9.2 - Production of Materials

HSC - Stage 6 2 Unit Chemistry
9.2 Production of Materials:

. Construct word and balanced formulae equations of all chemical
reactions as they are encountered in this module:
BASIC reactions to remember:
Acid reactions:
acid + base salt + water
acid + metal salt + hydrogen gas
acid + carbonate carbon dioxide gas + salt + water
Complete combustion:
hydrocarbon + oxygen water + carbon dioxide
Dislacement reactions:
Y + !anion" + Y !anion"# where Y $ on activity series%
Alkene/alkane reactions:
Crac!in" o& pentane:
pentane ethylene + propane
C'H(2 !g" C2H) !g" + C*H+ !g"
#ydro"enation o& ethylene:
ethylene + hydrogen ethane
C2H) !g" + H2 !g" C2H6 !g"
#ydration o& ethylene:
ethylene + water ethanol
C2H) !g" + H2, !l" C2H',H !l"
#alo"enation !more speci&ically- Chlorination" o& ethylene:
ethylene + chlorine (-2-dichloroethane
C2H) !g" + Cl2 !g" C2H)Cl2 !l"
#ydrohalo"enation !more speci&ically- #ydrofluorination" o& ethylene:
ethylene + hydrogen &l.oride &l.oroethane
Copyright / 2001# 2hmad Shah 3dil
C2H) !g" + H4l !g" C2H'4l !g"
5eaction o& cyclohe$ene with bromine water:
cyclohexene + bromine + water 2-bromo-(-cyclohexanol + hydrogen
bromide
C6H(0 !l" + 6r2 !a7" + H2, !l" C6H(06r,H !l" + H6r !a7"
Fermentation and other ethanol-based reactions:
Dehydration o& ethanol:
ethanol ethylene + water
C2H',H !l" C2H) !g" + H2, !l"
Combustion o& ethanol:
ethanol + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
C2H',H !l" + *,2 !g" 2C,2 !g" + *H2, !g"
%ermentation o& gl.cose:
gl.cose ethanol + carbon dioxide
C6H(2,6 !a7" 2C2H',H !a7" + 2C,2 !g"
Electrochemistry:
Dislacement o& copper &rom sol.tion d.e to 8inc:
8inc + copper s.l&ate 8inc s.l&ate + copper
9n !s" + C.S,) !a7" 9nS,) !a7" + C. !s"
&onic equation o& this reaction:
8inc + copper!33" ion + s.l&ate ion 8inc!33" ion + s.l&ate ion + copper
9n + C.
2+
+ S,)
2-
9n
2+
+ S,)
2-
+ C.
'et ionic equation o& this reaction:
8inc + copper!33" ion 8inc!33" ion + copper
9n !s" + C.
2+
!a7" 9n
2+
!a7" + C. !s"
#alf(equations o& this e7.ation:
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C.
). %ossil fuels ro*ide both ener"y and raw materials such as ethylene+ for
the roduction of other substances:
RECALL:
2n 2;<2=> is a hydrocarbon with ,=;Y single bonds between the carbons%
2n 2;<>=> is a hydrocarbon with ( or ?,5> do.ble bonds between carbons%
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the
fractions from the refining of etroleum:
Petroleum !cr.de oil" is a complex mixt.re o& hydrocarbons consisting mainly o&
al@anes and smaller 7.antities o& other hydrocarbons s.ch as al@enes%
,thylene !systematic name: ethene"- C2H)- is one o& the most .se&.l s.bstances in
the petrochemical ind.stry- and is in e!tremely high demand%
Crac!in" is the process o& Abrea@ingB large hydrocarbon molec.les into smaller
length chains- .sing heat !C"%
,-: the crac@ing o& pentane into ethylene and propane:

Cr.de oil is separated into its di&&erent components .sing &ractional distillation%
5eason &or Crac@ing:
3n re&ineries- the o.tp.t o& prod.cts D,>S =,E match the economic demand#
>EHY;>=> is in Fery high demand- b.t it only ma@es .p a Fery small
percentage o& cr.de oil%
Eo match the demand &or ethylene- low-demand- long-chain hydrocarbons are
Acrac@edB and ethylene is prod.ced%
Ehere are two &orms o& crac@ing- catalytic crac@ing and thermal crac@ing%
Catalytic Crac!in":
3n this process- carried o.t in a Acat-crac@erB- long alkane molec.les !C(' -
C2'" are bro@en into G.st two molec.les- an al@ane and an al@ene%
Ehis &orm o& crac@ing .ses a C2E2;YSE to brea@ the al@anes%
Ehe catalyst .sed are "eolite crystals:
9eolites are al.minosilicates !compo.nds made o& al.mini.m- silicon and
oxygen"- with small amo.nts o& metal ions attached%
Ehe reaction is carried o.t at '00HC- in the absence o& air- with press.re G.st
aboFe atmospheric press.re%
Ehis process .ses less heat than EH>5?2; crac@ing- b.t it cannot
decompose large molec.les comletely into ethylene- so it is ins.&&icient in
meeting the demands o& the ind.stry%
.hermal Crac!in":
2lso called AsteamB crac@ing%
Ehis process does not .se a catalyst- only Fery high temperat.res%
Ehe long-chain al@anes are passed thro.gh metal t.bes at temperat.res o&
100HC to (000HC- at press.re aboFe atmospheric%
Ehe al@anes are decomposed comletely into ethylene and other short chains%
Ehe .se o& steam is that is allows &or easy &low o& hydrocarbon gases- it
dil.tes the mixt.re to create smooth reactions- and it remoFes carbon deposits
in the metal t.bes%
Identify that ethylene# because of the high reactivity of its double bond# is
readily transformed into many useful roducts:
>thylene has a highly reactiFe do.ble-bond# 3t is a site o& Fery H3IH
>;>CE5,= D>=S3EY% ,ne o& the bonds readily brea@s- creating two new
bonding sites on the molec.le:

2DD3E3,= reactions are a type o& reaction ethylene can .ndergo# in these
reactions- one bond in the do.ble bond is bro@en- and the two atoms in a diatomic
molec.le are AaddedB on%
Ehere are many types o& addition reactions:
#ydro"enation: Hydrogen is reacted with ethylene- .sing a platin.m catalyst
at ('0HC% Ehe prod.ct is ethane%

#ydration: >thylene is reacted with water- .sing phosphoric acid as a
catalyst- to prod.ce ethanol% Ehis is an ind.strially important reaction%

#alo"enation: 5eactiFe molec.les &rom the halogen gro.p !4l2- Cl2 and 6r2"
can all react with ethylene% ,-: Chlorine molec.le reacting with ethylene
&orms (-2-dichloroethane%

#ydrohalo"enation: 3n this reaction- a hydrohalogen !s.ch as HCl or H4l"
and ethylene react to &orm a halo-ethane% ,-: H4l reacting with ethylene
&orms &l.oroethane%

Ehe ?23= adFantage o& the do.ble bond is that ethylene can .ndergo
polymerisation- a Fery important reaction that will be disc.ssed later%
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from $hich olymers are made:
Polymerisation is the chemical reaction in which many identical small molec.les
combine to &orm one Fery large molec.le%
Ehe small identical molec.les are called ?,=,?>5S- and the large molec.le is
called a J,;Y?>5%
6eca.se o& its reactiFe do.ble bond- ethylene is able to .ndergo polymerisation#
ethylene- a monomer- &orms the polymer poly!ethylene"%
Identify olyethylene as an addition olymer and e!lain the meaning of
this term:
3n an addition olymerisation reaction- no additional molec.les !e%g% water" are
prod.ced there is no gain or loss o& atoms- the do.ble bond simply AopensB and
monomers attach%
Jolyethylene is an addition polymer- as the ethylene molec.les combine with each
other in the &ollowing way:

2s can be seen- no extra molec.les are prod.ced% 2 more realistic representation
o& the polyethylene polymer !with nine repeating .nits" is:

%utline the stes in the roduction of olyethylene as an e!amle of a
commercially and industrially imortant olymer:
>thylene is a commercially and ind.strially important polymer%
Ehere are two methods &or its prod.ction:
#i"h Pressure Method: 3n this process- ethylene is s.bGected to press.res o&
(00-*00 ?Ja- with temperat.re in excess o& *00HC% 2 molec.le- called the
initiator- is introd.ced- .s.ally a peroxide% Ehe initiator starts o&& a chain-
reaction- creating the polyethylene macromolec.le%
Ehis process creates 652=CH>D chains o& polyethylene that cannot be
pac@ed together tightly% Eh.s branched polyethylene is called low-density
polyethylene !;DJ>"%
/ie"ler('atta Process: Ehis process .ses only a &ew atmospheres o& press.re
and temperat.res o& abo.t 60HC% 2 catalyst is .sed: it is a mixt.re o& titani.m
!333" chloride and a trial@ylal.mini.m compo.nd%
Ehis process creates U=652=CH>D chains o& polyethylene that can be
pac@ed together Fery densely% Eh.s .nbranched polyethylene is called
high-density polyethylene !HDJ>"%
Ehe steps ta@en to prod.ce the polymer are the same in both methods- b.t the
initiator molec.le is di&&erent:
3=3E32E3,=: Ehe initiator molec.le is added to the ethylene container# in the
diagram below- it is shown as a ero!ide radical !an oxygen compo.nd with a
&ree electron"% Ehe initiator reacts with one ethylene molec.le- brea@ing its
do.ble bond- and attaches to only ,=> bonding site- creating an ethylene-
initiator 52D3C2;% Ehe KdotL represents a &ree- highly reactiFe- electron%

J5,J2I2E3,=: 2nother ethylene monomer attaches to this radical- opening
another bonding site- then another attaches- and so on- rapidly increasing the
length o& the chain% ,ne o& these reactions:

5epeating this reaction many times giFes a general &orm.la:

E>5?3=2E3,=: Ehe reaction stops !terminates" when two s.ch chains
collide and the two radicals react- &orming a longer chain% Ehis is a random
process- so the length o& polyethylene chains can Fary greatly% !Ehe peroxide
initiator is eFent.ally eng.l&ed by the reaction- and so is no longer present at
termination":

Identify vinyl chloride and styrene as commercially significant monomers by
both their systematic and common names:
0inyl Chloride:
SYSE>?2E3C =2?>: Chloroethene%
4,5?U;2: C2H*Cl or CH2MCHCl
3t is an ethylene molec.le with one o& its
hydrogen atoms s.bstit.ted with a chlorine atom%
3t can &orm polyFinyl chloride- a Fery important
polymer%
Diagram o& polyFinyl chloride:

1tyrene:
SYSE>?2E3C =2?>: Jhenylethene%
4,5?U;2: C+H+ or CH2M CHC6H'
Styrene is an ethylene molec.le with one o& its
hydrogen atoms replaced by a ben8ene ring%
2 ben8ene ring is a six-carbon ring with
alternating do.ble-bonds% Ehe do.ble bonds
within ben8ene are not reactiFe# b.t the do.ble bonds in al@enes are
reactiFe%
3t &orms polystyrene%
Diagram o& polystyrene:
&escribe the uses of the olymers made from the above monomers in terms
of their roerties:
2ow(Density Polyethylene 32DP,4:
Uses 5elated to Jroperties:
Jlastic cling wrap# beca.se it is &lexible- clear and non-toxic%
Disposable shopping bags# beca.se it is cheap and relatiFely strong%
?il@ bottles# as it is non-toxic- cheap- .n-reactiFe and recyclable%
#i"h(Density Polyethylene 3#DP,4:
<itchen .tensils and containers# as it is strong and non-toxic%
5.bbish bins# it is rigid- only slightly &lexible and hard%
Jipes and other b.ilding materials# it is rigid- hard- and .n-reactiFe%
Poly*inyl Chloride 3P0C4:
Iarden hoses# it can contain UN inhibitors# it is relatiFely .n-reactiFe-
&lexible- and d.rable% Can be so&tened with plasticisers%
Jipes and g.ttering# it is Fery rigid and hard- and .n-reactiFe% 3t is also
easily shaped%
Crystal Polystyrene:
CD cases and cassette tapes# .sed beca.se polystyrene is clear- hard- rigid-
easily shaped- and is a good ins.lator%
Screw driFer handles and @itchen c.pboard handles# Fery d.rable and
strong- hard and in&lexible%
,$anded Polystyrene:
Jac@aging- and disposable c.ps# it is light !&.ll o& air"- cheap- and it is a
thermal ins.lator%
So.nd-proo&ing# it is a shoc@ absorbent material- light- easily shaped%
PRACTICAL ' Identify data# lan and erform a first-hand investigation to
comare the reactivities of aroriate alkenes $ith the corresonding
alkanes in bromine $ater:
3n this experiment an al@ene !cyclohe!ene" and its corresponding al@ane
!cyclohe!ane"- were placed in a sol.tion o& yellow bromine water%
5,162.: 3t was obserFed that cyclohexene t.rned the bromine water colo.rless-
whereas the cyclohexane sol.tion remained yellow%
Eh.s ,=;Y cyclohexene reacted with the bromine water- and th.s the al@ene was
said to be more reactiFe than its corresponding al@ane# this is d.e to the do.ble
bond o& the al@ene%
5eaction:
761.&%8 the method:
Cyclohexene and cyclohexane were .sed- instead o& ethylene or propene
beca.se C( to C) are gases at room temperat.re- and wo.ld be hard to
manage# cyclohexene is li7.id at room temperat.re%
2lso cyclohexeneOane was .sed instead o& hexeneOane beca.se cyclic
hydrocarbons are more stable than their linear co.nterparts%
2&M&.A.&9'1 o& the method:
Ehe al@ane reacted slightly- as UN radiation ca.sed slow s.bstit.tion
reactions%
1A%,.8 preca.tions:
6romine water is highly toxic i& ingested- and is slightly corrosiFe%
Cyclohexene and cyclohexane are both poisono.s i& ingested- and both giFe
o&& &.mes- as they are highly Folatile and highly &lammable%
PRACTICAL ' Analyse information from secondary sources such as
comuter simulations# molecular model kits or multimedia resources to
model the olymerisation rocess:
3n this experiment- molecular modellin" !its were .sed to show how
polyethylene is prod.ced thro.gh the polymerisation o& ethylene%
Ehe class was diFided into gro.ps- and each gro.p was proFided with a @it%
* ethylene monomers were created by each gro.p- with black balls representing
carbons and smaller- $hite balls representing hydrogen%
Ehen the monomers were ApolymerisedB: each gro.p combined their monomers
with eFery other gro.p .ntil a large chain was created a section o& polyethylene%
761.&%8 the method:
Ehe models created a *D representation o& the chemical process- which led to
greater .nderstanding o& polymerisation%
Ehe .se o& ball-and-stic@ models- depicting the do.ble-bond with &lexible
r.bber rods- greater increased .nderstanding o& the process%
Ehe model only proFided a Fery limited section o& a polyethylene molec.le- as
there were limited n.mbers o& @its%
Ehe .se o& catalysts !s.ch as 9eigler-=atta catalysts" was not shown in the
process- and th.s it was not completely acc.rate%
2. 1ome scientists research the e$traction of materials from biomass to
reduce our deendence on fossil fuels:
RECALL:
Addition polymers &orm =, extra molec.les when their monomers Goin together%
Ehis type o& polymerisation reaction occ.rs d.e to a do.ble-bond opening-
creating 2 new bonding sites%
&iscuss the need for alternative sources of the comounds resently
obtained from the etrochemical industry:
Ehere is an oFerwhelming need &or alternatiFe so.rces o& compo.nds that are
presently deriFed &rom the petrochemical ind.stry !i%e% crude oil"%
Ehis is beca.se cr.de oil is a &ossil &.el- and is hence a non-renewable reso.rce%
6ased on c.rrent .sage statistics- cr.de oil reserFes co.ld be completely .sed .p
within a &ew decades%
Compo.nds obtained &rom the petrochemical ind.stry haFe two .ses:
Ehe prod.ction o& ener"y: +)P o& cr.de oil is .sed to prod.ce energy% Ehis
incl.des petrol and diesel &or cars- heating oil- Get-engine oil and ;JI%
Ehe prod.ction o& materials: Ehe other (6P is .sed to prod.ce polymers-
pharmace.ticals- and other extremely important chemicals%
Some o& the materials created &rom cr.de oil cannot be deriFed by any other ways
!or wo.ld be m.ch too expensiFe to synthesise"- so once cr.de oil is exha.sted-
there will be no way to prod.ce them%
3t has been arg.ed that alternatiFe &.els be created so that cr.de-oil can be
reserFed &or .se by the petrochemical ind.stry to create materials%
Ehe increasing cost o& cr.de oil in this c.rrent day and age is another &actor%
2lso- many co.ntries that contrib.te a signi&icant portion o& the worldBs cr.de oil
are Fery economically and politically .nstable- with &ragile in&rastr.ct.re- and
s.pply &rom these co.ntries can be Fery erratic%
,ne o& the most appealing replacements &or cr.de-oil deriFed compo.nds is
cell.lose# this is beca.se it contains all the carbon-chain str.ct.res needed &or the
prod.ction o& materials- and it is so remar@ably ab.ndant on >arth%
E!lain $hat is meant by a condensation olymer:
2 condensation polymer is a polymer that prod.ces >E52 molec.les !.s.ally
water" when its monomers combine%
>xamples incl.de nat.ral polymers s.ch as cell.lose- starch- protein- D=2- and
man.&act.red polymer &abrics s.ch as sil@- polyester and nylon%
&escribe the reaction involved $hen a condensation olymer is formed:
3n condensation- the monomers react differently than in addition reactions%
Ehere is no do.ble-bond that opens !as in addition"# the 4U=CE3,=2; I5,UJS
o& the two monomers react together- &orming a new bond and water%
,- ( Cell.lose:
Cell.lose is a nat.ral polymer &ormed thro.gh the polymerisation o& gl.cose
-lucose- C6H(2,6- is the monomer in this polymer%
Ehe reaction occ.rs between 2 hydroxyl gro.ps- &orming a glycosidic bond:
2s can be seen- the reaction sites are the hydroxyl !,H
-
" gro.ps on the &irst
and &o.rth carbons !C-( and C-)"%
>ach gl.cose molec.le has 2 reaction sites# that is why it can polymerise%
,ne C-,H bonds to another C-,H- &orming a C-,-C bond !glycosidic bond"%
Ehe le&t oFer H
+
and ,H
-
combine- &orming water%
&escribe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an e!amle of a
condensation olymer found as a ma(or comonent of biomass:
Cell.lose is a nat.rally occ.rring condensation polymer !a bioolymer"
3t is the single most ab.ndant polymer on >arth- ma@ing .p abo.t '0P o& the total
biomass o& the planet !biomass is the mass o& all organisms in a giFen area"%
3t is long polymer chain made o& repeating gl.cose monomer .nits- which 4;3J
&or eFery alternate gl.cose- as can be seen in the aboFe diagram%
2boFe- the str.ct.re o& gl.cose is 7.ite cl.ttered% Eo demonstrate a section o& a
cell.lose chain- a simpli&ied &orm o& gl.cose will be .sed%
Il.cose# in short-&orm:
3t is ass.med that at
eFery corner- there is a
carbon atom%
Hydrogen atoms are not
shown- b.t are also
ass.med to be there- and are ded.ced by @nowing that carbon ma@es ) bonds%
Hence- the str.ct.re o& cell.lose can be shown as:

2s can be seen- it is a Fery linear molec.le- d.e to its straight chains%
Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to
build etrochemicals and discuss its otential as a ra$ material:
Ehe 62S3C carbon-chain str.ct.res that are .sed to ma@e petrochemicals are
short-chained al@enes s.ch as ethylene !2C"- roene !*C" and butene !)C"%
Il.cose- the basic str.ct.re in cell.lose- is a 6C molec.le%
Hence it has to potential to be trans&ormed into the aboFe compo.nds%
Ehe Jotential o& Cell.lose as a 5aw ?aterial:
2ltho.gh theoretically- cell.lose can proFide limitless amo.nts o& renewable
raw materials- this is c.rrently too expensiFe and impractical%
Ehis is beca.se in order to deriFe ethylene- etc%- &rom cell.lose- &irstly-
cell.lose m.st be bro@en into gl.cose !.sing either bacterial digestion or
acidic decomposition"- then &ermented !with yeast" into ethanol and then
dehydrated !.sing H2S,)" into ethene# this is a lengthy and expensiFe process%
Hence- cell.lose has great potential- b.t is c.rrently not economical%
REPORT ' )se available evidence to gather and resent data from
secondary sources and analyse rogress in the recent develoment and use
of a named bioolymer* +his analysis should name the secific en"yme,s-
used or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the
use or otential use of the olymer roduced related to its roerties:
'ame of :ioolymer: 6iopolQ
3t is made o& olyhydro!ybutyrate !JH6" and olyhydro!yvalerate !JHN"%
9r"anism 6sed:
2lcaligenes e.troph.s !a bacteri.m"%
Production:
3n ind.strial prod.ction- 2% >.troph.s is grown in an enFironment favourable
to its gro$th to create a Fery large pop.lation o& bacteria !s.ch as high
nitrates- phosphates and other n.trients"%
Rhen a s.&&iciently large pop.lation has been prod.ced- the enFironment is
changed to one that is high in glucose- high in Faleric acid and low in
nitrogen%
Ehis .nnat.ral enFironment ind.ces the prod.ction o& the polymer by the
bacteri.m# the polymer is act.ally a nat.ral &at storage material- created by the
2 >.troph.s in adFerse conditions%
;arge amo.nts o& a chlorinated hydrocarbon- s.ch as trichloromethane are
added to the bacteriaOpolymer mix# this dissolFes the polymer%
Ehe mixt.re is then &iltered to remoFe the bacteria%
Ehe polymer is extracted &rom the hydrocarbon solFent as a powder- which is
then melted or treated &.rther to create a .sable polymer%
Proerties:
3t is 63,D>I52D26;> and 63,C,?J2E36;>
3t is non-toxic- insol.ble in water- permeable to oxygen- resistant to UN light-
acids and bases- high melting point- high tensile strength%
6ses in 5elation to Proerties:
3t has many medical applications !e%g% biocompatible stiches that dissolFe or
are absorbed by the body"%
Disposable containers &or shampoo- cosmetics- mil@ bottles- etc%- as it only
ta@es 2 years to decompose bac@ into nat.ral components%
Disposable ra8ors- c.tlery- r.bbish bags- plastic plates- etc%
Ad*anta"es:
3t is biodegradable- .nli@e polyethylene and other petrole.m deriFed plastics-
and so will help to red.ce leFels o& r.bbish in land&ills%
3t is compatible with organisms !biocompatible"# it is not reGected by the
bodyBs imm.ne system and so can be .sed sa&ely%
3t is a renewable reso.rce%
Disad*anta"es:
3t is c.rrently Fery expensiFe- and c.rrently the demand is not high eno.gh &or
it to be economically Fiable%
%uture De*eloments:
5ecently- the gene &or prod.cing 6iopol polymer strands &rom the 2lcaligenes
>.troph.s bacteria was extracted and implanted into >% coli .sing genetic
engineering techni7.es% >% coli bacteria are m.ch easier to grow than other
bacteria- and th.s are cheaper%
=.trient so.rces are starting to be deriFed &rom waste materials- s.ch as
molasses and other agric.lt.ral wastes% Ehis greatly red.ces costs%
;. 9ther resources+ such as ethanol+ are readily a*ailable from renewable
resources such as lants:
RECALL:
2 J,;25 coFalent bond is a bond where one o& the atoms in it is more
electronegatiFe than the other- and so the bond has a slight charge%
,lectrone"ati*ity is the ability o& an atom to attract electrons# the more electro-
negatiFe an atom- the stronger it will hold onto electrons in a chemical bond%
Ehe order o& electronegatiFity- &rom most electronegatiFe to least- &or releFant
atoms is: fluorine- o!ygen- chlorine- nitrogen- carbon and then hydrogen*
4or example- a bond between oxygen and hydrogen is a polar
bond beca.se oxygen holds onto negatiFe electrons stronger#
th.s- in this bond- oxygen is slightly negatiFe%
1olubility 5ules:
Jolar s.bstances dissolFe other polar s.bstances: Ehis is beca.se the slightly
negatiFe end is attracted to the slightly positiFe end o& another polar bond-
&orming a slight intermolec.lar bond%
=on-polar s.bstances dissolFe other non-polar s.bstances: Ehis is d.e to Fery
wea@ dispersion &orces between molec.les%
&escribe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this rocess and the catalyst used:
Ehe dehydration o& ethanol is the chemical process
whereby a water molec.le is remoFed &rom ethanol-
&orming ethylene%
Dehydration o& ethanol:
ethanol ethylene + water
C2H',H !l" C2H) !g" + H2, !l"
2n acid catalyst !concentrated s.l&.ric acid" is needed
beca.se the acid brea@s the C-,H and C-H bonds- allowing the &ormation o& a
do.ble-bond and water !it also red.ces the actiFation energy"%
S.l&.ric acid is the chosen acid- beca.se it is also a power&.l dehydrating agent%
&escribe the addition of $ater to ethylene resulting in the roduction of
ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this rocess and the catalyst
used:
Ehe hydration o& ethylene is the chemical process
whereby a water molec.le is added to ethylene-
&orming ethanol%
#ydration o& ethylene:
ethylene + water ethanol
C2H) !g" + H2, !l" C2H',H !l"
3n this case- the acid catalyst !concentrated
phosphoric acid" opens the do.ble bond- allowing
water to attach- &orming ethanol%
&escribe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for olar
and non-olar substances:
See RECALL aboFe%
Ethanol is able to act as a solFent &or polar- non-polar and some ionic s.bstances
d.e to its .ni7.e molec.lar str.ct.re:

2s can be seen- ethanol is not completely polar or completely non-polar:
Ehe 9#
(
gro.p: Ehis section is polar- and as a res.lt- can &orm polar bonds
with other polar s.bstances- s.ch as water%
Ehe C#*C#2
<
gro.p: C-H and C-C bonds are non-polar- and hence this
section is non-polar% 3t can share dispersion &orces with other non-polar
s.bstances- and dissolFe them# &or e%g% heptane%
Hence it is a widely .sed solFent &or per&.mes- dyes- pharmace.ticals- etc%
%utline the use of ethanol as a fuel and e!lain $hy it can be called a
rene$able resource:
Combustion is the reaction whereby a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to &orm
carbon dioxide and water Fapo.r- releasing energy%
>thanol is able to .ndergo comb.stion- so it can be .sed as a &.el:
C2H',H !l" + *,2 !g" 2C,2 !g" + *H2, !g"
Despite its short chain- ethanol is a li7.id !d.e to strong polar bonds"%
Ehis ma@es it an easily transportable &.el- and th.s has been .sed &or many years
&or o.tdoor camping- hi@ers- etc%
3t has also been .sed as a &.el-additiFe in a.tomobiles- .p to abo.t 20P ethanol%
2s a renewable reso.rce:
>thanol can be a renewable reso.rce beca.se it can be deriFed &rom non-&ossil
&.el so.rces- s.ch as the &ermentation o& gl.cose%
Ehis gl.cose can be deriFed &rom bacterial decomposition o& cell.lose !a
renewable Fery ab.ndant material" or &rom starch !mainly &rom corn crops"%
Assess the otential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of its use:
Jotential o& >thanol:
+0P o& the worldBs demand &or transportation &.els is petrole.m deriFed%
HoweFer- as the price o& petrole.m contin.es to rise- the concept o& other
&.els as alternatiFes becomes more attractiFe%
2pproximately + million Fehicles worldwide r.n on ethanolOpetrol blends%
*0P o& 6ra8ilian a.tomobiles r.n on at least 2'P ethanol &.els%
?any other co.ntries s.ch as China and So.th 2&rica are inFesting money in
researching the potential o& ethanol as a &.el%
3n 2.stralia- s.gar cane and wheat haFe been &ermented to prod.ce ethanol-
b.t here- it is c.rrently an .neconomic proposition%
2DN2=E2I>S o& ethanol:
3t is a rene$able reso.rce%
3t is Kgreenho.seL neutral# that is- the C,2 absorbed by the crop !e%g% corn"
can match the C,2 prod.ced by comb.stion !i& Fery e&&icient"%
6eca.se ethanol has less carbon than octane !the maGor component o& petrol"-
as well as the &act it already contains an oxygen atom- it re7.ires less oxygen
to comletely comb.st# hence it is a C;>2=>5 and ?,5> >443C3>=E &.el%
Jrod.ces only carbon dioxide and water as a by-prod.ct%
D3S2DN2=E2I>S o& ethanol:
>ngines m.st be modified to r.n on &.el containing more than 20P ethanol%
>ngines $ear do$n &aster d.e to the need &or higher engine compression
ratios needed &or ethanol comb.stion%
;arge areas o& land are re7.ired to grow crops that will be harFested &or
ethanol prod.ction# land that can be .sed &or other p.rposes%
Disposal o& &ermentation wastes presents maGor enFironmental iss.es%
.rocess information from secondary sources to summarise the use of
ethanol as an alternative car fuel# evaluating the success of current usage:
Ehere are a &ew &orms in which ethanol can be .sed as an alternatiFe car &.el#
these incl.de ethanol/etrol mi$tures- very ure ethanol fuels- and ethanol-
o$ered fuel cells:
>thanolOJetrol ?ixt.res: Signi&icant 7.antities o& (0P ethanol are sold in
some parts o& 2.stralia# howeFer- there has not been m.ch s.ccess as the
p.blic holds s.spicions abo.t the e&&ect o& ethanol on their engines%
HoweFer- in other co.ntries- ethanolOpetrol mixt.res are Fery s.ccess&.l%
3n the United States- many states re7.ire a minim.m o& (0P ethanol in all &.el
sold% 3n Sweden- +'P ethanol mixt.res are common% 6ra8il re7.ires that 2;;
car engines are able to accept at least 2'P ethanol% Eh.s in certain co.ntries-
.se o& ethanol as a &.el is 7.ite s.ccess&.l%
J.re >thanol 4.els: KJ.reL ethanol is ethanol with 2E ?,SE (P water% 3t is a
Fery clean &.el% >ngines m.st be modi&ied to deal with s.ch high leFels o&
ethanol% 3t is c.rrently being .sed in 6ra8il and 2rgentina as a complete
alternatiFe to gasoline% 2 7.arter o& all 6ra8ilian cars r.n on p.re ethanol% 3t
has proFen to be a Fery e&&icient &.el%
>thanol 4.el-Cells: Ehis is still in an experimental stage# it is the proposition
that &.el cells be .sed to r.n cars# s.ccess o& s.ch a scheme is still not @nown%
&escribe the conditions under $hich fermentation of sugars is romoted:
%ermentation is the biochemical process in which glucose is t.rned into ethanol
and carbon dioxide by the action o& en8ymes prod.ced by microbes !esp% yeast"%
Ehe conditions .nder which &ermentation is promoted are:
Jresence o& s.itable grain or &r.it made into a p.lp with water%
Jresence o& yeast c.lt.res%
Ehe excl.sion o& air !anaerobic enFironment"%
Ehe temperat.re is @ept at abo.t *1HC%
.resent information from secondary sources by $riting a balanced e/uation
for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol:
%ermentation o& gl.cose:

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation rocess:
Yeast is added to mashed grain and water%
Ehe yeast and other microbes brea@ down the large carbohydrates !e%g% starch or
s.crose" into simple s.gars !gl.cose or &r.ctose" which are then &ermented%
s.crose + water gl.cose + &r.ctose
C(2H22,(( !a7" + H2, !l" C6H(2,6 !a7" + C6H(2,6 !a7"
3n an oxygen-&ree atmosphere- the yeast .se their en8ymes to brea@ down the
s.gars- &orming ethanol and C,2 as prod.cts%
C6H(2,6 !a7" 2C2H',H !a7" + 2C,2 !g"
Rhen ethanol concentration reaches ('P- the yeast die and &ermentation SE,JS%
Distillation is .sed to obtain higher ethanol concentrations !S'-(00P"%
.rocess information from secondary sources to summarise the rocesses
involved in the industrial roduction of ethanol from sugar cane:
Ehe industrial roduction o& ethanol &rom s.gar-cane .ses a &ew more chemicals
!some o& which are toxic" and processes compared to ethanol prod.ced &or
cons.mption# also s.garcane is higher in simple s.gars compared to corn starch%
Ehis is a s.mmary o& the process:
Ehe s.gar-cane crop is harFested# the whole plant is then cr.shed and grinded
to create a cell.loseOs.gar p.lp%
Ehe p.lp is heated to (00HC- and dil.te s.l&.ric acid is added% Ehis hydrolyses
the cell.lose and s.crose into gl.cose molec.les%
Ehe mixt.re is &iltered to separate the gl.cose sol.tion &rom the solid resid.es
o& lignin and .nbro@en cell.lose%
Ehe solids resid.e is &.rther hydrolysed with stronger acids and &iltered again%
Calci.m hydroxide is added to the s.gar sol.tion remaining to ne.tralise the
s.l&.ric acid# an insol.ble salt !precipitate" o& calci.m s.l&ate is &ormed%
Ehe sol.tion is &iltered again to remoFe solid calci.m s.l&ate particles%
Ehe sol.tion is then placed in an oxygen-&ree tan@- warmed to *1HC- and
s.itable yeast c.lt.res are added%
2&ter ('P concentration is reached- the sol.tion is distilled to prod.ce high
concentration ind.strial grade ethanol%
&efine the molar heat of combustion of a comound and calculate the value
for ethanol from first-hand data:
Ehe molar heat of combustion is the heat energy released when one mole o& a
s.bstance .ndergoes complete comb.stion with oxygen at a press.re o& (0(%* @Ja
!or ( atmosphere"- with the &inal prod.cts being C,2 and H2,%
4orm.la &or change in heat:

4or the calc.lation o& the molar heat o& comb.stion o& ethanol- the &ollowing &irst
hand Fal.es- were .sed !&rom 200( HSC- T(1":

3n this case- the &orm.la &or CH is applied to the water !the KsystemL":
CE M 'S (S M )0 <
m M 2'0 g M 0%2' @g
C M )%(+ x (0
*
U @g
-(
<
-(
!Ehis Fal.e is a constant# giFen in exams"
Ehere&ore: CH M -0%2' x )%(+ x (0
*
x )0
M -)(+00 Go.les !U"
M -)(%+ @iloGo.les !@U"
6.t the change in mass o& the b.rner was 2%* grams- there&ore only 2%* grams o&
ethanol was comb.sted%
?oles M mass O molar mass M 2%* O )6 M 0%0' mol
Ehere&ore- -)(%+ @UO0%0' mol M -+*6 @UOmol
Hence- the experimental molar heat o& comb.stion o& ethanol is (=;> !7?mol%
Identify the I).AC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C0 to
C1:
Al!anols are a gro.p o& al@anes where one or more hydrogens haFe been replaced
by the hydro!yl !,H" &.nctional gro.p
Rhen naming al@anols- there are speci&ic r.les:
Ehe n.mber o& carbons determines the pre&ix o& the name:
@CAs ( 2 * ) ' 6 1 +
Prefi$ methane- ethane- propane- b.tane- pentane- hexane- hepane- octane-
3& there is only ,=> hydroxyl gro.p- the KeL is dropped &rom the pre&ix and
the s.&&ix K(olL is added% Ehe carbon the hydroxyl is on m.st also be stated#
this is written be&ore the pre&ix with a KdashL% Ehe carbons- depending on how
long the chain is- are n.mbered &rom ( to +%
,.-. Ehis al@anol has ' carbons- b.t only one
hydroxyl- so its pre&ix is Kpentan-L- and its s.&&ix
is K-olL% 2lso- the hydroxyl is on the 2
nd
carbon
!the n.mber is ta@en either &rom the le&t ,5 the right# the S?2;;>5
n.mber m.st be ta@en"% H>=C> this al@anol is 2(entanol
3=C,55>CE naming wo.ld be )-pentanol%
3& there is more than one hydroxyl gro.p- the s.&&ixes are !(-)":
'o. of 9#As ( 2 * )
1uffi$ -ol -diol -triol -tetraol
4or more than one carbon- the KeL at the end o& the pre&ix is =,E dropped%
Ehe positions o& the ,H gro.ps m.st be stated% 3& there are 2 hydroxyls on the
same carbon- then the n.mber is written twice- with a comma in between:
,.-. Ehis al@anol has 6 carbons- and *
hydroxyl gro.ps so its pre&ix is Khexane-L and
its s.&&ix is K-triolL% 2lso- one hydroxyl is on
the (
st
carbon- while the other 2 are on the *
rd
carbon% H>=C>- the 3UJ2C
name &or this al@anol is )+;+;(he$anetriol%
3=C,55>CE naming wo.ld be )-)-6-hexanetriol%
PRACTICAL .rocess information from secondary sources such as
molecular model kits# digital technologies or comuter simulations to model
the addition of $ater to ethylene and the dehydration of ethanol:
Molecular modellin" !its were .sed to model:
the addition o& water to ethylene !hydration"%
the remoFal o& water &rom ethanol !dehydration"%
K6all-and-stic@L @its were .sed- where black balls represented carbons- smaller-
$hite balls representing hydrogen- and red balls represented oxygen%
4irstly- and ethylene molec.le was created- and a water molec.le created:
Ehen- the water molec.le was split into a H
+
ion and an ,H
-
ion%
Ehe do.ble-bond o& ethylene was opened- and the ions were attached where
there were &ree bonding sites# the res.ltant molec.le was ethanol%
Secondly- a separate ethanol molec.le was created:
Ehe hydroxide gro.p !,H
-
" and a hydrogen

was remoFed &rom the ends%
Ehey were combines- and water was &ormed# the two open bonding sites o& the
ethanol were Goined- and ethylene was &ormed%
761.&%8 the method:
Ehe models created a *D representation o& the chemical process- which led to
greater .nderstanding o& dehydration and hydration processes%
Ehe .se o& ball-and-stic@ models- depicting the do.ble-bond with &lexible
r.bber rods- greater increased .nderstanding o& chemical reactions%
6oth were seFerely simpli&ied representations o& chemical processes- which
had many m.ltiple steps and consisted o& a series o& a7.eo.s !dil.te s.l&.ric
acid" or solid catalysts%
PRACTICAL Solve roblems# lan and erform a first-hand investigation
to carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes:
3n this experiment- sucrose sol.tion was &ermented to &orm ethanol and carbon
dioxide% Ehe yeast cells &irst split s.crose into two gl.cose molec.les .sing the
invertase en8yme %
2 2'0 m; side-arm conical &las@ with a
r.bber stopper was .sed% 2 plastic hose was
connected to the side arm- and the end o&
the hose was placed in another conical &las@
in a sol.tion o& lime$ater% =o gas was
allowed to escape the apparat.s:
(00 ml o& 0%(' ? sucrose sol.tion was
placed in the conical &las@% ,=> gram o& active yeast was placed into the s.crose-
along with a pinch o& sodium bihoshate !=a2HJ,)" as a yeast n.trient% Ehis
was mixed thoro.ghly%
Ehe stopper &irmly p.t on- and the &las@ was R>3IH>D with an electronic scale%
Ehe apparat.s was then set .p as shown- with the yeast bea@er in a water bath at a
constant temperat.re !*1HC"%
6oth &las@s were weighed daily &or ' days%
5,162.1:
Ehe yeast &las@ t.rned &oamy and smelt clearly o& alcohol- while the limewater
t.rned clo.dy# this proFed that C,2 and ethanol were prod.ced- and that
&ermentation occ.rred%
Ehe mass o& the yeast &las@ also steadily decreased by abo.t hal& a gram each
day# this is d.e to the carbon dioxide escape# the limewater &las@ also gained
approximately the same mass%
761.&%8 the method:
2 KclosedL system !where no gas was allowed to escape" was .sed to ens.re
an acc.rate experiment%
;imewater was employed to proFe C,2 was prod.ced%
Ehe water bath ens.red that the most optimal &ermentation occ.rred%
2&M&.A.&9'1 o& method:
Ehe combined masses o& both &las@s steadily decreased as well# this was d.e
to ineFitable lea@ages o& gas%
Ehe atmosphere in the &las@s was not anaerobic !oxygen-&ree" and this co.ld
haFe hampered the &ermentation process%
PRACTICAL ' Identify data sources# choose resources and erform a first-
hand investigation to determine and comare heats of combustion of at least
three li/uid alkanols er gram and er mole:
Ehe * al@anols .sed were: methanol- ethanol- and )(roanol
>ach al@anol was placed in a spirit b.rner# the original mass recorded- and then
was .sed to heat 200 m; o& water !at 2'HC" in a tin can%
2 thermometer was .sed to stir the water as well as meas.re the temperat.re
,nce the temperat.re rose by (0 degrees !<elFin or Celsi.s- it doesnBt matter#
they both .se the same scale" the spirit b.rner was capped and immediately
reweighed%
5,162.1:
Ehe CH !change in heat" was calc.lated &or each al@anol by .sing the &orm.la
CH M -mCCE% Ehis was then calc.lated per gram- and then per mole- to giFe
the heat o& comb.stion per gram- as well as the molar heat o& comb.stion%
?ethanol has the lowest Fal.e- &ollowed by ethanol- and then (-propanol%
=,E>: Ehis is not beca.se o& the extra bonds in longer hydrocarbon
chains- b.t rather more bonds need to be created in the prod.cts !H2, and
C,2"# recall that:
creatin" bonds releases energy%
brea!in" bonds absorbs energy%
761.&%8 the method:
2 tin can was .sed as it is a better thermal cond.ctor than a glass bea@er%
?ethanol- ethanol and (-propanol were .sed as they are the shortest al@anols
and th.s are the most li@ely to .ndergo complete comb.stion%
2&M&.A.&9'1 o& method:
?olar heat o& comb.stion re&ers ,=;Y to complete comb.stion# the yellow
&lames and soot &ormed indicated that the comb.stion was incomplete% Eh.s
the experimental data gathered is inacc.rate%
2lso- m.ch heat was lost to the air- as there was not (00P e&&iciency o& heat
trans&er &rom &lame to tin can%
Heat was also radiated &rom the can to the air# ins.lation wo.ld red.ce this%
B. 9$idation(reduction reactions are increasin"ly imortant as a source of
ener"y:
RECALL:
&onic e7.ations are chemical e7.ations where the ionic compo.nds are split into
their ions- displaying their charges# e%g% salts and acids can be split%
,-: Ehe reaction between s.l&.ric acid and magnesi.m:
Chemical e/uation: H2S,) !a7" + ?g !s" ?gS,) !a7" + H2 !g"
Ionic e/uation: 2H
+
+ S,)
2-
+ ?g ?g
2+
+ S,)
2-
+ H2
2s can be seen- the ionic compo.nds- s.l&.ric acid- and magnesi.m s.l&ate were
split% Hydrogen gas is C,N2;>=E- so it cannot be split%
Ehe states !solid- li7.id- etc%" do not need to be written &or ionic e7.ations%
',. ionic e7.ations are ionic e7.ations where the sectator ions are remoFed#
spectator ions are ions !.s.ally polyatomic ions" that remain .nchanged
thro.gho.t the reaction%
;oo@ing at the aboFe acid-metal reaction- the s.l&ate ion !S,)
2-
" is the same on
both sides o& the e7.ation# it remains .nchanged- hence:
2et ionic e/uation: 2H
+
+ ?g ?g
2+
+ H2
E!lain the dislacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of
electrons:
2 dislacement reaction is a reaction in which a more reactiFe metal changes a
less reactiFe metalBs 3,=S into solid 2E,?S% Ehat is- the less reactiFe metalBs
ions are KdisplacedL o.t o& sol.tion and ne.tralised into atoms%
,-: Rhen "inc metal is placed in coer s.l&ate sol.tion- the 8inc will displace
the copper ions- &orming 8inc s.l&ate and solid copper:
Chemical e/uation: 9n !s" + C.S,) !a7" 9nS,) !a7" + C. !s"
Ionic e/uation: 9n + C.
2+
+ S,)
2-
9n
2+
+ S,)
2-
+ C.
2et ionic e/uation: 9n + C.
2+
9n
2+
+ C.
Displacement reactions are act.ally >;>CE5,= E52=S4>5 reactions- where
one s.bstance donates electrons to another# howeFer- this is not clear .ntil yo.
loo@ at the half-e/uations o& the reaction%
#alf(equations are another way o& displaying chemical reactions# the net ionic
e7.ation is split into two KhalFesL !.s.ally- b.t not always- the same element &rom
both sides o& the net ionic e7.ation is ta@en on its own as a hal&-e7.ation"%
4rom aboFe- the two hal& e7.ations are:
9n 9n
2+
C.
2+
C.
H,R>N>5- these are incomplete- as the electrical charges on both sides o& the
e7.ation are not balanced% Hence- a tr.e depiction o& the 2 hal&-reactions:
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C.
,$lanation: 4or 8inc to ionise- it has to giFe .p 2 electrons &rom its o.ter shell%
6.t &or the copper ion to solidi&y !ne.tralise"- it has to gain 2 electrons% Hence- the
net reaction is that 8inc D,=2E>S !or Atrans&ersB" 2 electrons to copper%
Ehere&ore- displacement reactions are electron trans&er reactions%
C 9C&DA.&9' V 5,D6C.&9':
%!idation and reduction reactions !or 5>D, reactions"- are the scienti&ic
way o& saying Aelectron-trans&er reactionsB%
Ehe terms KoxidationL and Kred.ctionL re&er to the two separate hal&-e7.ations
o& a redox reaction# in one hal&- oxidation occ.rs- and red.ction in the other%
Eo identi&y whether a hal&-reaction is oxidation or red.ction:
9C&DA.&9' 5,D6C.&9'
Iain o& ,YI>= ;oss o& ,YI>=
;oss o& HYD5,I>= Iain o& HYD5,I>=
WW ;oss o& >;>CE5,=S WW WW Iain o& >;>CE5,=S WW
3ncrease in ,3D2E3,= SE2E> Decrease in ,3D2E3,= SE2E>
'9.,: %!idation states $ill be e!lained later3
T.ic@ way to memorise which is which# remember the 9&2(5&-:
9xidation &s 2oss- 5ed.ction &s -ain o& >;>CE5,=S%
Hence- the 2 hal&-e7.ations aboFe can be labelled as oxidation or red.ction%
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation# 8inc ;,S>S electrons"
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C. !5ed.ction# copper I23=S electrons"
Ehe species that is oxidised is the red.ctant !th.s- 8inc is the red.ctant"
Ehe species that is red.ced is the oxidant !th.s- copper is the oxidant"
Ehere are many types o& redo! reactions- a &ew o& which are:
Dislacement reactions# e%g% magnesi.m and silFer nitrate:
?g !s" + 22g=,* !a7" ?g!=,*"2 !a7" + 22g !s"
?g + 22g
+
+ 2=,*
-
?g
2+
+ 2=,*
-
+ 22g

?g + 22g
+
?g
2+
+ 22g

!2=,*
-
is the spectator ion"
?g ?g
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
22g
+
+ 2e
:
22g

!5ed.ction"
Acid?Metal reactions# e%g% s.l&.ric acid and 8inc:
H2S,) !a7" + 9n !s" 9nS,) !a7" + H2 !g"
2H
+
+ S,)
2-
+ 9n 9n
2+
+ S,)
2-
+ H2
2H
+
+ 9n 9n
2+
+ H2 !S,)
2-
is the spectator ion"
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
2H
+
+ 2e
:
H2 !5ed.ction"
Metal?'on(metal reactions# e%g% reacting sodi.m and chlorine gas:
2=a !s" + Cl2 !g" 2=aCl !s"
2=a + Cl2 2=a
+
+ 2Cl
-
!=o spectator ion in this case"
2=a 2=a
+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
Cl2 + 2e
:
2Cl
-
!5ed.ction"
Al!ali metal?water reactions# e%g% reacting potassi.m and water:
2< !s" + 2H2, !l" 2<,H !a7" + H2 !g"
2< + 2H2, 2<
+
+ 2,H
-
+ H2
2< 2<
+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
2H2, + 2e
:
2,H
-
+ H2 !5ed.ction"
Ehis is slightly di&&erent as there are ER, elements in the red.ction hal&%
Metal combustion reactions# e%g% b.rning magnesi.m in oxygen:
2?g !s" + ,2 !g" 2?g, !s"
2?g + ,2 2?g
2+
+ 2,
2-

2?g 2?g
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
,2 + 2e
:
2,
2-
!5ed.ction"
Identify the relationshi bet$een dislacement of metal ions in solution by
other metals to the relative activity of metals:
3n the aboFe metal displacement reaction- between 8inc and copper s.l&ate- the
reaction proceeded ,=;Y beca.se Dinc was more reactiFe than coer%
3& yo. placed copper in a 8inc s.l&ate sol.tion- nothing wo.ld happen%
Hence- only a more reactiFe metal will displace a less reactiFe metal%
Using this &act- a table o& reactiFity- or Ametal acti*ity seriesB can be &ormed- with
the more reactiFe metals on the le&t- and the less reactiFe metals on the right%
EH> ?>E2; 2CE3N3EY S>53>S:
Ehis AseriesB was ded.ced thro.gh experimentation# it sho.ld be learnt%
Eh.s- a metal on the series can displace o.t o& sol.tion 2=Y metal on its right-
b.t cannot displace any metal on its left# hydrogen is incl.ded as a standard%
Rhat the Ametal actiFity seriesB implies:
Ehe metals on the le&t are Fery reactiFe and hence ;,S> electrons easily- and
are th.s li@ely to be o$idised# most o& the time they are reductants*
Ehe metals on the right are Fery .nreactiFe# but when they are ions- they
I23= electrons Fery easily- and th.s are easily reduced# most li@ely o!idants*
Account for the changes in the o!idation state of secies in terms of their
loss or gain of electrons:
A9$idation stateB- or n.mber- is another name &or the N2;>=CY o& an element%
3t is de&ined as the charge an element !in a compo.nd" wo.ld haFe i& all bonded
atoms and electron pairs were remoFed &rom it%
5U;>S 4,5 C2;CU;2E3=I ,3D2E3,= SE2E>S:
2ll atoms in their elemental &orm are giFen an oxidation n.mber o& 8ero !e%g%
9n- H2- J)- S+ are all giFen an oxidation n.mber o& 0"%
'eutral molec.les are giFen an oxidation n.mber o& 8ero !e%g% H2,- =aCl"%
Monatomic ions are giFen an oxidation n.mber e7.al to their charge-
incl.ding the sign !e%g% C.
+
M (- S
2-
M -2"%
Polyatomic ions are also giFen an oxidation n.mber e7.al to their charge-
incl.ding the sign !e%g% ,H
-
M -(- J,) M -*- =H)
+
M (- S,)
2-
M -2"- and the
SU? o& the oxidation states o& the atoms e7.als this n.mber%
9$y"en has an oxidation n.mber o& -2 in all compo.nds- except in peroxides-
where it is e7.al to -( !peroxide is the anion ,2
2-
).
#ydro"en has an oxidation n.mber o& +(- except in metal hydrides- where it
has an oxidation n.mber o& -( !e%g% in sodi.m hydride- =aH"%
Using these r.les- the oxidation states o& elements in compo.nds can be &o.nd%
,-: 4ind the oxidation n.mber o& manganese in the permanganate ion !?n,)
-
":
3t is a polyatomic ion with a net charge o& -(%
Hence# ?n + ) x , M -(
?n + )!-2" M -(
?n M + ( M 1
Ehere&ore- manganese has an oxidation state o& +1 in <?n,)%
Ehe J,3=E o& all this is that sometimes it is di&&ic.lt to identi&y whether a
reaction is oxidation or red.ction# oxidation states proFide a new method:
9$idation is 3=C5>2S> in oxidation n.mber%
5eduction is D>C5>2S> in oxidation n.mber%
5elating this bac@ to the metal displacement reactions:
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C. !5ed.ction"
3t can be seen that the oxidation state o& Dinc changes &rom !0 +2"# this
increase signi&ies an oxidation- while the oxidation state o& coer changes &rom
!+2 0"# this decrease shows it is a red.ction%
Eh.s- relating this bac@ to trans&er o& electrons:
2n increase in oxidation n.mber means that electrons haFe been lost- and the
oxidation n.mber is increasing !moFing towards the KpositiFeL n.mbers" d.e
to the loss o& negatiFe electrons%
2 decrease in oxidation n.mber means that electrons haFe been gained- and
the oxidation n.mber is decreasing !moFing towards the KnegatiFeL n.mbers"
d.e to a gain o& negatiFe electrons%
&escribe and e!lain galvanic cells in terms of o!idation/reduction
reactions:
2 "al*anic cell is a deFice or an apparat.s that allows >;>CE53C3EY to be
prod.ced &rom a chemical reaction !speci&ically- redox reactions"%
Electricity is simply a &low o& electrons% 5edox reactions are electron-transfer
reactions# i& this electron &low can be exploited- electricity co.ld be prod.ced%
3n a galFanic cell- to .tilise the electron &low- the redox reaction is split into its
two hal&-reactions: Ehere are two half(cells# ,3D2E3,= ta@es place in one cell
and 5>DUCE3,= in the other%
2 cond.cting wire and salt bridge connects the two hal&-cells and completes the
circ.it# as electrons haFe to &low &rom the oxidation cell to the red.ction cell- a
&low o& electrons is prod.ced in the wire- and hence electricity is prod.ced%
IalFanic cells are explained in more detail belowX
%utline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron
flo$:
2s galvanic cells .se a redox reaction to ma@e electricity- the metal displacement
reaction o& 8inc and copper s.l&ate can be .sed as an example !againX"
Ehe two hal&-e7.ations o& the reaction are:
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C. !5ed.ction"
Ehis is the set-.p o& a galvanic cell .sing these 2 reactions:
Ehis type o& galFanic cell is also called a Daniell Cell%
I2;N2=3C C>;; S>E-UJ:
Ehere are two cells- each containing a sol.tion o& the metal-s.l&ate# one cell
contains "inc sulfate- the other cell coer sulfate%
3n the 8inc s.l&ate- there is a solid Dinc electrode- connected by a wire to a
solid coer electrode- which is in the copper s.l&ate sol.tion%
2 salt bridge- soa@ed in otassium nitrate sol.tion- connects the two cells%
Ehe CH>?3C2; 5>2CE3,=S:
3n the 8inc-s.l&ate cell- o$idation is occ.rring- as S,;3D 8inc is oxidised to
8inc 3,=S- which then &low into the 8inc s.l&ate sol.tion% Ehe electrons that
are released &low into the wire:
9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
!,xidation"
3n the copper-s.l&ate cell- reduction is occ.rring- as copper 3,=S are red.ced
to S,;3D copper- when then b.ild .p on the copper electrode% >lectrons are
receiFed thro.gh the wire- which then red.ce the ions:
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C. !5ed.ction"
=,E>: Ehe oxidation and red.ction cells can be on the le&t ,5 the right- it does
not matter- altho.gh oxidation is conFentionally on the right%
2s the "inc is slowly oxidised- and more 8inc ions b.ild-.p- the 8inc s.l&ate
sol.tion b.ilds .p in J,S3E3N> charge !more 9n
2+
than S,)
2-
"%
Similarly- as the coer ions are red.ced- the copper s.l&ate sol.tion b.ilds in
=>I2E3N> charge !more S,)
2-
than C.
2+
"%
HoweFer- this will a&&ect the &low o& electrons# electrically ne.tral sol.tions are
needed &or optimal electricity prod.ction% Hence the role o& the salt bridge:
Ehe salt brid"e completes the circ.it- b.t also has another &.nction%
Ehe salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality# this means that it @eeps the
charges in both the hal&-cells at 8ero- by allowing the &low o& ions%
Ehe salt bridge is soa@ed in otassium nitrate sol.tion: Eh.s- as the positiFe
charge b.ilds .p in the le&t cell- =>I2E3N> nitrate ions migrate towards the
cell to ne.tralise the charge# as the negatiFe charge b.ilds .p in the right cell-
the J,S3E3N> potassi.m ions moFe towards the cell to ne.tralise it as well%
&efine the terms anode# cathode# electrode and electrolyte to describe
galvanic cells:
2n >;>CE5,D> is anything thro.gh which electrical c.rrent passes# in the
context o& galFanic cells- they are the metal cond.ctors placed in the electrolytes%
2n >;>CE5,;YE> is any sol.tion that can cond.ct electricity# all salt sol.tions
are electrolytes !b.t not all salts are sol.ble"%
Ehe terms anode and cathode re&er to the electrodes that are placed in the
sol.tion# to identi&y which is the anode and which is the cathode:
A' 9C 2node is ,3D3S>D !it is the KnegatiFeL side"%
5,D CA. Cathode is 5>DUC>D !it is the KpositiFeL side"%
Hence- the 8inc was the anode- and the copper was the cathode%
3n galFanic cells- electrons &low &rom anode to cathode%
Solve roblems and analyse information to calculate the otential E
re/uirement of named electrochemical rocesses using tables of standard
otentials and half-e/uations:
Ehe total *olta"e !or >?4# electromotiFe &orce" a galFanic cell can prod.ce is
determined by the s.bstances ta@ing part in the redox reaction%
Ehe aboFe cell can also be represented as: Y 9n Z 9n
2+
ZZ C.
2+
Z C. [:
Rhere 9n Z 9n
2+
represents a metalOmetal ion co.ple%
Ehe do.ble line ZZ represents the salt bridge%
>lectrodeOelectrolyte co.ples haFe a 43>D Foltage- no matter how many moles
o& each s.bstance is present%
Ehis K&ixed FoltageL is termed the standard reduction otential !or >H"- and is
giFen in a table in the exam% 4or example- in s.ch a table it has:
9n
2+
+ 2e
:
9n !(E.F>0"
C.
2+
+ 2e
:
C. !E.;B0"
HoweFer- in the cell- the 8inc reaction is: 9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:
- the reverse o& the
aboFe reaction# so the S3I= o& >H is %2&PP,D% Hence- &or o.r reaction- the >H
&or 9n Z 9n
2+
is +0%16N !not -0%16N"- and the >H &or C.
2+
Z C. is 0%*)N%
EHUS the total >H Fal.e &or this cell is the s.m- which is 0%*) + 0%16 M (%( Folts%
PRACTICAL ' .erform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions
under $hich a galvanic cell is roduced:
2 galFanic cell was prod.ced in the lab in the same set-.p as aboFe# that is- in the
&orm o& a D2=3>;; C>;;%
2 2 cm strip o& Dinc and coer were c.t &rom metal strips% Using wire leads and
crocodile clips- the 8inc strip was connected to the =>I2E3N> terminal o& a
Foltmeter- and the copper strip connected to the J,S3E3N> terminal%
Ehe 8inc was then placed in '0 m; o& (? sol.tion o& Dinc sulfate- and the copper
in '0 m; o& (? sol.tion o& coer sulfate.
2 strip o& &ilter paper was soa@ed in otassium nitrate# the two cells were then
connected .sing this Asalt bridgeB%
5,162.1: Ehe Foltmeter showed a reading o& 0%) Folts% Rhen more electrolyte
was added- the Foltage stayed at 0%) Folts# th.s the Foltage is determined ,=;Y
by the metals .sed- and has nothing to do with the amo.nt o& copper or 8inc%
761.&%8 the method:
Copper and 8inc were .sed as they are readily aFailable- non-toxic metals%
(? sol.tion was .sed as the ratio o& moles o& the salts was (:(
2 potassi.m nitrate salt bridge was .sed as potassi.m and nitrate ions do not
react with 8inc- copper o& s.l&ate ions%
PRACTICAL ' .erform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand
information to measure the difference in otential of different combinations
of metals in an electrolyte solution:
Ehe same experiment aboFe was per&ormed again- except a range o& di&&erence
electrode electrolyte co.ples were .sed%
5,162.1:
Y 9n Z 9n
2+
ZZ C.
2+
Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%) N
Y ?g Z ?g
2+
ZZ C.
2+
Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%S' N
Y 2l Z 2l
*+
ZZ C.
2+
Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%2 N
Y 4e Z 4e
2+
ZZ C.
2+
Z C. [: E,E2; Foltage M 0%' N
REPORT ' 4ather and resent information on the structure and chemistry
of a "inc-carbon dry cell and evaluate it in comarison to a silver-o!ide
button cell in terms of: 1. Chemistry 2. Cost and racticality 3. Imact on
society and 4. Environmental imact:
.he D58 C,22 !or ;eclanch\ Cell":
SE5UCEU5>:
Ehe dry cell is made o& a carbon rod
s.rro.nded by a mixt.re o&
man"anese3&04 o$ide and carbon
!in the &orm o& grahite"# this is the
cathode% Ehis is then s.rro.nded by
a paste o& ammonium chloride
which acts as the electrolyte% 2ll o&
this is contained in a Dinc shell- which is the anode%
CH>?3SE5Y:
Ehe complete chemical e/uation is shown as:
9n !s" + 2?n,2 !s" + 2=H)Cl !a7" 9nCl2 !a7" + ?n2,* !s" + 2=H* !a7" + H2, !l"
Ehe ionic e/uation is:
9n + 2?n
)+
+ 2,
2-
+ 2=H)
+
+ 2Cl
-
9n
2+
+ 2Cl
-
+ 2?n
*+
+ *,
2-
+ 2=H* + H2,
6.t there is also another reaction: 2=H)
+
2=H* + 2H
+
Ehis occ.rs on the le&t hand side# hence 2=H* and 2Cl
-
are spectator ions:
Eh.s the net ionic e/uation is:
9n + 2?n
)+
+ 2,
2-
+ 2H
+
9n
2+
+ 2?n
*+
+ *,
2-
+ H2,
Splitting this into redox half(cells:
,3D2E3,=: 9n 9n
2+
+ 2e
:

5>DUCE3,=: 2?n
)+
+ 2,
2-
+ 2H
+
+ 2e
:
2?n
*+
+ *,
2-
+ H2,
/n is oxidised: !0 +2" and Mn is red.ced: !+) +*"%
Ehe S3?J;343>D galFanic cell representation is:
Y 9n Z 9n
2+
ZZ ?n
)+
Z ?n
*+
[
C,SE and J52CE3C2;3EY:
Ehe dry cell is relatiFely cheap%
3t is Fery practical to man.&act.re as there is little wastage o& materials# all
the materials !incl.ding the casing" ta@e part in the reaction%
3t is light and portable- and can be .sed in small appliances%
3t has a short shel&-li&e howeFer- as the acidic =H)
+
slowly corrodes the
8inc%
3?J2CE on S,C3>EY:
3t was the &irst commercially prod.ced battery- and so it had a HUI>
impact on society# it made portable deFices s.ch as torches- radios and
cloc@s possible%
3t is Fery widely .sed- as it is a cheap- portable so.rce o& steady electricity%
>=N35,=?>=E2; 3?J2CE:
Nery minimal enFironmental impact%
Ehe manganese!333" prod.ct is readily oxidised bac@ to manganese!3N"-
which is stable and insol.ble# it is harmless%
2mmoni.m salts and carbon are also harmless# small 7.antities o& 8inc
pose no enFironmental ris@%
.he 1il*er(9$ide :6..9' C,22:
SE5UCEU5>:
Ehe silFer-oxide b.tton-cell is made o& layers o& chemicals within a steel
case% Ehere is powdered sil*er3&4 o$ide at the bottom# this is the cathode%
2t the top is powdered Dinc# this is the anode% Ehey are separated by a
paste o& al@aline otassium hydro$ide which acts as the electrolyte and a
catalyst% Ehe steel case does not ta@e part in the reaction%
CH>?3SE5Y:
Ehe oFerall chemical e/uation is:
9n !s" + 2g2, !s" 9n, !s" + 22g !s"
HoweFer- this ignores the role o& the potassi.m hydroxide# a more
complete chemical e7.ation !with a7.eo.s <,H as catalyst" is:
9n !s" + 2g2, !s" + 2<,H !a7" + H2, !l" 9n, !s" + 22g !s" + 2<,H !a7" + H2, !l"
Ehe ionic e/uation is:
9n + 22g
+
+ ,
2-
+ 2<
+
+ 2,H
-
+ H2, 9n
2+
+ ,
2-
+ 22g + 2<
+
+ 2,H
-
+ H2,
=,E>: Ehe water and ,H
-
need to be shown &or the hal&-e7.ations%
Ehe net ionic e/uation !witho.t <
+
ions" is:
9n + 22g
+
+ ,
2-
+ 2,H
-
+ H2, 9n
2+
+ ,
2-
+ 22g + 2,H
-
+ H2,
Splitting this into redox half(cells:
,3D2E3,=: 9n + 2,H
-
9n
2+
+ ,
2-
+ H2, + 2e
:
95: 9n + 2,H
-
9n, + H2, + 2e
:
5>DUCE3,=: 22g
+
+ ,
2-
+ H2, + 2e
:
22g + 2,H
-
95: 2g2, + H2, + 2e
:
22g + 2,H
-
/n is oxidised: !0 +2" and A" is red.ced: !+( 0"%
EHUS- <,H ta@es part in the e7.ation as a catalyst- by splitting into its
ions- b.t at the end o& the reaction- the ions re&orm%
Ehe S3?J;343>D galFanic cell representation is:
Y 9n Z 9n
2+
ZZ 2g
+
Z 2g [
C,SE and J52CE3C2;3EY:
SilFer oxide b.tton cells are Fery e$ensi*e- d.e to the high cost o& silFer%
HoweFer- eFen small cells are able to proFide large amo.nts o& electricity
with a Fery constant Foltage &or a long period o& time# so the bene&its
balance o.t the costs o& the silFer%
3t is non-rechargeable%
Ehe steel case does not ta@e part in the reaction- and there is Fery little
chance o& lea@age%
3?J2CE on S,C3>EY:
Ehe Fery small si8e o& the cell- and high constant Foltage allows it to haFe
many applications- s.ch as in wristwatches !where they last &or many
years"- calc.lators and digital cameras%
>=N35,=?>=E2; 3?J2CE:
>nFironmental impact is minimal%
Ehe "inc- "inc o!ide# silver- and silver o!ide are all stable- insol.ble and
non-toxic compo.nds%
.otassium hydro!ide is strongly al@aline# howeFer- it is in 7.ite a dil.te
&orm as an electrolyte- and small amo.nts are not harm&.l%
,0A26A.&'- the dry-cell in relation to the b.tton cell:
3n terms o& chemistry- the dry-cell and the b.tton cell haFe Fery similar
reactions# howeFer- the b.tton cell is able to prod.ce larger and more constant
Foltage s.pply in relation to si8e# this is beca.se sil*er has a higher red.ction
potential than man"anese3&04% 2lso the al@aline enFironment o& the b.tton
cell enco.rages the reaction to occ.r at a constant rate- &or long periods%
3n terms o& cost and practicality- the dry cell is more practical in most
sit.ations as it is cheaper% HoweFer- some sit.ations re7.ire smaller cells that
are able to last m.ch longer than the short li&e o& the dry cell- s.ch as in
watches% 2lso- the b.tton cell is m.ch less li@ely to lea@- and th.s is a more
reliable battery%
3n terms o& impact on society- the dry cell has had a &ar greater impact than the
b.tton cell% Ehis is d.e to the historical signi&icance o& the ;eclanch\ cell- the
&irst battery eFer prod.ced% Ehe dry cell made portable electrical deFices
possible# howeFer- the b.tton cell has allowed the si8e o& electrical deFices to
red.ce greatly- as some deFices these days are eFen smaller than dry cells%
6oth cells haFe Fery minimal enFironmental impact- and hence are adFisable
to be .sed oFer other more poll.ting cells- s.ch as merc.ry cells%
G. 'uclear chemistry ro*ides a ran"e of materials:
RECALL:
&sotoes are atoms o& the same element with di&&erent n.mbers o& =>UE5,=S#
b.t they haFe the same n.mber o& J5,E,=S%
3n nuclear chemistry !chemistry dealing with n.clear reactions"- isotopes are
shown in the &ollowing &orm:
>%I% chlorine-*' is written as
*'
Cl and r.bidi.m-+' as
+'
5b
Ehere are three types o& radiation: H !alpha"- I !beta" and J !gamma" radiation:
Alha Decay: 2lpha radiation is made o& Aheli.m n.cleiB !2 protons and 2
ne.trons" that are eGected &rom .nstable large n.clei !too heaFy"% 4or example-
the decay o& .rani.m-2*+:

:eta Decay: 6eta radiation is made .p o& electrons eGected &rom an .nstable
n.cle.s !too many ne.trons"# 6UE n.clei do not contain electrons% Hence- the
.nderlying reaction is the decomposition o& a neutron:

Rhen a ne.tron decomposes- it &orms an electron- which is immediately
eGected as beta radiation- and a roton !Ahydrogen n.cle.sB"- which is
capt.red by the n.cle.s% Eh.s- beta decay res.lts in an increase in atomic
n.mber !3?J,5E2=E"% 4or example- the beta decay o& cobalt-60 res.lts in
an increase o& atomic n.mber- creating nic@lel-60:

Ehere is no s.ch thing as K"amma decayL# gamma radiation- high energy
electromagnetic waFes- are emitted in addition to some beta or alpha decays%
&istinguish bet$een stable and radioactive isotoes and describe the
conditions under $hich a nucleus is unstable:
5adioacti*ity is the spontaneo.s emission o& 52D32E3,= &rom certain atoms
4or some elements !e%g% carbon"- some o& their isotopes are stable !s.ch as
carbon-(2"- and others are radioactiFe !s.ch as carbon-()"%
Ehere are 2 conditions .sed to predict whether an atom will be radioactiFe:
2tomic =.mber: 2ll atoms !incl.ding all their isotopes" with more than +*
protons !/ K =;" are radioactiFe% Ehat is- all atoms with atomic n.mber greater
than bismuth are radioactiFe and .ndergo decay%
Jroton-=e.tron 5atio: Ehe ratio o& protons to ne.trons determines whether an
atom will be stable or not% 2nything outside the ratios below is radioactiFe:
/ L 2E- the stable ratio o& protons to ne.trons is ):)
2ro.nd / M ;E- the stable ratio is abo.t ):).;
2ro.nd / M =E- the stable ratio is ):).G
&escribe ho$ transuranic elements are roduced:
.ransuranic elements are elements with atomic n.mbers greater than .rani.m#
that is 9 $ S2 !more than S2 protons"%
2ll trans.ranic elements are arti&icially prod.ced%
Erans.ranic elements are prod.ced in two ways:
'eutron :ombardment !in n.clear reactors": 3n n.clear reactions- the &ission
chain-reaction !o& .rani.m-2*' or other elements" prod.ces large amo.nts o&
ne.trons% Rhen atoms are placed inside the reactor- they are bombarded by
these ne.trons% ,ccasionally the atom 26S,56S one o& these ne.trons#
howeFer- it is .nstable- and .ndergoes beta decay !see aboFe"% Hence the
proton n.mber increases- and a trans.ranic element can be created%
,-: Urani.m-2*+ is not &issile !it can not .ndergo the n.clear chain-
reaction"# when it is placed in the reactor- the &ollowing reaction occ.rs:

Eh.s- nept.ni.m-2*S- the &irst trans.ranic element- is &ormed%
Ehis method is .sed to prod.ce the &irst &ew o& the trans.ranic elements%
%usion 5eactions !in particle accelerators": Ehe prod.ction o& larger
trans.ranic elements is achieFed by colliding heaFy n.clei with high-speed
positiFe particles !s.ch as heli.m or carbon n.clei"% Ehe positiFe particles
need to be at Fery high speeds to oFercome the positiFe rep.lsiFe &orce o& the
heaFy n.clei and &.se with them% Jarticle accelerators are .sed to bring these
particles to the high speeds re7.ired%
,-: Urani.m-2*+ is &.sed with a carbon n.cle.s:

2s a res.lt- cali&orni.m-2)6- a large trans.ranic element- is &ormed%
.rocess information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries
of elements:
4o.r new elements haFe been discoFered in the 2(
st
cent.ry% Ehey are listed
below% =ote that their strange names are G.st temporary .ntil the 3UJ2C decides
on permanent names:
6nunhe$ium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-poloni.mL- element ((6 was synthesised
in December- 2000- by the Uoint 3nstit.te &or =.clear 5esearch !D.bna-
5.ssia"% 3t was prod.ced thro.gh the &.sion o& c.ri.m-2)+ and calci.m-)+%
Ehe atom decayed )+ milliseconds later%
6nunentium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-bism.thL- element ((' was synthesised in
4ebr.ary- 200)- by the scientists &rom the Uoint 3nstit.te &or =.clear 5esearch
!D.bna- 5.ssia" and the ;awrence ;iFermore =ational ;aboratory !2merica"%
3t was prod.ced thro.gh the &.sion o& americi.m-2)* and calci.m-)+% Ehe
atom then .nderwent 2;JH2 decay- &orming element ((*- a new element%
6nuntrium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-thalli.mL- element ((* was also synthesised
in 4ebr.ary- 200)- thro.gh the alpha decay o& ununentium%
6nunoctium: 2lso @nown as Ke@a-radonL- element ((+ is the most recently
prod.ced- and the heaFiest element @nown to man% 3t was prod.ced by the
&.sion o& cali&orni.m-2)S atoms and calci.m-)+%
&escribe ho$ commercial radioisotoes are roduced:
Commercial radioisotopes are isotopes that are prod.ced on a reg.lar basis &or
medical- ind.strial or other .se%
?any are prod.ced by ne.tron bombardment within n.clear reactors- as explained
aboFe# at the 2ucas #ei"hts n.clear reactor in Sydney- the 2.stralian =.clear
Science and Eechnology ,rganisation !A'1.9" prod.ces a range o& ne.tron-rich
isotopes &or commercial .se:
+echnitium-55m !an important medical radioisotope" is prod.ced by ne.tron
bombardment o& molybden.m-S+%
Cobalt-67 !.sed in ind.stry and medicine" is prod.ced by ne.tron
bombardment o& the stable cobalt-'S%
Americium-890 !a domestically .sed isotope# in smo@e alarms" is prod.ced by
ne.tron bombardment o& pl.toni.m-2)(%
,ther isotopes are prod.ced in particle accelerators- s.ch as the 'ational
Medical Cyclotron- near the 5oyal Jrince 2l&red hospital% Jarticle accelerators
accelerate n.clei to incredible speeds- and which are then collided with heaFy
n.clei% Ehis prod.ces ne.tron-de&icient radioisotopes% :inear Accelerators
accelerate particles in a straight line- while cyclotrons accelerate particles in a
spiral% 5adioisotopes prod.ced incl.de:
Iodine-0;0 !.sed to diagnose thyroid disorders"%
Carbon-00# nitrogen-0;# o!ygen-0< !all .sed in J>E scans"%
Identify instruments and rocesses that can be used to detect radiation:
-ei"er(MNller Counter:
Ehis deFice consists o& a metal t.be &illed with argon gas- connected to a DC
power s.pply%
2s radiation enters- it ionises the gas- splitting the atoms into electrons and
positiFe n.clei that complete the circ.it within the metal t.be# the stronger the
radiation- the more ionisation that occ.rs%
Ehe ampli&ier releases a series o& clic@s or displays an electronic reading to
signi&y that radiation is present% Ehe co.nter th.s display a n.mber in terms o&
intensity o& radiation%
Photo"rahic %ilm:
Jhotographic &ilm is a sheet o& plastic coated with silFer halide salts%
Ehese salts are sensitiFe to electromagnetic radiation !e%g% light or -rays"-
and dar@en when they are exposed to radiation%
Jeople who wor@ with radioactiFe materials o&ten wear badges containing
photographic &ilm# the amo.nt o& dar@ening shows how m.ch they haFe been
exposed to radiation%
1cintillation Counter:
Some s.bstances giFe o&& light when they are str.c@ by high-energy radiation%
2 photo-receptor cell senses these &lashes o& light that occ.r- and &rom this
meas.res the n.mber o& decay eFents that are occ.rring%
Identify one use of a named radioisotoe in industry and in medicine:
&ndustry: Cobalt-60 is .sed to irradiate &ood to prolong its shel&-li&e%
Medicine: Eechneti.m-SSm can be .sed to identi&y the location o& t.mo.rs%
&escribe the $ay in $hich the above named industrial and medical
radioisotoes are used and e!lain their use in terms of their chemical
roerties:
Cobalt(>E:
US>: Ehe irradiation o& &ood materials%
CH>?3C2; J5,J>5EY: 3t is chemically inert- and hence it can be sa&ely
ho.sed within machinery witho.t &ear o& any .nwanted reactions- s.ch as
oxidation or red.ction% 3t is also a strong gamma emitter%
H,R 3E R,5<S: 4ood on a conFeyer belt is passed thro.gh a chamber
containing cobalt-60 ho.sed within machinery% Iamma rays are extremely
e&&ectiFe in damaging large biological molec.les !e%g% D=2" beca.se they are
high-energy waFes that can destroy chemical bonds% Ehis @ills harm&.l
microbes in &ood- ma@ing them sa&er to eat- and last longer%
2dFantages: Iamma rays haFe s.&&icient energy to destroy bacteria b.t not
eno.gh to ma@e &ood radioactiFe# also cobalt-60 has a hal&-li&e o& '%* years so
it can last Fery long%
DisadFantages: Iamma radiation can also destroy .se&.l n.trients in &ood#
wor@ers m.st be protected &rom irradiation%
.echnetium(99m:
US>: 2 cancer diagnostic tool !identi&ies location o& t.mo.rs"%
CH>?3C2; J5,J>5EY: Eechneti.m-SSm can be changed to a n.mber o&
oxidation states% Ehis allows &or the prod.ction o& a wide range o& biologically
actiFe chemicals# it can be chemically bonded to an organic s.bstance s.ch as
gl.cose and inGected into the body% 3t emits low energy gamma rays%
H,R 3E R,5<S: Eechneti.m-SSm is bonded to an organic compo.nd and
inserted into the body% Ec-SSm is metastable !as denoted by the m"# this
means that its n.cle.s is in an e!cited state% 3t releases gamma radiation to
release this energy% Hence it is a so.rce o& p.re gamma radiation- which is
then .sed by imaging machinery to diagnose diseases%
2dFantages: 3t has a Fery short hal&-li&e o& 6 ho.rs- and hence ca.ses minimal
damage to the patients tiss.es% 3t emits low energy gamma radiation that can
be pic@ed .p by machinery- b.t does not damage cells to a great extent% 3t is
7.ic@ly eliminated by the body% Ec-SSm is relatiFely reactiFe- and can be
Goined to many compo.nds%
DisadFantages: 2s it has s.ch a short hal&-li&e it m.st be contin.o.sly made%
Healthy cells may also @illed%
)se available evidence to analyse benefits and roblems associated $ith the
use of radioactive isotoes in identified industries and medicine:
6>=>43ES o& radioisotopes:
&ndustrial bene&its incl.de the ability to ma@e monitoring e7.ipment that is
more sensitiFe- precise and reliable than preFio.sly possible% 3t allows &or
more e&&icient processes !s.ch as sterilisation and &ood irradiation" and
preFio.sly impossible things !examining &a.lts in constr.ction and
machinery"%
Medical bene&its incl.de a new wide range o& non-inFasiFe diagnostic
techni7.es that wo.ld not be possible on sensitiFe organs !brain- etc"%
5adiation therapy is also a greatly positiFe new treatment%
J5,6;>?S with radioisotopes:
'uclear reactors- which are the so.rce o& ne.trons- prod.ce considerable
amo.nts o& n.clear waste- which we haFe no way o& disposing sa&ely- and
which last &or tho.sands o& years%
Ehe storage o& radioacti*e material presents a problem- as they m.st be @ept
in shielded containers to preFent radiation lea@ages%
Doses o& radiotheray m.st be extremely care&.lly controlled- to balance
between the bene&its o& @illing cancer cells- and the ris@ o& harm%
=.clear technicians and other wor@ers m.st be contin.ally rotected and
aFoid any &orm o& irradiation- as disease s.ch as cancer or radiation poisoning
can res.lt &rom this%

9.2 - Production of Materials

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