Appendix D

Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-1

Appendix D
Horizonal Alignment and
Superelevation
1. General
The horizonal alignment of a new roadway is established initially by locating the points of
intersection (PIs) at which the alignment must change driection. The PIs are then con-
nected by straight lines to create the tangent alignment of the roadway. Circular curves
appropriate for the design speed of the roadway, possibly with spirals, are then added to the
tangent alignment to gradually effect the required change in direction at the PIs.
Construction on new alignments is relatively rare. More often, roadways are costructed on
their existing alignments with minor changes in the alignment being made, as necessary, to
meet current design standards.
The primary goal of the designer should be to create a safe and functional roadway that
facilitates travel. The horizontal alignment must provide adequate stopping sight distance
throughout its length and a desired level of comfort for drivers traversing horizontal curves
within the set economic limits, right-of-way limitations, environmental constraints, etc.
Although minimum allowable values are given herein, the designer is encouraged not to
design to the minimum standard.
Particular care should be taken to ensure that the final design results in an aesthetically
pleasing road that fits the natural terrain along its alignment. The roadway should follow
the natural surroundings without sudden changes in directions.
2. Circular Curves
WYDOT uses the arc definition of curvature. A one-degree curve has a central angle of 1
that is subtended by a 100 ft arc. There are 360 in a circle, therefore D(2 R) =360 (100).
It follows that R =5729.578/D in feet.
The relationship between the radius (R) and the degree of curvature (D) is:
(100 ft) (360)
2 D
R = =
5729.58 ft
D
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-2
Minimum curve radius is a limiting design value that provides the desired degree of com-
fort with respect to centrifugal force for drivers traversing horizontal curves at a given
design speed. The minimum radius is determined by the maximum allowable rate of
superelevation and the maximum allowable side friction factor.
See the superelevation section of this appendix for a complete discussion of minimum curve
radius for a particular design speed.
Figure Appendix D-1. 1 Degree Curve (Typical).
Figure Appendix D-2. Components of a Circular Curve.
P.I. =Point of Intersection
P.C. =Point of Curvature
P.T. =Point of Tangency
=Deflection Angle between the Tangents
T =Tangent Distance
E =External Distance
R =Radius of the Circular Arc
M =Middle Ordinate
L.C. =Long Chord (linear distance P.C. P.T.)
C =Midpoint of Long Chord
D =Degree of Curvature (arc definition)
L =Length of Curve (arc distance P.C to P.T.)
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-3
General Circular Curve Formulas for Arc Definition (S.I. Units)
The standard nomenclature for a circular curve is shown in Figure Appendix D-2. The
formulas for the various elements of the curve are easily derived using the right triangles as
shown in the figure and the geometric properties of circular curves.
Deflation Angle Between the Tangents
Locating the P.C. and P.T.
STA P.C. =STA P.I. - T
STA P.T. =STA P.C. +L
Example Problem
Given: PI Sta. =100+00
=27
Radius =4200 ft
Calculation of P.C. Station:
T =R Tan = 4200 Tan =1008.33 ft
Subtracting the distance T from the P.I. statio results in the P.C. station
P.C. =P.I. - T =10000 - 1008.33 =89 +91.67
T =R TAN
D =
L.C. =2 R SIN
E = - R
L =
2
2
2
R
COS
R
57.29578
5729.578
R
2
27
2
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-4
Calculation of P.T. Station:
The P.T. station is found by adding the length of the actual curve to the P.C. station.
L (length along curve) =
= =1979.20 ft
P.T. =P.C. +L =8991.67 +1979.20 =109 +70.87
Also useful is the E value, the shortest distance from the PI to the curve.
E = - R = - 4200 =119.34 ft
3. Spiral Curves
A circular curve has a radius that is constant, while a spiral curve has a radius that varies
from infinity to the radius of the circular curve it is intended to meet.
A driver cannot suddenly change the path of his or her vehicle from a straight line to a line
of constant curvature. When steering a vehicle into a circular curve, the driver naturally
steers the car in a spiral path by increasing the amount of curvature of the cars path. When
the car attains the amount of curvature of the circular curve, the driver holds that position
through the curve until the car reaches the spiral at the end of the curve. The driver then
steers the vehicle back out to the tangent.
When traveling at low speeds or on curves with large radii, a driver can maneuver a vehicle
from a line of straight travel into a circular curve without driving out of the lane. At high
speeds or on curves with small radii, this maneuver becomes more difficult, causing consid-
erable movement of the vehicle within, and possibly outside, the lane. In such cases, spirals
are provided prior to and after the circular curve. This facilitates comfortable and safe
travel thoughout the curve. Using the arc definition for horizontal curves:
R = feet
The particular spiral curve used in highway work has a degree of curvature that varies
linearly from 0 degrees (radius of curvature =infinity) to D (radius of curvature =R) over
the length of the spiral (L
S
).
As a vehicle traverses a circular curve of length L
c
, the angle c, between its initial direction
of travel and its final direction of travel, is given by the relationship shown in Figure Appen-
dix D-3. Note that c can be visualized as a rectangular area created by plotting degree of
curvature versus distance along a curve.
R (100)
5729.58
27(4200) (100)
5729.58
5729.578
D
2
cos
R
27
2
4200
cos
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-5
Area = c =D =
L
c
100
57.296(L
c
)
R
Figure Appendix D-3
As a vehicle traverses a spiral curve of length L
s
, the angle s between its initial direction of
travel and its final direction of travel can be visualized (analogous to the circular curve) as
the triangular area created by plotting degree of curvature versus distance along the spiral.
Note that the slope of this line (change in degree of curvature per station) is the K value of
the spiral.
Figure Appendix D-4
Area = s =
= (D)
=
=28.648
1
2
L
s
100
5729.58
R
(L
s
)
100
1
2
L
s
R
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-6
Note that the of a spiral is one half of the for a circular curve of the same length and
degree of curvature.
As a vehicle travels a distance l along a spiral curve, the angle between its initial direction
of travel and its final direction of travel can be visualized as the shaded triangular area
shown in Figure Appendix D-5.
Figure Appendix D-5
Using the following expressions, x (the distance along the tangent) and y (the tangent
offset) can be obtained for any point located a distance l from the beginning of the spiral.
Note that is calculated from previous equations and then must be converted to radians
by multipying the angle in degrees by /180 before being used in the following
equations:
Figure Appendix D-6
Note that Xs (distance along the tangent to the end of the spiral) and Ys (tangent offset at
the end of the spiral) can be obtained from the formulas given by using l =Ls and = s.
x =l 1- + - ...
y =l - + - ...
3
3
42
5
1320
Area = = (D) = s
l
L
s
l
100
l
2
L
s
2
1
2
2
10
4
216
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-7
See figures Appendix D-12 and Appendix D-13 that follow the example for the terminol-
ogy used for a highway curve with symmetrical spirals.
Example Problem
Given: PI Sta. =100 +00
Total =35
Design Speed =65 miles/hr
R =2300 ft
From the WYDOT superelevation tables for e
max
=.08, the radius can be 1970 ft or
greater. To achieve a radius of curvature of 2300 ft, a spiral would have length of
300 ft.
Calculation of s:
s = = =3.7367
Calculation of c:
As a vehicle traverses a curve with spirals, the angle between its initial direction of
travel at the TS and its final direction of travel at the ST is total. The part of this
change in direction that occurs between the TS and the SC is s, between the SC
and CS is c and between the CS and ST is s.
total = c +2 s
c = total - 2 s =35 - 2 (3.7367)
=27.5266
Calculation of Xs and Ys:
s (radians) = s (degrees) =3.7367
=.065218 radians
Using l =Ls =300 and = s =0.065218 rad:
Xs =300 1 - +
=299.872 ft
Ys =300 - +
= 6.520 ft
(28.648)(300)
2300
28.648(Ls)
R
180 180
0.065218
2
10
0.065218
4
216
0.065218
3
0.065218
3
42
0.065218
5
1320
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-8
Certain quantities associated with the circular part of the total curve must now be deter-
mined for use in later calculations. Note that c, not total, is used in all calculations
dealing with the circular portion of the curve.
Figure Appendix D-7
Lc = =
=1104.98 ft
Tc =(R) Tan
=(2300) Tan
=563.37 ft
Ec = - R = - 2300
=67.99 ft
As shown in Figure Appendix D-10, Ts is the sum of Xs, AB, and CD.
AB is calculated using triangle I (see Figure Appendix D-10).
AE is tangent to the curve at the SC. BAE = s.
The entering and exiting spirals are of equal length; therefore, the total curve is symmetrical
about a line passing through point D and the center of the circular curve.
AE =Tc =563.37 ft
AB =AE (cos s) =563.37 cos (3.7367)
=562.17 ft
BE =AE sin s =563.37 sin (3.7367)
=36.72 ft
Figure Appendix D-8
c
2
27.5266
2
R
c
2
cos
2300
cos
27.5266
2
Example Problem, continued
c(R)
57.296
27.5266(2300)
57.296
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-9
CD is calculated using Triangle II found in Figure Appendix D-10. The total curve is
symmetrical about DE therefore:
CDE = =
=72.5
CE =BE +Ys =36.72 +6.52 =43.24 ft
CD = = =13.63 ft
DE = = =45.25 ft
Ts =Xs +AB +CD =299.872 +562.17 +13.63
=875.67 ft
180 - Total
2
180 - 35
2
***Calculation of Stations at the TS, SC, CS, and ST:
TS Sta. =P.I. Sta. - Ts =100+00 - 875.67 ft =91+24.33
SC Sta. =Ts Sta. +Ls =91 +24.33 +300 =94.24.33
CS Sta. =SC Sta. +Lc =94 +24.33 +1104.98 =10 +529.31
ST Sta. =CS Sta. +Ls =10 +529.31 +300 =10 +829.31
***Calculation of Es:
Es is the sum of DE and EF (see Figure Appendix D-10).
EF =Ec =67.99 ft
Es =DE +Ec =45.25 +67.99
=113.24 ft
***Calculation of x and y for a point 150 feet from TS:
= S =3.7967 =0.934175
radians = degrees =0.934175
=0.016304 radians
Figure Appendix D-9
Example Problem, continued
180 180
CE
tan CDE
43.16
tan (72.5)
CE
sin CDE
43.16
sin (72.5)
l
2
Ls
2
150
2
300
2
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-10
x =150 1 - +
=149.99 ft
y =150 - +
=.815 ft
Figure Appendix D-10
Example Problem, continued
0.016304
3
0.016304
3
42
0.016304
5
1320
0.016304
2
10
0.016304
4
216
Ys
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-11
Figure Appendix D-11
Example Problem, continued
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-12
***Approximate Method of Calculating Xs and Ys***
This method will yield values for Xs and Ys that are sufficiently accurate for use in prelimi-
nary design, for field checking curves staked by coordinates, etc., and is based on the following
approximations.
1) The chord length between the TS and the SC is approximately equal to Ls.
2) The deflection angle to the SC is approximately equal to
S
3
Figure Appendix D-12
Xs =(Ls) cos (approximate)
Xs =(300) cos =299.929 ft
Compared to an exact value of 299.87 ft.
Ys =(Ls) sin (approximate)
Ys =(300) sin =6.521 ft
Compared to an exact value of 6.52 ft.
The approximate values of x and y can be determined for any point located any distance l
from the beginning of the spiral by using l for Ls and for s.
S
3
s
3
3.73670
3
3.73670
3
Example Problem
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-13
Circular Curvature Formula Summary
R =
R (min) =
T =R TAN
P.C. =P.I. - T
L =
P.T. =P.C. +L
E = - R
5729.58
D
2
R
57.29578
R =Curve Radius
e =Superelevation Rate
f =Side Friction Factor
V =Design Speed (mph)
D =Degree of Curve
=Deflection Angle
T =Tangent Distance
P.C. =Point of Curvature
P.I. =Point of Inflection
P.T. =Point of Tangency
L =Length of Curve
V
2
15 (.01e +f)
R
cos
2
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-14
U.S. Customary Curvature Formula Summary
s =
= s
x =l 1 - + . . .
y =l - + - . . .
c = total - 2 s
s (radians) = s (degrees)
Lc =
Tc =R tan
Ec = - R
AE =Tc
AB =AE (cos s)
BE =AE (sin s)
CDE =
CE =BE +Ys
CD =
28.64788 Ls
R
l
2
Ls
2
2
10
4
216
3
3
42
5
1320
180
c (R)
57.29578
c
2
CE
tan CDE
180 - total
2
2
cos
R
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-15
DE =
TS =Xs +AB +CD
TS Sta. =P.I. Sta. - Ts
SC Sta. =TS Sta. +Ls
CS Sta. =SC Sta. +Lc
ST Sta. =CS Sta. +Ls
EF =Ec
Es =DE +Ec
Xs =Ls cos (approximate)
Ys =Ls sin (approximate)
P =Y - R (1 - cos )
P =L (.00145444 s - 1.582315 x 10
-8
( s)
3
)
R =Circular curve radius
s =Change in direction of travel from beginning to end of spiral
=Change in direction of travel to a point a distance l from beginning of spiral
Ls =Length of spiral
l =Length along spiral to an intermediate point
c =Change in direction of travel from beginning to end of a circular curve
P =Throw distance
CE
sin CDE
s
3
s
3
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-16
Point of Rotation
The roadway template pivots about the point of rotation when applying superelevation.
The profile gradeline is usually established at the point of rotation since this point is
not affected by superelevation. It is important to delineate this point on the typical
sections. WYDOT applies superelevation by first rotating the lane(s) that are crowned
in the opposite direction of the intended superelevation (i.e. adverse crown). The
lane(s) crowned in the direction of the intended superelevation do not rotate until
the other lanes achieve reverse crown (R.C.). This occurs at a distance of C +C
from the beginning of crown runoff (as illustrated above). At this point, all lanes
rotate simultaneously until full superelevation is achieved.
For undivided highways, the point of rotation is usually located at the design
centerline. For divided highways, the point of rotation is usually located at the
closest to the median edge of traveled way.
Figure Appendix D-13
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-17
Location of S and C on a Simple Curve
Superelevation is applied such that one-third of the superelevation runoff distance is
located on the curve (i.e. between the P.C. and the P.T.) at each end of the curve.
Thus, two-thirds of the length of S is located off the curve, as well as the entire
length of C. The method of applying superelevation is illustrated for a two-lane
roadway in the diagram above.
Figure Appendix D-14
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-18
C is applied prior to reaching the spiral and ends at the T.S. (tangent to spiral). S
starts at the T.S. and ends at the S.C. (spiral to curve). On the other side of the curve,
S starts at the C.S. (curve to spiral) and ends at the S.T. (spiral to tangent). C begins
at the S.T. and extends beyond the spiral. The method of applying superelevation is
illustrated for a two-lane roadway in Figure Appendix D-15.
Figure Appendix D-15Location of S and C on a Curve with Spiral Transitions
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-19
Spiral Transitions
A vehicle entering a curve must transition from a curve of infinite radius (i.e. a
straight line) to a fixed radius (i.e. the given radius for that particular curve). To
accomplish this, the vehicle traverses a spiral path. A spiral path has a continually
changing radius. If the curvature of the alignment is not excessively sharp, the
vehicle can usually traverse this spiral within the width of the travel lane. If the
curvature is relatively sharp for a given design speed, it becomes desirable to place
a spiral transition at the beginning and end of the curve so that the vehicle more
easily transitions into and out of the circular curve while staying within the travel
lane. Consequently, the alignment with spirals will more closely duplicate the natu-
ral path of the vehicle. Using spiral transitions will shorten the circular portion of
the curve and offset the circular curve laterally, as seen in Figure Appendix D-15.
The lateral offset distance is known as the spiral throw distance (T). The spiral
throw distance can be thought of as the amount that a vehicle will depart from a
completely circular path while transitioning to the circular path. WYDOT recom-
mends using spiral transitions if T is equal to or greater than 1.5 feet.
In the diagram above, the vehicle is assumed to be traveling a path flush with the
centerline stripe (dashed line) prior to reaching the curve. As the vehicle enters the
simple curve, the vehicle assumes a spiral path illustrated by the solid line. The
maximum lateral offset distance is the spiral throw distance (T). Most vehicles
travel down the middle of the travel lane. Therefore, the maneuvering room is in
reality one-half that shown in the above example. If T becomes too large, the ve-
hicle may drift out of its travel lane. To prevent this, spiral transitions are used to
accommodate the natural vehicle path.
Figure Appendix D-16
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-20
Length of Spiral
The length of the spiral that each vehicle requires varies. The minimum length of
the spiral can be calculated using the law of mechanics, but this approach generally
yields lengths much shorter than the superelevation runoff lengths. It is therefore
convenient to use the superelevation runoff length as the length of spiral, since the
lengths are conservative and the superelevation gradually increases as the radius
decreases (i.e. as the curvature of the spiral transition gets sharper).
5. Compound and Reverse Curves
Compound and reverse curves can sometimes be used advantageously in certain
design situations. Restrict their use to cases in which nonconsecutive curves with or
without spirals are not effective and do not fit the terrain and proposed alignment.
The ratio of the larger radius curve to the smaller radius curve should not be greater
than 1.5/1 for highways with design speeds in excess of 30 mph. This figure is
based on the assumption that the direction of travel is in the direction of the larger
radius curve to the smaller radius curve. If the converse is the case, with the smaller
radius curve coming first, then the 1.5/1 ratio is not as critical but should be less than
2.0/1.0.
Superelevation runoff should be carefully considered for compound and reverse
curves.
Appendix D
Survey Manual - 2001 Appendix D-21
Figure Appendix D-17
Figure Appendix D-18
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
Survey Manual - 2001
Appendix D-22
Figure Appendix D-19
Compound Curvature Design Considerations
Superelevation and crown runoff areas demand careful considerations for
consecutive curves in the same or opposite directions. WYDOT considers
the desirable length of normal crown tangent to be a minimum of 200 ft
between consecutive curve sections.
If there is not room for 200 ft of normal crown tangent, or if the total tangent
length between curves is less than two-thirds S1 +two-thirds S2 (see Figure
Appendix D-19), the designer will want to consider alternate means of pro-
viding superelevation runoff distance.
Although there are several ways to design these areas, there is no one best
approach, so the several methods that can be used are covered herein. The
designer will need to decide which method or combination of methods is the
most adequate and appropriate for the given situation.
1. Two-thirds of superelevation runoff is typically off the curve while
one-third is typically on the curve. Consider running off up to one-
half of the superelevation on the curve.
2. The designer can use a tangent section with .01 crown between curves
to reduce the crown runoff length.
3. If consecutive curves are curbing the same direction (their centers
are on the same side), then consider holding .02 reverse crown be-
tween the superelevation runoff areas.
4. The designer can have the superelevation of the first curve transition
directly into the superelevation rate of the second consecutive curve,
taking care to avoid drainage problems on long, flat curves and also
on the high/low point on vertical curves.
5. For two-lane undivided highways rotated about the centerline, the
designer may consider eliminating the 1.5 factor from the edgeline
gradient formula used in the superelevation tables, allowing the
superelevation rotation rate of the roadway to increase, thereby short-
ening the runoff length.