Undestanding Soil

Understanding
Soil

Balanced Soil Fertility
=
Better Crops

This booklet is about farming
sustainably by using
biologically integrated and
organic systems.
Contents
We acknowledge the contribution made by the
late Ralph Jurgens to this publication. He gave of
his extensive knowledge in sustainable agriculture
freely.

Copyright May 2008, Organic Farming Systems

Although all care has been taken to provide accurate
scientific information on sustainable agriculture, no
guarantee or responsibility can be accepted for crop
performance based on the use of information from this
publication.
1. Why sustainable farming? 3
2. Understanding Soil 4
2.1 What is a cation? 4
2.2 Why are cations important? 4
2.3 Cation Exchange Capacity 5
2.4 Where do you start? 6
3. What is Humus? 7
4. Improving Soil Humus 7
5. Soil minerals that affect pH - A Closer Look 9
5.1 Calcium 9
5.2 Magnesium 11
5.3 Potassium 12
5.4 Sodium 13
5.5 Hydrogen 13
6. Nitrogen in soil 14
7. Phosphorus 18
8. Sulphur 21
9. Importance of Trace Elements 22
10. Plants Obtain Nutrients in Three Ways 26
11. Do you have a problem field? 28
12. The Carbon Cycle 29
13. Plant & Soil Nutrient Inter-relationships 30
14. Diseases & Insects vs. Nutrient Deficiencies 33
www.organicfarming.com.au : admin@organicfarming.com.au : Ph 08 9384 3789 : Fax 08 9384 3379
Contents
www.organicfarming.com.au 3

1. Why sustainable farming?

There is no doubt organic/sustainable agriculture improves our
environment. Britains Institute of Science in Society (BSIS -
2008) reports organic agriculture has the potential to mitigate
nearly 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions and save one-
sixth of global energy use.

Sustainable farming is not low input, but efficient input, and starts
with examining the health of the soil. It is based upon current
analytical data where the aim is to help build soil structure, ad-
dress field limitations and meet nutritional needs for future crops.

Sustainable farming practices consistently show in research,
field demonstration trials and in practice:

More organic carbon (eg 28% more on 20 organic farms in
California - BSIS 2008 )
Higher organic matter in the soil (eg Compost Demonstra-
tion Project 2005)
Increased soil organic matter
Reduced soil erosion
Improved soil physical structure resulting in better water
holding capacity
Increased soil nutrients

The cornerstone of sustainable farming practices is understand-
ing the soil which is the focus of this booklet. Nutritional balance
is critical which in turn helps build healthier plants which need
less pesticides and are superior in nutritional mineral value, thus
meeting todays marketing trends.

Organic Farming Systems has been helping growers achieve
these goals since 1995. Our recommendations provide
biologically integrated & organic (BIOS) crop programs that allow
farmers to choose between traditional N-P-K inputs and modern
biological farming systems. Mainstream agriculture is in
transition, and Organic Farming Systems can provide BIOS
Crop Programs and input products for sustainable farming.

Our goal is to educate and equip growers with cost-effective fer-
tility programs which meet the needs of the current crop and
continually improve the quality and productivity of farmers
greatest asset - the soil.

Sustainability

Ecologically Sound

Environmentally Safe

Economically
Achievable
Balanced Soil Fertility
=
Better Crops
BIOS Programs
Biologically
Integrated
&
Organic Systems
admin@organicfarming.com.au

4
2. Understanding Soil

2.1 What are cations?

Cations are the positive charged nutrients in the soil. The most
common cations are calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium
and hydrogen. The ratios to each other are vital for a balanced
pH and optimised biological activity in the soil.

Following are some basic truths to consider about cations:

1. Calcium is the most important nutrient in your soil and the
proper balance of it to all other nutrients is very impor-
tant.
2. All cation nutrients have a pulling or holding power that is
expressed in relationship to calcium. Ca is the base nutri-
ent and the comparison ratios will be 1 to 1 for Mg, with
Na the highest at 1.82 to 1. This means Na (sodium) has
1.82 times more holding power than Ca.
3. A soil test is incomplete when the sodium (Na) level is
not included. If you have been using a traditional dry fer-
tilizer program, sodium is the salt index to your soil.
Watch it closely!!

NOTE: If other cation nutrients are not in proper balance to
calcium (Ca), then normally hydrogen (H) will be out of bal-
ance. So watch hydrogen percent levels in the cation balance
instead of soil pH . If all soil cation nutrients are in balance,
both hydrogen and your soil pH will be correct.

2.2 Why are cations so important?

All clay and humus colloidal soil particles carry a negative
charge on their surface, which attracts desirable positively
charged nutrients.

If in proper balance, positive cations are loosely held in the soil
solution so a growing plant, whose roots are negatively
charged, attracts and takes positively charged cation nutrients
as needed.

EXAMPLE: As a plant needs calcium it removes it from the
soil and it is replaced by another cation which will flow or move
easily when the soil is in proper balance. This is Base or
Cation Exchange at work! BEWARE cations can go out of bal-
ance with high levels of magnesium and/or sodium, causing
heavy soil to tighten up, cutting off the soils oxygen supply,
which can result in poor nutrient movement to the plants.

Calcium is the
most important
nutrient in your
soil

CEC determines
the ability of the
soil to hold onto
nutrients

Nutrients in least
supply will
regulate plant
growth and health,
not how much
N-P-K
you add.

As you add
nutrients to the soil
it is very
important to add
the right nutrients
to maintain proper
balance.

2.3 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The Cation Exchange Capacity is the "ability of the soil" to hold
positively charged (cation) nutrients. It reflects the holding ability
of the clay and humus components of the soil and is measured
by analysis to provide a capacity (in meq/100g soil) and the base
saturation percentage level of each cation.

Diagram 1Cation Exchange Capacity

Proper CEC balance with healthy "soil life" (adequate humus and
biological activity) will help determine nutrient release in proper
ratios and amounts to all growing crops!

NOTE: Nutrients in the least supply will regulate plant growth
and health, not how much N, P, K is added.

REMEMBER: The soil clay particles and plant roots are both
negatively charged. They have a natural attraction of cation nutri-
ents. Therefore, as minerals (nutrients) are added to the soil, it
is very important the right nutrients are added to maintain proper
balance. As fertiliser is added, the soil is improved or harmed
depending on the quality and kind of fertiliser.
Be careful what you add!

The most natural way to improve soil CEC is to increase soil
minerals (nutrients) through compost (animal manure), crop resi-
dues, and natural soil amendment such as biological products,
gypsum, limestone and other "naturally formed" products. Such
practices build humus and "soil life". This is sustainable farming.


6
The Cation Exchange Capacity is based on soil texture and organic
matter which classifies your soil as being sand, loamy sand, loam or
clay. 30 to 60% of the soil's CEC is attributed to the % Organic
Matter.

By increasing soil organic matter content (as active HUMUS) the
soil's nutrient exchange and holding capacity will greatly increase.

2.4 So where do you start?

The best place to start is with a BIOS Crop Program soil analysis/
report. The most important part of this is the information on the per-
centage base saturation of cations. Soil nutrient balance is very im-
portant, even more than high nutrient levels! You can have high soil
NPK levels, and plants can still starve because of unbalanced soil
cations. The table below shows the proper balance of cation's in
your soil.

Good soil reports should list all the important cations, their desired
levels and the levels your soil achieved. Recommendations should
then be made to you on what you need to balance your soil. There
is a sample Bios Crop Program Soil Report in on page 32 of this
booklet to give you an idea of what a soil report should contain to
help you balance your soil.

Table 1: Base saturation (%) of five major soil cations -
Cation Exchange Capacity
Sand 1 to 4 Loam or Silt Loam 15 to 30
Loamy Sand 4 to 7 Clay 30 to 45
Sandy Loam 7 to 15 Organic Matter 70 to 200
Compost 20 to 80
Cation Exchange Capacity of Soils
NUTRIENT EXCHANGE
CAPACITY
NATURAL
BALANCE
%
RATIO
TO Ca
TRADITIONALISTS
SAY:
Ca 1 to 1 65-75% 1 >40%
Mg 1.67 to 1 10-15% 6 to 1 15 to 40%
K 1.03 to 1 3-7% 15 to 1 To exceed Mg
Na 1.74 to 1 0.5 to 2.0% 7.5 to 1 <15%
H - 0 to 8% - Who cares, it's
FREE!
CEC is a good
indicator of soil
quality and
productivity.

The more CEC a
soil has, the more
likely the soil will
have a higher
fertility level.

BIOS Soil Reports
give you a good
indication of your
soils CEC.

Bios Soil Reports
give you specific
recommendations
for balancing your
CEC
using organic or
sustainable
inputs.

3. What is Humus?

Humus is more of a generic term than a precise one - it is
formed through the natural decomposition of organic matter in
the soil by micro-organisms. The quality of the humus is variable
in its composition, reflecting the original material and the
conditions of decomposition.

Humus is a dark colour and is the "living storehouse" of life and
nutrients in the soil, containing significant amounts of nitrogen
and sulphur, as well as other plant nutrients. Humus holds 3 to 4
times more (per volume) nutrients and water than clay soil parti-
cles. All of its nutrients and water is exchangeable to the plant. It
is an important buffer in the soil, slowing down changes in
acidity and nutrient availability.

Humus has an electrical charge (negative) that allows it to hold
onto positively charged soil nutrients (such as calcium, magne-
sium, potassium) and in this respect has a similar role to clay in
the soil. It also has an ability to hold onto anions (see trace
elements).

Humus can be divided into two basic types:
1) Readily decomposed type which provides a short
term nutrient supply to plants; generally within the life
of an annual crop or season (ie 3-4 months). Primarily
derived from sugar, starch and protein.
1) A more stable type that is resistant to
decomposition for tens to hundreds of years.
Provides little in the way of nutrients and generally
originates from woodier plant residues containing
cellulose and lignin.

Humus is the soils bank account - Any product that burns up
and depletes humus is destroying soil. NH
3
(anhydrous ammo-
nia), DAP, and ammonium sulphate all can deplete humus.

4. Improving soil humus

Humus is what makes a living soil healthy and productive - in
both crop yields and quality.

Good "soil life" is reflected in aerobic bacteria, which are valu-
able in producing nutrients, organic acids, humic acid, priceless
enzymes, etc. They require a well, aerated soil with a good pH
and balanced mineral nutrients. Calcium is the natural soil
"flocculent" nutrient that enhances soil microbial life, but high
levels of magnesium, sodium, aluminium and iron resists soil
life.

OFS Humus 26 will
improve soil by
holding moisture and
nutrients, promote soil
biological activity and
improve soil structure
- 26% K-humate

Humus holds 3 to 4
times more
nutrients and water
than clay

Improving Soil

Soil organic matter
management is a
dynamic process.
All OFS natural farm
inputs promote the
biological
processes in the
soil. Good farm
inputs feed
beneficial micro-
organisms as well
as supply them.

Ask for a BIOS
Program for your
crop.

8
Soil microbes decompose crop residue and manure into humus.
These microbes form the sticky glue necessary to form soil crumb
structures in the presence of clay, and stop water and wind ero-
sion. Farming practices such as using compost, cover crops, green
manure and additional biological mixes are favourable for good soil
life. All these practices also favour fast efficient decomposition of
crop residues.

Diagram 2: Humus Formation From Organic Residues
(Cultivating a sense of humus)

A very "healthy" soil may contain up to 15 billion bacteria, 500 mil-
lion actinomycetes and 30 million fungi per tablespoon of soil.

Soils that are tilled often or have extensively used soluble nitrate
fertilisers, can be near extinct of certain microbe species. When
soil conditions are not favourable, micro-organisms including earth-
worms go dormant or are killed. When favourable soil conditions
either return or are created, beneficial micro-organism activity
increases. These micro-organisms need a food source (carbon),
water, heat and air, in which to increase their population.

Indicator: One excellent indicator of soil life is the common earth-
worm! Anything that improves the environment for earthworms will
also improve the environment for other beneficial "soil life". If you
create a condition that harms, or slows down worm activity, it will
generally harm all other beneficial "soil life"!

Smell the soil: Does it have a rich, pleasant aroma which can be
associated with a forest humus smell? If so your beneficial soil
bacteria are hard at work (mainly Actinomycetes). If your soil
(especially subsoil) has a foul odour, anaerobic fermentation is
occurring, probably producing toxic phenols and alcohols.

Measuring Soil
Humus

To measure humus
level for a given soil
type you should
conduct a BIOS Soil
Analysis, selecting
the soil humus
option. This humus
level reflects the
" soil life" energy
release, or humus
storehouse level
rather than just the
total amount of soil
carbon or organic
matter.

Humus should be at
least 1.5% with an
ideal level of 2%
(range 1-3%).

5. Soil minerals that affect pH - a closer look

One of the greatest assumptions made about soil tests is that soil
pH is a good guide to the mineral requirements of the soil. Soil pH
is simply a measurement of soil hydrogen level or acidity.
Hydrogen is the element which causes soil to go acid if one or
more of the main four cation levels drops.

The pH alone tells us little of value. Your soil can have a perfect pH
for most common cropping systems (~pH 6.7), but the cations are
totally out of balance.

5.1 Calcium (Ca)

The leading soil nutrient! Proper amounts of Ca (65-75%), ideal
70% base saturation, makes soil workable and well flocculated and
improves the air-water relationship. Air and water are two "free"
elements, that are vital to plant growth and production. Any
nutrient that aids a good air-water relationship is a priceless asset
and Ca is the leading nutrient in maintaining this vital balance.

Diagram 3: Soil Composition

Calcium helps create a healthy soil environment for plants and it
improves uptake of other nutrients to the plant. As the calcium
content in the plant decreases, so can the protein, energy level and
minerals of the plant. Calcium stimulates growth of "soil life",
including nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Contains 32%
Calcium which is
important for soil
pH, soil health and
cell wall
development in
plants.

10
Any product that removes calcium from the soil can be expensive
and dangerous to soil health. The following products remove Ca
(per kilogram of material applied):

Facts about Calcium

The lower the Ca level (pH) in the soil the greater the leaching
loss of K and NH
4
.

The percentage of CEC saturated with Ca is more important than
the total amount of Ca in the soil (high % Ca can stop toxic
aluminium, iron and Na conditions).

Independent soil scientists (worldwide), normally agree to a Ca-
Mg ratio of about 6 or 7 to 1 for an ideal soil.

Many studies show soil Ca at the optimum levels will decrease
disease in most plants. With lower percent saturation of Ca
combined with high levels of Mg and K more disease problems
occur, such as seedling rots, soft rot in stored tubers, and various
root and stalk rots.

Ideal Calcium-Potassium ratio should be (15 to 1). Example - Ca
at 75% and K at 5%. This proper ratio is one of the keys to higher
proteins, nutrients and vitamin levels. High Ca with adequate K
produces a high protein crop, while soil low in Ca produce a high
carbon crop. What does this mean? High carbon crops are low in
energy, minerals and vitamins. Yields increase by up to 25% by
adding K.

Note: Ca combined with enzyme protein clusters and biological
life (humus) forms a salt of saccharic acid, which is a natural glue
in the soil. These oxides of calcium, along with massive root
systems from green manures (cereal or grasses) offer control of
water and wind erosion, and can restore soil back to its proper
balance.
Products Calcium Removal
Anhydrous ammonia (NH
3
) removes 1.5kg of calcium for
every kg of NH
3
applied
DAP (di-ammonium phosphate) removes 0.75kg of Ca for every
kg applied
Ammonium sulphate removes 1kg of Ca for every kg
applied;
Muriate of potassium (KCl) removes 0.5kg Ca for every kg
applied.
Remember

Calcium is essential
for proper cell wall
development in
plants.

Calcium solubility
must be maintained
for crop demand.

A soil with balanced
calcium is friable
and easily worked.

When calcium and
other cations are
balanced, root
health, nutrient
availability and
uptake is increased.

Calcium reduces the
toxicity effect of
magnesium and soil
born fungi such as
root rot and
phytophthora.


5.2 Magnesium

The magnesium percent of base saturation is second place to
calcium, but requires a ratio of 6:1 to calcium (example Ca 75% to
Mg 12.5%). This provides optimum levels of Mg for
photosynthesis and protein formation. Over-saturation will hinder
these vital functions.

This optimum Ca to Mg ratio of 6 to 1, promotes soil life and
adequate nutrient levels for growing crops. We recommend a
percent base saturation of 10-15% (Ideal 12.5%) Mg, although
sands are far more tolerant to excess Mg than clay - up to 20% of
base saturation.

Mg deficient soil would normally have less than 6% base
saturation in sandy soils and less than 4% in loam-clay soils.

The Bad News about Magnesium

Excess Mg can become toxic to soil and plant life.

Excess Mg to Ca ratio forms a poisonous condition in the
nucleus of plant cells, affecting its health and the continuing life of
the plant, often striking the plant with diseases (fungi) to destroy
the plant and simultaneously calling for other plants to take its
place - commonly called weeds and grasses!

Excess Mg (and/or Na) produces hard soils. Hard soils resist
water, have less air (oxygen), less soil life, more weeds, more
insects (less plant sugar) and more plant diseases. Weeds and
grasses are soil indicators of danger. The soils are out of balance.
There is a need for a new fertiliser program, not more herbicides,
insecticides or fungicides.

Excess Mg means deficiency of N, P, K and Ca. Yes, the big
four go deficient! Only Mg with combination of Na, and Fe (if the
pH is too low also include Al) can make concrete out of heavier
soil; it destroys the air-water ratio necessary for soil life. Soil
efficiency is destroyed. These Mg-Na combinations are toxic to
animals too. Mg takes the place of Ca in plant cells, which
produce a poor quality crop.

Excess Mg to Ca permits crop residues to decay into toxic
alcohol, which kills or suppresses bacteria. It then forms a
formaldehyde, which stops crop residue decay (this means
disease carry over).

Excess Mg will not allow Ca and K to move into plant cells (plant
absorption is slowed down considerably).

BIOS SOIL
TESTING

Gives you
organic/
sustainable
recommendations
on how to balance
Mg so
the big four
N P K Ca
are not deficient

12

Excess Mg to Ca causes soil micro-organisms to release soil nitrogen back to the atmosphere (as
gaseous nitrogen oxides). What a waste that we listen to people who would create such a
problem, and then let them sell us high rates of N every year.

Correct your soils Mg to Ca ratio.

5.3 Potassium

Potassium is essential for the translocation of sugars and for starch formation. It is required for the
opening and closing of the stomata by guard cells. Potassium encourages root growth and
increases crop resistance to drought and disease. It is also needed for size and quality of the crop
to be grown.

Potassium should be within the optimum range of 3-7% (ideal 5%).

Note: High to excessive levels of potassium can inhibit calcium, magnesium, zinc and manganese
uptake by the plant. It also can be a complicating factor in iron chlorosis.

Potassium combines with clay parti-
cles in 3 ways. The available is on
the surface. The slowly available
is held between the clay plates. A
big share of the unavailable K
moves out of reach. Most of broad-
cast dry K fertiliser moves into the
unavailable form.

When you apply potassium as
sulphate of potash, the solution is
100% available! In heavier soils the
potassium in solution moves only
far enough to reach a clay particle
to attach to. Since potassium
moves very little in clay soils, the
root must come after it.
Potassium in composted manure
and crop residues attaches quickly
to the closest clay and/or humus
particle and is then utilised by the
crop. Potassium releases from soil
minerals far more slowly. In sandy
soils with low clay and organic
matter content, much of the
potassium is leached quickly out of
the root zone.


Understanding Potassium Fertiliser

A very small percentage of broadcast applied K will become ex-
changeable during the growing season, or even show up on a
soil test. Why? Most commercial K is 100% soluble in the soil,
making it highly leachable (up to 75%) on sandy soil. Most of
the remaining K is fixed in soil due to unbalanced conditions.
Most K fertilizer is broadcast applied in early spring and moving
out of soil quickly with springs rains or early irrigation. A plant's
need for K starts out in small amounts in young, growing plants.
Less than 5%-10% of total K is needed in most plants during
the first 21-28 days of growth cycle.

Most of the K that a plant will use is obtained by diffusion. That
means the extraction of K by the root draws the K to itself as it
is needed (K must be within 5mm of the root to be drawn down
the concentration gradient). This is why direct seed placement,
applications through the irrigation system and foliar sprays can
be very profitable at very low rates. In the presence of
adequate moisture, plant roots in well flocculated, aerated soil
have a much higher up-take of K .

5.4 Sodium

Excessive Sodium (Na) is an enemy of soil life (plant and micro-
bial), animals and man. As Na is released into the soil solution
a number of harmful things can happen. If sodium becomes
higher on the cation exchange than potassium, the plant will
take up sodium in the place of potassium, it cannot tell the dif-
ference. In higher temperatures this causes cell wall collapse,
affecting crop quality and yields. (it only takes 0.5kg of excess
Na to affect 1kg of K uptake).

Na produces water stress on a growing crop and actually has
the pulling power to hold water from roots. The soil can have
adequate moisture and the crop actually starves for water.

Na has the strongest exchange capacity of any cation (1.82
times more pulling power than Ca). A small amount of Na will
take control in your soil.

Fight sodium with calcium, potassium and sulphur. Calcium
sulphate (gypsum), cover crops, compost, a good biological
program are all good methods to restore Na to a desired level.

5.5 Hydrogen

Hydrogen: The free exchange nutrient, it takes last place at the
cation table.

Hydrogen only takes a place that is already empty at the cation

Scientific research has
shown that the fulvic
acids in OFS Fol-Up
improves the response
time by plants to foliar
fertiliser applications.
This is very important in
correcting any nutrient
deficiencies in plants
during growth.

Sodium is the
enemy of soil life.
A good biological
program helps
restore Na to
desired levels.


14
table. Soil that has no H (or no acid) has nutrient limitations. Acid
in soil solution is what allows most nutrients to become exchange-
able to plant roots. Most soil microbes thrive on these slightly acid
conditions. Check the BIOS Soil Analysis closely and monitor H
percentage base saturation. Proper pH (measured in water) will
normally be 6.5 to 7.5.

Optimum natural levels of hydrogen are 0.5% to 8%. If the soil
has over 15% H it becomes acidic (low pH is normal). If hydrogen
is at zero, this tells you the other cations are out of balance, or
over saturation has occurred with one or more cations. So
hydrogen should be watched very closely. Soil life depends on it.

Notice: This is why keeping a "proper balance" of minerals in the
soil is much more important than using fertiliser by the tonne. A
few kilograms of an active, over saturated nutrient, like Na or Mg
affects the soil much more than hundreds of kilograms of calcium.
"Salt" fertilisers are destroying our soil balance. Crop diseases,
weeds and insects come our way as a warning that our soil is in
danger.

6. Nitrogen in soil

In sustainable & organic farming systems, the availability of
nutrients to the crop, particularly nitrogen, relies on the release
(mineralisation) of the nutrient from the soil humus when needed.

Diagram 4: Nitrogen Cycle

Soil bacteria decompose organic residue (humus) and the N re-
serve in soil converts to ammonium (NH
4
+
), to nitrite (NO
2
-
)and
then nitrate (NO
3
-2
). This process is referred to as nitrification. The
amount of nitrogen released for plant uptake by this process is
directly related to the organic matter and soil biological activity.
Summary of the Main
Cations

Ca, Mg, K & Na

On any soil audit, or
soil test the actual
amount (kg) of each
nutrient available is
not nearly as vital as
the proper
balance between
each other.

Specifically watch
their balance to Ca.

Remember this
important fact:

High levels of a
nutrient on a soil test
means nothing to a
crop.

Fight against severe
imbalances, which
cause nutrients to
become fixed in the
soil or even toxic to
the plant.

Watch the " balance
of soil nutrients" and
use safe, common
sense farm practices
that
promote balance
and soil life.

The breakdown of a urea fertiliser may also be termed as the
nitrification process (see figures below).

The key factors that influence the rate of mineralisation of
organic matter are:

1. Soil oxygen
2. Soil pH - mineral balance to enhance biological activity.
3. Soil temperature
4. Soil moisture.
5. Soil organic matter (humus) content .
6. Soil biological activity

Soil Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for the production of nitrate and for the nitri-
fying bacteria. If excess water is present, the oxygen supply is
low and the rate of nitrification will be slow. Very compacted soil
also will lower oxygen supplies and thus slow-down nitrification.

Soil pH
The nitrifying bacteria are sensitive to acid or alkaline soil condi-
tions. Speed of nitrification will be highest at a soil pH of 6.4 to
7.0. The reaction will be slowed down (due to a reduction in the
activity of the bacteria as the pH becomes higher or lower).

Soil Temperature
The rate of nitrification will be highest when soil temperatures are
between 18
o
and 27
o
C. Nitrification is greatly reduced below a
soil temperature of 10
o
C.

Soil Moisture
Microbes require moisture to survive; excess soil water will slow
nitrification and extreme dry conditions will also retard the
nitrification reaction.
Contains a source
of carbon for soil
microbes and
encourages
microbial activity
in the root zone.

16

To sustain all growth
processes plants
require relatively large
amounts of Nitrogen.

New Era High N
provides a convenient
source of nitrogen for
broad-acre and
horticultural
situations.

De-nitrification

In some conditions the "N process" in the soil can significantly add
to the cost of farming. Water-logged soil, cation imbalanced soil,
soil compacted from tillage, working soil wet, etc. all create a lack
of oxygen in the soil.

Biological life must have oxygen. If microbes can't get oxygen
from the air in the soil, then they turn to nitrogen (NO
3
) to supply
their oxygen. The bacteria source will get their oxygen from NO
3
.
This results in the soil NO
3
changing to nitrogen gases (N
2
), which
are lost to the atmosphere (see diagram below). This reversal
process is called de-nitrification.

What causes de-nitrification losses?

Soil water logged for more than 36 hours creates high N losses.
Anaerobic (no oxygen needed) bacteria multiply rapidly and
change NO
3
to N gases. This N is permanently lost for crop use.
Crops are stunted and yellowed because of N deficiency.

Any soil condition that causes low oxygen levels will affect N
efficiency due to de-nitrification. High Mg and Na, which can
create tight, compact soil conditions, will cause N losses. Excess
Mg in soil solution will require extra N for plant use.

Diagram 5: Nitrification/de-nitrification process

Immobilisation of Nitrogen
This condition can exist when crop residues are high in carbon and
low in nitrogen, and then incorporated into the soil. Available N is
tied up for a short period of time. This immobilisation of nitrogen is
also called nitrogen draw-down and is caused by bacteria that are
decomposing the crop residues. These bacteria need nitrogen for
their protein and are able to access the available nitrogen before
the plant roots. Once most of the crop residues are broken down,
the nitrogen is released from the bacteria and becomes available
to the growing crops. Under ideal weather conditions, it takes
about one month before nitrogen is released again. A good healthy
soil has adequate N for all decomposition of crop residues, but
spraying residue with a soil stimulant decomposer will speed up
the decomposition time.

Volatilization
Volatilization is the process of nitrogen loss as ammonia gas is
formed from urea. Urea is broken down in soils by an enzyme to
form ammonium carbonate. The carbonate creates an alkaline
condition for a short time. This alkaline (or high pH) condition con-
verts NH
4
+
(ammonium) to NH
3
gas (ammonia). The NH
3
gas is
then lost to the air. In cooler conditions, the enzyme breaks down
urea more slowly and the carbonate does not create as high a pH.
Thus, little ammonia gas is lost when urea is applied to cool soils
(less than 7
0
C). When manure, urea fertiliser or a nitrogen solution
containing urea are applied to the soil surface, nitrogen may be lost
as ammonia (NH
3
) gas. Applying these fertilisers when soil and air
temperatures are cool or when rain occurs soon after application
will greatly reduce the potential for volatilization of urea.
Incorporate these materials into the soil after applying and it will
stop the losses by volatilization.

Applying urea when
soil and air
temperatures are
cool or when rain
occurs soon after
application
reduces the losses
of Nitrogen due to
volatilization.

Incorporating urea
into the soil
reduces N losses
via
volatilization.

18
7.0 Phosphorus

Important facts about Phosphorus

The second most deficient soil nutrient (second only to calcium).

Most of agriculture has a real problem maintaining adequate phos-
phate availability in our soil. Most of our soils naturally have poor
levels of phosphorus, however with years of super-phosphate
application many soils have large reserves of phosphorus, most of
which are locked up chemically.

Man made phosphates such as DAP (di-ammonium phosphate;
18-46-0) and MAP (mono-ammonium phosphate; 11-48-0) are
water-soluble and in an unhealthy, unbalanced soil the phosphorus
can be locked up in hours, unusable by the crop.

These products create a "three fold" problem in the soil. MAP
requires three times as much lime to neutralize as other nitrogen
products (DAP requires 1 times). By producing very acid
conditions, disease problems are common.

Phosphorus is the most important anion (negative charged).
Phosphorus and its balance to N in the soil, is very important for
the health and vigour of any growing plant. Phosphorus is a vital
part of the plants energy transfer system and is part of DNA/RNA
molecules.

Highest protein and mineral levels are achieved with high levels of
P, in balance with nitrogen. To keep a proper balance of N to P,
the soil needs a high exchangeable P level or readily available P
(Colwell) depending on your soils CEC. This is why in a young
growing plant you never want to supply a large amount of avail-
able N at one time. Ideally, available phosphorus levels (50-
80ppm) in the soil should be approximately 2-3 times the soluble
nitrogen level (15-30ppm).

What can happen when N to P ratios are reversed ?

Low sugar levels are common with more stress from diseases
and insects.

Plant energy level is limited and will not with-stand climate
stress (cold, wet, heat, etc.)

In soils low in
biological activity,
only 2 to 10% of
phosphorus will be
available to the
plant.

Normally, only 1 to
4% of P will be
exchangeable at
any one time for
the plants use.

No wonder we
have
phosphorus
deficiencies in our
crops. This is why
20 to 40L of a top
quality
liquid fertiliser
solution, is better
than a ton of dry
fertiliser (DAP).
Ideally, available
phosphorus levels
(50-80ppm) in the
soil should be
approximately 2-3
times the soluble
nitrogen level
(15-30ppm).

Plant roots absorb P in the form of ions of ortho (P0
4
3-
), or
di-hydrogen phosphate (H
2
P0
4
-
). Nearly all P needs come
through the bio-energy process of the soil (humus or "soil life").
Direct foliar P is an excellent way to spoon feed plants that have
a need for additional P.

Growing your own phosphorus

Many soils have reserves of P and a healthy soil with 3% organic
matter can have 150-200kg of P. Soluble P is built into the
millions of microbes, and consequently they are a source of
exchangeable P. OFS MicroPlus is a source of microbes that
can help release nutrients from the soil around the plant roots.

A green manure cover crop of cereal rye and hairy vetch can
release up to 50kg/ha soluble P to the soil. Also applications of
compost can supply up to 6kg/m
3
of exchangeable phosphorus
(P).

Remember this fact!

Soil life and nutrient balance determines the amount of
exchangeable phosphorus in your soil, not necessarily the
amount of dry phosphorus fertiliser you apply.

Research has shown in some soils only 10 to 30% of the crop
requirements come from added fertiliser applications. The rest
comes from the soil's ability to feed the crop.

Build a humus rich soil teaming with biological life.

Take a look at the Bios Soil Analysis (page 32).

Readily available phosphorus is shown as Colwell P (ppm), but
this reading does not guarantee P to be available to the crop.
Soil life and cation exchange balances decide the actual amount
of exchangeable P to the plant. Very little P enters the plant roots
without going through the microbe system.

A level of 50 to 80 ppm P

is adequate for most irrigated crops.
OFS Liquid
Phosphorus via
irrigation or foliar
spray is convenient,
saves time and
provides readily
available phosphorus
for your current crop.

20
What happens to P in soil

Practically everyone thinks that phosphorus fertiliser is the answer
to a phosphorus shortage in the soil.

But the area where we stand to gain the most, is by boosting the
availability of phosphorus already in the soil. Calcium at optimum
soil levels cuts down on the action of iron and aluminium materials
which "fix" phosphorus in such a way that the plant can't access it.

Another place to gain phosphorus is where there's a choice be-
tween shallow and deep-rooted plants. Deep-rooted legumes, such
as lupins, will help a phosphorus situation by pulling up phosphorus
from deeper soil layers.

In a typical soil, plant material and composted manure contain
much of the available phosphorus. This is broken down by bacteria
and then released onto clay particles. A very small amount goes
into the soil water, then directly to the root (see Diagram 6).

Also, phosphorus which is part of the soil mineral fraction, weathers
and the amount released goes directly to the clay particles.

Roots feed more efficiently when soluble phosphorus solutions are
concentrated in layers or bands rather than mixing it in the soil.
Diagram 7 shows increased root growth in the area of concentrated
phosphorus which has dissolved out of the fertiliser band. Phos-
phate is thus used more efficiently.

When soluble phosphates are mixed through the soil, they tend to
"fix" or become available more rapidly.

Thieves of phosphorus are iron and aluminium oxides (Diagram 9).
They combine with phosphorus in a chemical reaction and are
extremely insoluble, therefore are locked out of the plant.

High Calcium can take phosphorus away from the plant by
combining and making insoluble calcium phosphate.
Diagram 6: Available
Phosphorus
Diagram 7: Phosphorus
in bands for improved uptake.
Diagram 8: Thieves of
Phosphorus

8. Sulphur

Sulphur (S) - in ppm x 2 =kg available S per hectare of soil
(assumes sample depth of 150mm).

1kg sulphur =3kg sulphate

Adequate S level in your soil is 10-20ppm
or 20-40kg S/ha of soil.

Example: In a healthy 3% OM soil 60kg S would be a very
favourable N to S ratio (2 to 1).

Sulphur levels can be increased to 15-25 ppm on medium to high
CEC soils, while purging of heavy metals. More sulphur is needed
to help remove undesirable metals, such as excess Mg.

Sulphur is a vital nutrient. A healthy, living soil supplies adequate
sulphur to crops through decomposition of crop residue,
composted manures and biological activity.

High to excess applications of fertiliser products like anhydrous
ammonia, potassium chloride, DAP (18-46-0), ammonium poly-
phosphates, and even excess 10-34-0 deplete humus levels, sup-
press beneficial bacteria, and create nutrient imbalance. Then the
soil does not release natural sulphate into the soil solution for crop
uptake.

Restoring your soils humus level is very important in the
manufacturing of natural sulphates.

What do you do to restore Humus?

Incorporate all your crop residues if possible. Add OFS Activate
for fast hi-nutrient decomposition. An example would be to apply
an autumn residue spray after harvest. Common applications
includes Organic Farming Systems Activate and OFS Organic
Nitrogen.

Incorporate green manure crops at every opportunity.

Get on a stabilized biological program to promote 'soil life'.

High to excess
applications of
synthetic
fertilizer products
suppress beneficial
bacteria and create
nutrient imbalance.


22

9. Importance of Trace Elements

There are six trace elements (micro-nutrients) that are extremely important in the natural balance
program. They are zinc, boron, manganese molybdenum, copper and iron. In some cases, the
anions (boron, molybdenum), and cations (copper, zinc, manganese, and iron) have complex
chemical relationships which affects their availability in soils. The relative availabilities, however,
are controlled by the balance that exist between the soil solution, the soil organic matter, the
cation exchange sites, and insoluble compounds (see figure below).

Facts about Sulphur
The sulphur/nitrogen balance is very important to a plant's metabolism and energy level. In the N
process sugars are combined with natural phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulphur to complete the
energy/amino acid complex. Their balance to each other is vital.
Proper S levels build higher and better enzyme complex systems.

Proper S to N balance increases nitrogen efficiency by a plant.

Sulphur increases protein in grain & grasses, and controls nitrate build up (toxicities).

Sulphur can be used as a valuable tool to lower pH of alkaline soils (pH 7.8 & higher); therefore
increasing the availability of other key nutrients such as phosphorus, manganese, boron, copper,
zinc and nitrogen. It also, can be used to control sodium, magnesium, calcium and other salt
build-up in problem soils.
Sulphur can be the "key nutrient" to improve the physical condition of your soil.
Building Sulphur Levels

If you have been on a traditional fertilizer/chemical program, apply some combination of the previ-
ously mentioned natural practices to build sulphur levels. Also, supplementing S through natural
products may be wise for the first few years. Products to consider: New Era pelletised organic
fertilisers, compost, gypsum (23% Ca,18%S), potassium sulphate (41% K, 18% S) elemental sul-
phur (99% S), or a good grade of nitrogen sulphur solution (28% N 4% S or 30% N - 2% S). If
your sulphur levels are low to medium on your soil audit, nitrogen should always be supplied with
sulphur. (Plants need an available ratio of 8 parts N to 1 part S). Normally, gypsum or soil sul-
phur (99%) will supply adequate elemental S solution for 1-2 crop years.

Zinc
Zinc is a necessary part of certain plant enzymes, called
dehydrogenases, which are vital in the metabolic functions of
cellular respiration. So a zinc-deficient plant will have limited cell
functions so it will not be a normal healthy plant. Zinc is
necessary in an enzyme, called carbonic anhydrase, which
functions in maintaining equilibrium between carbon dioxide and
carbonic acid in tissues. This is essential for photosynthetic
fixation of carbon dioxide - the carbon building block.

What might be the ultimate cause of the zinc deficiency in the
soil?

There may be plenty of zinc in the mineral material make up of
the soil, but it may not be available to the plant because of too
much N, P, Ca, Cu and B. Exchangeable Zn is absorbed
through roots as ZnO
2
or ZnSO
4
(this decreases sharply with the
use of ammonium N).

Zinc availability can be a problem as soil pH increases, in light
sandy soils and under cool, wet weather conditions.

High to excessive amounts of zinc can affect P, Ca, Mn, Fe and
Cu uptake and/or assimilation by the plant.

Manganese
Manganese (Mn) is a weak cation held in the "humus store-
house", usually in a complex with other nutrients. Manganese is
necessary for photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism and other

Growth and yields of
plants are governed
by nutrients in least
supply - not by how
much NPK we apply.
Although these nutrients do not all behave similarly, there are
several common factors that affect their availability. The soil
humus acts as a "storehouse" for many of these elements,
especially the anions such as boron, which are subject to losses.
As the humus decomposes, the nutrients are released and the
humus tends to act as a continuous nutrient supply. Soils that
receive regular additions of organic residues such as compost
and pelletised manures often dont show micronutrient
deficiencies.

If any of these six, or any of the eight nutrients previously
discussed become deficient or are out of balance, then yields will
suffer. Remember, Liebigs law of the minimum! It was stated
and proved over 100 years ago that growth and yields of plants
are governed by the nutrients in least supply - not by how much
NPK we apply. Remember the law of the minimum. The nutrient
in least supply determines the yield. Keeping this in mind, let us
take a good look at these six trace elements. All six are a vital
part of all enzyme families.

The major difference
between organic
and synthetic
fertilisers is the
effect on soil
biology and the
solubility of the
fertiliser.

24

OFS Soil Testing
provides simple
guidelines on how
to balance your
micro-nutrients
- organic and/or
sustainable
recommendations
provided
amino acid compounds formed as part of plant metabolism. Mn
deficiencies can occur in high pH organic soils and low organic
matter sandy soils.

Flooding and soil compaction will decrease Mn exchangeability.
Working soil wet will cut availability of N, P, S, Mn and others.
Chelated (EDTA) manganese is usually unsatisfactory for plant
use (they only lock up P). Soil microbes produce their own
natural chelates in rich humus (organic - acids).

Diagram 9: The Effect of pH Levels on
Micro-Organisms and Nutrients
4 5 6 7 8 9
pH

Molybdenum
Molybdenum (Mo) is an anion (-) nutrient, and exchangeability
increases with higher pH. Consequently molybdenum
deficiencies are often resolved with lime applications to increase
soil pH. Mo is involved in symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes,
certain enzymes in nitrogen metabolism, protein synthesis and
sulphur metabolism.

Copper
Copper is a weaker cation (+) held in the "humus storehouse",
and exchangeability to the plant is dependent upon certain
biological activity (like mycorrhizae fungi plants). Copper is an
activator, which allows enzymes to work at faster rates; helping
stimulate root metabolism and fruit elasticity.

Copper is essential in chlorophyll formation and it helps increase
the sugar content in fruits and vegetables especially when Ca and
K are in ideal balance. Plants can use copper to build
antibiotics for better disease control.

High to excessive levels of Cu can become toxic to plants. High to
excess levels of N, S, Zn and Fe can affect copper uptake by the
plant.

Iron
Iron (Fe) also is a cation, which is needed in very small amounts
in a plant, however it is generally abundant in the soil. Iron is
essential for the formation of chlorophyll and activation of several
enzymes. It is also important in respiration, a vital part of the
oxygen carrying system.

High to excessive levels of P, K, Ca, Zn, Mn, and Cu can affect
iron uptake by the plant.

Boron
Boron is an acid base anion (-) nutrient that does not like
excessive levels of nitrogen and potassium. Over fertilisation
with potassium, can create a boron deficiency. Calcium cannot
perform it's vital job of stabilising the metabolism process without
boron.

Boron aids the plant's resistance against harmful fungi and other
diseases. Boron allows sugars to translocate properly in the plant
and aids in good sugar levels in lateral and terminal bud areas.

Organic Fertiliser.
Contains a source
of carbon for soil
microbes with
quick and slow
release forms of
nitrogen and
phosphorus.


26
10. Plants Obtain Nutrients in Three Ways

You can broadcast fertiliser, incorporate fertiliser (via irrigation or
cultivation), or foliar spray, but nutrients won't help the crop until
they are absorbed by the roots and move into the plant, or move
directly into the plant through the leaves. Up to 100% efficiency
can be obtained through foliar feeding.

There are 3 ways plants can obtain nutrients through the roots:
1. Contact
2. Mass flow
3. Diffusion

Many miles of roots lie under each hectare of crop. The roots
however, occupy less than 1% of the total soil volume, and a very
small amount of the total plant food is intercepted by them
(ie direct contact) as they grow through the soil. Consequently
most nutrients must move through the soil to the roots.

Mass flow is when plant roots take up water and the nutrients that
flow with the water, from the soil. Mass flow supplies much of the
nitrate-N, calcium, sulphate and magnesium. In heavier soils, little
P & K moves to the roots by mass-flow.

For example, nitrate-N, or calcium need only be in the moist soil
that has actively absorbing roots, it makes little difference how the
N is applied. Side-band placement moves N to the roots by mass-
flow just as much as incorporated placement.

Boron can provide extra protection against frosts in early spring in
orchards or insect resistance later in the season.

Boron aids in regulating cell division, salt absorption, hormone
movement, nitrogen assimilation and in the flowering-fruiting
procedure.

For boron to be available to a plant, it must be converted into the
nutrient anion level (borate), which is done by soil microbes.

Boron's availability to a plant can decrease in fine textured, heavy
clay and high pH soils. Heavy applications of crushed limestone
can limit the amount of boron for plant growth.

Caution: High to excessive levels of boron can become toxic to
the plant, also affecting N, P, Ca, Zn and Mn assimilation by the
plant.
Beneficial
microbes to
promote plant
vigour and
strength.

In dry conditions however, or in soil types low in humus or nitrate-N), N needs to be banded (7-
10cm) at the proper time for optimum use by a good root system.
Diagram 10 :Photosynthesis and Plant Growth
Most P and K reaches plant roots by diffusion. Only P and K that is within 5mm of the roots will
diffuse toward the root for uptake. This is why a direct seed starter fertiliser is so important to a
young plant.

Proper balance of nutrients is vital for healthy and vigorous plants. P and K need a high root den-
sity in most soils to ensure the efficient uptake of fertiliser. Nearly all N can be used by the growing
crop through mass-flow. On the other hand, not all applied P and K is removed because a high per-
cent is too far away from the roots for uptake, or it is in a form that is not ideal for the plants.

28

Soil biology and plant roots are adversely affected by acidic materials and those that contain chlo-
rine or are high in salts. Build a healthy soil life with green manure, cover cropping systems, com-
posted animal manures, biological and root stimulants to provide a good healthy root system that
can obtain all the P and K it needs.

Roots can also change the pH and salt content of the soil. This in turn will change the availability of
nutrients. The form of N used will affect the pH change that occurs. Plants that are fed only on
Ammonium-N will make the soil near the root more acid. Biologically, the better synthetic N fertilis-
ers contain ammonium-N (23%) and urea (52%) and nitrate-N (25%).

Table 2: Effects of nitrogen sources on pH of soils.
N SOURCE CHEMICAL
FORMULA
N % CaCO
3
(kg)
needed for
every kg of N

applied
1

Ammonium sulphate (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
21 5.2
Anhydrous ammonia NH
3
82 1.8
Ammonium nitrate NH
4
NO
3
34 1.8
Urea CO(NH
2
)
2
46 1.8
Urea-ammonium
nitrate solution (UAN)
CO(NH
2
)
2
+NH
4
NO
3
28-32 1.8
Mono-ammonium
phosphate (MAP)
NH
4
H
2
PO
4
10
Di-ammonium
phosphate (DAP)
(NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
18
Potassium nitrate KNO
3
13 2.0
2

1. Amount of pure calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) required to either offset the acid-forming
reactions of 1kg of N.
2. The amount of CaCO
3
required to equal the acid-neutralizing effects of per kg of N.
Most of the acid-forming effects are due to the activities of soil bacteria during nitrification.
11. Do you have a problem field?

Is performance down, or are crops experiencing stress from disease, weeds or grass problems?

Consider the following checklist:

Look for high to toxic levels of Mg, iron, aluminium, sodium, etc. A plant tissue test can help
determine toxic, unbalanced conditions.

Your soil test may show a soil with a good level of Ca (% base saturation), but may be locked
up by overpowering nutrients, such as Mg, iron, aluminium and sodium. Did you know that
traditional chemical products can kill and suppress the rhizosphere bacteria? Humus is
important to buffer the affects of synthetic fertilisers.

Diagram 11: The Soil

Problem fields usually show little or no earthworms and low biological activity.

Many problem areas of our fields are due to compaction. We overwork our soil. We work it
too wet. We use the wrong tillage equipment. Think twice before you work your soil. Once
we damage the physical conditions of our soil, soil life suffers. The soil goes anaerobic for
the lack of oxygen, therefore beneficial biological life suffers and plants have a poor,
shallow root system. Both can mean poor performing crops.
12. The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is taken into the plants almost entirely from the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO
2
).
The carbon cycle is when this carbon dioxide is transformed into living tissue, and later de-
composed by soil organisms back into carbon dioxide.

Actively decaying organic matter can substantially increase the concentration of carbon diox-
ide close to the ground, which can directly stimulate crop growth. Therefore a proper decay
system of crop residues, using soil stimulants combined with a cover cropping system (green
manure) and compost, adds a "priceless" fertilizer to your soil fertility program.

Remember - it takes a good biological, high energy organic system to supply carbon (CO
2
),
not NPK fertilizer.
5cm
70%
12cm

95%
12cm
an

30

13. Plant & Soil Nutrient Inter-relationships

The elements and their relationships are the basis of the balance for healthy crops. Too much of
one item will affect the uptake of others. This chart explains some of the relationships between
the elements.

Common problems in the soil can also cause deficiency problems in the crop.

Tables 3 & 4: Plant and Soil - Nutrient Inter-relationships

High to excessive levels of: Can cause low to deficient levels:
N P K Ca Mg Na S Zn Mn Fe Cu B
Nitrogen (N) X X X X X X X
Phosphorus (P) X X X X X X
Potassium (K) X X X X X X X
Calcium (Ca) X X X X X X X X
Magnesium (Mg) X X X X X X
Sodium (Na) X X
Sulphur (S) X X X X X X X
Zinc (Zn) X X X X X
Manganese (Mn) X X X X X
Iron (Fe) X X X X
Copper (Cu) X X X X
Boron (B) X X X X X
Problem: Can cause low to deficient levels:
N P K Ca Mg Na S Zn Mn Fe Cu B
High pH X X X X X X X
Low Organic Matter X X X X X X
Poor Drainage X X X X
Drought X X X
Poor Aerated Soil X X X X
Sandy Soil X X X X X X
Raw Manuring X X


32
Soil Analysis inserted on
this page


14. Diseases & Insects v Nutrients

Diseases and insect infestations are indicators of plant health problems signifying that the plant is
possibly nutritionally deficient and/or excessive:
When nutrient levels are balanced within the plant there will be less disease and insect
problems
Billions of dollars are spent every year on chemicals to fight diseases and insect infestations
which cure the symptoms, but not the problems that cause the symptoms.
Paying close attention to plant health, nutrient balance and inter-relationship will greatly
enhance crop quality, and reduce insect and disease problems.

The following list of nutrients when deficient and/or excessive can induce disease or insect
infestations.
Table 5: Summary Diseases & Insects v Nutrient Deficiencies
Insect Attacks Nutrient Deficiencies Viral Diseases Nutrient Deficiencies

Aphids Ca, P, Fe, Cu, Si Mosiac Virus Ca, P, Fe, Cu
Mites Ca, P, Si Leaf Curl Virus Ca, P, Vitamin E
Slugs Ca, P, Fe, Cu Tobacco Streak Virus Ca, P, Fe, Mo
Lygus Ca, P, Vitamin C, Mn Tomato Ring Spot Virus Ca, P, Vit C, Fe, Vit A
Thrips Ca, P, Co, Si Potato Leaf Roll Virus P, Ca, Cu
Spider-mites Ca, P, Fe, Cu Si Ringspot Virus Ca, P, Carbohydrate, Co, Se
Beetles Ca, P, Fe Vit C, Vit E Leaf Pucker Ca, P, Mo
Cutworms Ca, P, Cu, Co, Vit C, Si
Leaf Hopper Ca, P, Mn, Vit C, Si
Navel Orange Worm Ca, P, Cu, Mn, Co, Vit C, Si
Nematodes Ca, P (Lower Excess Salts (Na)

Fungal Diseases Nutrient Deficiencies Bacterial Diseases Nutrient Deficiencies

Damping Off Ca, Carbohydrates, Mn Fire Blight Ca, P, Vitamin C
Collar Rot Ca, K, Cu Bacterial Blight Ca, P, Vitamin C, Fe, Co
Septoria Leaf Spot Ca, P, K, Vitamin C Crown Gall Ca, P, Vitamin C, Co
Early Blight P, Vitamin C Cane Gall Ca, P, Mo
Late Blight P, Vitamin C Bacterial Wilt P, Ca, I, Vic C, Fe, Cu, K, Se, Co
Verticillium Wilt Ca, P, K, Cu, Mn, Co Bacterial Leaf Spot Ca, Vitamin C, N, P (K excess)
Fusarium Wilt Ca, P, K, Cu, Mo, Co Backleg Ca, B
Phytophthora Ca, Se, P Ring Spot Ca, P, K
Downy Mildew P, Ca, I, Vit C, Cu, Fe, Si Soft Spot Ca, K, B
Powdery Mildew Ca, P, K, Vit C, Si Bacterial Canker/Wilt P, C, Fe, Cn
Leaf Spot P, Ca, K, Vit C, Vit E, Si Bacterial Speck Ca, P, Mn, Fe, Ca (low level)
Leaf Rust P, Ca, K, Vitamin A, Co, Si, Bacteria Spot Ca, P Mn, Fe, Ca (high levels)
Botrytis Ca, P, K, Vit A (early season), Si
Alternaria Ca, P, K, Co, Mn, Si
Cane Blight P, Vitamin C, Si, Se
Brown Rot Ca, P, K, Mn, Cu, Si
Corn Smut Ca, P
Soft Rot Ca, P, K, Fe, Ca, Si
Apple Scab Ca, P, Fe, Cu
After reading the disease and insect charts,
notice how often calcium and phosphorus
show up as the number one or two defi-
ciencies. Frequent vitamin deficiencies, es-
pecially vitamin C are also observed. Vita-
min C is extremely important for calcium
assimilation.

Undestanding Soil

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