relative permittivity, or dielectric
constant (c = 1 for vacuum). In terms of the voltage between the plates, V = E l,
V = Dl/cc
0
= Q l/Acc
0
= Q / C
The constant C= Acc
0
/l is called the capacitance of the plates.
19.18 Field Vectors and Polarization
The dipole moment of a pair of positive and negative charges (+q and q) separated at a
distance d is p = qd. If an electric field is applied, the dipole tends to align so that the positive
charge points in the field direction. Dipoles between the plates of a capacitor will produce an
electric field that opposes the applied field. For a given applied voltage V, there will be an
increase in the charge in the plates by an amountQ' so that the total charge becomes Q = Q' +
Q
0
, where Q
0
is the charge of a vacuum capacitor with the same V. With Q' = PA, the charge
density becomes D = D
0
E + P, where the polarization P = c
0
(c1) E

.
19.19 Types of Polarization
Three types of polarization can be caused by an electric field:
- Electronic polarization: the electrons in atoms are displaced relative to the nucleus.
- Ionic polarization: cations and anions in an ionic crystal are displaced with respect to
each other.
- Orientation polarization: permanent dipoles (like H
2
O) are aligned.
19.20 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant
Electrons have much smaller mass than ions, so they respond more rapidly to a changing electric
field. For electric field that oscillates at very high frequencies (such as light) only electronic
polarization can occur. At smaller frequencies, the relative displacement of positive and negative
ions can occur. Orientation of permanent dipoles, which require the rotation of a molecule can
occur only if the oscillation is relatively slow (MHz range or slower). The time needed by the
specific polarization to occur is called the relaxation time.
19.21 Dielectric Strength
Very high electric fields (>10
8
V/m) can free electrons from atoms, and accelerate them to such
high energies that they can, in turn, free other electrons, in an avalanche process (or electrical
discharge). This is called dielectric breakdown, and the field necessary to start the is called
the dielectric strength or breakdown strength.
19.22 Dielectric Materials
Capacitors require dielectrics of high c that can function at high frequencies (small relaxation
times). Many of the ceramics have these properties, like mica, glass, and porcelain). Polymers
usually have lower c.
19.23 Ferroelectricity
Ferroelectric materials are ceramics that exhibit permanent polarization in the absence of an
electric field. This is due to the asymmetric location of positive and negative charges within the
unit cell. Two possible arrangements of this asymmetry results in two distinct polarizations,
which can be used to code "0" and "1" in ferroelectric memories. A typical ferroelectric is
barium titanate, BaTiO
3
, where the Ti
4+
is in the center of the unit cell and four O
2-
in the central
plane can be displaced to one side or the other of this central ion (Fig. 19.33).
19.24 Piezoelectricity
In a piezolectric material, like quartz, an applied mechanical stress causes electric polarization by
the relative displacement of anions and cations.
Terms:
Acceptor state
Capacitance
Conduction band
Conductivity, electrical
Dielectric
Dielectric constant
Dielectric displacement
Dielectric strength
Diode
Dipole, electric
Donor state
Doping
Electrical resistance
Electron energy band
Energy band gap
Extrinsic semiconductor
Fermi energy
Ferroelectric
Forward bias
Free electron
Hole
Insulator
Integrated circuit
Intrinsic semiconductor
Ionic conduction
Junction transistor
Matthiessens rule
Metal
Mobility
MOSFET
Ohms law
Permittivity
Piezoelectric
Polarization
Polarization, electronic
Polarization, ionic
Polarization, orientation
Rectifying junction
Relaxation frequency
Resistivity, electrical
Reverse bias
Semiconductor
Valence band

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS - 1
V. Ryan 2005 - 2009

When studying materials and especially when selecting materials for a project / design, it is important to understand key
properties. The most important properties are outlined below.

PDF FILE - CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE EXERCISE

STRENGTH
The ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied without it
bending, breaking, shattering or deforming in any way.

Our technology technician (Ed) demonstrates the strength of a material by
performing a hand stand on a strong piece of timber (wood). It does not bend
even under his weight. He has eaten pies and drunk a large amount of beer for
twenty years and yet the strong material does not bend, flex or deform (change
shape) in any way.


ELASTICITY
The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different directions,
returning to its original position.

Our technology technician demonstrates the elasticity of a material by
springing up and down on a piece of steel rod. Do not try this at home as an
accident may result. Ed our technician is an expert at demonstrating this
property as it is his hobby.

PLASTICITY
The ability of a material to be change in shape permanently.


Our technology technician and his twin brother demonstrate the plasticity of
a molten aluminium by pouring it into a mould. Once the aluminium has
cooled down, it can be removed from the casting sand. It has a new shape.

Our technician is often seen scavenging in dust bins after aluminum drinks
cans. He then melts them down to form blocks (ingots) of aluminium to sell to
scrap metal dealers.



DUCTILITY
The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by stretching along
its length.

Our technician stretches the lead above his head. As it stretches if deforms
(changes shape).

Ed thinks he is a strong man, little does he realise that lead is a very soft metal
and stretches very easily. He performs these tricks in local pubs in an attempt
to pass himself off as a hard man.


TENSILE STRENGTH
The ability of a material to stretch without breaking or snapping.

Our technology technician demonstrates tensile strength by stretching a
piece of steel until it snaps. Ed thinks he is incredibly strong. However, his
friends at work have substituted a sausage in place of the steel.


MALLEABILITY
The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without cracking

Our technology technician demonstrates the malleability of a material by
heating a piece of mild steel until it is red hot. He then beats it with a large
forging hammer to reshape it. Because of the high temperature it reaches
while heating the steel becomes malleable, it can be reshaped permanently.

Ed often heats up steel, because he likes the colour and it matches his
complexion after he has run up the stairs.


TOUGHNESS
A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when receiving a
blow or under a sudden shock.

Our technology technician demonstrates the toughness of a material by
hitting a piece or material to see if it will break or shatter.


Ed has been known to test authentic Chinese Ming Dynasty pottery with the
same technique. This is why he is often arrested in Museums and has been
banned from the local Antique dealers.

HARDNESS
The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and indentation.

Our technology technician, dressed in a kilt, slides along the floor to see if it
will scratch. It will be considered to hard wearing if it resists scratching.

Ed has been known to fall over. Not a sight for sore eyes.




CONDUCTIVITY
The ability of a material to conduct electricity.

Our technology technician demonstrates conductivity by pressing live wires
against either side of his head (PLEASE NOTE - THIS WILL KILL
NORMAL PEOPLE).

Ed survives because his skull is empty.




How The World Is Made
















- Fundamentals Of Metal Casting
o Metal Casting Basics: Molds, Patterns, Cores, and Gating
o The Metal Casting Operation
o The Effect of Gases and Material Selection on Metal Casting
o Gating Systems and Mold Design /Troubleshooting
- Expendable Mold Casting
o Sand Casting
o Plaster Mold Casting
o Ceramic Mold Casting
o Shell Molding
o Vacuum Casting or V-process
o Expanded Polystyrene Casting
o Investment Casting
- Permanent Mold Casting
o Basic Permanent Mold Casting
o Slush Casting
o Pressure Casting
o Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting
o Die Casting
o Hot Chamber Die Casting
o Cold Chamber Die Casting
o True Centrifugal Casting
o Semicentrifugal Casting
o Centrifuge Casting
o Ingot Manufacture
o Continuous Casting











- Fundamentals Of Metal Forming
o Metal Forming Basics
- Bulk Deformation
o Metal Rolling
Shape Rolling
Ring Rolling
Thread Rolling
Rotary Tube Piercing
o Metal Forging
Forging Hammers
Hydraulic And Mechanical Presses
Heading Or Upset Forging
Piercing
Sizing
Roll Forging
Swaging
Hobbing
Metal Ball Manufacture
Orbital Forging
Ring Forging
Riveting
Coining
Isothermal Forging
Trimming
High Energy Forming
o Extrusion
Extrusion Design
Impact Extrusion
Hydrostatic Extrusion
o Metal Drawing
- Sheet Metal Forming
o Sheet Metal Basics
o Sheet Metal Cutting
o Sheet Metal Bending
o Deep Drawing Sheet Metal
o Ironing Sheet Metal
o Metal Spinning
o Rubber Forming Of Sheet Metal
o High Energy Rate Forming











- Powder Metallurgy
- Pressing And Sintering
- Alternative Powder Processing Methods
- Design And Applications Of Powder Metallurgy











- Polymer Casting
- Injection Molding
o Multi-Injection Molding
o Reaction-Injection Molding
- Compression Molding
- Transfer Molding
- Blow Molding
- Rotational Molding
- Extrusion
- Production of Sheet and Film
- Thermoforming








- Casting of Ceramics
o Slip Casting
o Doctor-Blade Process
- Forming of Ceramics and Glasses










- Machining Basics
- Turning
- Milling
- Drilling
- Reaming
- Broaching
- Shaping
- Sawing
- Planning
- Grinding






Manufacturing processes are applicable in all areas of our lives, so much that we often don't
realize or think about it. From the cars we drive, the containers our food comes in, the TV's,
computers and other devices we use, power tools, heaters, air conditioners, the pipes that
deliver our water and the list goes on and on to include just about everything defining our
modern society. These things are all manufactured or built from manufactured components.
Manufacturing equipment itself must also be manufactured. The manufacturing process
used is determined by a variety of factors.

Manufacturing Process: The Fundamental Idea
The fundamental idea of manufacturing or production is to create, (or produce), something
that has a useful form. This form is most likely predetermined and calculated, with a certain
physical geometry. Usually this geometry has certain tolerances that it must meet in order to
be considered acceptable. A tolerance outlines the geometric accuracy that must be
achieved in the manufacturing process. The "tightness" of the tolerances, or in other words
the allowed variance between the manufactured product and the ideal product, is a function
of the particular application of the product.

Goals and Core Principles For All Processes
1. Meeting performance requirements (ie. tolerances, strength, weight, ect.)
2. Meeting cost of production requirements
3. Ability to reproduce constant quality during mass production
4. Large manufactured components should have uniform material properties
throughout the component

The Primary Consideration For A Manufacturing
Process
When different manufacturing processes and methods are considered, it is fundamental to
develop an understanding of the relationship between the process used and the properties of
the finished product. For this it is important to know what conditions a particular process
will subject a material to and how different manufacturing materials respond to different
conditions, (ie. stress, heat).

Manufacturing Materials
All manufactured products are made from some sort of material. Similar to the geometric
tolerance, the properties of the material of the final manufactured product are of utmost
importance. Hence, those who are interested in manufacturing should be very concerned
with material selection. An extremely wide variety of materials are available to the
manufacturer today. The manufacturer must consider the properties of these materials with
respect to the desired properties of the manufactured goods. Simultaneously, one must also
consider manufacturing process. Although the properties of a material may be great, it may
not be able to effectively, or economically, be processed into a useful form. Also, since the
microscopic structure of materials is often changed through different manufacturing
processes -dependent upon the process- variations in manufacturing technique may yield
different results in the end product. Therefore, a constant feedback must exist between
manufacturing process and materials optimization.



Basic Concepts:

Types of Materials
Materials can be classified into 3 basic types.
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers

What are the properties of metals, the properties of ceramics, the properties of polymers?

Metals: Metals are hard, malleable, (meaning capable of being shaped), and somewhat
flexible materials. Metals are also very strong. Their combination of strength and flexibility
makes them useful in structural applications. When the surface of a metal is polished it has
a lustrous appearance; although this surface luster is usually obscured by the presence of
dirt, grease and salt. Metals are not transparent to visible light. Also, metals are extremely
good conductors of electricity and heat.
Ceramics: Ceramics are very hard and strong, but lack flexibility making them brittle.
Ceramics are extremely resistant to high temperatures and chemicals. Ceramics can
typically withstand more brutal environments than metals or polymers. Ceramics are usually
not good conductors of electricity or heat.
Polymers: Polymers are mostly soft and not as strong as metals or ceramics. Polymers can
be extremely flexible. Low density and viscous behavior under elevated temperatures are
typical polymer traits. Polymers can be insulative to electricity.

What are metals made of, what are ceramics made of, what are polymers made of?
Or in other words, what is the basic microstructure of metals, what is the basic
microstructure of ceramics, what is the basic microstructure of polymers?

Metals: A metal is most likely a pure metallic element, (like iron), or an alloy, which is a
combination of two or more metallic elements, (like copper-nickel), the atoms of a metal,
similar to the atoms of a ceramic or polymer, are held together by electrical forces. The
electrical bonding in metals is termed metallic bonding. The simplest explanation for these
types of bonding forces would be positively charged ion cores of the element, (nucleus's of
the atoms and all electrons not in the valence level), held together by a surrounding "sea" of
electrons, (valence electrons from the atoms). With the electrons in the "sea" moving about,
not bound to any particular atom. This is what gives metals their properties such
malleability and high conductivity. Metal manufacturing processes usually begin in
a casting foundry.

Figure 1


Ceramics: Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements. The
atomic bonds are usually ionic, where one atom, (non-metal), holds the electrons from
another, (metal). The non-metal is then negatively charged and the metal positively charged.
The opposite charge causes them to bond together electrically. Sometimes the forces are
partially covalent. Covalent bonding means the electrons are shared by both atoms, in this
case electrical forces between the two atoms still result from the difference in charge,
holding them together. To simplify think of a building framework structure. This is what
gives ceramics their properties such as strength and low flexibility.

Figure 2


Polymers: Polymers are often composed of organic compounds and consist of long hydro-
carbon chains. Chains of carbon, hydrogen and often other elements or compounds
covalently bonded together.

Figure 3


In figure 3, (a) represents a simple hydrocarbon chain, each group of hydrogen and carbon
is called a mer, there are 13 mers shown in the diagram, the dotted lines indicate that the
pattern is continuing indefinitely. Polymers chains often contain thousands upon thousands
of mers each. The [R] in (b) indicates a variable element or group of elements that could
occupy a certain position in the chain. The [X] in (c) also represents another variable
element or group that could occupy another position, this one being at the end or beginning
of a polymer chain. The chains themselves bond to each other through secondary bonding
forces. To simplify polymer structure, think of a bowl of spaghetti.

Figure 4

This is a polymer with a random or amorphous microstructure.
Figure 5

This is a polymer with a very high degree of order or a crystalline microstructure.
When heat is applied, the weaker secondary bonds, (between the strands), begin to break
and the chains start to slide easier over one another. However, the stronger covalent bonds,
(the strands themselves), stay intact until a much higher temperature. This is what causes
polymers to become increasingly viscous as temperature goes up.



Manufacturing Processes

This is a summary of the basic and most commonly used manufacturing processes in
industry today. Any of these processes can be employed to produce a manufactured part.
Also, remember when deciding how to produce manufactured items, a part may require a
combination of these processes to facilitate its completion. For example, a cast part may
require some machining before it becomes the final product. Or, a part may be produced
through a powder metallurgy process, then undergo some kind of metal forming operation.
The following describes the methods and techniques involved in each of these
manufacturing processes. Always keep in mind how material properties relate to
manufacturing process. Most manufacturing processes described below are for metals.
Manufacturing processes for polymers and ceramics will be discussed separately, each
given its respective section. These processes are often similar in nature to those for metals,
(ie. polymers are essentially both cast and formed in different techniques), however they are
different enough to be classified independently.

Casting: Metal casting is definitely one of the oldest manufacturing processes. Castings
have been found dating back 6000 years. Fundamentally, casting involves filling a mold
with molten material. This material, upon solidification, takes the shape of the mold. There
are two basic types of metal casting processes, expendable mold and permanent mold.
Castings can be made into the same shape as the final product, being the only process
required. Or sometimes, casting is the first manufacturing process in the production of a
multi-process manufactured part. Metal casting can be used to make parts with complicated
geometry, both internal and external. With casting, intricate parts can be made in a single
piece. Metal casting can produce very small parts like jewelry, or enormous parts weighing
several hundred tons, like components for very large machinery. Although careful influence
of casting parameters and technique can help control material properties; a general
disadvantage to metal casting is that the final product tends to contain more flaws and has a
lower strength and ductility compared to that of other manufacturing processes, such as
metal forming.




Forming: The category of manufacturing by metal forming includes a large group of
processes that use force to induce a shape change in a metal, by mechanical working and
plastic deformation. The most desirable quality of a manufacturing material as a candidate
for a metal forming process is high ductility and malleability and a lower yield strength of
the material. When working with metals, an increase in temperature will result in a higher
ductility and a lower yield strength. In manufacturing industry, metals are often formed at
elevated temperatures. In addition to shape change, the metal forming process will usually
change the mechanical properties of the part's material. Metal forming can close up
vacancies within the metal, break up and distribute impurities and establish new, stronger
grain boundaries. For these reasons, the metal forming process is known to produce parts
with superior mechanical properties. With relation to temperature there are 3 types of
forming. Cold working, (room temperature), warm working and hot working. Also, with
relation to the surface area-to-volume of a material there are 2 main categories, bulk
deformation and sheet forming.




Powder Processing: Powder processing is a manufacturing technique that produces
parts from the powder of certain materials. The powders are pressed into the desired shape,
(called pressing), and heated sufficiently to cause the particles to bond together into a solid
component, (called sintering). Powder processing is common for metal materials, however
ceramics may also be subject to powder processing techniques. There are many advantages
to powder processing. With powder processing you can obtain consistent dimensional
control of the product, keeping relatively tight tolerances, (+/- .005"). It also can produce
parts with good surface finish. Parts can therefore be made into their final shape, requiring
no further manufacturing processes. With powder processing there is very little waste of
material. Since powder processing can be automated, it minimizes the need for labor,
requiring small amounts of skilled labor. Metals that are difficult to work with other
processes can be shaped easily, (ie. tungsten). Also, certain alloy combinations and cermets
that can not be formed any other way, can be produced with this technique. Lastly, parts can
be produced with a controlled level of porosity, due to the nature of the process. Powder
processes also have a number of disadvantages. The first is high cost. Powders are
expensive compared to solid material, they are also difficult to store. Sintering furnaces and
special presses are more complicated to construct than conventional machinery. Tooling is
also very expensive. Since powders do not easily flow laterally in a die when pressed, there
are geometric limitations to the parts that can be manufactured. Powder parts may have
inferior mechanical properties, (unless they undergo a forging process). Finally, variations
in material density throughout the part may be a problem, especially with more intricate
geometries. Powder processing manufacturing is ideal for producing large quantities of
moderately complex, small to medium size parts that do not require strong mechanical
properties in the part's material. This is not true of some alternative powder processes, such
as hot isostatic pressing, that can manufacture parts with superior mechanical properties. A
process such as hot isostatic pressing, however, would not be efficient in the manufacture of
large quantities of parts.




Machining: In machining, a manufactured part is created to its desired geometric
dimensions by the removal of excess material from a work piece, via a force exerted
through a certain material removal tool. Qualities of a desirable manufacturing material for
this purpose would be:

1) Lower Shear Strength (to make cutting easier)
2) Shock Resistant (to withstand impact loading)
3) Material must not have a tendency to stick to the cutting tool
4) Material removed should separate from the work easily and completely

A material's relative ability to be machined is called machinability. Ceramics have high
shear strengths, making them difficult to cut. Also, they are not shock resistant, which
causes them to fracture from the impact loading between the tool and work piece. Polymers,
although having low yield strengths, melt from the heat generated in the process, causing
them to stick to the tool. In addition, high ductility in polymers can make material removal
difficult and machining is based on material removal. For these reasons, ceramics and
polymers have poor machinability. Machining is generally applicable to metals.
Machinability varies among metals, hardened metals present a particular problem, due to a
very high shear strength. Often, metals are machined as close to their final shape as possible
before being hardened. That way, the hardened material only has to undergo minimal
finishing operations. This type of manufacturing process has many advantages. Machining
can produce extreme dimensional accuracy, often more so than any other process alone,
(tolerances of less than .001"). Also, it can produce sharp corners and flatness on a part that
may not be able to be created through other processes. Machining accuracy allows it to
produce surface finish and smoothness that can not be achieved any other way. By
combining different machining operations, very complex parts can be manufactured. This
type of manufacturing process does have disadvantages. This is a material removal process,
thus wastes material. Although economical if the number of parts to be produced is small;
labor, energy, equipment and scrap cost are relatively high for large runs. Machining is very
applicable for finishing operations on manufactured goods.





Top
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to physical forces. Mechanical properties occur as
a result of the physical properties inherent to each material, and are determined through a series of standardized
mechanical tests.

Strength
Strength has several definitions depending on the material type and application. Before choosing a material based on
its published or measured strength it is important to understand the manner in which strength is defined and how it is
measured. When designing for strength, material class and mode of loading are important considerations.
For metals the most common measure of strength is the yield strength. For most polymers it is more convenient to
measure the failure strength, the stress at the point where the stress strain curve becomes obviously non-linear.
Strength, for ceramics however, is more difficult to define. Failure in ceramics is highly dependent on the mode of
loading. The typical failure strength in compression is fifteen times the failure strength in tension. The more
common reported value is the compressive failure strength.

Elastic limit
The elastic limit is the highest stress at which all deformation strains are fully recoverable. For most materials and
applications this can be considered the practical limit to the maximum stress a component can withstand and still
function as designed. Beyond the elastic limit permanent strains are likely to deform the material to the point where
its function is impaired.

Proportional limit
The proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is linearly proportional to strain. This is the same as the
elastic limit for most materials. Some materials may show a slight deviation from proportionality while still under
recoverable strain. In these cases the proportional limit is preferred as a maximum stress level because deformation
becomes less predictable above it.

Yield Strength
The yield strength is the minimum stress which produces permanent plastic deformation. This is perhaps the most
common material property reported for structural materials because of the ease and relative accuracy of its
measurement. The yield strength is usually defined at a specific amount of plastic strain, or offset, which may vary
by material and or specification. The offset is the amount that the stress-strain curve deviates from the linear elastic
line. The most common offset for structural metals is 0.2%.

Ultimate Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile strength is an engineering value calculated by dividing the maximum load on a material
experienced during a tensile test by the initial cross section of the test sample. When viewed in light of the other
tensile test data the ultimate tensile strength helps to provide a good indication of a material's toughness but is not by
itself a useful design limit. Conversely this can be construed as the minimum stress that is necessary to ensure the
failure of a material.

True Fracture Strength
The true fracture strength is the load at fracture divided by the cross sectional area of the sample. Like the ultimate
tensile strength the true fracture strength can help an engineer to predict the behavior of the material but is not itself
a practical strength limit. Because the tensile test seeks to standardize variables such as specimen geometry, strain
rate and uniformity of stress it can be considered a kind of best case scenario of failure.

Ductility
Ductility is a measure of how much deformation or strain a material can withstand before breaking. The most
common measure of ductility is the percentage of change in length of a tensile sample after breaking. This is
generally reported as % El or percent elongation. The R.A. or reduction of area of the sample also gives some
indication of ductility.

Toughness
Toughness describes a material's resistance to fracture. It is often expressed in terms of the amount of energy a
material can absorb before fracture. Tough materials can absorb a considerable amount of energy before fracture
while brittle materials absorb very little. Neither strong materials such as glass or very ductile materials such as taffy
can absorb large amounts of energy before failure. Toughness is not a single property but rather a combination of
strength and ductility.
The toughness of a material can be related to the total area under its stress-strain curve. A comparison of the relative
magnitudes of the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and percent elongation of different material will give a
good indication of their relative toughness. Materials with high yield strength and high ductility have high
toughness. Integrated stress-strain data is not readily available for most materials so other test methods have been
devised to help quantify toughness. The most common test for toughness is the Charpy impact test.
In crystalline materials the toughness is strongly dependent on crystal structure. Face centered cubic materials are
typically ductile while hexagonal close packed materials tend to be brittle. Body centered cubic materials often
display dramatic variation in the mode of failure with temperature. In many materials the toughness is temperature
dependent. Generally materials are more brittle at lower temperatures and more ductile at higher temperatures. The
temperature at which the transition takes place is known as the DBTT, or ductile to brittle transition temperature.
The DBTT is measured by performing a series of Charpy impact tests at various temperatures to determine the
ranges of brittle and ductile behavior. Use of alloys below their transition temperature is avoided due to the risk of
catastrophic failure.

Fatigue ratio
The dimensionless fatigue ratio f is the ratio of the stress required to cause failure after a specific number of cycles
to the yield stress of a material. Fatigue tests are generally run through 10
7
or 10
8
cycles. A high fatigue ratio
indicates materials which are more susceptible to crack growth during cyclic loading.

Loss coefficient
The loss coefficient is an other important material parameter in cyclic loading. It is the fraction of mechanical
energy lost in a stress strain cycle. The loss coefficient for each material is a function of the frequency of the cycle.
A high loss coefficient can be desirable for damping vibrations while a low loss coefficient transmits energy more
efficiently. The loss coefficient is also an important factor in resisting fatigue failure. If the loss coefficient is too
high, cyclic loading will dissipate energy into the material leading to fatigue failure.
Job shop
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In the United Kingdom, "job shop" can also be a colloquialism for a Job Centre.
Job shops are typically small manufacturing systems that handle job production, that is,
custom/bespoke or semi-custom/bespoke manufacturing processes such as small to medium-size
customer orders or batch jobs. Job shops typically move on to different jobs (possibly with different
customers) when each job is completed. In job shops machines are aggregated in shops by the
nature of skills and technological processes involved, each shop therefore may contain different
machines, which gives this production system processing flexibility, since jobs are not necessarily
constrained to a single machine. In computer science the problem of job shop scheduling is
considered strongly NP-hard.


In a job shop product flow is twisted, also notice that in this drawing each shop contains a single machine.
A typical example would be a machine shop, which may make parts for local industrial machinery,
farm machinery and implements, boats and ships, or even batches of specialized components for
the aircraft industry. Other types of common job shops are grinding, honing, jig-boring, gear
manufacturing, and fabrication shops.
The opposite would be continuous flow manufactures such as textile, steel,food manufacturing and
manual labor.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Advantages
- 2 Disadvantages
- 3 See also
- 4 Further reading
- 5 External links
Advantages[edit]
- High flexibility in product engineering
- High expansion flexibility (machines are easily added or substituted)
- High production volume elasticity (due to small increments to productive capacity)
- Low obsolescence (machines are typically multipurpose)
- High robustness to machine failures
Compare to transfer line
Disadvantages[edit]
- Very hard scheduling due to high product variability and twisted production flow
- Low capacity utilization
Compare to transfer line
See also[edit]
- Job shop scheduling
- Production line
- Transfer line
- Workflow
Further reading[edit]
- A. Portioli, A. Pozzetti, Progettazione dei sistemi produttivi, Hoepli 2003
- N.A. Buzacott, G.E. Shanthikumar, Stochastic models of manufacturing systems, Prentice Hall,
1993
Physical Properties of Material
The Challenger Accident
Challenger, launched at 11:38 am EST
after a freezing Florida night,
exploded 73 seconds after liftoff
due to the failure of an O-ring seal
on the right solid rocket booster
killing 7 passengers.
Redesign of the seal and modification
of the space shuttle took almost 3 years.
The replacement Endeavor resumed
A material undergoes transition under the influence
of temperature and pressure, and these changes are
physical in nature, because their molecules remain
intact. During our school days, we were asked to distinguish physical and chemical
changes. At that stage, we began to think in more details than what our senses have
detected. Having the ability to distinguish physical properties from chemical
properties is indeed a good beginning in the study of materials.
The Challenger disaster is due to a human failure to recognize the limitation of the
property of o-ring material.
Effects of Temperature on
Substances
When temperature rises, a typical substance
changes from solid to liquid and then to vapor, at a
constant pressure. Some substance has several
crystal forms in the solid state. The glassy state is
also considered a solid. Transitions from one solid to
another solid form, from solid to liquid, from liquid
to vapor, from vapor to solid etc. are called phase
transitions.
Phase transitions from solid to liquid, and from liquid
to vapor absorb heat. The temperature of a system
usually does not change as long as two phases are
present. The (phase) transition temperature from solid to liquid is called the melting
point whereas the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals 1 atm
(101.3 kPa) is called the boiling point. Thus, the measured boiling point depends on
the atmosphere pressure. For compounds that decompose at high temperature, boiling
point can be either specified at lower pressure or be replaced by the decomposition
temperature. Thus, conditions as well as the value of boiling point listed in literature
must be taken into account for application considerations. Boiling points of mixtures
change with composition. The boiling points of some common mixtures are listed in
handbooks, and boiling points can be used to assess the composition of a mixture or
the purity of a compound.
However, a glassy material becomes soft in a wide range of temperatures. The
temperature at which the material becomes soft (behave molten like) is called glassy
flight Sept. 29, 1988.
Phase Transition at Constant Pressure
Temperature
Vapor

Boiling point
Heat of vaporization
Liquid

Melting point
Heat of fussion
Solid
temperature, but it may be a range of temperatures. Behavior of a substance as the
temperature changes must be carefully considered in its applications. Behavior of a
mixture as temperature rises is different from its components. There is no theoretical
way to predict the behavior of a mixture from its components, even if its exact
composition is known. Addition of one or more materials usually changes the melting
or glassy temperature of a substance. Thus, we often employ a blend (mixture) of
materials whose behavior is acceptable within the desirable range of temperatures.
Antifreeze for automobile radiator and deicing liquid for airplanes are examples of
this application.
The behavior of mixtures as temperature and pressure change often requires a phase
diagram to represent, and there are several models of two-component systems. A
phase diagram of a many-component system requires a lengthy study.
Combined Effect of Temperature and Pressure on the Behavior of
Material
When the temperature remains constant, the pressure also
affects the behavior of a material. The volume of a gas changes
as the pressure changes even if temperature remains the same.
When temperature is close to the melting point of a substance,
a liquid may solidify or a solid may melt as the pressure
changes. A diagram showing the temperature and pressure
combined effect on a system is called a phase diagram.
One-component phase diagrams for water and carbon dioxide are
given here.
At pressure below 5.1 atm, solid and gas carbon dioxide coexist,
but the vapor pressure depends on the temperature. The variation
of vapor pressure is represented by a line, which separates the Dry ice phase from the
CO
2
Gas phase. The vapor pressure of dry ice at 194.6 K (-78.5C) the pressure is 1
atm, and at 216.7 K (-56.4C) the pressure is 5.11 atm. The line separates the
conditions for the formation of solid and vapor. A similar curve borders between
liquid and gas CO
2
, whereas a line separates dry ice from the liquid phase. At 216.7
K, vapor pressures of solid and liquid CO
2
are the same, 5.11 atm. At, 5.11 atm and
216.7 K, all three phases coexist, and the condition is called the triple point.
Phase rules in soil science
Phase equilibria in one-component systems pdf file
Phase equilibrium: Pure substance Chapter 5 of a book
Phase and phase diagrams
Phase equilibria
Chemical energy Use FIND to search for "tin disease" after
Thermal expansion coefficient
A substance expands on heating. For a rod, the
lengthening of a unit length per degree Kelvin is the
linear thermal expansion coefficient. This factor affects
the substance performance in machines or structural
assemblies. Thermal expansion causes tight fitted parts
to break and moving part to jam, in any machine. The
problem is serious if different material is used. When a
large body of glass is subject to local heating or cooling,
it breaks up due to expansion or shrinkage. Thermal
expansion also causes distortion, and some
thermometers are made of two strips of different
metals. Thermal properties must be considered in any
engineering constructions such as railroad, bridges,
pipelines, and buildings, especially in areas where temperatures go to extreme
values.
Heat and Electric Conductance
Linear thermal expansion
coefficient per K at room
temperature of some substances
Aluminum 24
Copper 17
Diamond 1
Glass 11
Pyrex glass 3
Rubber, hard 80
Electric resistance of some
elements
Metal
Resistance
/ohm m
Al 2.4x10
-8

Au 2.05x10
-8

W 5.65x10
-6

Ge 0.46
Transmissions of energy and electric charge across a
body of material give rise to heat and electric
conductance respectively. The rate of flow across a
unit-area section when the temperature or electric
potential difference applied to the wire of unit length
is called the thermal or electric conductance coefficient. Metals are usually good
conductors of both, and their conductance coefficients are high. Insulation material
for heat and electricity should have low conductance, whearas metals have high
conductance.
The reciprocal of electric conductance is called electric resistance; thus, the higher the
conductance, the lower the resistance. Electric resistance for some familiar materials
are given in the table here. Note the large range of 10
15
among these substances.
Aluminium and copper are very good conductors, and their resistances are very low,
in the order of 10
-8
, almost 100 times smaller than that of tungsten, W. Germanium,
Ge, and silicon, Si, are typical semiconductors, whereas sulfur and phosphorous
are insulation material.
Magnetic Properties
A magnetic field strength is measured in Tesla (T) and gauss (G, 1 T = 10,000 G). The
Earth magnetic field is 0.5 G. When a material is placed into a magnetic field H, a
magnetic field of different intensity B is produced inside the material. The ratio B/H
is called the magnetic susceptibility. The higher the magnetic susceptibility, the
easier the material is magnetized. Most substances are diamagnetic. The magnetic
fields (B) within the bodies of these substances when they are placed in a magnetic
field (H) are less than that of an empty space (vacuum).; thus their magnetic
susceptibilities (B/H ratio) are less than 1. When a body of paramagnetic substance is
placed in a magnetic field, the intensity of the field within the body is slightly larger
than that of the applied field. The magnetic susceptibilities of paramagnetic
substances are slightly greater than 1.
Iron, cobalt and nickel are some ferromagnetic substances, there are some other
alloys and oxides that behave this way. They possess a spontaneous magnetic
moment. A magnetic field is present in these materials even in the absence of an
external magnetic field. However, ferromagnetism is temperature dependent, and
above the so called Curie temperatures of the substances, magnetism vanishes. The
Si 0.03
S (yellow) 2x10
15

P (white) 109 Note the range of 10
15

Curie temperature or Curie point of a substance is unique. The Curie points for Fe,
Co, and Ni are 1043, 1400, and 630 K respectively.
Ferromagnetism are due to the presence of magnetic domains in the substance, and
when these domains line up parallel to each other, they give a net magnetic field. If
the domains line up antiparallel to each other at the Curie point, the substance is said
to be antiferromagnetic. The magnetic susceptibility reaches a maximum at Curie
temperature for antferromagnetic material. For example, FeO, MnO, CoO, NiO, FeF
2
,
FeCl
2
, a-Mn, Cr
2
O
3
etc. are some of the antiferromagnetic substances.
Ferromagnetic substances play important roles in recording tapes and disks for audio,
video, and computer signals. Furthermore, ferromagnetic materials are used in
permanent magnets, which are used in motors, antenna, and speakers. Recent
development in strong magnets enables communication equipment and computers to
be miniaturized.
Density
The mass per unit volume (cm
3
= mL, m
3
etc.) of is called density, an intensive
property. Often, specific gravity is given. Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a
substance compared to that of water. As a ratio, it has no units. Since density of
water is 1.00 g/mL, specific gravity is the density in g/mL. Other units to use are kg/L
or 10
3
kg m
-3
. Specific gravity for a few common substances are given here: Au, 19.3;
mercury, 13.6; alcohol, 0.7893; benzene, 0.8786. Do you know which element has
the highest density?
Dielectric Constant
The dielectric constant e of a medium is its ability to reduce the force F of attraction
of charged (q
1
and q
2
) particles separated at distance r, compared to vacuum. It is
usually defined by the equation, F = q
1
q
2
/ (e r). A substance with large dielectric
constant placed between two plates to which an electric voltage has been applied
will result in a weak electric field within it. Water, due to its polar nature, has a
rather large dielectric constant, 80.4. At the atomic scale, water molecules weaken
the attraction between Na+ and Cl- ions, resulting in dissolving it. Dielectric
constants for some familiar substances are: H
2
O, 80.4; methanol, 33.6; benzene, 2.3;
H
2
at 20 K, 1.23.
Heat capacity
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 K is the
heat capacity. If the substance has a unit mass, the amount is referred to as specific
heat capacity, or specific heat. For example, it takes 1 cal (4.184 J) to raise the
temperature of 1 g water by 1 K. Thus, the specific heat for water is 1 cal g
-1
K
-1
(75 J
mol
-1
K
-1
). Specific heat of water is large compared to most other substances, for
example: Cu, 24.4 J mol
-1
K
-1
. This large heat capacity of water affect the weather,
making temperatures in areas close to large bodies of water more steadier than large
dry land.
Refractive Index
The ratio of light speed in vacuum to its speed in the medium
is refractive index. Light travel slower in any medium than in
vacuum. Thus, refractive index is always greater than unity
(1), and light beam usually bents when entering from air to
another medium. This value depends on the wavelength of
the light used, and the property is important for material used
in optics instrument such as eye glasses. The higher the
refractive index, the thinner the glasses to achieve the same
power. The difference in refractive indexes between two
liquid gives rise to the visible boundary between layers.
Difference in refractive indexes of lights of different
wavelengths can be separated using a prism. Refractive indexes for some familiar
substances are given in a box. It should also be kept in mind that index of refraction
changes with dissolved substance and concentration.
Solubility
The amount of substance dissolved in 100 mL of solvent is called solubility. However,
units for solubility might be specified in some other fashion. Solubility depends on
temperature, and the variation can be used to separate components in a solid
mixture. Sodium acetate trihydrate, CH
3
COONa
-
3H
2
O, when heated will melt in the
sense that it dissolves in its water of crystallization. This liquid remains liquid till
about -15 C (258 K), and when crystallization does take place after triggered by cold
hand, heat is released providing a source of heat. This property provides a winter
hand warmer pack for skiers or winter travelers.
Washing and cleaning also involve solubility, and the formulation of an effective
cleaning agent requires the knowledge of many substances. Substances can be
Refractive index of
some common substances
water 1.3
benzene 1.5011
ethanol 1.359
quartz 1.5*
NaCl solid 1.5
*wavelength dependent
classified according to polarity. Water, ammonia (NH
3
), and methanol (CH
3
OH) are
polar, because their molecules have negative and positive sites, whereas methane
(CH
4
), gasoline, and motor oil are non-polar. Regarding solubility, a rule of thumb
readslike dissolves like, which means that polar solvents dissolve polar substances and
non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar substances. An organic compound with a polar
group attached to non-polar chain will bring water molecules to a non-polar surface,
and hence it can be used as a detergent or wetting agent. This rule of thumb has
potential for both domestic and industrial applications.
Optical activity
The ability of certain substances to rotate the plane of polarized light as it passes
through a crystal, liquid, or solution is generally referred to as the optical activity.
Substances possessing this activity usually lack a center of symmetry (see crystal
symmetry), and they have two isomers as mirror images of each other. The two
isomers, called dextrorotatory (d, right hand) or laevorotory (l, left hand) isomers,
rotate the polarized light in opposite directions. Thus, equi-molar or racemic mixture
of the two appears optically inactive. For example, sugar, tartaric acid, and
aminoacids are optically active compounds.
Viscosity and Surface Tension
Viscosity and surface tension are properties of liquid state. The former is a measure
of its resistance to flow. Molasses, glycerin, oil, softened glass have high viscosity,
and water, gasoline, ethanol have low viscosity. The SI units for viscosity is N.s /m2,
but the unit poise (P, a cgs unit) have been used for a long time, and is more
common, and 1 P = 0.1 Ns m
-2
. Viscosity usually decreases with increase in
temperature, and softened glass has a viscosity more than 1014 Ns m
-2
.
Surface tension results from intermolecular attraction, the higher of which, the higher
surface tension. Energy required to stretch the surface by some defined unit is
called surface tension, and whose unit is N.m/m
2
(= N/m). Like viscosity, surface
tension decrease with increase temperature. Surface tension causes the dew and
raindrops to be round, and the idea to manufacture perfect spheres in zero gravity
zone is making use of surface tension. Soap reduces surface tension of water and
soapy water forms bubbles when air is blown into it.
Activities:
Ask the class to give examples of physical properties.
Describe an application of a material based on any one of the physical properties.
Point out two physical properties that has not been mentioned here.
What substance has the highest dielectric constant?
What is a beam of polarized light?
Give a sketch of the molecular structure of an aminoacid.
Learning guide
- Describe phase transitions
- Describe the phase diagram of water or carbon dioxide.
- What is dielectric constant? What is the dielectric constant for water and
methanol? Why do ionic substances such as NaCl and CaCO
3
have higher
solubility in water than in methanol?
cchieh@uwaterloo.ca
List of materials properties
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A materials property is an intensive, often quantitative, property of a solid or quasi-solid. Quantitative
properties may be used as a metric by which the benefits of one material versus another can be
assessed, thereby aiding in materials selection.
A property may be a constant or may be a function of one or more independent variables, such as
temperature. Materials properties often vary to some degree according to the direction in the
material in which they are measured, a condition referred to as anisotropy. Materials properties that
relate two different physical phenomena often behave linearly (or approximately so) in a
given operating range, and may then be modeled as a constant for that range. This linearization can
significantly simplify the differential constitutive equations that the property describes.
Some materials properties are used in relevant equations to predict the attributes of a system a
priori. For example, if a material of a known specific heat gains or loses a known amount of heat, the
temperature change of that material can be determined. Materials properties are most reliably
measured by standardized test methods. Many such test methods have been documented by their
respective user communities and published through ASTM International.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Acoustical properties
- 2 Atomic properties
- 3 Chemical properties
- 4 Electrical properties
- 5 Environmental properties
- 6 Magnetic properties
- 7 Manufacturing properties
- 8 Mechanical properties
- 9 Optical properties
- 10 Radiological properties
- 11 Thermal properties
- 12 See also
Acoustical properties[edit]
- Acoustical absorption
- Speed of sound
Atomic properties[edit]
- Atomic mass
- Atomic number - applies to pure elements only
- Atomic weight - applies to individual isotopes or specific mixtures of isotopes of a given element.
Chemical properties[edit]
Main article: Chemical property
- Corrosion resistance
- Hygroscopy
- pH
- Reactivity
- Specific internal surface area
- Surface energy
- Surface tension
Electrical properties[edit]
- Dielectric constant
- Dielectric strength
- Electrical conductivity
- Permeability
- Permittivity
- Piezoelectric constants
- Seebeck coefficient
Environmental properties[edit]
- Embodied energy
- Embodied water
Magnetic properties[edit]
- Curie Point
- Diamagnetism
- Hysteresis
- Permeability
Manufacturing properties[edit]
- Castability
- Extruding temperature and pressure
- Hardness
- Machinability rating
- Machining speeds and feeds
Mechanical properties[edit]
- Compressive strength : stress a material can withstand before compressive failure (MPa)
- Ductility : Ability of a material to deform under tensile load (% elongation)
- Fatigue limit : Maximum stress a material can withstand under repeated loading (MPa)
- Flexural modulus
- Flexural strength
- Fracture toughness : Energy absorbed by unit area before the fracture of material (J/m^2)
- Hardness : Ability to withstand surface indentation (e.g. Brinell hardness number)
- Plasticity (physics) : Ability of a material to undergo irreversible deformations (-)
- Poisson's ratio : Ratio of lateral strain to axial strain (no units)
- Resilience : Ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically (MPa)
- Shear modulus : Ratio of shear stress to shear strain (MPa)
- Shear strain :in the angle between two perpendicular lines in a plane
- Shear strength : Maximum shear stress a material can withstand
- Specific modulus : Modulus per unit volume (MPa/ m^3)
- Specific strength : Strength per unit density (Nm/kg)
- Specific weight : Weight per unit volume (N/m^3)
- Tensile strength : Maximum tensile stress a material can withstand before failure (MPa)
- Yield strength : The stress at which a material starts to yield (MPa)
- Young's modulus : Ratio of linear stress to linear strain (MPa)
- Coefficient of friction (also depends on surface finish)
- Coefficient of restitution
- Roughness
- strength
Optical properties[edit]
- Absorptivity
- Color
- Luminosity
- Photosensitivity
- Reflectivity
- Refractive index
- Scattering
- Transmittance
Radiological properties[edit]
- Neutron cross-section
- Specific activity
Thermal properties[edit]
- Autoignition temperature
- Binary phase diagram
- Boiling point
- Coefficient of thermal expansion
- Critical temperature
- Curie point
- Emissivity
- Eutectic point
- Flammability
- Flash point
- Glass transition temperature
- Heat of fusion
- Heat of vaporization
- Inversion temperature
- Melting point
- Phase diagram
- Pyrophoricity
- Solidus
- Specific heat
- Thermal conductivity
- Thermal diffusivity
- Thermal expansion
- Seebeck coefficient
- Triple point
- Vapor pressure
- Vicat softening point
Physical property
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the legal concept, see Tangible property.

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (April 2013)
A physical property is any property that is measurable whose value describes a state of a physical
system. The changes in the physical properties of a system can be used to describe its
transformations or evolutions between its momentary states. Physical properties are often referred to
as observables. They are not modal properties.
Physical properties are often characterized as intensive and extensive properties. An intensive
property does not depend on the size or extent of the system, nor on the amount of matter in the
object, while an extensive property shows an additive relationship. These classifications are in
general only valid in cases when smaller subdivisions of the sample do not interact in some physical
or chemical process when combined.
Properties may also be classified with respect to the directionality of their nature. For
example, isotropic properties do not change with the direction of observation,
and anisotropic properties do have spatial variance.
It may be difficult to determine whether a given property is a material property or not. Color, for
example, can be seen and measured; however, what one perceives as color is really an
interpretation of the reflective properties of a surface and the light used to illuminate it. In this sense,
many ostensibly physical properties are called supervenient. A supervenient property is one which is
actual, but is secondary to some underlying reality. This is similar to the way in which objects are
supervenient on atomic structure. A cup might have the physical properties of mass, shape, color,
temperature, etc., but these properties are supervenient on the underlying atomic structure, which
may in turn be supervenient on an underlying quantum structure.
Physical properties are contrasted with chemical properties which determine the way a material
behaves in a chemical reaction.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 List of properties
- 2 See also
- 3 Bibliography
- 4 External links
List of properties[edit]
The physical properties of an object that are traditionally defined by classical mechanics are often
called mechanical properties. The physical properties of an object may include, but are not limited to:
- absorption (physical)
- Absorption (electromagnetic)
- albedo
- angular momentum
- area
- brittleness
- boiling point
- capacitance
- color
- concentration
- density
- dielectric
- electric charge
- electrical conductivity
- electrical impedance
- electric field
- electric potential
- emission
- flow rate
- fluidity
- frequency
- hardness
- inductance
- Intrinsic impedance
- location
- luminance
- Luminescence
- luster
- malleability
- magnetic field
- magnetic flux
- mass
- melting point
- moment
- momentum
- opacity
- radiance
- solubility
- specific heat
- resistivity
- reflectivity
- refractive index
- spin
- strength
- stiffness
- temperature
- tension
- thermal conductivity
- ductility
- distribution
- efficacy
- elasticity
- intensity
- irradiance
- length
- permeability
- permittivity
- plasticity
- pressure
- velocity
- viscosity
- volume
- wave impedance
See also
Chemical property
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (December 2009)
A chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during a chemical
reaction; that is, any quality that can be established only by changing a substance's chemical
identity.
[1]
Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching
the substance; the substance's internal structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be
investigated. However a catalytic property would also be a chemical property.
Chemical properties can be contrasted with physical properties, which can be discerned without
changing the substance's structure. However, for many properties within the scope of physical
chemistry, and other disciplines at the boundary between chemistry and physics, the distinction may
be a matter of researcher'sperspective. Material properties, both physical and chemical, can be
viewed as supervenient; i.e., secondary to the underlying reality. Several layers of
superveniency
[clarification needed]
are possible.
Chemical properties can be used for building chemical classifications. They can also be useful to
identify an unknown substance or to separate or purify it from other substances. Materials
science will normally consider the chemical properties of a substance to guide its applications.
Examples of chemical properties[edit]
- Heat of combustion
- Enthalpy of formation
- Toxicity
- Chemical stability in a given environment
- Flammability (The ability to burn)
- Preferred oxidation state(s)
- Coordination number
- Half life
- gas
Ingot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Aluminium ingot after ejection from mold
An ingot is a material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing.
[1]
Non-
metallic and semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots,
particularly when cast by mold based methods.
[2]

Contents
[hide]
- 1 Uses
- 2 Types
o 2.1 Single crystal
o 2.2 Copper alloys
- 3 Manufacture
- 4 Historical ingots
- 5 Cultural references
- 6 See also
- 7 Notes
- 8 References
Uses[edit]
Ingots require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting or milling to produce
a useful final product. Additionally ingots (of less common materials) can be used as currency, or as
a currency reserve as with gold bars.
Types[edit]
Metal, either pure or alloy, heated past its melting point and cast into a bar or block using a mold chill
method. Polycrystalline and single crystal ingots are made from semiconductor materials by pulling
from a molten melt. Uses include the formation of photovoltaic cells from silicon ingots by cutting the
ingot into flats, known as wafers.
Single crystal[edit]
See also: Boule (crystal)
Single crystal ingots (called boules) of materials are grown (crystal growth) using methods such as
the Czochralski process or Bridgeman technique.
The boules may be either semiconductorsfor the electronic industry, or non-conducting inorganic
compounds for industrial and jewelry use, e.g., synthetic ruby, sapphire etc.
Single crystal ingots of metal are produced in similar fashion to that used to produce high purity
semiconductor ingots,
[3]
i.e. by vacuum induction refining. Single crystal ingots of engineering metals
are of interest due to their very high strength due to lack of grain boundaries. The method of
production is via single crystaldendrite and not via simple casting. Possible uses include turbine
blades.
Copper alloys[edit]
In the United States, the brass and bronze ingot making industry started in the early 19th century.
The US brass industry grew to be the number one producer by the 1850s.
[4]
During colonial times
the brass and bronze industries were almost non-existent because the British demanded all copper
ore be sent to Britain for processing.
[5]
Copper based alloy ingots weighed approximately 20 pounds
(9.1 kg).
[6][7]

Manufacture[edit]


Crystalline structure of mold cast ingot
See also: Deoxidized steel
Ingots are manufactured by the freezing of a molten liquid (known as the melt) in a mold. The
manufacture of ingots has several aims. Firstly, the mold is designed to completely solidify and form
an appropriate grain structure required for later processing, as the structure formed by the freezing
melt controls the physical properties of the material. Secondly, the shape and size of the mold is
designed to allow for ease of ingot handling and downstream processing. Finally the mold is
designed to minimize melt wastage and aid ejection of the ingot, as losing either melt or ingot
increases manufacturing costs of finished products.
A variety of designs exist for the mold, which may be selected to suit the physical properties of the
liquid melt and the solidification process. Molds may exist in top, horizontal or bottom-up pouring and
may be fluted or flat walled. The fluted design increases heat transfer owing to a larger contact area.
Molds may be either solid "massive" design, sand cast (e.g. for pig iron) or water-cooled shells,
depending upon heat transfer requirements. Ingot molds are tapered to prevent the formation of
cracks due to uneven cooling. Crack or void formation occurs as the liquid to solid transition has an
associated volume change for a constant mass of material. Formation of these ingot defects may
render the cast ingot useless, and may need to be re-melted, recycled or discarded.


Teeming ingots at a steel mill
The physical structure of a crystalline material is largely determined by the method of cooling and
precipitation of the molten metal. During the pouring process, metal in contact with the ingot walls
rapidly cools and forms either a columnar structure, or possibly a "chill zone" of equiaxed dendrites,
depending upon the liquid being cooled and the cooling rate of the mold.
[8]

For a top-poured ingot, as the liquid cools within the mold, differential volume effects cause the top
of the liquid to recede leaving a curved surface at the mold top which may eventually be required to
be machined from the ingot. The mold cooling effect creates an advancing solidification front, which
has several associated zones, closer to the wall there is a solid zone which draws heat from the
solidifying melt, for alloys there may exist a "mushy" zone, which is the result of solid-liquid
equilibrium regions in the alloy's phase diagram, and a liquid region. The rate of front advancement
controls the time that dendrites or nuclei have to form in the solidification region. The width of the
mushy zone in an alloy may be controlled by tuning the heat transfer properties of the mold, or
adjusting the liquid melt alloy compositions.
Continuous casting methods for ingot processing also exist, whereby a stationary front of
solidification is formed by the continual take-off of cooled solid material, and the addition of molten
liquid to the casting process.
[9]

Approximately 70 percent of aluminium ingots in the U.S. are cast using the direct chill
casting process, which reduces cracking. A total of 5 percent of ingots must be scrapped because
of stress induced cracks and butt deformation.
[10]

Historical ingots[edit]
-

Ancient copper ingot from Zakros, Crete. The ingot is shaped in the form of an animal skin, a typical
shape of copper ingots from these times.

-

The mold of the Ancient Chinese gold and silversycee, measured in tael. One of the Chinese names is
.

-

Lead ingots from Roman Britain on display at theWells and Mendip Museum.

-

Pig iron ingot from Norrhyttan, Dalarna,Sweden.
Plano-convex ingots are widely distributed archaeological artifacts which are studied to provide
information on the history of metallurgy.
Cultural references[edit]
- The Chinese New Year food Jiaozi was made to symbolize the ingot.
- The eighth letter in the Ogham alphabet is Tinne meaning "ingot".
See also[edit]
- Billet (manufacturing)typically refers to a large ingot of less precious metal both are forms
of bar stock
- Gold bar
- Oxhide ingot
- Tin ingot
- Wafer etching
Notes
Slag
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Slag (disambiguation).


A path through a slag heap inClarkdale, Arizona, showing the striations from the rusting corrugated sheets retaining
it.


The Manufacture of Iron -- Carting Away the Scori (slag), an 1873 wood engraving


Slag run-off from one of the open hearth furnaces of a steel mill,Republic Steel, Youngstown, Ohio, November 1941.
Slag is drawn off the furnace just before the molten steel is poured into ladles for ingotting.
Slag is the glass-like by-product left over after a desired metal has been separated (i.e., smelted)
from its raw ore. Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can
contain metal sulfides and elemental metals. While slags are generally used to remove waste in
metal smelting, they can also serve other purposes, such as assisting in thetemperature control of
the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the molten
metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Ore smelting
- 2 Ancient uses
- 3 Modern uses
- 4 Basic slag
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
Ore smelting[edit]
In nature, the ores of metals such as iron, copper, lead, nickel and other metals are found in impure
states, often oxidizedand mixed in with silicates of other metals. During smelting, when the ore is
exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are separated from the molten metal and can be
removed. Slag is the collection of compounds that are removed. In many smelting processes, oxides
are introduced to control the slag chemistry, assisting in the removal of impurities and protecting the
furnace refractory lining from excessive wear. In this case, the slag is termed synthetic. A good
example is steelmaking slag:quicklime and magnesite are introduced for refractory protection,
neutralising the alumina and silica separated from the metal, and assist in the removal of sulfur and
phosphorus from the steel.
Ferrous and non-ferrous smelting processes produce different slags. The smelting of copper and
lead in non-ferrous smelting, for instance, is designed to remove the iron and silica that often occurs
with those ores, and separates them as iron-silicate-based slags. Slag from steel mills in ferrous
smelting, on the other hand, is designed to minimize iron loss and so mainly contains oxides
of calcium, silicon, magnesium, and aluminium. Any sandy component or quartz component of the
original ore automatically carries through the smelting process as silicon dioxide.
As the slag is channeled out of the furnace, water is poured over it. This rapid cooling, often from a
temperature of around 2,600 F (1,430 C), is the start of the granulating process. This process
causes several chemical reactions to take place within the material, and gives the slag its
cementitious properties.
The water carries the slag in its slurry format to a large agitation tank, from where it is pumped along
a piping system into a number of gravel based filter beds. The filter beds then retain the slag
granules, while the water filters away and is returned to the system.
When the filtering process is complete, the remaining slag granules, which now give the appearance
of coarse beach sand, can be scooped out of the filter bed and transferred to the grinding facility
where they are ground into particles that are finer than Portland cement.
Ancient uses[edit]


Early slag from Denmark, ca. 200-500 AD
During the Bronze Age of the Mediterranean there were a vast number of differential metallurgical
processes in use. A slag by-product of such workings was a colorful, glassy, vitreous material found
on the surfaces of slag from ancient copper foundries. It was primarily blue or green and was
formerly chipped away and melted down to make glassware products and jewelry. It was also
ground into powder to add to glazes for use in ceramics. Some of the earliest such uses for the by-
products of slag have been found in ancient Egypt.
[1]

Historically, the re-smelting of iron ore slag was common practice, as improved smelting techniques
permitted greater iron yields--in some case exceeding that which was originally achieved. During the
early 20th century, iron ore slag was also ground to a powder and used to make 'Agate Glass', also
known as 'Slag Glass'.
[2]

Modern uses[edit]
Ground granulated slag is often used in concrete in combination with Portland cement as part of a
blended cement. Ground granulated slag reacts with water to produce cementitious properties.
Concrete containing ground granulated slag develops strength over a longer period, leading to
reduced permeability and better durability. Since the unit volume of Portland cement is reduced, this
concrete is less vulnerable to alkali-silica and sulfate attack.
[citation needed]

This previously unwanted recycled product is used in the manufacture of high performance
concretes, especially those used in the construction of bridges and coastal features, where its low
permeability and greater resistance to chlorides and sulfates can help to reduce corrosive action and
deterioration of the structure.
[3]
The slag can also be used to create fibers used as an insulation
material named slag wool.
Basic slag[edit]
Basic slag is a byproduct of steelmaking using the basic version of the Bessemer process or
the Linz-Donawitz process. It is largely limestone or dolomite which has absorbed phosphate from
the iron ore being smelted. Because of the slowly released phosphate content, and because of
its liming effect, it is valued as fertilizer in gardens and farms in steelmaking areas. However, the
most important application is construction.
[4]

See also[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Slag.
- Dross
- Fly ash
- Ground granulated blast furnace slag
- Pozzolan
- Spoil heap
- Tailings
- Slag (welding)
Brazing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the metal-joining process. For the cooking technique, see braising.


Brazing practice

This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its
contents.Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all
important aspects of the article. (August 2010)
Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby a filler metal is heated above melting point and
distributed between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is brought
slightly above its melting (liquidus) temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually
a flux. It then flows over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the workpieces
together.
[1]
It is similar to soldering, except the temperatures used to melt the filler metal are higher
for brazing.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Fundamentals
o 1.1 Flux
o 1.2 Filler materials
o 1.3 Atmosphere
- 2 Common techniques
o 2.1 Torch brazing
o 2.2 Furnace brazing
o 2.3 Silver brazing
o 2.4 Braze welding
o 2.5 Cast iron "welding"
o 2.6 Vacuum brazing
o 2.7 Dip brazing
- 3 Heating methods
- 4 Advantages and disadvantages
- 5 Filler metals
o 5.1 Braze families
o 5.2 Role of elements
o 5.3 Melting behavior
o 5.4 Interaction with base metals
o 5.5 Preform
- 6 See also
- 7 References
o 7.1 Bibliography
- 8 Further reading
- 9 External links
Fundamentals[edit]
In order to obtain high-quality brazed joints, parts must be closely fitted, and the base metals must
be exceptionally clean and free of oxides. In most cases, joint clearances of 0.03 to 0.08 mm
(0.0012 to 0.0031 in) are recommended for the best capillary action and joint strength.
[2]
However, in
some brazing operations it is not uncommon to have joint clearances around 0.6 mm (0.024 in).
Cleanliness of the brazing surfaces is also important, as any contamination can cause poor wetting
(flow). The two main methods for cleaning parts, prior to brazing, are chemical cleaning and abrasive
or mechanical cleaning. In the case of mechanical cleaning, it is important to maintain the proper
surface roughness as wetting on a rough surface occurs much more readily than on a smooth
surface of the same geometry.
[2]

Another consideration that cannot be overlooked is the effect of temperature and time on the quality
of brazed joints. As the temperature of the braze alloy is increased, the alloying and wetting action of
the filler metal increases as well. In general, the brazing temperature selected must be above the
melting point of the filler metal. However, there are several factors that influence the joint designer's
temperature selection. The best temperature is usually selected so as to: (1) be the lowest possible
braze temperature, (2) minimize any heat effects on the assembly, (3) keep filler metal/base metal
interactions to a minimum, and (4) maximize the life of any fixtures or jigs used.
[2]
In some cases, a
higher temperature may be selected to allow for other factors in the design (e.g. to allow use of a
different filler metal, or to control metallurgical effects, or to sufficiently remove surface
contamination). The effect of time on the brazed joint primarily affects the extent to which the
aforementioned effects are present; however, in general most production processes are selected to
minimize brazing time and the associated costs. This is not always the case, however, since in some
non-production settings, time and cost are secondary to other joint attributes (e.g. strength,
appearance).
Flux[edit]
In the case of brazing operations not contained within an inert or reducing atmosphere environment
(i.e. a furnace), flux is required to prevent oxides from forming while the metal is heated. The flux
also serves the purpose of cleaning any contamination left on the brazing surfaces. Flux can be
applied in any number of forms including flux paste, liquid, powder or pre-made brazing pastes that
combine flux with filler metal powder. Flux can also be applied using brazing rods with a coating of
flux, or a flux core. In either case, the flux flows into the joint when applied to the heated joint and is
displaced by the molten filler metal entering the joint. Excess flux should be removed when the cycle
is completed because flux left in the joint can lead to corrosion, impede joint inspection, and prevent
further surface finishing operations. Phosphorus-containing brazing alloys can be self-fluxing when
joining copper to copper.
[3]
Fluxes are generally selected based on their performance on particular
base metals. To be effective, the flux must be chemically compatible with both the base metal and
the filler metal being used. Self-fluxing phosphorus filler alloys produce brittle phosphides if used on
iron or nickel.
[3]
As a general rule, longer brazing cycles should use less active fluxes than short
brazing operations.
[4]

Filler materials[edit]
A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing depending on the intended use or application
method. In general, braze alloys are made up of 3 or more metals to form an alloy with the desired
properties. The filler metal for a particular application is chosen based on its ability to: wet the base
metals, withstand the service conditions required, and melt at a lower temperature than the base
metals or at a very specific temperature.
Braze alloy is generally available as rod, ribbon, powder, paste, cream, wire and preforms (such as
stamped washers).
[5]
Depending on the application, the filler material can be pre-placed at the
desired location or applied during the heating cycle. For manual brazing, wire and rod forms are
generally used as they are the easiest to apply while heating. In the case of furnace brazing, alloy is
usually placed beforehand since the process is usually highly automated.
[5]
Some of the more
common types of filler metals used are
- Aluminum-silicon
- Copper
- Copper-silver
- Copper-zinc (brass)
- Gold-silver
- Nickel alloy
- Silver
[1][6]

- Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon, boron, phosphorus, etc.
Atmosphere[edit]
As brazing work requires high temperatures, oxidation of the metal surface occurs in an oxygen-
containing atmosphere. This may necessitate the use of an atmospheric environment other than air.
The commonly used atmospheres are
[7][8]

- Air: Simple and economical. Many materials susceptible to oxidation and buildup of scale. Acid
cleaning bath or mechanical cleaning can be used to remove the oxidation after work. Flux tends
to be employed to counteract the oxidation, but it may weaken the joint.
- Combusted fuel gas (low hydrogen, AWS type 1, "exothermic generated atmospheres"): 87%
N
2
, 1112% CO
2
, 5-1% CO, 5-1% H
2
. For silver, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler
metals. For brazing copper and brass.
- Combusted fuel gas (decarburizing, AWS type 2, "endothermic generated atmospheres"): 70
71% N
2
, 56% CO
2
, 910% CO, 1415% H
2
. For copper, silver, copper-phosphorus and
copper-zinc filler metals. For brazing copper, brass, nickel alloys, Monel, medium carbon steels.
- Combusted fuel gas (dried, AWS type 3, "endothermic generated atmospheres"): 7375% N
2
,
1011% CO, 1516% H
2
. For copper, silver, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals.
For brazing copper, brass, low-nickel alloys, Monel, medium and high carbon steels.
- Combusted fuel gas (dried, decarburizing, AWS type 4): 4145% N
2
, 1719% CO, 3840% H
2
.
For copper, silver, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals. For brazing copper, brass,
low-nickel alloys, medium and high carbon steels.
- Ammonia (AWS type 5, also called forming gas): Dissociated ammonia (75% hydrogen, 25%
nitrogen) can be used for many types of brazing and annealing. Inexpensive. For copper, silver,
nickel, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals. For brazing copper, brass, nickel alloys,
Monel, medium and high carbon steels and chromium alloys.
- Nitrogen+hydrogen, cryogenic or purified (AWS type 6A): 7099% N
2
, 130% H
2
. For copper,
silver, nickel, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals.
- Nitrogen+hydrogen+carbon monoxide, cryogenic or purified (AWS type 6B): 7099% N
2
, 2
20% H
2
, 110% CO. For copper, silver, nickel, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals.
For brazing copper, brass, low-nickel alloys, medium and high carbon steels.
- Nitrogen, cryogenic or purified (AWS type 6C): Non-oxidizing, economical. At high temperatures
can react with some metals, e.g. certain steels, forming nitrides. For copper, silver, nickel,
copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals. For brazing copper, brass, low-nickel alloys,
Monel, medium and high carbon steels.
- Hydrogen (AWS type 7): Strong deoxidizer, highly thermally conductive. Can be used for
copper brazing and annealing steel. May cause hydrogen embrittlement to some alloys. For
copper, silver, nickel, copper-phosphorus and copper-zinc filler metals. For brazing copper,
brass, nickel alloys, Monel, medium and high carbon steels and chromium alloys, cobalt alloys,
tungsten alloys, and carbides.
- Inorganic vapors (various volatile fluorides, AWS type 8): Special purpose. Can be mixed with
atmospheres AWS 15 to replace flux. Used for silver-brazing of brasses.
- Noble gas (usually argon, AWS type 9): Non-oxidizing, more expensive than nitrogen. Inert.
Parts must be very clean, gas must be pure. For copper, silver, nickel, copper-phosphorus and
copper-zinc filler metals. For brazing copper, brass, nickel alloys, Monel, medium and
high carbon steels chromium alloys, titanium, zirconium, hafnium.
- Noble gas+hydrogen (AWS type 9A)
- Vacuum: Requires evacuating the work chamber. Expensive. Unsuitable (or requires special
care) for metals with high vapor pressure, e.g. silver, zinc, phosphorus, cadmium, and
manganese. Used for highest-quality joints, for e.g. aerospace applications.
Common techniques[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (August 2010)


Brazing and soldering processes classification chart
[9]

Torch brazing[edit]
Torch brazing is by far the most common method of mechanized brazing in use. It is best used in
small production volumes or in specialized operations, and in some countries, it accounts for a
majority of the brazing taking place. There are three main categories of torch brazing in
use:
[10]
manual, machine, and automatic torch brazing.
Manual torch brazing is a procedure where the heat is applied using a gas flame placed on or near
the joint being brazed. The torch can either be hand held or held in a fixed position depending on
whether the operation is completely manual or has some level of automation. Manual brazing is
most commonly used on small production volumes or in applications where the part size or
configuration makes other brazing methods impossible.
[10]
The main drawback is the high labor cost
associated with the method as well as the operator skill required to obtain quality brazed joints. The
use of flux or self-fluxing material is required to prevent oxidation. Torch brazing of copper can be
done without the use of flux if it is brazed with a torch using oxygen and hydrogen gas, rather than
oxygen and other flammable gases.
Machine torch brazing is commonly used where a repetitive braze operation is being carried out.
This method is a mix of both automated and manual operations with an operator often placing
brazes material, flux and jigging parts while the machine mechanism carries out the actual
braze.
[10]
The advantage of this method is that it reduces the high labor and skill requirement of
manual brazing. The use of flux is also required for this method as there is no protective
atmosphere, and it is best suited to small to medium production volumes.
Automatic torch brazing is a method that almost eliminates the need for manual labor in the brazing
operation, except for loading and unloading of the machine. The main advantages of this method
are: a high production rate, uniform braze quality, and reduced operating cost. The equipment used
is essentially the same as that used for Machine torch brazing, with the main difference being that
the machinery replaces the operator in the part preparation.
[10]

Furnace brazing[edit]


Furnace brazing schematic
Furnace brazing is a semi-automatic process used widely in industrial brazing operations due to its
adaptability to mass production and use of unskilled labor. There are many advantages of furnace
brazing over other heating methods that make it ideal for mass production. One main advantage is
the ease with which it can produce large numbers of small parts that are easily jigged or self-
locating.
[11]
The process also offers the benefits of a controlled heat cycle (allowing use of parts that
might distort under localized heating) and no need for post braze cleaning. Common atmospheres
used include: inert, reducing or vacuum atmospheres all of which protect the part from oxidation.
Some other advantages include: low unit cost when used in mass production, close temperature
control, and the ability to braze multiple joints at once. Furnaces are typically heated using either
electric, gas or oil depending on the type of furnace and application. However, some of the
disadvantages of this method include: high capital equipment cost, more difficult design
considerations and high power consumption.
[11]

There are four main types of furnaces used in brazing operations: batch type; continuous; retort with
controlled atmosphere; and vacuum.
Batch type furnaces have relatively low initial equipment costs and heat each part load separately. It
is capable of being turned on and off at will which reduces operating expenses when not in use.
These furnaces are well suited to medium to large volume production and offer a large degree of
flexibility in type of parts that can be brazed.
[11]
Either controlled atmospheres or flux can be used to
control oxidation and cleanliness of parts.
Continuous type furnaces are best suited to a steady flow of similar-sized parts through the
furnace.
[11]
These furnaces are often conveyor fed, allowing parts to be moved through the hot zone
at a controlled speed. It is common to use either controlled atmosphere or pre-applied flux in
continuous furnaces. In particular, these furnaces offer the benefit of very low manual labor
requirements and so are best suited to large scale production operations.
Retort-type furnaces differ from other batch-type furnaces in that they make use of a sealed lining
called a "retort". The retort is generally sealed with either a gasket or is welded shut and filled
completely with the desired atmosphere and then heated externally by conventional heating
elements.
[11]
Due to the high temperatures involved, the retort is usually made of heat resistant
alloys that resist oxidation. Retort furnaces are often either used in a batch or semi-continuous
versions.
Vacuum furnaces is a relatively economical method of oxide prevention and is most often used to
braze materials with very stable oxides (aluminum, titanium andzirconium) that cannot be brazed in
atmosphere furnaces. Vacuum brazing is also used heavily with refractory materials and other exotic
alloy combinations unsuited to atmosphere furnaces. Due to the absence of flux or a reducing
atmosphere, the part cleanliness is critical when brazing in a vacuum. The three main types of
vacuum furnace are: single-wall hot retort, double-walled hot retort, and cold-wall retort. Typical
vacuum levels for brazing range from pressures of 1.3 to 0.13pascals (10
2
to 10
3
Torr) to 0.00013
Pa (10
6
Torr) or lower.
[11]
Vacuum furnaces are most commonly batch-type, and they are suited to
medium and high production volumes.
Silver brazing[edit]
Silver brazing, sometimes known as a silver soldering or hard soldering, is brazing using a silver
alloy based filler. These silver alloys consist of many different percentages of silver and other
metals, such as copper, zinc and cadmium.
Brazing is widely used in the tool industry to fasten 'hard metal' (carbide, ceramics, cermet, and
similar) tips to tools such as saw blades. "Pretinning" is often done: the braze alloy is melted onto the
hard metal tip, which is placed next to the steel and remelted. Pretinning gets around the problem
that hard metals are hard to wet.
Brazed hard metal joints are typically two to seven mils thick. The braze alloy joins the materials and
compensates for the difference in their expansion rates. In addition it provides a cushion between
the hard carbide tip and the hard steel which softens impact and prevents tip loss and damage,
much as the suspension on a vehicle helps prevent damage to both the tires and the vehicle. Finally
the braze alloy joins the other two materials to create a composite structure, much as layers of wood
and glue create plywood.
The standard for braze joint strength in many industries is a joint that is stronger than either base
material, so that when under stress, one or other of the base materials fails before the joint.
One special silver brazing method is called pinbrazing or pin brazing. It has been developed
especially for connecting cables to railway track or for cathodic protection installations. The method
uses a silver- and flux-containing brazing pin which is melted down in the eye of a cable lug. The
equipment is normally powered from batteries.
Braze welding[edit]
Braze welding is the use of a bronze or brass filler rod coated with flux to join steel workpieces. The
equipment needed for braze welding is basically identical to the equipment used in brazing. Since
braze welding usually requires more heat than brazing, acetylene or methylacetylene-propadiene
(MAP) gas fuel is commonly used. The name comes from the fact that no capillary action is used.
Braze welding has many advantages over fusion welding. It allows the joining of dissimilar metals,
minimization of heat distortion, and can reduce the need for extensive pre-heating. Additionally,
since the metals joined are not melted in the process, the components retain their original shape;
edges and contours are not eroded or changed by the formation of a fillet. Another effect of braze
welding is the elimination of stored-up stresses that are often present in fusion welding. This is
extremely important in the repair of large castings. The disadvantages are the loss of strength when
subjected to high temperatures and the inability to withstand high stresses.
Carbide, cermet and ceramic tips are plated and then joined to steel to make tipped band saws. The
plating acts as a braze alloy.
Cast iron "welding"[edit]
The "welding" of cast iron is usually a brazing operation, with a filler rod made chiefly of nickel being
used although true welding with cast iron rods is also available. Ductile cast iron pipe may be also
"cadwelded," a process which connects joints by means of a small copper wire fused into the iron
when previously ground down to the bare metal, parallel to the iron joints being formed as per hub
pipe with neoprene gasket seals. The purpose behind this operation is to use electricity along the
copper for keeping underground pipes warm in cold climates.
Vacuum brazing[edit]
Vacuum brazing is a material joining technique that offers significant advantages: extremely clean,
superior, flux-free braze joints of high integrity and strength. The process can be expensive because
it must be performed inside a vacuum chamber vessel. Temperature uniformity is maintained on the
work piece when heating in a vacuum, greatly reducing residual stresses due to slow heating and
cooling cycles. This, in turn, can significantly improve the thermal and mechanical properties of the
material, thus providing unique heat treatment capabilities. One such capability is heat-treating or
age-hardening the workpiece while performing a metal-joining process, all in a single furnace
thermal cycle.
Vacuum brazing is often conducted in a furnace; this means that several joints can be made at once
because the whole workpiece reaches the brazing temperature. The heat is transferred using
radiation, as many other methods cannot be used in a vacuum.
Dip brazing[edit]
Dip brazing is especially suited for brazing aluminum because air is excluded, thus preventing the
formation of oxides. The parts to be joined are fixtured and the brazing compound applied to the
mating surfaces, typically in slurry form. Then the assemblies are dipped into a bath of molten salt
(typically NaCl, KCl and other compounds) which functions both as heat transfer medium and flux.
Heating methods[edit]

This section
requires expansion.(September 2009)
There are many heating methods available to accomplish brazing operations. The most important
factor in choosing a heating method is achieving efficient transfer of heat throughout the joint and
doing so within the heat capacity of the individual base metals used. The geometry of the braze joint
is also a crucial factor to consider, as is the rate and volume of production required. The easiest way
to categorize brazing methods is to group them by heating method. Here are some of the most
common:
[1][12]

- Torch brazing
- Furnace brazing
- Induction brazing
- Dip brazing
- Resistance brazing
- Infrared brazing
- Blanket brazing
- Electron beam and laser brazing
- Braze welding
Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

This article contains a pro and con list, which is sometimes inappropriate. Please
help improve it by integrating both sides into a more neutral presentation, or
remove this template if you feel that such a list is appropriate for this
article. (November 2012)
Brazing has many advantages over other metal-joining techniques, such as welding. Since brazing
does not melt the base metal of the joint, it allows much tighter control over tolerances and produces
a clean joint without the need for secondary finishing. Additionally, dissimilar metals and non-metals
(i.e. metalized ceramics) can be brazed.
[13]
In general, brazing also produces less thermal distortion
than welding due to the uniform heating of a brazed piece. Complex and multi-part assemblies can
be brazed cost-effectively. Welded joints must sometimes be ground flush, a costly secondary
operation that brazing does not require because it produces a clean joint. Another advantage is that
the brazing can be coated or clad for protective purposes. Finally, brazing is easily adapted to mass
production and it is easy to automate because the individual process parameters are less sensitive
to variation.
[14][15]

One of the main disadvantages is: the lack of joint strength as compared to a welded joint due to the
softer filler metals used.
[1][dubious discuss]
The strength of the brazed joint is likely to be less than that of
the base metal(s) but greater than the filler metal.
[citation needed][16]
Another disadvantage is that brazed
joints can be damaged under high service temperatures.
[1]
Brazed joints require a high degree of
base-metal cleanliness when done in an industrial setting. Some brazing applications require the use
of adequate fluxing agents to control cleanliness. The joint color is often different from that of the
base metal, creating an aesthetic disadvantage.
Filler metals[edit]
See also: List of brazing alloys
Some brazes come in the form of trifoils, laminated foils of a carrier metal clad with a layer of braze
at each side. The center metal is often copper; its role is to act as a carrier for the alloy, to absorb
mechanical stresses due to e.g. differential thermal expansion of dissimilar materials (e.g. a carbide
tip and a steel holder), and to act as a diffusion barrier (e.g. to stop diffusion of aluminium from
aluminium bronze to steel when brazing these two).
Braze families[edit]
Brazing alloys form several distinct groups; the alloys in the same group have similar properties and
uses.
[17]

- Pure metals
Unalloyed. Often noble metals silver, gold, palladium.
- Ag-Cu
Good melting properties. Silver enhances flow. Eutectic alloy used for furnace brazing.
Copper-rich alloys prone to stress cracking by ammonia.
- Ag-Zn
Similar to Cu-Zn, used in jewelry due to high silver content to be compliant with hallmarking.
Color matches silver. Resistant to ammonia-containing silver-cleaning fluids.
- Cu-Zn (brass)
General purpose, used for joining steel and cast iron. Corrosion resistance usually
inadequate for copper, silicon bronze, copper-nickel, and stainless steel. Reasonably ductile.
High vapor pressure due to volatile zinc, unsuitable for furnace brazing. Copper-rich alloys
prone to stress cracking by ammonia.
- Ag-Cu-Zn
Lower melting point than Ag-Cu for same Ag content. Combines advantages of Ag-Cu and
Cu-Zn. At above 40% Zn the ductility and strength drop, so only lower-zinc alloys of this type
are used. At above 25% zinc less ductile copper-zinc and silver-zinc phases appear. Copper
content above 60% yields reduced strength and liquidus above 900 C. Silver content above
85% yields reduced strength, high liquidus and high cost. Copper-rich alloys prone to stress
cracking by ammonia. Silver-rich brazes (above 67.5% Ag) are hallmarkable and used in
jewellery; alloys with lower silver content are used for engineering purposes. Alloys with
copper-zinc ratio of about 60:40 contain the same phases as brass and match its color; they
are used for joining brass. Small amount of nickel improves strength and corrosion
resistance and promotes wetting of carbides. Addition of manganese together with nickel
increases fracture toughness. Addition of cadmium yields Ag-Cu-Zn-Cd alloys with improved
fluidity and wetting and lower melting point; however cadmium is toxic. Addition of tin can
play mostly the same role.
- Cu-P
Widely used for copper and copper alloys. Does not require flux for copper. Can be also
used with silver, tungsten, and molybdenum. Copper-rich alloys prone to stress cracking by
ammonia.
- Ag-Cu-P
Like Cu-P, with improved flow. Better for larger gaps. More ductile, better electrical
conductivity. Copper-rich alloys prone to stress cracking by ammonia.
- Au-Ag
Noble metals. Used in jewelry.
- Au-Cu
Continuous series of solid solutions. Readily wet many metals, including refractory ones.
Narrow melting ranges, good fluidity.
[18]
Frequently used in jewellery. Alloys with 4090% of
gold harden on cooling but stay ductile. Nickel improves ductility. Silver lowers melting point
but worsens corrosion resistance; to maintain corrosion resistance gold has to be kept above
60%. High-temperature strength and corrosion resistance can be improved by further
alloying, e.g. with chromium, palladium, manganese and molybdenum. Addition of vanadium
allows wetting ceramics. Low vapor pressure.
- Au-Ni
Continuous series of solid solutions. Wider melting range than Au-Cu alloys but better
corrosion resistance and improved wetting. Frequently alloyed with other metals to reduce
proportion of gold while maintaining properties. Copper may be added to lower gold
proportion, chromium to compensate for loss of corrosion resistance, and boron for
improving wetting impaired by the chromium. Generally no more than 35% Ni is used, as
higher Ni/Au ratios have too wide melting range. Low vapor pressure.
- Au-Pd
Improved corrosion resistance over Au-Cu and Au-Ni alloys. Used for joining superalloys and
refractory metals for high-temperature applications, e.g. jet engines. Expensive. May be
substituted for by cobalt-based brazes. Low vapor pressure.
- Pd
Good high-temperature performance, high corrosion resistance (less than gold), high
strength (more than gold). usually alloyed with nickel, copper, or silver. Forms solid solutions
with most metals, does not form brittle intermetallics. Low vapor pressure.
- Ni
Nickel alloys, even more numerous than silver alloys. High strength. Lower cost than silver
alloys. Good high-temperature performance, good corrosion resistance in moderately
aggressive environments. Often used for stainless steels and heat-resistant alloys.
Embrittled with sulfur and some lower-melting point metals, e.g. zinc. Boron, phosphorus,
silicon and carbon lower melting point and rapidly diffuse to base metals; this allows diffusion
brazing and allows the joint to be used above the brazing temperature. Borides and
phosphides form brittle phases; amorphous preforms can be made by rapid solidification.
- Co
Cobalt alloys. Good high-temperature corrosion resistance, possible alternative to Au-Pd
brazes. Low workability at low temperatures, preforms prepared by rapid solidification.
- Al-Si
for brazing aluminium.
- Active alloys
Containing active metals, e.g. titanium or vanadium. Used for brazing non-metallic materials,
e.g. graphite or ceramics.
Role of elements[edit]
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Silv
er
stru
ctur
al,
wet
ting
vola
tile

exp
ensi
ve

Enhan
ces
capilla
ry
flow,
impro
ves
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
less-
noble
alloys,
worse
ns
corros
ion
resist
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ance
of
gold
and
pallad
ium.
Relati
vely
expen
sive.
High
vapor
press
ure,
probl
emati
c in
vacuu
m
brazin
g.
Wets
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
coppe
r.
Does
not
wet
nickel
and
iron.
Reduc
es
meltin
g
point
of
many
alloys,
includ
ing
gold-
coppe
r.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Cop
per
stru
ctur
al

amm
onia
Good
mech
anical
prope
rties.
Often
used
with
silver.
Dissol
ves
and
wets
nickel.
Some
what
dissol
ves
and
wets
iron.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Coppe
r-rich
alloys
sensiti
ve to
stress
cracki
ng in
prese
nce of
ammo
nia.
Zinc
stru
ctur
al,
mel
ting
,
wet
vola
tile
low
che
ap
Ni
Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Often
used
with
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ting coppe
r.
Susce
ptible
to
corros
ion.
Impro
ves
wetti
ng on
ferrou
s
metal
s and
on
nickel
alloys.
Comp
atible
with
alumi
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
nium.
High
vapor
tensio
n,
produ
ces
some
what
toxic
fumes
,
requir
es
ventil
ation;
highly
volatil
e
above
500 C
. At
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
high
temp
eratur
es
may
boil
and
create
voids.
Prone
to sel
ective
leachi
ng in
some
enviro
nmen
ts,
which
may
cause
joint
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
failure
.
Trace
s of
bismu
th and
berylli
um
toget
her
with
tin or
zinc in
alumi
nium-
based
braze
desta
bilize
oxide
film
on
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
alumi
nium,
facilit
ating
its
wetti
ng.
High
affinit
y to
oxyge
n,
prom
otes
wetti
ng of
coppe
r in air
by
reduc
tion
of the
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
cupro
us
oxide
surfac
e film.
Less
such
benefi
t in
furnac
e
brazin
g with
contr
olled
atmos
phere
.
Embri
ttles
nickel.
High
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
levels
of
zinc
may
result
in a
brittle
alloy.
[
19]

Alu
mini
um
stru
ctur
al,
acti
ve

Fe
Usual
base
for
brazin
g
alumi
nium
and
its
alloys.
Embri
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ttles
ferrou
s
alloys.
Gol
d
stru
ctur
al,
wet
ting

exce
llent
ver
y
exp
ensi
ve

Excell
ent
corros
ion
resist
ance.
Very
expen
sive.
Wets
most
metal
s.
Pall stru

exce ver

Excell
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
adiu
m
ctur
al
llent y
exp
ensi
ve
ent
corros
ion
resist
ance,
thoug
h less
than
gold.
Highe
r
mech
anical
streng
th
than
gold.
Good
high-
temp
eratur
e
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
streng
th.
Very
expen
sive,
thoug
h less
than
gold.
Make
s the
joint
less
prone
to fail
due
to
interg
ranula
r
penet
ration
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
when
brazin
g
alloys
of
nickel,
molyb
denu
m, or
tungst
en.
[20]
I
ncrea
ses
high-
temp
eratur
e
streng
th of
gold-
based
alloys.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
[18]
Im
prove
s
high-
temp
eratur
e
streng
th and
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
gold-
coppe
r
alloys.
Forms
solid
soluti
ons
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
with
most
engin
eering
metal
s,
does
not
form
brittle
inter
metall
ics.
High
oxidat
ion
resist
ance
at
high
temp
eratur
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
es,
especi
ally
Pd-Ni
alloys.
Cad
miu
m
stru
ctur
al,
wet
ting
,
mel
ting
vola
tile

toxic
Lower
s
meltin
g
point,
impro
ves
fluidit
y.
Toxic.
Produ
ces
toxic
fumes
,
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
requir
es
ventil
ation.
High
affinit
y to
oxyge
n,
prom
otes
wetti
ng of
coppe
r in air
by
reduc
tion
of the
cupro
us
oxide
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
surfac
e film.
Less
such
benefi
t in
furnac
e
brazin
g with
contr
olled
atmos
phere
.
Allow
s
reduci
ng
silver
conte
nt of
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Ag-
Cu-Zn
alloys.
Repla
ced
by tin
in
more
mode
rn
alloys.
Lea
d
stru
ctur
al,
mel
ting

Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Toxic.
Produ
ces
toxic
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
fumes
,
requir
es
ventil
ation.
Tin
stru
ctur
al,
mel
ting
,
wet
ting

Lower
s
meltin
g
point,
impro
ves
fluidit
y.
Broad
ens
meltin
g
range.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Can
be
used
with
coppe
r,
with
which
it
forms
bronz
e.
Impro
ves
wetti
ng of
many
difficu
lt-to-
wet
metal
s,
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
e.g. st
ainles
s
steels
and tu
ngste
n
carbid
e.
Trace
s of
bismu
th and
berylli
um
toget
her
with
tin or
zinc in
alumi
nium-
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
based
braze
desta
bilize
oxide
film
on
alumi
nium,
facilit
ating
its
wetti
ng.
Low
solubi
lity in
zinc,
which
limits
its
conte
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
nt in
zinc-
bearin
g
alloys.
[19]

Bis
mut
h
trac
e
add
itiv
e

Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
May
disrup
t
surfac
e
oxides
.
Trace
s of
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
bismu
th and
berylli
um
toget
her
with
tin or
zinc in
alumi
nium-
based
braze
desta
bilize
oxide
film
on
alumi
nium,
facilit
ating
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
its
wetti
ng.
[19]

Bery
lliu
m
trac
e
add
itiv
e

Trace
s of
bismu
th and
berylli
um
toget
her
with
tin or
zinc in
alumi
nium-
based
braze
desta
bilize
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
oxide
film
on
alumi
nium,
facilit
ating
its
wetti
ng.
[19]

Nick
el
stru
ctur
al,
wet
ting

high

Zn, S
Stron
g,
corros
ion-
resist
ant.
Imped
es
flow
of the
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
melt.
Additi
on to
gold-
coppe
r
alloys
impro
ves
ductili
ty and
resist
ance
to
creep
at
high
temp
eratur
es.
[18]
Additi
on to
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
silver
allows
wetti
ng of
silver-
tungst
en
alloys
and
impro
ves
bond
streng
th.
Impro
ves
wetti
ng of
coppe
r-
based
braze
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
s.
Impro
ves
ductili
ty of
gold-
coppe
r
braze
s.
Impro
ves
mech
anical
prope
rties
and
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
silver-
coppe
r-zinc
braze
s.
Nickel
conte
nt
offset
s
brittle
ness
induc
ed by
diffusi
on of
alumi
nium
when
brazin
g
alumi
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
nium-
contai
ning
alloys,
e.g.
alumi
nium
bronz
es. In
some
alloys
increa
ses
mech
anical
prope
rties
and
corros
ion
resist
ance,
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
by a
combi
nation
of
solid
soluti
on
streng
theni
ng,
grain
refine
ment,
and
segre
gation
on
fillet
surfac
e and
in
grain
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
boun
daries
,
where
it
forms
a
corros
ion-
resist
ant
layer.
Exten
sive
inters
olubili
ty
with
iron,
chrom
ium,
mang
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
anese
, and
other
s; can
sever
ely
erode
such
alloys.
Embri
ttled
by
zinc,
many
other
low
meltin
g
point
metal
s, and
sulfur.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
[19]

Chr
omi
um
stru
ctur
al

high

Corro
sion-
resist
ant.
Increa
ses
high-
temp
eratur
e
corros
ion
and
streng
th of
gold-
based
alloys.
Adde
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
d to
coppe
r and
nickel
to
increa
se
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
them
and
their
alloys.
[18]
W
ets
oxides
,
carbid
es,
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
and
graphi
te;
frequ
ently
a
major
alloy
comp
onent
for
high-
temp
eratur
e
brazin
g of
such
mater
ials.
Impai
rs
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
wetti
ng by
gold-
nickel
alloys,
which
can
be
comp
ensat
ed for
by
additi
on of
boron
.
[19]

Man
gan
ese
stru
ctur
al
vola
tile
goo
d
che
ap

High
vapor
press
ure,
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
unsuit
able
for
vacuu
m
brazin
g. In
gold-
based
alloys
increa
ses
ductili
ty.
Increa
ses
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
coppe
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
r and
nickel
alloys.
[18]
Im
prove
s
high-
temp
eratur
e
streng
th and
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
gold-
coppe
r
alloys.
Highe
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
r
mang
anese
conte
nt
may
aggra
vate
tende
ncy to
liquati
on.
Mang
anese
in
some
alloys
may
tend
to
cause
porosi
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ty in
fillets.
Tends
to
react
with
graphi
te
molds
and
jigs.
Oxidiz
es
easily,
requir
es
flux.
Lower
s
meltin
g
point
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
of
high-
coppe
r
braze
s.
Impro
ves
mech
anical
prope
rties
and
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
silver-
coppe
r-zinc
braze
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
s.
Cheap
, even
less
expen
sive
than
zinc.
Part
of the
Cu-
Zn-
Mn
syste
m is
brittle
,
some
ratios
can
not
be
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
used.
[
19]
In
some
alloys
increa
ses
mech
anical
prope
rties
and
corros
ion
resist
ance,
by a
combi
nation
of
solid
soluti
on
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
streng
theni
ng,
grain
refine
ment,
and
segre
gation
on
fillet
surfac
e and
in
grain
boun
daries
,
where
it
forms
a
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
corros
ion-
resist
ant
layer.
Facilit
ates
wetti
ng of
cast
iron
due
to its
ability
to
dissol
ve
carbo
n.
Mol stru

goo

Increa
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ybd
enu
m
ctur
al
d ses
high-
temp
eratur
e
corros
ion
and
streng
th of
gold-
based
alloys.
[18]
Inc
reases
ductili
ty of
gold-
based
alloys,
prom
otes
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
their
wetti
ng of
refrac
tory
mater
ials,
namel
y
carbid
es
and
graphi
te.
When
prese
nt in
alloys
being
joined
, may
desta
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
bilize
the
surfac
e
oxide
layer
(by
oxidizi
ng
and
then
volatil
izing)
and
facilit
ate
wetti
ng.
Cob
stru
ctur

goo

Good
high-
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
alt al d temp
eratur
e
prope
rties
and
corros
ion
resist
ance.
In
nucle
ar
applic
ations
can
absor
b
neutr
ons
and
build
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
up co
balt-
60, a
poten
t gam
ma
radiat
ion e
mitter
.
Mag
nesi
um
vola
tile
O
2
g
ette
r
vola
tile

Additi
on to
alumi
nium
makes
the
alloy
suitab
le for
vacuu
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
m
brazin
g.
Volatil
e,
thoug
h less
than
zinc.
Vapor
izatio
n
prom
otes
wetti
ng by
remo
ving
oxides
from
the
surfac
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
e,
vapor
s act
as get
ter for
oxyge
n in
the
furnac
e
atmos
phere
.
Indi
um
mel
ting
,
wet
ting

exp
ensi
ve

Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Impro
ves
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
wetti
ng of
ferrou
s
alloys
by
coppe
r-
silver
alloys.
Car
bon
mel
ting

Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Can
form
carbid
es.
Can
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
diffus
e to
the
base
metal,
resulti
ng in
higher
remel
t
temp
eratur
e,
poten
tially
allowi
ng
step-
brazin
g with
the
same
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
alloy.
At
above
0.1%
worse
ns
corros
ion
resist
ance
of
nickel
alloys.
Trace
amou
nts
prese
nt in
stainl
ess
steel
may
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
facilit
ate
reduc
tion
of
surfac
e
chrom
ium(III
)
oxide
in
vacuu
m and
allow
fluxles
s
brazin
g.
Diffusi
on
away
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
from
the
braze
increa
ses its
remel
t
temp
eratur
e;
exploi
ted in
diffusi
on
brazin
g.
[19]

Silic
on
mel
ting
,
wet

Ni
Lower
s
meltin
g
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ting point.
Can
form s
ilicide
s.
Impro
ves
wetti
ng of
coppe
r-
based
braze
s.
Prom
otes
flow.
Cause
s
interg
ranula
r
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
embri
ttlem
ent of
nickel
alloys.
Rapidl
y
diffus
es
into
the
base
metal
s.
Diffusi
on
away
from
the
braze
increa
ses its
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
remel
t
temp
eratur
e;
exploi
ted in
diffusi
on
brazin
g.
Ger
man
ium
stru
ctur
al,
mel
ting

exp
ensi
ve

Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Expen
sive.
For
specia
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
l
applic
ations
. May
create
brittle
phase
s.
Bor
on
mel
ting
,
wet
ting

Ni
Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Can
form
hard
and
brittle
borid
es.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Unsui
table
for
nucle
ar
reacto
rs.
Fast
diffusi
on to
the
base
metal
s. Can
diffus
e to
the
base
metal,
resulti
ng in
higher
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
remel
t
temp
eratur
e,
poten
tially
allowi
ng
step-
brazin
g with
the
same
alloy.
Can
erode
some
base
mater
ials or
penet
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
rate
betwe
en
grain
boun
daries
of
many
heat-
resist
ant
struct
ural
alloys,
degra
ding
their
mech
anical
prope
rties.
Has to
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
be
avoid
ed in
nucle
ar
applic
ations
due
to its
intera
ction
with n
eutro
ns.
Cause
s
interg
ranula
r
embri
ttlem
ent of
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
nickel
alloys.
Impro
ves
wetti
ng
of/by
some
alloys,
can
be
added
to Au-
Ni-Cr
alloy
to
comp
ensat
e for
wetti
ng
loss
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
by
chrom
ium
additi
on. In
low
conce
ntrati
ons
impro
ves
wetti
ng
and
lower
s
meltin
g
point
of
nickel
braze
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
s.
Rapidl
y
diffus
es to
base
mater
ials,
may
lower
their
meltin
g
point;
especi
ally a
conce
rn
when
brazin
g thin
mater
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ials.
Diffusi
on
away
from
the
braze
increa
ses its
remel
t
temp
eratur
e;
exploi
ted in
diffusi
on
brazin
g.
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Mis
chm
etal
trac
e
add
itiv
e

in
amou
nt of
about
0.08%
, can
be
used
to
substi
tute
boron
where
boron
would
have
detri
ment
al
effect
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
s.
[19]

Ceri
um
trac
e
add
itiv
e

in
trace
quanti
ties,
impro
ves
fluidit
y of
braze
s.
Partic
ularly
useful
for
alloys
of
four
or
more
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
comp
onent
s,
where
the
other
additi
ves
compr
omise
flow
and
sprea
ding.
Stro
ntiu
m
trac
e
add
itiv
e

in
trace
quanti
ties,
refine
s the
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
grain
struct
ure of
alumi
nium-
based
alloys.
Pho
sph
orus
deo
xidi
zer

H
2
S,
SO
2
,
Ni,
Fe,
Co
Lower
s
meltin
g
point.
Deoxi
dizer,
deco
mpos
es
coppe
r
oxide;
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
phosp
horus
-
bearin
g
alloys
can
be
used
on
coppe
r
witho
ut
flux.
Does
not
deco
mpos
e zinc
oxide,
so
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
flux is
neede
d for
brass.
Forms
brittle
phos
phide
s with
some
metal
s, e.g.
nickel
(Ni
3
P)
and
iron,
phosp
horus
alloys
unsuit
able
for
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
brazin
g
alloys
bearin
g iron,
nickel
or
cobalt
in
amou
nt
above
3%.
The
phosp
hides
segre
gate
at
grain
boun
daries
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
and
cause
interg
ranula
r
embri
ttlem
ent.
(Some
times
the
brittle
joint
is
actual
ly
desire
d,
thoug
h. Fra
gmen
tation
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
grena
des ca
n be
braze
d with
phosp
horus
bearin
g alloy
to
produ
ce
joints
that
shatte
r
easily
at
deton
ation.
)
Avoid
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
in
enviro
nmen
ts
with
prese
nce of
sulfur
dioxid
e (e.g.
paper
mills)
and
hydro
gen
sulfid
e (e.g.
sewer
s, or
close
to
volca
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
noes);
the
phosp
horus
-rich
phase
rapidl
y
corro
des in
prese
nce of
sulfur
and
the
joint
fails.
Phosp
horus
can
be
also
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
prese
nt as
an
impur
ity
introd
uced
from
e.g.
electr
oplati
ng
baths.
[20]
In
low
conce
ntrati
ons
impro
ves
wetti
ng
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
and
lower
s
meltin
g
point
of
nickel
braze
s.
Diffusi
on
away
from
the
braze
increa
ses its
remel
t
temp
eratur
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
e;
exploi
ted in
diffusi
on
brazin
g.
Lithi
um
deo
xidi
zer

Deoxi
dizer.
Elimin
ates
the
need
for
flux
with
some
mater
ials.
Lithiu
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
m
oxide
forme
d by
reacti
on
with
the
surfac
e
oxides
is
easily
displa
ced
by
molte
n
braze
alloy.
[
19]

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Tita
niu
m
stru
ctur
al,
acti
ve

Most
comm
only
used
active
metal.
Few
perce
nts
added
to Ag-
Cu
alloys
facilit
ate
wetti
ng of
ceram
ics,
e.g. sil
icon
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
nitrid
e.
[21]

Most
metal
s,
excep
t few
(name
ly
silver,
coppe
r and
gold),
form
brittle
phase
s with
titani
um.
When
brazin
g
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ceram
ics,
like
other
active
metal
s,
titani
um
reacts
with
them
and
forms
a
compl
ex
layer
on
their
surfac
e,
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
which
in
turn is
wetta
ble by
the
silver-
coppe
r
braze.
Wets
oxides
,
carbid
es,
and
graphi
te;
frequ
ently
a
major
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
alloy
comp
onent
for
high-
temp
eratur
e
brazin
g of
such
mater
ials.
[19
]

Zirc
oniu
m
stru
ctur
al,
acti
ve

Wets
oxides
,
carbid
es,
and
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
graphi
te;
frequ
ently
a
major
alloy
comp
onent
for
high-
temp
eratur
e
brazin
g of
such
mater
ials.
[19
]

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
Haf
niu
m
acti
ve

Van
adiu
m
stru
ctur
al,
acti
ve

Prom
otes
wetti
ng of
alumi
na
ceram
ics by
gold-
based
alloys.
[18]

Sulf
imp
urit

Comp
romis
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
ur y es
integr
ity of
nickel
alloys.
Can
enter
the
joints
from
residu
es of
lubric
ants,
greas
e or
paint.
Forms
brittle
nickel
sulfid
e
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
r
o
l
e
v
o
l
a
t
il
i
t
y
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
c
o
s
t
in
c
o
m
p
at
ib
ili
ty
de
scr
ipt
ion
(Ni
3
S
2
)
that
segre
gates
at
grain
boun
daries
and
cause
interg
ranula
r
failure
.
Some additives and impurities act
at very low levels. Both positive
and negative effects can be
observed. Strontium at levels of
0.01% refines grain structure of
aluminium. Beryllium and bismuth
at similar levels help disrupt the
passivation layer of aluminium
oxide and promote wetting.
Carbon at 0.1% impairs corrosion
resistance of nickel alloys.
Aluminium can embrittle mild steel
at 0.001%, phosphorus at
0.01%.
[19]

In some cases, especially for
vacuum brazing, high-purity
metals and alloys are used.
99.99% and 99.999% purity levels
are available commercially.
Care has to be taken to not
introduce deletrious impurities
from joint contaminations or by
dissolution of the base metals
during brazing.
Melting behavior[edit]
Alloys with larger span of
solidus/liquidus temperatures tend
to melt through a "mushy" state,
where the alloy is a mixture of
solid and liquid material. Some
alloys show tendency
to liquation, separation of the
liquid from the solid portion; for
these the heating through the
melting range has to be
sufficiently fast to avoid this effect.
Some alloys show extended
plastic range, when only a small
portion of the alloy is liquid and
most of the material melts at the
upper temperature range; these
are suitable for bridging large
gaps and for forming fillets. Highly
fluid alloys are suitable for
penetrating deep into narrow gaps
and for brazing tight joints with
narrow tolerances but are not
suitable for filling larger gaps.
Alloys with wider melting range
are less sensitive to non-uniform
clearances.
When the brazing temperature is
suitably high, brazing and heat
treatment can be done in a single
operation simultaneously.
Eutectic alloys melt at single
temperature, without mushy
region. Eutectic alloys have
superior spreading; non-eutectics
in the mushy region have high
viscosity and at the same time
attack the base metal, with
correspondingly lower spreading
force. Fine grain size gives
eutectics both increased strength
and increased ductility. Highly
accurate melting temperature
allows joining process to be
performed only slightly above the
alloy's melting point. On
solidifying, there is no mushy state
where the alloy appears solid but
is not yet; the chance of disturbing
the joint by manipulation in such
state is reduced (assuming the
alloy did not significantly change
its properties by dissolving the
base metal). Eutectic behavior is
especially beneficial for solders.
[19]

Metals with fine grain structure
before melting provide superior
wetting to metals with large
grains. Alloying additives (e.g.
strontium to aluminium) can be
added to refine grain structure,
and the preforms or foils can be
prepared by rapid quenching.
Very rapid quenching may provide
amorphous metal structure, which
possess further advantages.
[19]

Interaction with base
metals[edit]


Brazing at the Gary Tubular Steel Plant,
1943
For successful wetting, the base
metal has to be at least partially
soluble in at least one component
of the brazing alloy. The molten
alloy therefore tends to attack the
base metal and dissolve it, slightly
changing its composition in the
process. The composition change
is reflected in the change of the
alloy's melting point and the
corresponding change of fluidity.
For example, some alloys dissolve
both silver and copper; dissolved
silver lowers their melting point
and increases fluidity, copper has
the opposite effect.
The melting point change can be
exploited. As the remelt
temperature can be increased by
enriching the alloy with dissolved
base metal, step brazing using the
same braze can be possible.
Alloys that do not significantly
attack the base metals are more
suitable for brazing thin sections.
Nonhomogenous microstructure
of the braze may cause non-
uniform melting and localized
erosions of the base metal.
Wetting of base metals can be
improved by adding a suitable
metal to the alloy. Tin facilitates
wetting of iron, nickel, and many
other alloys. Copper wets ferrous
metals that silver does not attack,
copper-silver alloys can therefore
braze steels silver alone won't
wet. Zinc improves wetting of
ferrous metals, indium as well.
Aluminium improves wetting of
aluminium alloys. For wetting of
ceramics, reactive metals capable
of forming chemical compounds
with the ceramic (e.g. titanium,
vanadium, zirconium...) can be
added to the braze.
Dissolution of base metals can
cause detrimental changes in the
brazing alloy. For example,
aluminium dissolved from
aluminium bronzes can embrittle
the braze; addition of nickel to the
braze can offset this.
The effect works both ways; there
can be detrimental interactions
between the braze alloy and the
base metal. Presence of
phosphorus in the braze alloy
leads to formation of
brittle phosphides of iron and
nickel, phosphorus-containing
alloys are therefore unsuitable for
brazing nickel and ferrous alloys.
Boron tends to diffuse into the
base metals, especially along the
grain boundaries, and may form
brittle borides. Carbon can
negatively influence some steels.
Care has to be taken to
avoid galvanic corrosion between
the braze and the base metal, and
especially between dissimilar
base metals being brazed
together.
Formation of brittle intermetallic
compounds on the alloy interface
can cause joint failure. This is
discussed more in-depth
with solders.
The potentially detrimental phases
may be distributed evenly through
the volume of the alloy, or be
concentrated on the braze-base
interface. A thick layer of
interfacial intermetallics is usually
considered detrimental due to its
commonly low fracture toughness
and other sub-par mechanical
properties. In some situations, e.g.
die attaching, it however does not
matter much as silicon chips are
not typically subjected to
mechanical abuse.
[19]

On wetting, brazes may liberate
elements from the base metal. For
example, aluminium-silicon braze
wets silicon nitride, dissociates the
surface so it can react with silicon,
and liberates nitrogen, which may
create voids along the joint
interface and lower its strength.
Titanium-containing nickel-gold
braze wets silicon nitride and
reacts with its surface, forming
titanium nitride and liberating
silicon; silicon then forms brittle
nickel silicides and eutectic gold-
silicon phase; the resulting joint is
weak and melts at much lower
temperature than may be
expected.
[19]

Metals may diffuse from one base
alloy to the other one, causing
embrittlement or corrosion. An
example is diffusion of aluminium
from aluminium bronze to a
ferrous alloy when joining these. A
diffusion barrier, e.g. a copper
layer (e.g. in a trimet strip), can be
used.
A sacrificial layer of a noble metal
can be used on the base metal as
an oxygen barrier, preventing
formation of oxides and facilitating
fluxless brazing. During brazing,
the noble metal layer dissolves in
the filler metal. Copper or nickel
plating of stainless steels
performs the same function.
[19]

In brazing copper, a reducing
atmosphere (or even a reducing
flame) may react with the oxygen
residues in the metal, which are
present as cuprous
oxide inclusions, and
cause hydrogen embrittlement.
The hydrogen present in the flame
or atmosphere at high
temperature reacts with the oxide,
yielding metallic copper and water
vapour, steam. The steam
bubbles exert high pressure in the
metal structure, leading to cracks
and joint porosity. Oxygen-free
copper is not sensitive to this
effect, however the most readily
available grades, e.g. electrolytic
copper or high-conductivity
copper, are. The embrittled joint
may then fail catastrophically
without any previous sign of
deformation or deterioration.
[22]

Preform[edit]
A brazing preform is a high
quality, precision metal stamping
used for a variety of joining
applications in manufacturing
electronic devices and systems.
Typical brazing preform uses
include attaching electronic
circuitry, packaging electronic
devices, providing good thermal
and electrical conductivity, and
providing an interface for
electronic connections. Square,
rectangular and disc shaped
brazing preforms are commonly
used to attach electronic
components containing silicon
dies to a substrate such as
a printed circuit board.
Rectangular frame shaped
preforms are often required for the
construction of electronic
packages while washer shaped
brazing preforms are typically
utilized to attach lead wires and
hermetic feed-throughs to
electronic circuits and packages.
Some preforms are also used
in diodes, rectifiers, optoelectronic
devices and components
packaging.
[23]

Flux (metallurgy)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Rosin used as flux for soldering


A flux pen used for electronics rework


Multicore solder containing flux


Wire freshly coated with solder, still immersed in molten rosin flux
In metallurgy, a flux (derived from Latin fluxus meaning flow), is a chemical cleaning agent,
flowing agent, or purifying agent. Fluxes may have more than one function at a time. They are used
in both extractive metallurgy and metal joining.
Some of the earliest known fluxes were carbonate of
soda, potash, charcoal, coke, borax,
[1]
lime,
[2]
lead sulfide
[3]
and certain minerals containing
phosphorus. Iron ore was also used as a flux in the smelting of copper. These agents served various
functions, the simplest being a reducing agent which prevented oxides from forming on the surface
of the molten metal, while others absorbed impurities into the slag which could be scraped off the
molten metal. As cleaning agents, fluxes facilitatesoldering, brazing, and welding by
removing oxidation from the metals to be joined. Common fluxes are: ammonium chlorideor rosin for
soldering tin; hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride for soldering galvanized iron (and
other zinc surfaces); andborax for brazing or braze-welding ferrous metals.
In the process of smelting, inorganic chlorides, fluorides (see fluorite), limestone and other materials
are designated as "fluxes" when added to the contents of a smelting furnace or a cupola for the
purpose of purging the metal of chemical impurities such as phosphorus, and of rendering slag more
liquid at the smelting temperature. The slag is a liquid mixture ofash, flux, and other impurities. This
reduction of slag viscosity with temperature, increasing the flow of slag in smelting, is the original
origin of the word flux in metallurgy. Fluxes are also used in foundries for removing impurities from
molten nonferrous metals such as aluminum, or for adding desirable trace elements such as
titanium.
In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the primary purpose of
flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder (e.g.) attaches very well to
copper, but poorly to the various oxides of copper, which form quickly at soldering temperatures.
Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature, but which becomes
strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing the formation of metal oxides. Additionally,
flux allows solder to flow easily on the working piece rather than forming beads as it would
otherwise.
The role of a flux in joining processes is typically dual: dissolving of the oxides on the metal surface,
which facilitates wettingby molten metal, and acting as an oxygen barrier by coating the hot surface,
preventing its oxidation. In some applications molten flux also serves as a heat transfer medium,
facilitating heating of the joint by the soldering tool or molten solder.
Fluxes for soft soldering are typically of organic nature, though inorganic fluxes, usually based on
halogenides and/or acids, are also used in non-electronics applications. Fluxes for brazing operate
at significantly higher temperatures and are therefore mostly inorganic; the organic compounds tend
to be of supplementary nature.
Contents
[hide]
- 1 Composition and properties
o 1.1 Behavior of activators
o 1.2 Rosin fluxes
o 1.3 Specifications
o 1.4 Examples of special fluxes
- 2 Drawbacks
o 2.1 Dangers
o 2.2 Fluxless techniques
- 3 Uses
o 3.1 Soldering
o 3.2 Brazing and silver soldering
o 3.3 Smelting
- 4 Flux recovery
- 5 Metal salts as flux in hot corrosion
- 6 List of fluxes
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 External links
Composition and properties[edit]
Organic fluxes typically consist of four major components:
[4]

- Activators - chemicals disrupting/dissolving the metal oxides. Their role is to expose
unoxidized, easily wettable metal surface and aid soldering by other means, e.g. by exchange
reactions with the base metals.
- Highly active fluxes contain chemicals that are corrosive at room temperature. The
compounds used include metal halides (most often zinc chloride orammonium
chloride), hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and hydrobromic acid. Salts of mineral
acids with amines are also used as aggressive activators. Aggressive fluxes typically
facilitate corrosion, require careful removal, and are unsuitable for finer work. Activators for
fluxes for soldering and brazing aluminium often contain fluorides.
- Milder activators begin to react with oxides only at elevated temperature. Typical
compounds used are carboxylic acids (e.g. fatty acids (most often oleic acidand stearic
acid), dicarboxylic acids) and sometimes amino acids. Some milder fluxes also contain
halides or organohalides.
- Vehicles - high-temperature tolerant chemicals in the form of non-volatile liquids or solids with
suitable melting point; they are generally liquid at soldering temperatures. Their role is to act as
an oxygen barrier to protect the hot metal surface against oxidation, to dissolve the reaction
products of activators and oxides and carry them away from the metal surface, and to facilitate
heat transfer. Solid vehicles tend to be based on natural or modified rosin (mostly abietic
acid, pimaric acid, and other resin acids) or natural or synthetic resins. Water-soluble organic
fluxes tend to contain vehicles based on high-boiling polyols -glycols, diethylene glycol and
higher polyglycols, polyglycol-based surfactants and glycerol.
- Solvents - added to facilitate processing and deposition to the joint. Solvents are typically dried
out during preheating before the soldering operation; incomplete solvent removal may lead to
boiling off and spattering of solder paste particles or molten solder.
- Additives - numerous other chemicals modifying the flux properties. Additives can
be surfactants (especially nonionic), corrosion
inhibitors, stabilizers andantioxidants, tackifiers, thickeners and other rheological modifiers
(especially for solder pastes), plasticizers (especially for flux-cored solders), and dyes.
Inorganic fluxes contain components playing the same role as in organic fluxes. They are more often
used in brazing and other high-temperature applications, where organic fluxes have insufficient
thermal stability. The chemicals used often simultaneously act as both vehicles and activators;
typical examples are borax, borates,fluoroborates, fluorides and chlorides. Halogenides are active at
lower temperatures than borates, and are therefore used for brazing of aluminium and magnesium
alloys; they are however highly corrosive.
Fluxes have several important properties:
- Activity - the ability to dissolve existing oxides on the metal surface and promote wetting with
solder. Highly active fluxes are often of acidic and/or corrosive nature.
- Corrosivity - the promotion of corrosion by the flux and its residues. Most active fluxes tend to
be corrosive at room temperatures and require careful removal. As activity and corrosivity are
linked, the preparation of surfaces to be joined should allow use of milder fluxes. Some water-
soluble flux residues are hygroscopic, which causes problems with electrical resistance and
contributes to corrosion. Fluxes containing halides and mineral acids are highly corrosive and
require thorough removal. Some fluxes, especially borax-based brazing ones, form very hard
glass-like coatings that are difficult to remove.
- Cleanability - the difficulty of removal of flux and its residues after the soldering operation.
Fluxes with higher content of solids tend to leave larger amount of residues; thermal
decomposition of some vehicles also leads to formation of difficult-to-clean, polymerized and
possibly even charred deposits (a problem especially for hand soldering). Some flux residues
are soluble in organic solvents, others in water, some in both. Some fluxes are no-clean, as they
are sufficiently volatile or undergoing thermal decomposition to volatile products that they do not
require the cleaning step. Other fluxes leave non-corrosive residues that can be left in place.
However, flux residues can interfere with subsequent operations; they can impair adhesion
of conformal coatings, or act as undesired insulation on connectors and contact pads for test
equipment.
- Residue tack - the stickiness of the surface of the flux residue. When not removed, the flux
residue should have smooth, hard surface. Tacky surfaces tend to accumulate dust and
particulates, which causes issues with electrical resistance; the particles themselves can be
conductive or they can be hygroscopic or corrosive.
- Volatility - this property has to be balanced to facilitate easy removal of solvents during the
preheating phase but to not require too frequent replenishing of solvent in the process
equipment.
- Viscosity - especially important for solder pastes, which have to be easy to apply but also thick
enough to stay in place without spreading to undesired locations. Solder pastes may also
function as a temporary adhesive for keeping electronic parts in place before and during
soldering. Fluxes applied by e.g. foam require low viscosity.
- Flammability - relevant especially for glycol-based vehicles and for organic solvents. Flux
vapors tend to have low autoignition temperature and present a risk of a flash fire when the flux
comes in contact with a hot surface.
- Solids - the percentage of solid material in the flux. Fluxes with low solids, sometimes as little as
1-2%, are called low solids flux, low-residue flux, or no clean flux. They are often composed
of weak organic acids, with addition of small amount of rosin or other resins.
The surface of the tin-based solder is coated predominantly with tin oxides; even in alloys the
surface layer tends to become relatively enriched by tin. Fluxes for indium and zinc based solders
have different compositions than fluxes for ordinary tin-lead and tin-based solders, due to different
soldering temperatures and different chemistry of the oxides involved.
The composition of fluxes is tailored for the required properties - the base metals and their surface
preparation (which determine the composition and thickness of surface oxides), the solder (which
determines the wetting properties and the soldering temperature), the corrosion resistance and ease
of removal, and others.
Organic fluxes are unsuitable for flame soldering and flame brazing, as they tend to char and impair
solder flow.
Some metals are classified as "unsolderable" in air, and have to be either coated with another metal
before soldering or special fluxes and/or protective atmospheres have to be used. Such metals
are beryllium, chromium, magnesium, titanium, and some aluminium alloys.
Fluxes for high-temperature soldering differ from the fluxes for use at lower temperatures. At higher
temperatures even relatively mild chemicals have sufficient oxide-disrupting activity, but the metal
oxidation rates become fairly high; the barrier function of the vehicle therefore becomes more
important than the fluxing activity. High molecular weight hydrocarbons are often used for this
application; a diluent with a lower molecular weight, boiling off during the preheat phase, is usually
used to aid application.
[5]

Behavior of activators[edit]
The role of the activators is primarily disruption and removal of the oxide layer on the metal surface
(and also the molten solder), to facilitate direct contact between the molten solder and metal. The
reaction product is usually soluble or at least dispersible in the molten vehicle. The activators are
usually either acids, or compounds that release acids at elevated temperature.
The general reaction of oxide removal is:
Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water
Salts are ionic in nature and can cause problems from metallic leaching or dendrite growth, with
possible product failure. In some cases, particularly in high-reliabilityapplications, flux residues
must be removed.
The activity of the activator generally increases with temperature, up to a certain value where
activity ceases, either due to thermal decomposition or excessive volatilization. However the
oxidation rate of the metals also increases with temperature.
At high temperatures, copper oxide reacts with hydrogen chloride to water-soluble and
mechanically weak copper chloride, and with rosin to salts of copper and abietic acid which is
soluble in molten rosin.
Some activators may also contain metal ions, capable of exchange reaction with the underlying
metal; such fluxes aid soldering by chemically depositing a thin layer of easier solderable metal
on the exposed base metal. An example is the group of fluxes containing zinc, tin or cadmium
compounds, usually chlorides, sometimes fluorides or fluoroborates.
Common high-activity activators are mineral acids, often together with halides, amines, water
and/or alcohols:
- hydrochloric acid, most common
- phosphoric acid, less common, use limited by its polymerization at higher temperatures
Inorganic acids are highly corrosive to metals even at room temperature, which causes issues
during storage, handling and applications. As soldering involves high temperatures, compounds
that decompose or react with acids as products are frequently used:
- zinc chloride, which at high temperatures reacts with moisture,
forming oxychloride and hydrochloric acid
- ammonium chloride, thermally decomposing to ammonia and hydrochloric acid
- amine hydrochlorides, decomposing to the amine and hydrochloric acid
Rosin fluxes[edit]


Electrical solder with a rosin core, visible as a dark spot in the cut end of the solder wire.
The terms resin flux and rosin flux are ambiguous and somewhat interchangeable, with
different vendors using different assignments. Generally, fluxes are labeled as rosin if the
vehicle they are based on is primarily natural rosin. Some manufactures reserve "rosin"
designation for military fluxes based on rosin (R, RMA and RA compositions) and label others as
"resin".
Rosin has good flux properties. A mixture of organic acids (resin acids, predominantly abietic
acid, with pimaric acid,isopimaric acid, neoabietic acid, dihydroabietic acid, and dehydroabietic
acid), rosin is a glassy solid, virtually nonreactive and noncorrosive at normal temperature, but
liquid, ionic and mildly reactive to metal oxides at molten state. Rosin tends to soften between
60-70 C and is fully fluid at around 120 C; molten rosin is weakly acidic and is able to dissolve
thinner layers of surface oxides from copper without further additives. For heavier surface
contamination or improved process speed, additional activators can be added.
There are three types of rosin: gum rosin (from pine tree oleoresin), wood rosin (obtained by
extraction of tree stumps), and tall oil rosin (obtained from tall oil, a byproduct of kraft
paper process). Gum rosin has a milder odor and lower tendency to crystallize from solutions
than wood rosin, and is therefore preferred for flux applications. Tall oil rosin finds increased use
due to its higher thermal stability and therefore lower tendency to form insoluble thermal
decomposition residues. The composition and quality of rosin differs by the tree type, and also
by location and even by year. In Europe, rosin for fluxes is usually obtained from a specific type
of Portuguese pine, in America a North Carolina variant is used.
[6]

Natural rosin can be used as-is, or can be chemically modified by
e.g. esterification, polymerization, or hydrogenation. The properties being altered are increased
thermal stability, better cleanability, altered solution viscosity, and harder residue (or conversely,
softer and more tacky residue). Rosin can be also converted to a water-soluble rosin flux, by
formation of an ethoxylated rosin amine, an adduct with a polyglycol and an amine.
One of the early fluxes was a mixture of equal amounts of rosin and vaseline. A more
aggressive early composition was a mixture of saturated solution of zinc chloride, alcohol,
and glycerol.
[7]

Fluxes can be also prepared from synthetic resins, often based on esters of polyols and fatty
acids. Such resins have improved fume odor and lower residue tack, but their fluxing activity and
solubility tend to be lower than of natural resins.
Rosin fluxes are categorized by grades of activity: L for low, M for moderate, and H for high.
There are also other abbreviations for different rosin flux grades:
[6][8]

- R (Rosin) - pure rosin, no activators, low activity, mildest
- WW (Water-White) - purest rosin grade, no activators, low activity, sometimes synonymous
with R
- RMA (Rosin Mildly Activated) - contains mild activators, typically no halides
- RA (Rosin Activated) - rosin with strong activators, high activity, contains halides
- OA (Organic Acid) - rosin activated with organic acids, high activity, highly corrosive,
aqueous cleaning
- SA (Synthetically Activated) - rosin with strong synthetic activators, high activity; formulated
to be easily soluble in organic solvents (chlorofluorocarbons, alcohols) to facilitate cleaning
- WS (Water-Soluble) - usually based on inorganic or organic halides; highly corrosive
residues
- SRA (Superactivated rosin) - rosin with very strong activators, very high activity
- IA (Inorganic Acid) - rosin activated with inorganic acids (usually hydrochloric acid or
phosphoric acid), highest activities, highly corrosive
R, WW, and RMA grades are used for joints that can not be easily cleaned or where there is too
high corrosion risk. More active grades require thorough cleaning of the residues. Improper
cleaning can actually aggravate the corrosion by releasing trapped activators from the flux
residues.
There are several possible activator groups for rosins:
- halide activators (organic halide salts, e.g. dimethylammonium
chloride and diethylammonium chloride)
- organic acids (monocarboxylic, e.g. formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, and
dicarboxylic, e.g. oxalic acid, malonic acid, sebacic acid)
Specifications[edit]
Solder fluxes are specified according to several standards.
The most common one in European setting is the ISO 9454-1 (also known as DIN EN 294545-
1).
[9]

The flux classes according to ISO 9454-1 are specified by four-character code, by flux type,
base, activator, and type. The form code is often omitted.
Flux type Base Activator Form
1 Resin
- 1 Rosin
- 2 Without rosin
- 1 Without activator
- 2 Halide activator
- 3 Non-halide activator
- A Liquid
- B Solid
- C Paste
2 Organic
- 1 Water-soluble
- 2 Water-insoluble
3 Inorganic
- 1 Salts
- 1 Ammonium chloride
- 2 Without ammonium chloride
- 2 Acids
- 1 Phosphoric acid
- 2 Other acids
- 3 Alkaline - 1 Amines and/or ammonia
Therefore 1.1.2 means rosin flux with halides.
The older specification, still often in use for specifying fluxes in shops, is the older German DIN
8511; the pairing is however not always one-to-one (note the multiple vs. one relation old
standard vs. new standard in table below
Residues Old New Description
Strongly corrosive F-SW-11 3.2.2 Inorganic acid other than phosphoric
Residues Old New Description
Strongly corrosive F-SW-12 3.1.1 Ammonium chloride
Strongly corrosive F-SW-13 3.2.1 Phosphoric acid
Weakly corrosive F-SW-21 3.1.1 Ammonium chloride
Weakly corrosive F-SW-22 3.1.2 Inorganic salts without ammonium chloride
Weakly corrosive F-SW-23 2.1.3 Organic water-soluble without halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-23 2.2.1 Organic water-insoluble without activators
Weakly corrosive F-SW-23 2.2.3 Organic water-insoluble without halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-24 2.1.1 Organic water-soluble without activators
Weakly corrosive F-SW-24 2.1.3 Organic water-soluble without halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-24 2.2.3 Organic water-insoluble without halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-25 2.1.2 Organic water-soluble with halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-25 2.2.2 Organic water-insoluble with halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-26 1.1.2 Rosin with halides
Residues Old New Description
Weakly corrosive F-SW-27 1.1.3 Rosin without halides
Weakly corrosive F-SW-28 1.2.2 Rosin-free resin with halides
Non-corrosive F-SW-31 1.1.1 Rosin without activators
Non-corrosive F-SW-32 1.1.3 Rosin without halides
Non-corrosive F-SW-33 1.2.3 Rosin-free resin without halides
Non-corrosive F-SW-34 2.2.3 Organic water-insoluble without halides
One standard increasing used (United States) is J-STD-004 (very similar to DIN EN 61190-1-1).
Four characters (two letters, then one letter, and last a number) represent flux composition, flux
activity, and whether activators include halides:
[10]

Base RO(sin) - RE(sin) - OR(ganic) - IN(organic)
Activity L(ow) - M(oderate)-H(igh)
Halide content <0.05% 0 (yes) - 1 (No)
Any combination is possible, e.g. ROL0, REM1 or ORH0.
Examples of special fluxes[edit]
Some materials are very difficult to solder. In some cases special fluxes have to be employed.
- Aluminium and its alloys are difficult to solder due to the formation of the passivation layer of
aluminium oxide. The flux has to be able to disrupt this layer and facilitate wetting by solder.
Salts or organic complexes of some metals can be used; the salt has to be able to penetrate
the cracks in the oxide layer. The metal ions, more noble than aluminium, then undergo a
redox reaction, dissolve the surface layer of aluminium and form a deposit there. This
intermediate layer of another metal then can be wetted with a solder. One example of such
flux is a composition of triethanolamine, fluoroboric acid, and cadmium fluoroborate. More
than 1% magnesium in the alloy however impairs the flux action, as the magnesium oxide
layer is more refractory. Another possibility is an inorganic flux composed of zinc
chloride or tin(II) chloride,
[11]
ammonium chloride, and a fluoride (e.g. sodium fluoride).
Presence of silicon in the alloy impairs the flux effectivity, as silicon does not undergo the
exchange reaction aluminium does.
- Magnesium alloys can be potentially soldered at low temperature by using
molten acetamide as flux. Acetamide dissolves surface oxides on both aluminium and
magnesium; promising experiments were done with its use as a flux for a tin-indium solder
on magnesium.
- Stainless steel is another difficult to solder material, due to its stable, self-healing oxide layer
and its low thermal conductivity. A solution of zinc chloride in hydrochloric acid is a common
flux for stainless steels; it has however to be thoroughly removed afterwards as it would
cause pitting corrosion. Another highly effective flux is phosphoric acid; its tendency to
polymerize at higher temperatures however limits its applications.
Drawbacks[edit]
Fluxes have several serious drawbacks:
- Corrosivity, which is mostly due to the aggressive compounds of the
activators; hygroscopic properties of the flux residues may aggravate the effects
- Interference with test equipment, which is due to the insulating residues deposited on the
test contacts on electronic circuit boards
- Interference with machine vision systems when the layer of flux or its remains is too thick or
improperly located
- Contamination of sensitive parts, e.g. facets of laser diodes, contacts of connectors and
mechanical switches, and MEMS assemblies
- Deterioration of electrical properties of printed circuit boards, as soldering temperatures are
above the glass transition temperature of the board material and flux components (e.g.
glycols, or chloride and bromide ions) can diffuse into its matrix; e.g. water-soluble fluxes
containing polyethylene glycol were demonstrated to have such impact
[12]

- Deterioration of high-frequency circuit performance by flux residues
- Deterioration of surface insulation resistance, which tends to be as much as three orders of
magnitude lower than the bulk resistance of the material
- Electromigration and growth of whiskers between nearby traces, aided by ionic residues,
surface moisture and a bias voltage
- The fumes liberated during soldering may have adverse health effects, and volatile organic
compounds can be outgassed during processing
- The solvents required for post-soldering cleaning of the boards are expensive and may have
adverse environmental impact
In special cases the drawbacks are sufficiently serious to warrant using fluxless techniques.
Dangers[edit]
Acid flux types (not used in electronics) may contain hydrochloric acid, zinc
chloride or ammonium chloride, which are harmful to humans. Therefore, flux should be handled
with gloves and goggles, and used with adequate ventilation.
Prolonged exposure to rosin fumes released during soldering can cause occupational
asthma (formerly called colophony disease
[13]
in this context) in sensitive individuals, although it
is not known which component of the fumes causes the problem.
[14]

While molten solder has low tendency to adhere to organic materials, molten fluxes, especially
of the resin/rosin type, adhere well to fingers. A mass of hot sticky flux can transfer more heat to
skin and cause more serious burns than a comparable particle of non-adhering molten metal,
which can be quickly shaken off. In this regard, molten flux is similar to molten hot glue.
Fluxless techniques[edit]
In some cases the presence of flux is undesirable; flux traces interfere with e.g. precision optics
or MEMS assemblies. Flux residues also tend to outgas in vacuum and space applications, and
traces of water, ions and organic compounds may adversely affect long-term reliability of
hermetic packages. Trapped flux residues are also the cause of most voids in the joints. Flux-
less techniques are therefore desirable there.
[15]

For successful soldering and brazing, the oxide layer has to be removed from both the surfaces
of the materials and the surface of the filler metal preform; the exposed surfaces also have to be
protected against oxidation during heating. Flux-coated preforms can also be used to eliminate
flux residue entirely from the soldering process.
[16]

Protection of the surfaces against further oxidation is relatively simple, by using vacuum or inert
atmosphere. Removal of the native oxide layer is more troublesome; physical or chemical
cleaning methods have to be employed and the surfaces can be protected by e.g. gold plating.
The gold layer has to be sufficiently thick and non-porous to provide protection for reasonable
storage time. Thick gold metallization also limits choice of soldering alloys, as tin-based solders
dissolve gold and form brittle intermetallics, embrittling the joint. Thicker gold coatings are
usually limited to use with indium-based solders and solders with high gold content.
Removal of the oxides from the solder preform is also troublesome. Fortunately some alloys are
able to dissolve the surface oxides in their bulk when superheated by several degrees above
their melting point; the Sn-Cu
1
and Sn-Ag
4
require superheating by 18-19 C, the Sn-
Sb
5
requires as little as 10 C, but the Sn-Pb
37
alloy requires 77 C above its melting point to
dissolve its surface oxide. The self-dissolved oxide however degrades the solder's properties
and increases its viscosity in molten state, this approach is therefore not optimal. Solder
preforms are preferred to be with high volume-to-surface ratio, as that limits the amount of oxide
being formed. Pastes have to contain smooth spherical particles, preforms are ideally made of
round wire. The problem with preforms can be also sidestepped by depositing the solder alloy
directly on the surfaces of the parts and/or substrates, by e.g. chemical or electrochemical
means.
Protective atmosphere with chemically reducing properties can be beneficial in some cases.
Molecular hydrogen can be used to reduce surface oxides of tin and indium at temperatures
above 430 and 470 C; for zinc the temperature is above 500 C, where zinc is already
becoming volatilized. (At lower temperatures the reaction speed is too slow for practical
applications.) Very low partial pressures of oxygen and water vapor have to be achieved for the
reaction to proceed.
Other reactive atmospheres are also in use. Vapors of formic acid and acetic acid are the most
commonly used. Carbon monoxide and halogen gases (e.g. carbon tetrafluoride, sulfur
hexafluoride, or dichlorodifluoromethane) require fairly high temperatures for several minutes to
be effective.
Atomic hydrogen is much more reactive than molecular hydrogen. In contact with surface oxides
it forms hydroxides, water, or hydrogenated complexes, which are volatile at soldering
temperatures. The most practical dissociation method is probably an electrical discharge. Argon-
hydrogen gas compositions with hydrogen concentration below the low flammable limit can be
used, eliminating the safety issues. The operation has to be performed at low pressure, as the
stability of atomic hydrogen at atmospheric pressure is insufficient. Such hydrogen plasma can
be used for fluxless reflow soldering.
Active atmospheres are relatively common in furnace brazing; due to the high process
temperatures the reactions are reasonably fast. The active ingredients are usually carbon
monoxide (possibly in the form of combusted fuel gas) and hydrogen. Thermal dissociation of
ammonia yields an inexpensive mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen.
Bombardment with atomic particle beams can remove surface layers at a rate of tens of
nanometers per minute. The addition of hydrogen to the plasma augments the removal
efficiency by chemical mechanisms.
Mechanical agitation is another possibility for disrupting the oxide layer. Ultrasound can be used
for assisting tinning and soldering; an ultrasonic transducer can be mounted on the soldering
iron, in a solder bath, or in the wave for wave soldering. The oxide disruption and removal
involves cavitation effects between the molten solder and the base metal surface. A common
application of ultrasound fluxing is in tinning of passive parts (active parts do not cope well with
the mechanical stresses involved); even aluminium can be tinned this way. The parts can then
be soldered or brazed conventionally.
Mechanical rubbing of a heated surface with molten solder can be used for coating the surface.
Both surfaces to be joined can be prepared this way, then placed together and reheated. This
technique was formerly used to repair small damages on aluminium aircraft skins.
Very thin layer of zinc can be used for joining aluminium parts. The parts have to be perfectly
machined, or pressed together, due to the small volume of filler metal. At high temperature
applied for long time, the zinc diffuses away from the joint. The resulting joint does not present a
mechanical weakness and is corrosion-resistant. The technique is known as diffusion soldering.
Fluxless brazing of copper alloys can be done with self-fluxing filler metals. Such metals contain
an element capable of reaction with oxygen, usually phosphorus. A good example is the family
of copper-phosphorus alloys.
Uses[edit]
Soldering[edit]
In soldering of metals, flux serves a threefold purpose: it removes rust from the surfaces to be
soldered, it seals out air thus preventing further rust, and by
facilitatingamalgamation improves wetting characteristics of the liquid solder. Some fluxes
are corrosive, so the parts have to be cleaned with a damp sponge or other absorbent material
after soldering to prevent damage. Several types of flux are used in electronics.
A number of standards exist to define the various flux types. The principal standard is J-STD-
004.
J-STD-004 characterizes the flux by type (e.g. Rosin (RO), Resin (RE), Organic (OR), Inorganic
(IN)), its activity (strength of fluxing) and reliability of residue from asurface insulation
resistance (SIR) and electromigration standpoint, and whether or not it contains halide
activators.
This replaces the old MIL QQS standard which defined fluxes as:
R (Rosin)
RMA (Rosin Mildly Activated)
RA (Rosin Activated)
WS (Water soluble)
Any of these categories (except WS) may be no-clean, or not, depending on the chemistry
selected and the standard that the manufacturer requires.
J-STD-004 includes tests for electromigration and surface insulation resistance (which must be
greater than 100 M after 168 hours at elevated temperature and humidity with a DC bias
applied).
Brazing and silver soldering[edit]
Brazing (sometimes known as silver soldering or hard soldering) requires a much higher
temperature than soft soldering, sometimes over 850 C. As well as removing existing oxides,
rapid oxidation of the metal at the elevated temperatures has to be avoided. This means that
fluxes need to be more aggressive and to provide a physical barrier.
[17]
Traditionally borax was
used as a flux for brazing, but there are now many different fluxes available, often using active
chemicals such as fluorides
[18]
as well as wetting agents. Many of these chemicals are toxic and
due care should be taken during their use.
Smelting[edit]
Main article: Smelting Fluxes
A related use of flux is to designate the material added to the contents of a smelting furnace or
a cupola for the purpose of purging the metal of impurities, and of rendering the slag more liquid.
The flux most commonly used in iron and steel furnaces is limestone, which is charged in the
proper proportions with the iron and fuel. The slag is a liquid mixture of ash, flux, and other
impurities.
Flux recovery[edit]
During the submerged arc welding process, not all flux turns into slag. Depending on the welding
process, 50% to 90% of the flux can be reused.
[19]

Metal salts as flux in hot corrosion[edit]
Hot corrosion can affect gas turbines operating in high salt environments (e.g., near the ocean).
Salts, including chlorides and sulfates, are ingested by the turbines and deposited in the hot
sections of the engine; other elements present in fuels also form salts, e.g. vanadates. The heat
from the engine melts these salts which then can flux the passivating oxide layers on the metal
components of the engine, allowing corrosion to occur at an accelerated rate.
List of fluxes[edit]
- Borax - for brazing
- Beeswax
- Tallow and lead
- Paraffin wax
- Palm oil
- Zinc chloride ("Killed Spirits")
- Zinc chloride and sal ammoniac
- Olive oil and sal ammoniac - for iron
- Rosin, tallow, olive oil, and zinc chloride - for aluminium
- Cryolite
- Cryolite and phosphoric acid
- Phosphoric acid & alcohol
- Cryolite and barium chloride
- Oleic acid
- Lithium chloride
- Magnesium chloride
- Sodium chloride
- Potassium chloride
- Unslaked lime
- Tech 045 Safety & Allowances Tips
-
- What is an "ergonomic injury"?
Input from the recent ergonomics forums demonstrated to OSHA that
there are a wide variety of opinions on how the Agency should define an
ergonomic injury and that the definition adopted by OSHA depends on
the context. Ergonomic injuries are often described by the term
"musculoskeletal disorders" or "MSDs." This is the term of art in
scientific literature that refers collectively to a group of injuries and
illnesses that affect the musculoskeletal system; there is no single
diagnosis for MSDs. As OSHA develops guidance material for specific
industries, the agency may narrow the definition as appropriate to
address the specific workplace hazards covered. OSHA will work
closely with stakeholders to develop definitions for MSDs as part of its
overall effort to develop guidance materials.
-
- Specific Allowances for Tech 045 Projects
- The following facilities layout safety-related allowances are not all-
inclusive, but are provided to help you in your layout assignments in
Tech 045. Refer to your books, other appropriate materials, or consult
the instructor for any allowances not included here.
- 1) Work height = elbow height +/- 2 inches
- 2) Operator space = 3 feet X 3 feet (or 3 feet X width of workstation)
- 3) Operator space should be 3 feet off the aisle for safety
- 4) Having 3 feet from side to side of operator allows parts to be placed
comfortably next to the operator
- 5) If two people are working back to back then allow 5 feet between
stations
- 6) Workstation square footage = length X width of workstation
- 7) Allowance for aisles, work in process etc. = workstation space X
150%
- 8) Width of aisles running into trailers = 8 feet
- 9) A semitrailer = 8 feet X 40 feet
- 10) Small offices for clerks = 100 square feet per person
- 11) Access foe machine maintenance = 2 feet around the machine
- 12) Parking for small cars = 8 feet X 15 feet per car
- 13) Paring for medium car = 9 feet X 17.5 feet per car
- 14) Parking for large cars = 10 feet X 20 feet per car
- 15) Single lane driveways = 11 feet wide
- 16) Double lane drive ways = 22 feet wide
- 17) A parking lot = 250 square feet per number of parking spaces
needed
- 18) Personnel and security offices = 200 square feet per office
- 19) About one personnel person per 100 employees
- 20) About 1 security person per 300 employees
- 21) Locker rooms = 4 square feet per employee
- 22) Allow one toilet for every 20 employees
- 23) One toilet = 15 square feet
- 24) One washbasin = 15 square feet
- 25) Entryway for toilet = 15 square feet
- 26) One urinal = 9 square feet
- 27) The number of washbasins = number of toilets
- 28) Restroom should not be farther than 200 feet from employees
- 29) Lunchrooms = 10 square feet per person
- 30) Drinking fountains should not be farther than 200 feet from
employees
- 31) Each drinking fountain = 3 feet X 5 feet, or 15 square feet
- 32) One way aisle for fork trucks = 4 feet wide
- 33) Two-way aisle for fork trucks = 10 or (4+4+2) feet
- 34) First aid rooms = 6 feet X 6 feet per room
- 35) 500 employees justifies one nurse
- 36) One nurse would require a 400-square foot area for patients needs
- 37) Lounges are 25 square feet per driver or user
- 38) Locker rooms should be = 4 square feet per employee
- 39) Warehouse size = size of product X quantity manufactured daily X
number of days supply
- 40) tool room or maintenance room = sum of all equipment in it X 200%
- 41) Office space needs = number of office personnel X 20 square feet
- 42) Office space for general managers & senior executives = 200 300
square feet
- 43) Office space for managers = 150 250 square feet
- 44) Office space for supervisors = 100 200 square feet
- 45) Office space for accountants = 75 150 square feet
- 46) Office space for engineers 100 150 square feet
- 47) Office space for clerks = 75 100 square feet
- 48) Overall office space determination = 200 square feet X number of
personnel
- 49) For desks in one row, there should be 6 feet from the front of one
desk to the front of the one behind it
- 50) For desks in two or more where ingress and egress are confined to
one side, 7 feet should be allowed from the front of one desk to the front
of the desk behind it
- 51) If employees are back to back, allow a minimum of 4 feet between
chairs
- 52) Inside aisles within desk areas should be from 3 to 5 feet wide
- 53) Intermediate aisles = 4 feet wide
- 54) Main aisles = 5 feet wide
- 55) A workspace consisting of a desk, chair, and shelf space = 50 75
square feet with a 2-foot allowance on the length and width
- 56) Reception area = 10 square feet per visitor
- 57) Private offices = 100 300 square feet per office
- 58) The scale of layout = per foot or 1/8 per foot
- 59) Desks should face the same direction
- 60) Smaller aisles for office layout = 3 5 feet
- 61) Larger aisles for office layout = 6 8 feet
-
-
-
-
-
ntroduction to Material Handling Equipment
There are thousands of pieces of material handling devices. These equipments vary from the most basic
manual too to the most sophisticated computer-controlled material handling systems that can incorporate
a wide range of other manufacturing and control functions.

Handling and storing materials involve diverse operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane;
driving a truck loaded with concrete blocks; carrying bags or materials manually; and stacking palletized
bricks or other materials such as drums, barrels, kegs, and lumber. The efficient handling and storing of
materials are vital to industry.

In addition to raw materials, these operations provide a continuous flow of parts and assemblies through
the workplace and ensure that materials are available when needed. Material handling equipment (MHE)
is used for the movement and storage of material within a facility or at a site. MHE can be classified into
the following five major categories:
- Transport Equipment. Equipment used to move material from one location to another (e.g.,
between workplaces, between a loading dock and a storage area, etc.). The major subcategories
of transport equipment are conveyors, cranes, and industrial trucks. Material can also be
transported manually using no equipment.

- Positioning Equipment. Equipment used to handle material at a single location so that it is in
the correct position for subsequent handling, machining, transport, or storage. Unlike transport
equipment, positioning equipment is usually used for handling at a single workplace. Material can
also be positioned manually using no equipment.
- Unit Load Formation Equipment. Equipment used to restrict materials so that they maintain
their integrity when handled a single load during transport and for storage. If materials are self-
restraining (e.g., a single part or interlocking parts), then they can be formed into a unit load with
no equipment.
- Storage Equipment. Equipment used for holding or buffering materials over a period of time.
Some storage equipment may include the transport of materials (e.g., the S/R machines of an
AS/RS, or storage carousels). If materials are block stacked directly on the floor, then no storage
equipment is required.
- Identification and Control Equipment. Equipment used to collect and communicate the
information that is used to coordinate the flow of materials within a facility and between a facility
and its suppliers and customers. The identification of materials and associated control can be
performed manually with no specialized equipment.
Did you Know? Traditionally, material-handling equipment may be grouped into 4 general categories and
they are fixed-path system, the fixed area material handling system, variable-path variable-area
equipment and the lastly the fourth category consist of all the auxiliary tools. In the first category (fixed-
path system or also referred to as the continuous flow system) it consists of point-to-point equipments.
This group of equipment serves the material handling need along a fixed path (like on a guided track).
The most common and familiar example of a fixed path system are trains and railroad tracks as trains can
travel from any point to point, serving at any point that is along the track system. Other equipments under
this category include the conveyor systems, powered, gravity-fed, automated guided vehicles and any
other equipments that operate otherwise.
The second category is called the fixed area material handling system and this system can serve at any
point within the three dimensional area or a cub. Examples such as the jib crane or the overhead traveling
cranes can be installed on a floor pedestal to move parts and other material from any point to point in the
x, y, z direction: however, this ability is limited within confines of the equipment. Automated storage and
retrieval system (ASRS) also falls into this category.
AS for the third category, it consists of variable-material variable-area handling equipments or equipments
that can move to any area of the facility.
Examples such as motorized vehicles, forklift trucks and all manual carts can be dragged, driven or
pushed throughout the plant. Lastly, the fourth category consists of all auxiliary tools and equipments
such as pallets, skids, automatic data collection systems, and containers Haha :)
That is all for our introduction to MHE. Although there is still much more categories of equipment in the
industries, our group will be only focusing at the transport equipments and one of the positioning
equipment which is the hoist for this assignment.
Hope that it stirs some interest in you!! Keep a lookout for more of our detailed findings to each of the
equipments. Bye:)cya soon....

"America's advocate
for the availability of
clean, safe, well
designed public
restrooms"


Donations to the ARA are tax-exempt under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code


Search AR



The United States Code of Federal Regulations for Toilet Facilities
Content of this page is for information only. It is not official and non-relevant text has been removed
Please refer to the OHSA Website for the Official Regulations
29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Official Interpretation
29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Unofficial Discussions
29 CFR 1926.51(c)(4): Sanitation
29 CFR 1926.51(c)(4): Interpretations
29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
Scope. This section applies to permanent places of employment.
Definitions applicable to this section.
"Toilet facility," means a fixture maintained within a toilet room for the purpose of defecation or urination, or
both.
"Toilet room," means a room maintained within or on the premises of any place of employment, containing toilet
facilities for use by employees.
"Urinal" means a toilet facility maintained within a toilet room for the sole purpose of urination.
"Water closet" means a toilet facility maintained within a toilet room for the purpose of both defecation and
urination and which is flushed with water.
(c) Toilet facilities--(1) General. (i) Except as otherwise indicated in this paragraph (c)(1)(i), toilet facilities, in
toilet rooms separate for each sex, shall be provided in all places of employment in accordance with table J-1 of
this section. The number of facilities to be provided for each sex shall be based on the number of employees of that
sex for whom the facilities are furnished. Where toilet rooms will be occupied by no more than one person at a
time, can be locked from the inside, and contain at least one water closet, separate toilet rooms for each sex need
not be provided. Where such single-occupancy rooms have more than one toilet facility, only one such facility in
each toilet room shall be counted for the purpose of table
J-1.

Table J-1
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Minimum number of Number of employees water closets \1\
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 to 15.................................................... 1
16 to 35................................................... 2
36 to 55................................................... 3
56 to 80................................................... 4
81 to 110.................................................. 5.
111 to 150................................................. 6
Over 150................................................... (\2\)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
Standards Interpretation and Compliance Letters
- Record Type: Interpretation
- Standard Number: 1910.141
- Subject: Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
- Information Date: 04/06/1998

April 6, 1998

MEMORANDUM FOR: REGIONAL ADMININSTRATORS
STATE DESIGNEES

FROM: JOHN B. MILES, JR., Director
Directorate of Compliance Programs

SUBJECT: Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
OSHA's sanitation standard for general industry, 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(l)(i), requires employers to provide their
employees with toilet facilities:
Except as otherwise indicated in this paragraph (c)(l)(i), toliet facilities, in toilet rooms separate for each sex shall
be provided in all places of employment in accordance with Table J-1 of this section .... [emphasis added]
This memorandum explains OSHA's interpretation that this standard requires employers to make toilet facilities
available so that employees can use them when they need to do so. The employer may not impose unreasonable
restrictions on employee use of the facilities. OSHA believes this requirement is implicit in the language of the
standard and has not previously seen a need to address it more explicitly. Recently, however, OSHA has received
requests for clarification of this point and has decided to issue this memorandum to explain its position clearly.
Background
The sanitation standard is intended to ensure that employers provide employees with sanitary and available toilet
facilities, so that employees will not suffer the adverse health effects that can result if toilets are not available when
employees need them. Individuals vary significantly in the frequency with which they need to urinate and defecate,
with pregnant women, women with stress incontinence, and men with prostatic hypertrophy needing to urinate
more frequently. Increased frequency of voiding may also be caused by various medications, by environmental
factors such as cold, and by high fluid intake, which may be necessary for individuals working in a hot
environment. Diet, medication use, and medical condition are among the factors that can affect the frequency of
defecation.
Medical studies show the importance of regular urination, with women generally needing to void more frequently
than men. Adverse health effects that may result from voluntary urinary retention include increased frequency of
urinary tract infections (UTIs), which can lead to more serious infections and, in rare situations, renal damage (see,
e.g., Nielsen, A. Waite, W., "Epidemiology of Infrequent Voiding and Associated Symptoms," Scand J Urol
Nephrol Supplement 157). UTIs during pregnancy have been associated with low birthweight babies, who are at
risk for additional health problems compared to normal weight infants (see, Naeye, R.L., "Causes of the Excess
Rates of Perinatal Mortality and the Prematurity in Pregnancies Complicated by Maternity Urinary Tract
Infections," New England J. Medicine 1979; 300(15); 819-823). Medical evidence also shows that health
problems, including constipation, abdominal pain, diverticuli, and hemorrhoids, can result if individuals delay
defecation (see National Institutes of Health (NIH) Publication No. 95-2754, July 1995).
OSHA's field sanitation standard for Agriculture, 29 CFR 1928.110, based its requirement that toilets for
farmworkers be located no more than a quarter mile from the location where employees are working on similar
findings. This is particularly significant because the field sanitation standard arose out of the only OSHA
rulemaking to address explicitly the question of worker need for prompt access to toilet facilities.
The Sanitation Standard
The language and structure of the general industry sanitation standard reflect the Agency's intent that employees be
able to use toilet facilities promptly. The standard requires that toilet facilities be "provided" in every workplace.
The most basic meaning of "provide" is "make available." See Webster's New World Dictionary, Third College
Edition, 1988, defining "provide" as "to make available; to supply (someone with something);" Borton Inc. V.
OSHRC, 734 F.2d 508, 510 (l0th Cir. 1984) (usual meaning of provide is "to furnish, supply, or make
available");Usery v. Kennecott Copper Corp., 577 F.2d 1113, 1119 (10th Cir, 1978) (same); Secretary v. Baker
Concrete Constr. Co., 17 OSH Cas. (BNA) 1236, 1239 (concurring opinion; collecting cases); Contractors
Welding of Western New York, Inc., 15 OSH Cas. (BNA) 1249, 1250 (same).
1
Toilets that employees are not
allowed to use for extended periods cannot be said to be "available" to those employees. Similarly, a clear intent of
the requirement in Table J-1 that adequate numbers of toilets be provided for the size of the workforce is to assure
that employees will not have to wait in long lines to use those facilities. Timely access is the goal of the standard.
The quoted provision of the standard is followed immediately by a paragraph stating that the toilet provision does
not apply to mobile work crews or to locations that are normally unattended, "provided the employees working at
these locations have transportation immediately available to nearby toilet facilities which meet the other
requirements" of the standard (29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(ii) (emphasis supplied). Thus employees who are members
of mobile crews, or who work at normally unattended locations must be able to leave their work location
"immediately" for a "nearby" toilet facility. This provision was obviously intended to provide these employees
with protection equivalent to that the general provision provides to to employees at fixed worksites. Read together,
the two provisions make clear that all employees must have prompt access to toilet facilities.
OSHA has also made this point clear in a number of letters it has issued since the standard was promulgated. For
example, in March 1976, OSHA explained to Aeroil Products Company that it would not necessarily violate the
standard by having a small single-story building with no toilet facilities separated by 90 feet of pavement from a
building that had the required facilities, so long as the employees in the smaller building had "unobstructed free
access to the toilet facilities." Later that year, it explained again, in response to a question about toilet facilities at a
U-Haul site, "reasonableness in evaluating the availability of sanitary facilities will be the rule." Again in 1983,
OSHA responded to a request for a clarification of the standard by stating, "([i]f an employer provides the required
toilet facilities ... and provides unobstructed free access to them, it appears the intent of the standard would be
met."
In light of the standard's purpose of protecting employees from the hazards created when toilets are not available, it
is clear that the standard requires employers to allow employees prompt access to sanitary facilities. Restrictions
on access must be reasonable, and may not cause extended delays. For example, a number of employers have
instituted signal or relief worker systems for employees working on assembly lines or in other jobs where any
employee's absence, even for the brief time it takes to go to the bathroom, would be disruptive. Under these
systems, an employee who needs to use the bathroom gives some sort of a signal so that another employee may
provide relief while the first employee is away from the work station. As long as there are sufficient relief workers
to assure that employees need not wait an unreasonably long time to use the bathroom, OSHA believes that these
systems comply with the standard.
Citation Policy
Employee complaints of restrictions on toilet facility use should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to determine
whether the restrictions are reasonable. Careful consideration must be given to the nature of the restriction,
including the length of time that employees are required to delay bathroom use, and the employer's explanation for
the restriction. In addition, the investigation should examine whether restrictions are general policy or arise only in
particular circumstances or with particular supervisors, whether the employer policy recognizes individual medical
needs, whether employees have reported adverse health effects, and the frequency with which employees are
denied permission to use the toilet facilities. Knowledge of these factors is important not only to determine
whether a citation will be issued, but also to decide how any violation will be characterized.
It is important that a uniform approach be taken by all OSHA offices with respect to the interpretation of OSHA's
general industry sanitation standard, specifically with regard to the issue of employee use of toilet facilities.
Proposed citations for violations of this standard must be forwarded to the Directorate of Compliance Programs
(DCP) for review and approval. DCP will consult with the Office of Occupational Medicine. DCP will approve
citations if the employer's restrictions are clearly unreasonable, or otherwise not in compliance with the
standard.(NOTE: See 08/11/00 Memorandum to RAs attached below.)---Added this note
State Plan States are not required to issue their own interpretation in response to this policy, however they must
ensure that State standards and their interpretations remain "at least as effective" as the Federal standard. Regional
Administrators shall offer assistance to the States on this issue, including consultation with the Directorate of
Compliance programs, at the State's request.
If you have any questions, contact Helen Rogers in the Office of General Industry Compliance at (202) 219-
8031/41 x106.
_______________________________________________________

Footnote(1) This decision was later vacated pursuant to a settlement, but the Commission has continued to cite
it.See Secretary v. Baker Concrete Constr. Co., supra. The issue in Contractors Welding and the other cited cases
has been whether the meaning of the term "provide," in various standards requiring employers to provide certain
equipment or other materials, is not limited to making something available, but may also mean that the employer
must pay for what it provides and must require it to be used. Those broader meanings are not relevant to this issue,
however, where the sanitary facilities the employer is required to provide are a physical part of its workplace, and
the question is not whether employees must be required to use those facilities, but whether they will be allowed to
do so. (Back to Text)
_______________________________________________________
August 11, 2000---Added this memo

MEMORANDUM FOR: REGIONAL ADMININSTRATORS

FROM: RICHARD E. FAIRFAX, Director
Directorate of Compliance Programs

SUBJECT: Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
On April 6, 1998 we issued an interpretation of 1910.141(c)(1)(i), which requires employers to make toilet
facilities available so that employees can use them when they need to do so. A copy of that memorandum is
attached.
The 1998 memorandum states that proposed citations for violations of this standard are to be forwarded to the
Directorate of Compliance Programs (DCP) for review and approval. Shortly after the interpretation was issued, it
was decided that the review and approval was to be at the Regional Office level, but that copies of any citations
issued based on the April 6, 1998 interpretation should still be sent to DCP.
This topic continues to generate interest from the public. Early this year we had a Freedom of Information Act
(FOIA) request for copies of citations issued. Therefore, please continue to send copies of any citations issued
pursuant to the 1998 interpretation to the National Office. If you have any questions, please contact Helen Rogers
at (202) 693-1850. The copies should be sent to the following address:
Richard E. Fairfax, Director
Directorate of Compliance Programs
U.S. Department of Labor - OSHA
200 Constitution Avenue, NW Room N-3603
Washington, DC 20210
Source: Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(1)(i): Toilet Facilities
Memorandum from John B Miles Jnr. OSHA Directorate of Compliance Programs. OSHA Standards Interpretation
and Compliance Letters. Interpretation of 29 CFR 1910.141(c)(I)(I): Toilet facilities. 6 April 1998.
From
Hazards and Workers' Health International Newsletter
PO Box 199 Sheffield S1 4YL England
http://www.hazards.org/toiletbreaks.htm
Please relieve me, let me go...
The US pee-breaks memo from John B Miles Jr, head of OSHA's Directorate of Compliance Programs, explained
that the standard is necessary "so that employees will not suffer the adverse health effects that can result if toilets
are not available when employees need them...
"Medical studies show the importance of regular urination with women generally needing to void more frequently
than men. Adverse health effects that may result from voluntary urinary retention include increased frequency of
urinary tract infections (UTIs), which can lead to more serious infections and, in rare situations, renal damage.
UTIs during pregnancy have been associated with low birthweight babies, who are at risk of for additional health
problems compared to normal weight infants.
"Medical evidence also shows that health problems, including constipation, abdominal pain, diverticuli, and
haemorrhoids, can result if individuals delay defecation."
UK health and safety law does not contain a specific right to go, but this is implied in employers' general duties to
protect the health, safety and welfare of employees in the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, regulation 2.
The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 require suitable and sufficient, clean and
adequately ventilated and lit sanitary conveniences at readily accessible places. Pregnant women have additional
rights (Hazards 63).

From the Washington Insider: OSHA clarifies ruling about restroom breaks
http://www.aphanet.org/stat/restroom.html
In 1974, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) released a sanitation standard that
required employers to provide their employees with toilet facilities and provided specifications for those facilities.
At the time, OSHA believed that the standard was self-explanatory; however, on April 6 of this year, the agency
issued another memo-to clarify the intent of the standard as it pertains to allowing workers to use the restroom
facilities. The OSHA Sanitation Standard was intended to ensure that employers provide employees with available,
sanitary toilet facilities. OSHA issued the interpretive memo to ensure that employees do not experience
adverse health effects (urinary tract infection, renal damage, constipation, abdominal pain, hemorrhoids,
diverticula) that can occur when they are unable to use (or discouraged from using) the restroom when
necessary.

http://www.uiowa.edu/~ournews/1998/april/0409osha.html
CONTACT: SCOTT HAUSER
100 Old Public Library
Iowa City IA 52242
(319) 384-0007; fax (319) 384-0024
e-mail: scott-hauser@uiowa.edu
Release: Immediate
OSHA agrees with UI professors: Workers have right to use the bathroom
IOWA CITY, Iowa -- Federal regulations that say employers must provide toilet facilities for their workers also
mean that workers must be permitted to use the bathroom when they need to at work, according to new guidelines
issued this week by regulators to clarify an issue that two University of Iowa professors raised with OSHA and
have been closely watching.
John B. Miles Jr., director of compliance programs for the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), issued a four-page memorandum Monday, April 6 to regional administrators of the agency, spelling out
the proper way to interpret a federal rule that says "toilet facilities, in toilet rooms separate for each sex, shall be
provided in all places of employment."
"This memorandum explains OSHA's interpretation that this standard requires employers to make toilet facilities
available so that employees can use them when they need to do so," the memo says. "The employer may not
impose unreasonable restrictions on employee use of the facilities." ...
"Recently, however, OSHA has received requests for clarification of this point and has decided to issue this
memorandum to explain its position clearly," Miles wrote.
Marc Linder, professor of law, and Ingrid Nygaard, associate professor of obstetrics and gynecology, initiated
OSHA's reexamination of its position on access to bathrooms for workers.
They are the authors of a new book, "Void Where Prohibited: Rest Breaks and the Right to Urinate on Company
Time" (Cornell University Press), which argues that many workers are not allowed to go to the bathroom when
they need to because of a lack of regulatory enforcement, callousness by some employers who pay little attention
to worker rights, and miserly planning in some work environments.
The restrictions lead to personal indignities and health problems for many employees.
Linder has made frequent appeals to state and federal regulators to clarify the regulations.
"One of the points we make in the book is that the 25-year-old standard requiring employers to provide toilets
makes no sense unless it includes the obligation to let workers use those toilets," Linder says. "But until OSHA
was confronted with the research in the book, and with strong appeals from the United Food and Commercial
Workers, the agency was unwilling to enforce the law in a way that guaranteed employees the right to use the
bathroom at work."
Regulations (Standards - 29 CFR) Sanitation. - 1926.51
OSHA Regulations (Standards - 29 CFR) - Table of Contents

- Standard Number: 1926.51
- Standard Title: Sanitation.
- SubPart Number: D
- SubPart Title: Occupational Health and Environmental Controls
(c) "Toilets at construction jobsites."
(c)(1) Toilets shall be provided for employees according to the following table:
Table D-1

______________________________________________________________

Number of employees

20 or less.......| 1
20 or more.......| 1 toilet seat and 1 urinal per 40 workers.
200 or more......| 1 toilet seat and 1 urinal per 50 workers.
_________________|____________________________________________

(c)(2) Under temporary field conditions, provisions shall be made to assure not less than one toilet facility is
available.
(c)(3) Job sites, not provided with a sanitary sewer, shall be provided with one of the following toilet facilities
unless prohibited by local codes:
(c)(3)(i) Privies (where their use will not contaminate ground or surface water);
..1926.51(c)(3)(ii)
(c)(3)(ii) Chemical toilets;
(c)(3)(iii) Recirculating toilets;
(c)(3)(iv) Combustion toilets.
(f)(3) "Lavatories."
(f)(3)(i) Lavatories shall be made available in all places of employment. The requirements of this subdivision do
not apply to mobile crews or to normally unattended work locations if employees working at these locations have
transportation readily available to nearby washing facilities which meet the other requirements of this paragraph.
(f)(3)(ii) Each lavatory shall be provided with hot and cold running water, or tepid running water.
(f)(3)(iii) Hand soap or similar cleansing agents shall be provided.
(f)(3)(iv) Individual hand towels or sections thereof, of cloth or paper, warm air blowers or clean individual
sections of continuous cloth toweling, convenient to the lavatories, shall be provided.
OSHA Regulations (Standards - 29 CFR) - Table of Contents
OSHA Standard Interpretations 06/07/2002 - Mobile crews must have prompt access to nearby
toilet facilities.
June 7, 2002

[ DELETED TEXT ]

Re: 1926.51(c)(4); sanitation, mobile crews

This is in response to your letter of October 1, 2001, to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) in which you ask for an interpretation of the construction sanitation standard, specifically the provision
pertaining to mobile crews. We apologize for the long delay in providing this response.

Question: The requirements of 1926.51(c) for sanitation facilities states that they do not apply to mobile crews
"having transportation readily available to nearby toilet facilities." What does "nearby" mean?

Answer:
Construction sanitation standard; mobile crews

OSHA's construction sanitation standard is codified at 29 CFR 1926.51. Paragraph (c) of 1926.51, "Toilets at
construction jobsites," states:
Toilets shall be provided for employees according to the following table:

Table D-1

employees Minimum number of facilities
20 or less . . . 1.
20 or more . .. . 1 toilet seat and 1 urinal per 40 workers.
200 or more . . . 1 toilet seat and 1 urinal per 50 workers.


However, as you are aware, 1926.51(c)(4) makes the provisions of paragraph (c) inapplicable to "mobile crews
having transportation readily available to nearby toilet facilities."

When determining whether paragraph (c)(4) applies to a work crew, employers must evaluate the nature of the
site and job functions of the crew. Workers who continually or frequently move from jobsite to jobsite on a daily
or hourly basis would be considered a "mobile crew." Workers who report to a conventional construction
project, where they work for more extended periods of time (days, weeks, or longer), would not be considered a
"mobile crew" for purposes of the sanitation standard.

Definition of "nearby"

As noted above, the requirements of (c)(4) are inapplicable when a mobile crew has transportation readily
available to "nearby" toilet facilities. As explained below, for purposes of this standard, "nearby" means prompt
access -- sufficiently close so that employees can use them when they need to do so.
[ DELETED TEXT ]
Mobile crew employees relying on "nearby" facilities must be afforded access equivalent to that provided by the
general provision for employees at fixed worksites. Read together, the two provisions make clear that mobile
crews must have prompt access to nearby toilet facilities. For example, in general, toilets would be considered
"nearby" if it would take less than 10 minutes to get to them.
[ DELETED TEXT ]
SOURCE:www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=INTERPRETATIONS&p_id=24369
Content of this page is for information only. It is not official and non-relevant text has been removed
Please refer to the OHSA Website for the Official Regulation



American Restroom Association
PO Box 65111
Baltimore, MD 21209
202-747-6031 - Policy and Media queries 410-358-9007(FAX)
WARNING AND DISCLAIMER: The American Restroom Association (ARA) is formally incorporated in the State of Maryland and is a subsidiary of
the International Paruresis Association ARA is not qualified to provide legal advice. This web site contains non-vetted information that is un-official and
for education only. There are no formal or financial agreements with any persons or entities cited. Some material is from copyrighted sources. This material
is for education only and it must be source referenced.

Number of toilets required in buildings
How many toilets are required for employees who work inside buildings?
The requirements for toilet pans and urinals in buildings are set out in the New Zealand
Building Code, which is part of the Building Regulations 1992, administered by
the Department of Building and Housing. The requirements depend on the building use,
including whether the toilets will be used by employees only, or by members of the public as
well.
The following tables set out the numbers to be provided in commercial and industrial
premises used by employees only. Refer to the Building Code Approved Document Clause
G1: Personal Hygiene for further details and requirements in other situations.
Unisex toilet facilities
Design occupancy Number
15 1
630 2
Greater than 30 add 1 per 40

Separate toilet facilities females
Design occupancy Number
110 1
1150 2
5190 3
Greater than 90 add 1 per 60

Separate toilet facilities males (toilet pans only)
Design occupancy Number
110 1
1150 2
5190 3
Greater than 90 add 1 per 60

Separate toilet facilities males (toilet pans and urinals)
Toilet pans Urinals
Design occupancy Number Design occupancy Number
110 1 1150 1
1160 2 151550 2
61120 3 Greater than 550 add 1 per 450
Greater than 120 add 1 per 80
Date Modified: Wednesday, 9 December 2009
Disclaimer: The content on this website covers common problems. It will not answer every question and
should not be used as a substitute for legislation or legal advice.State sector employers and employees may
be affected by some differences in the laws that apply to them (e.g. State Sector Act 1988).The Department
of Labour takes no responsibility for the results of any actions taken on the basis of information on this
website, nor for any errors or omissions.


Chapter 18: Managing Inventory
Review

1. Explain the various inventory control systems and the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
o Inventory represents the largest investment for the typical small
business. Unless properly managed, the cost of inventory will strain the
firms budget and cut into its profitability. The goal of inventory control is
to balance the cost of holding and maintaining inventory with meeting
customer demand.
o Regardless of the inventory control system selected, business owners
must recognize the relevance of the 80/20 rule, which states that roughly
80 percent of the value of the firms inventory is in about 20 percent of
the items in stock. Because only a small percentage of items account for
the majority of the value of the firms inventory, managers should focus
control on those items.
o Three basic types of inventory control systems are available to the small
business owner: perpetual, visual, and partial. Perpetual inventory
control systems are designed to maintain a running count of the items in
inventory. Although they can be expensive and cumbersome to operate
by hand, affordable computerized point-of-sale (POS) terminals that
deduct items sold from inventory on hand make perpetual systems
feasible for small companies. The visual inventory system is the most
common method of controlling merchandise in a small business. This
system works best when shortages are not likely to cause major
problems. Partial inventory control systems are most effective for small
businesses with limited time and money. These systems operate on the
basis of the 80/20 rule.
o The ABC system is a partial system that divides a firms inventory into
three categories depending on each items dollar usage volume (cost per
unit multiplied by quantity used per time period). The purpose of
classifying items according to their value is to establish the proper
degree of control over them. A items are most closely controlled by
perpetual inventory control systems; B items use basic analytical tools;
and C items are controlled by very simple techniques such as the two-
bin system, the level control method, or the tag system.
1. Describe how just-in-time (JIT) and JIT II inventory control techniques
work.
o The just-in-time system of inventory control sees excess inventory as a
blanket that masks production problems and adds unnecessary costs to
the production operation. Under a JIT philosophy, the level of inventory
maintained is the measure of efficiency. Materials and parts should not
build up as costly inventory. They should flow through the production
process without stopping, arriving at the appropriate location just in time.
o JIT II techniques focus on creating a close, harmonious relationship with
a companys suppliers so that both parties benefit from increased
efficiency. To work successfully, JIT II requires suppliers and their
customers to share what was once closely guarded information in an
environment of trust and cooperation. Under JIT II, customers and
suppliers work hand in hand, acting more like partners than mere buyers
and sellers.
3. Describe some methods for reducing loss from slow-moving inventory.
o Managing inventory requires monitoring the companys inventory
turnover ratio; slow-moving items result in losses from spoilage or
obsolescence.
o Slow-moving items can be liquidated by markdowns, eye-catching
displays, or quantity discounts.
4. Discuss employee theft and shoplifting and how to prevent them.
o Employee theft accounts for the majority of business losses due to theft.
Most small business owners are so busy managing their companies
daily affairs that they fail to develop reliable security systems. Thus, they
provide their employees with prime opportunities to steal.
o The organizational atmosphere may encourage employee theft. The
owner sets the organizational tone for security. A complete set of
security controls, procedures, and penalties should be developed and
enforced. Physical breakdowns in security invite employee theft. Open
doors and windows, poor key control, and improper cash controls are
major contributors to the problem of employee theft. Employers can build
security into their businesses by screening and selecting employees
carefully. Orientation programs also help the employee to get started in
the right direction. Internal controls, such as division of responsibility,
spot checks, and audit procedures, are useful in preventing employee
theft.
o Shoplifting is the most common business crime. Fortunately, most
shoplifters are amateurs. Juveniles often steal to impress their friends,
but prosecution can halt their criminal ways early on. Impulse shoplifters
steal because the opportunity suddenly arises. Simple prevention is the
best defense against these shoplifters. Alcoholics, vagrants, and drug
addicts steal to supply some need and are usually easiest to detect.
Kleptomaniacs have a compelling need to steal. Professionals are in the
business of theft and can be very difficult to detect and quite dangerous.
o Three strategies are most useful in deterring shoplifters. First,
employees should be trained to look for signs of shoplifting. Second,
store layout should be designed with theft deterrence in mind. Finally,
anti-theft devices should be installed in the store.

Copyright 1995-2010, Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall Legal and Privacy Terms
Lean Six Sigma to Reduce Excess and
Obsolete Inventory
J ames W. Martin February 26, 2010 3
Excess and obsolete inventory write-offs are chronic supply chain problems costing businesses billions of dollars
each year. Unfortunately, improvement projects that are deployed to eliminate these problems often have a short-
term focus. In other words, the current levels of excess and obsolete inventory are usually addressed, but not the root
causes of the problem. Often such inventory is reduced by selling it below standard cost or donating it to charitable
organizations. Competing business priorities sometimes keeps businesses from developing effective long-term
solutions to eliminate the root causes, sometimes it is the difficulty in unraveling the complexity of the root causes.
Lean Six Sigma methods have been shown to be very effective in finding and eliminating root causes, and thus
preventing arbitrary year-end reductions in inventory investment.
Higher- and Lower-Level Root Causes
An analysis of excess and obsolete inventory often shows that its major root causes are associated with long lead
times, poor forecasting accuracy, quality problems or design obsolescence. However, these higher-level causes can
be successively broken down into lower-level root causes as shown in the figure below.

As the figure suggests, from an inventory investment perspective, a long lead time may be caused, in part, by large
lot sizes. For example, if the actual lead time or order cycle time is 30 days, but the required lot size for purchase is
90 days of supply (DOS), then this lot size drives a higher average inventory level than lead time by itself. In this
case, the average on-hand inventory (neglecting a safety-stock calculation) increases from 15 to 45 DOS assuming a
constant usage rate. Of course, the actual reasons for large lot sizes would have to be investigated by a Lean Six
Sigma improvement team. The root causes of long lead times also could be due to complicated processes having
numerous rework loops and non-value-adding operations as well as scheduling problems and/or late deliveries.
The second major cause of excess and obsolete inventory is poor demand management practices. Some lower-level
root causes may include inaccurate historical demand data, a poor forecasting modeling methodology or other issues
such as overly optimistic sales projections. Lean Six Sigma projects also can be used to attack lower-level root
causes in this area. Lean Six Sigma is frequently used to improve quality levels to reduce waste and rework caused
by a multitude of diverse factors within a process workflow. Finally, Design for Six Sigma can be used to improve the
design processes for new products or services.
Using DMAIC to Find Root Causes
Lean Six Sigma improvement teams can drive to the root causes of their excess and obsolete inventory problem
using the DMAIC problem-solving methodology (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) in conjunction with
Lean tools as well as process workflow models. In fact, building simple Excel-based inventory models or using off-
the-shelf software, are good ways to identify the key process input variables (KPIVs) or drivers of excess and
obsolete inventory problems. Inventory models follow a generalized Six Sigma root-cause philosophy Y = f(x). They
also are effective communication vehicles showing sales, marketing, manufacturing and other supply chain functions,
as well as the impact of lead time and demand management practices on excess and obsolete inventory.
In an actual improvement project, the team begins an inventory analysis by defining the projects goals in the Define
phase. Using these goals as guidelines, relevant questions are developed to enable the team to understand how the
system operates. Data fields corresponding to these questions are identified and extracted from information
technology (IT) systems. The data fields are then organized in the form of an inventory model to provide the
information necessary to answer the teams questions and understand the root causes of the inventory problem.
After the Define phase, the team begins to evaluate measurement systems and plan data collection activities. This is
the Measure phase of the project. An important activity in this phase is an on-site physical count by location of
inventoried items associated with the problem. This is done to measure valuation accuracy relative to stated book
value. Measurement analyses also are conducted of management reports and their related workflow systems. These
analyses determine the accuracy of key supply chain metrics such as lead time, lot size, expected demand and its
variation, forecasting accuracy (different from demand variation), on-time delivery and other metrics that may be
related to an inventory investment problem. Unfortunately, supply chain metrics often are scattered across the
several software systems within an organization. These systems include the forecasting module, master production
schedule module, materials requirements planning module, inventory record files, warehouse management system
module and similar IT systems.
After verification of a systems metrics, the improvement team begins data collection to capture information necessary
to answer the teams questions developed during the Define phase. Relevant information, which may help the team in
its root-cause investigation, usually includes suppliers, lead times, expected demand and its variation, lot sizes,
storage locations, delivery information, customers and other facts.
Analyzing Data and Using Inventory Model
The Analyze phase begins after the required data has been collected and a simple inventory model has been created
using classic inventory formulas such as those found in operations management textbooks. These models are used
to analyze an inventory population to understand how key process input variables impact excess and obsolete
inventory investment (i.e., key process output variables). A value stream map also should be constructed as part of
the overall analysis. In fact, in many projects, a value stream map, once quantified, becomes the basis for the
inventory model. This is especially true when the analyses focus on internal process workflows, at system
bottlenecks, rather than finished goods inventories.
In addition, a simple inventory balance is calculated for every item and location of the inventory population based on
each items service level, lead time and demand variation. An inventory balance shows which items and locations
may have too much inventory and which items and locations may have too little inventory. In the latter case, inventory
investment must be temporarily increased to meet required customer service levels.
After the team determines the root causes of the excess or obsolete inventory problem, it develops countermeasures
to eliminate these root causes the projects Improve phase. In addition, other needs for improvement may be found
as a project winds toward the Improve phase. The Analyze phase often identifies other types of process breakdowns
within the supply chain that may serve as a justification for subsequent improvement projects. Lean tools and
methods are particularly important in the analysis and execution of these types of projects. In fact, the application of
the Lean tool, 5S, or what can loosely be called housekeeping, in the Control phase of a project, can help ensure that
the resultant improvements are sustained over time.
Conclusion: The Typical Project Benefits
Typical benefits of defining and implementing improvement projects to reduce and eliminate excess and obsolete
inventory include higher system accuracy, creation of quantified inventory models showing relationships between
inventory investment versus lead time and demand variation, higher inventory valuation and location accuracies,
higher cycle counting accuracies, and most importantly permanent reductions in excess and obsolete inventory
investment.