3.

LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction Determining number of

subjects Total population Surveys What is sampling? Reasons for taking
a sample Principle of sampling Types of sampling
4. DETERMINING NUMBER OF SUBJECTS Statistical
considerations Practical Considerations
5. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AVAILABILITY OF
SUBJECTS RESOURCES- TIME, MONEY, PERSONELL
6. STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS Purpose of study Primary
outcome measure How small a diference is to be detected Type 1 error:
To fnd treatments signifcantly diferent if treatments dont really difer
Drop out rate if study is prospective Power to detect an actual diference
7. TOTAL POPULATION SURVEY Every individual in the defned
population is included and studied. It has Advantages and Disadvantages
8. ADVANTAGES OF STUDYING TOTAL POPULATION (a) The
estimate is accurate and without error since no unit is left out (b) There is
no need to worry about selection procedure (c) And there are no feelings
of discrimination created in the population.
9. DISADVANTAGES OF TOTAL POPULATION STUDY (a) It is
expensive (b) It takes time to complete (c) Demands a lot of personnel
(d) It may not be feasible (e) It may be less accurate.
10. WHAT IS A SAMPLE ? Part of a population selected for study
May be able to infer the characteristics of the population from those of the
sample.
11. ADVANTAGES OF TAKING A SAMPLE Advantages (a) Less
expensive (b) Quick results guaranteed (c) Demands on personnel is
less (d) Possibility of obtaining more accurate data because of the smaller
number of units involved
12. DISADVANTAGES OF TAKING A SAMPLE Estimate obtained
from the sample is likely to be diferent from that would have been obtained
if the total population have been studied. - this discrepancy is called
sampling error and it is always present. It is sometimes difcult to select a
good sample i.e. a representative sample.
13. PRINCIPLE OF SAMPLING AVOIDANCE OF BIAS
14. GENERAL CAUSES OF BIAS a. Lack of proper knowledge of
the population from which the sample is selected. b. Inadequacy of
sampling frame. c. Personal prejudice - i.e. when personal feelings is
allowed to infuence sample selection-observer error.
15. HOW TO AVOID BIAS TAKE A PROBABILITY SAMPLE THIS
IS KNOWN AS A RANDOM SAMPLE SAMPLE HAS A KNOWN CHANCE
OF BEIGN SELECTED
16. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS NEEDED TO TAKE A
PROBABILITY SAMPLE (i) Sample Size (ii) Sampling Fraction (iii)
Sampling Frame (iv) Sampling Unit (v) Unit of Enquiry (vi) Sampling
Error (vii) Good or Representative Sample
17. EXAMPLES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLES SIMPLE
RANDOM SAMPLE SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE STRATIFIED RANDOM
SAMPLE CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLE MULTI-STAGE RANDOM
SAMPLE
18. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE Simple random sample: A
sampling procedure in which each unit in the population has the same
(equal) chance of being selected. However the population must be fnite
and a sampling frame must exist. Each unit must have an assigned
number in the sampling frame. Without a proper sampling frame, it is
impossible to take a simple random sample.
19. SELECTION PROCEDURE OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE
1. Lottery method 2. Use of table of Random numbers. 3. Use of
computer facilities. Lottery 1. Construct a frame of all the sampling units.
2. Use ballots to select the required number of units.
20. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLE Unit selected in any one
sample occupied related position to each other in the sampling frame
Determine sampling fraction and sampling interval-k The frst unit to be
selected is selected at random between 1 and k. Thereafter every kth unit
is selected.
21. EXAMPLE ON SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE Suppose a sample of
50 patients is required from the register of 1,000 patients available in the
records section of a teaching hospital. The sample fraction here will be
50/1000 = 1/20 , thus k = 20. The frst member in the register is selected
randomly between 1 and 20. The frst and every 20th member is
subsequently selected as sample members.
22. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE Population is divided into
homogenous strata according to some relevant characteristics of the
population A random sample is selected from each stratum The sample
size may be sub-divided in proportion to the population size in each
stratum. This is called a proportional allocation. For example to select 200
units from a population of 6000 units of which 2000 units are females and
4000 units males. The number chosen in each sex stratum will be 68 and
132 respectively if there is a proportionate allocation of the sample
numbers in the strata.
23. MULTISTAGE RANDOM SAMPLE Multistage Sample
Sampling in stages Final sample obtained after more than one stage Ex.
Selection sample of students from the university 1st Stage Selections:
Select 50 depts at random out of the existing 160 (for example). 2ND
Stage: from each selected depts, list all the students then select students
in each of these.
24. CLUSTER SAMPLE The sampling unit is a cluster of units
Units could be households, streets, or villages. The approach is useful in
rural areas where there are no sampling frames. Multi stage sample and
cluster sample are the most popular method in a rural area. In cluster
sample, selection takes place only once.
25. EXAMPLE OF CLUSTER SAMPLE Study of attitudes of
medical students to HIV/AIDS pandemic. Defne each department as a
cluster of students May select a specifed number of departments at
random out of the total number of departments in the University of Ibadan
Study all students in the departments selected.
26. EXAMPLES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES Volunteer
Judgmental Quota Purposive Convenience
27. SUMMARY Feasibility of probability samples Endeavour to
always take a probability sample Always report sampling procedures