1 | P a g e

.
*

A. in Greek and Hellenistic Writings (including Josephus and Philo).

derives from , , and means to make righteous, or neut. to establish as right, to validate
(opp. , to invalidate, etc.).

1. Pindar, who often coins words, once uses in the sense of sovereign validation. The famous Fr., 16,
9 is found in Plato Gorg., 484b: | | |
== the makes a , and declares to be right, what would otherwise be supremely
arbitrary.
1
According to Platos exposition,
2
there is thus carried through . In accordance
with nature the law thus gives the character of right to even the most arbitrary act. Natural law culminates in the
dominion of the strong.
3
It is in keeping with this nuance in Pindar that the term is often used for divine rule and
order in the law: Philo Spec. Leg., I, 67, 109, 140; II, 72, 113; III, 172, 180 etc.; and once Joseph.; Ant., 4, 278.
This gives rise to the use of for what is prescribed: Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom., X, 1, 2; cf. P. Tebt., II,
444: , established amounts.

2. From the legal sphere the word passes into more general use in the sense of to regard as fair or right,
i.e., to formulate for oneself as (cf. , ). This is the most common usage: Soph. Oed. Tyr., 6,
575, 640; Oed. Col., 1350, 1642; Hdt., I, 89; Thuc., IV, 122, 5. This is true of Joseph. and Philo. Jos. Ant., 9, 187;
12, 124; cf. Ant., 19, 305. Philo Abr., 142, 171; Migr. Abr., 73; Vit. Mos., I, 44 etc. Joseph., who uses the word ten
times, never deviates from Gk. usage. In him the material par. to Pauls is .
4
Philo can

*
. Bibl. , 192 n. Cf. also E. Fraenkel, Griech. Denominativa (1906), 68, 69, 73, 124.
opp. oppositum.
Fr. Fragmenta (-um).
Gorg. Gorgias, of Leontini in Sicily (c. 483375 B.C.), one of the main representatives of classical sophistic and rhetoric in Athens (cf. Platos
dialogue Gorgias). From his rhetorical handbook two model speeches have come down to us, the deliverance of Helena and the defence of
Palamedes, ed. H. Diels in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, II
4
, 1922.
1
U. v. Wilamowitz, Platon, II (1920), 93, 99, instead of , reads == doing violence to absolute
righteousness, cf. J. Geffcken, Studien zu Plat. Gorg., Herm., 65 (1930), 19. On the other hand A. Busse, Herm., 66 (1931), 126 ff. argues
strongly for the older reading.
2
Cf. Leg., III, 690c; IV, 715a.
3
Cf. A. Busse, 127 f.
Philo Philo, of Alexandria (c. 20 B.C.50 A.D.), ed. L. Cohn and P. Wendland.
Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus.
Joseph. Flavius Josephus, Jewish author (c. 3797 A.D.) in Palestine and later Rome, author in Greek of the Jewish War and Jewish
Archaeology, which treat of the period from creation to Nero, ed. B. Niese, 1887 ff.
Ant. Antiquitates.
Dion. Hal. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, from 30 B.C. a teacher of rhetoric in Rome, Atticist and historian, author of an old Roman history, ed.
C. Jacoby, 1885.
Ant. Rom. Antiquitates Romanae.
P. Tebt. The Tebtunis Papyri, ed. B. Grenfell, A. Hunt and others, 1920 ff.
Soph. Sophocles, of Athens (496406 B.C.), the real poet of the Athens of Pericles, ed. A. C. Pearson, 1924.
Oed. Tyr. Oedipus Tyrannus.
Oed. Col. Oedipus Coloneus.
Hdt. Herodotus, of Halicarnassus (c. 484425 B.C.), the first real Greek historian, described as early as Cicero as the father of history. His
work deals with the conflicts between the Greeks and the barbarians from earliest times to the Persian Wars, ed. H. Kallenberg, 1926 ff.
Thuc. Thucydides, of Athens (c. 460396 B.C.), the classic historian of the Greeks, who as a contemporary wrote a history of the
Peloponnesian War, ed. C. Hude, 1898 ff.
Abr. De Abrahamo.
Migr. Abr. De Migratione Abrahami.
Vit. Mos. De Vita Mosis.
Gk. Greek.
par. parallel.
4
Cf. A. Schlatter, Wie sprach Josephus von Gott? (1910), 63.
2 | P a g e

adduce the of Gn. 38:26 (e.g., Mut. Nom., 136), but for the most part he, too, has only this general
use.
5
He can thus use it in relation to personal decision in the conduct of life, Ebr., 51; Deus Imm., 9, 159. From the
sense to regard as fair and right, there develops the narrower meaning to desire: Thuc., V, 105, 1; to demand:
Philo Mut. Nom., 19; to will: Jos. Ant., 19, 178. Closer to the legal origins are to judge (Plut. De Fortuna, 2 [II,
97 f.]; to grant: Dio C., 48, 46, 4; 54, 24, 6); to agree (Hdt., II, 172); to permit (Hdt., III, 118).

3. When the original legal meaning is applied personally, there arises the widespread usage: to establish
for someone, to treat someone rightly, to secure justice for someone. This can also take a negative
turn, i.e., to judge, to punish (cf. , to do wrong, to outwit, etc.). a. In the general
sense, without personal obj., we have to pronounce sentence in Thuc., II, 71, 4. With obj., P. Oxy., III, 653. b.
To condemn, to punish someone, Hdt., I, 100; V, 92, 2. Dio C., act.: 38, 11, 3; 52, 24, 4; 54, 19, 2; pass.: 37, 41,
2; 41, 28, 4; 49, 12, 5. c. Esp. of the death sentence (euphemistically): Dio C., 54, 15, 4; 56, 4, 5; 71, 28, 3. Pass.:
37, 12, 2; 43, 24, 4; 55, 14, 3. Of the execution of the death sentence: Plut. Cato Maior., 21 (I, 349a); Jos. Ant., 17,
206; 18, 178; Philo Ebr., 95; Ael Var. Hist., 5, 18 (with ). Closest to the Pauline usage is d. the sense of to
represent the cause of someone, to secure him justice: Polyb., III, 31, 9. The corresponding pass. usage is found
in Aristot. Eth. Nic., V, 10, p. 1136a, 18 ff.: to be treated justly, opp. . Outside the LXX
and the NT, however, it is never found in this sense with a pers. obj.: aliquem iustum reddere.

4. Particular note should be taken of the mystical use. Corp. Herm., XIII, 9:
. , , .
6
The formula, here perhaps consciously given a
Christian reference, definitely means: we have become sinless. is made over to the mystic as is
driven out by the destruction of all evil desires deriving from the body ( , 193). But the idea of being
declared righteous in judgment is rejected, and there is even perhaps a polemic against the Judaeo-Christian concept
of . It may even be that the Egyptian idea of justification by the judgment of the dead is here given a
mystical application.
7
According to this conception, the dead are set by Osiris on the scales, are weighed, and are
then pronounced righteous because their good works are predominant (though knowledge also counts). Stains are
removed by rites of expiation and magic.
8


Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum.
5
Epictet. never has .
Ebr. De Ebrietate.
Deus Imm. Quod Deus sit Immutabilis.
Plut. Plutus.
Dio C. Dio Cassius Cocceianus, of Nicea in Bithynia (c. 155235 A.D.), a high Roman official, the author of a history of Rome in 80 books
from Aeneas to his own time, ed. P. Boissevain, 1894 ff.
obj. object.
P. Oxy. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ed. B. Grenfell and A. Hunt, 1898 ff.
pass. passive.
Esp. especially.
Pass. F. Passow, Wrterbuch der griechischen Sprache
5
, 1841 ff., completely revised by W. Crnert, 1913 ff.
Cato Maior. De Catone Maiore.
Ael Claudius Aelianus (c. 175235 A.D.), Roman author, writing in Greek, of the so-called Second Sophistic school, ed. R. Hercher, 1864 ff.
Var. Hist. Varia Historia.
Polyb. Polybius, of Megalopolis, in Arcadia (c. 210120 B.C.), hostage of Rome in 167, general and statesman, and the greatest historian of
Hellenism. In 40 books he depicts in essentials the rise of Roman world dominion in the period 221168 B.C., ed. T. Bttner-Wobst, 1905.
Aristot. Aristotle, of Stageiros (c. 384322 B.C.), with his teacher Plato the greatest of the Greek philosophers and the founder of the
peripatetic school, quoted in each case from the comprehensive edition of the Academia Regia Borussica, 1831 ff.
Eth. Nic. Ethica Nicomachea.
NT New Testament.
pers. person.
Corp. Herm. Corpus Hermeticum, collection of Hermetic writings (Poimandres and others), late anonymous products of Hellenistic-Egyptian
mysticism, the teachings of which may be found already in the 1st century A.D., ed. W. Scott, 1924.
6
Reitzenstein Poim., 343; Scott, I, 244. Cf. Reitzenstein Hell. Myst., 258 ff.; C. F. G. Heinrici, Die Hermes-Mystik u. d. NT (1918), 37.
7
Reitzenstein Hell. Myst., 258 also draws attention to the Persian judgment of the dead and the rather different Mandaean views.
8
The Egypt. equivalent of (cf. J. H. BreastedH. Ranke, Gesch. gyptens [1910], 161) is m rw, i.e., the voice of someone
is right, his statement is found to be right (at law), he is vindicated, he triumphs. m as a verb means to be or to make right, and as
3 | P a g e


B. in the LXX, Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha and the Synagogue.

In the LXX (corresponding to ) is a forensic term. Yet it does not have a predominant negative
connotation (to condemn) as in Gk., but is constantly used in the positive sense of to pronounce righteous, to
justify, to vindicate. It is almost always linked with the pers. obj., which is true only of the negative sense in
secular usage ( 211). The forensic element is even stronger in the LXX than the Mas. Thus in Is. 45:25 the Mas.
, means that they find righteousness with Yahweh, whereas the LXX (*
) means that they are declared righteous by Him. The following uses of in the LXX are to be noted.
1. Act. a. For hiph: to declare someone righteous, to acquit someone, to secure justice for him.
According to the legal custom of Israel, this may not apply for the : Ex. 23:7; Is. 5:23; Sir. 10:29;
42:2. Only the may be declared righteous: Dt. 25:1 AF; 3 . 8:32 ( ), cf. materially Prv.
17:15, and from the religious standpoint 7:9. In the sense of to help to right cf. 2 . 15:4; 81:3; Is. 50:8
(against the opponent at law). Cf. 4 Esr. 4:18: aliquem justificare (opp. condemnare), of judicial acquittal. In Sir.
13:22 has no legal connotation but simply means to justify the rich in everyday life (cf. f.
213). b. For pi: to prove to be innocent or righteous. Jer. 3:11:
( ), it has shown itself more righteous than. Ez. 16:51 f.:
) (, thou hast justified thy sisters. c. For : to champion someones cause, to secure justice
for him, before the judgment. With acc. of pers.: Is. 1:17 B
ab
(al: ); Mi. 7:9:
(A: ) , until he execute judgment for me. d. Occasionally for to make
pure: 72:13: (so also ) ( ) (pass. 214). pi is often used by the Rabbis for
the divine acquittal: 1 Pesikt. r., 40 (169a) ( ); 2. b. Erub, 19a ( ); 3. Midr. Ps. 143 1 (266b) ( ); 4. Tg.
Ps. 51:6 ( ). In these passages
9
what is meant is 1. acquittal on the Day of Atonement. The man who receives
this is a new creature. There is also meant 2. the justification which the dying righteous receives if he is destined for
the Gan Eden. A third possibility is justification at the last judgment on the basis of a demonstrable predominance
of good works ( , 197). The multiplicity of related ideas only enhances the uncertainty of the belief in
justification. Precedence attaches, of course, to the view that there will be justification only for the righteous on the
basis of demonstrable works.
10
e. Equally rare in the LXX is the use of for , to bring someone to
judgment, to judge, 1 . 12:7 A: (B , ; Ez. 44:24:
) (, of the decision of legal statutes. f. In the Ps. Sol. the act. is never related to man
in the sense of to justify someone, to declare him righteous; the which man pronounces is plainly
referred to God. It is always the righteous who vindicates the sentence, judgments and name of God, accepting and
acknowledging it to be righteous: 2:16: , 3:3, of the righteous: (Ryle, James read
) ; 3:5; 4:9; 8:7, 27. Cf. 4 Esr. 10:16: justificare terminum dei, to accept as
righteous the sentence of God; also Lk. 7:29 ( 214). This is in accord with the favourite usage of the Rabbis. b.

an adj. right, true, genuine, righteous, truthful. Cf. A. Erman-H. Grapow, Wrterb. d. gypt. Sprache (1926/31), II, 12 f., 22, 15; III, 324.
rw is voice, noise. The idea is that in the judgment of the dead the dead must answer 42 questions relating to his moral conduct in life.
The weighing of the heart on the scales of the dead will then show whether he is a true voice. If so, he is vindicated or triumphant in the
judgment of the dead and will thus pass to eternal felicity.
Gk. Greek.
pers. person.
obj. object.
Mas. Masora.
opp. oppositum.
acc. accusative.
pass. passive.
Pesikt. r. Pesikta rabbati, collection of homilies (Strack, Einl., 205 f.).
b. Babylonian Talmud when before tractates from the Mishnah.
Erub Erubin, Mishnah-, Tosefta-, Talmud tractate Interminglings (evasions of the Sabbath commandment) (Strack, Einl., 38 f.).
Midr. Ps. Midrash on Psalms (Strack, Einl., 215).
9
Cf. Str.-B., III, 134 f.; I, 640 f. Cf. also III, 134; Schl. Mt., 375.
10
Cf. Str.-B., III, 134, 186 ff.
Ps. Sol. Psalms of Solomon, Pharisaic collection of the 1st century B.C., consisting of 18 songs, ed. O. Gebhardt, 1895.
4 | P a g e

Ber., 19a: the sufferer recognises that Gods judgment is just (); S. Dt., 307 on 32:4 ( ); j Sota, 22c, 41
( ) S. Lv. on 10:3: : to acknowledge the divine judgment to be righteous.

2. Pass. a. Aor., also fut., for kal. God is vindicated, is present in righteousness 50:6:
; Is. 42:21: (: ); Ps. Sol. 8:27: ;
9:3: ; Sir. 18:2: . Cf. O. Sol. 31:5 of Christ: His
appearance was found to be righteous. Of the vindication or right conduct of man (esp. the chosen people) in
relation to Yahweh: Is. 43:9: ; v. 26: . Related is the usage in 142:2:
, where the LXX (no one can be pronounced righteous [justificabitur] before
Gods judgment) clearly sharpens the Mas. ( , nothing living is righteous in thy sight), so that there is
asserted not merely universal sinfulness but the impossibility of justification. Gl. 2:16; R. 3:20 (Pl. always adds:
) show that this passage had a great influence on the Pauline understanding of justification. Sir., who
sets the individual over against the divine judgment, and understands as forgiveness of sin, usually
gives a negative formulation: 23:11: (if he has sworn falsely); 34:5:
(for niph); 9:12: ; 1:22: ;
18:22 B: . The is always the one who is laden with sin and who
falls victim to divine punishment. Cf. 4 Esr. 12:6 Lat.: si justificatus sum apud te prae multis.
11
The same usage is
often found in Job Hex. (always for kal): 9:15 : , ; 10:15 :
(LXX in both cases ); 15:14 .:
; : (LXX: ); 22:3 : ; 40:3
(Mas. 8) : , (LXX: ). b. as a trans. of pi:
Job 33:32: ( ) I will vindicate thee. c. for kal: Gn. 38:26:
( ) she is in the right against me 18:9: ( ) they are
righteous: Ez. 21:13 (Mas. 21:18): for pu (the text is corrupt); Prot. Ev. Jk. 5:1:
, justified (after the sacrifice). d. For kal: to be pure in the legal sense. Mi. 6:11:
( ), cf. in the sense of to be free from in Sir. 26:29:
; Test. S. 6:1: , to be innocent of something.
3. Pass. in the intrans, sense: as a transl. of hitp.: Gn. 44:16: Judah asks: (
): How shall we justify ourselves? Cf. the pres. use of Sir. 7:5: , do not set up
thyself as righteous; cf. also the act. in Lk. 16:15 ( 215).

C. in the NT.

In the NT it is seldom that one cannot detect the legal connexion. is never used in the sense of to regard
as fair and right, as in Gk. generally. The LXX, with its legal emphasis, has obviously had the greatest influence
on NT usage.

Ber. Berakhot, Mishnah-, Tosefta-, Talmud tractate Benedictions.
S. Dt. Sifre Deuteronomium, Tannaitic Midrash on Deuteronomy (Strack, Einl., 200 f.).
j Jahwist.
Sota Sota, Mishnah-, Tosefta-, Talmud tractate Suspected Adultress.
Pass. F. Passow, Wrterbuch der griechischen Sprache
5
, 1841 ff., completely revised by W. Crnert, 1913 ff.
Aor. aorist.
fut. future.
O. Sol. Odes of Solomon, Christian-Gnostic collection of songs of the 2nd century, extant in Syriac, ed. J. Rendel Harris, 1916 ff.
esp. especially.
v. verse.
Lat. Latin, latin.
11
The pres. in Tob. 6:12 : , refers to civil (cf. 12:4): Thou wilt be given the right to inherit. Cf. 6:13 .
, thou art given the right to take a wife.
trans. transitive.
Prot. Ev. Jk. Protevangelium des Jakobus.
Test. S. Testament of Simeon.
transl. translated
5 | P a g e


1. To exercise righteousness. We may first mention the rather unusual application in Rev. 22:11:
,
12
the righteous shall continue to exercise righteousness (opp. ).

2. To vindicate God. The familiar usage of the Ps. Sol. ( 213), which treats God as the One who is vindicated,
is found in Mt., Lk. and the Pauline writings. Act.: Lk. 7:29: , they
justified God by accepting baptism. Pass.: Mt. 11:19: , cf. Lk. 7:35.
13
The
in both these passages should be rendered demonstrated or acknowledged to be righteous.
14
Cf. also R.
3:4: ( 50:4), which refers to God being justified. Here, of course, Paul follows the Psalm and
uses the term in a far more definitely legal sense than in Mt. 11:19 and par., God being represented as one of the
parties in a dispute. A similar usage is to be found in the of the hymn to Christ in 1 Tm.
3:16, for which redeemed is hardly adequate. The idea is that Christ was justified in the sphere of the spirit, i.e.,
that His claim to be Christ was demonstrated and validated by the resurrection (in contrast to the
) Cf. O. Sol. 31:5 ( 213).

3. To justify oneself, to represent oneself as righteous. A weaker sense, which yet betrays its legal origin, is to
be found in Lk. 10:29. The , , wishes to vindicate himself in debate. On the other
hand, Lk. 16:15: , to declare or to represent oneself as
righteous (pass. 214) is much closer to the main NT usage. The attitude of the anticipates what God
alone can establish by His pronouncement.

4. in the sense of saving righteousness in the Synoptists. Paul is not the only one to use the term in
the strict legal sense. Lukes statement concerning the publican in 18:4: ,
can only mean acquitted, declared righteous. The saying assumes a present righteousness,
15
though, in
distinction from Paul, there is no reference to the saving act of the cross.
16
The reference in Mt. 12:37:
, opp. ,
17
is exclusively to the last judgment ( 217).

5. as used specifically by Paul.

NT New Testament.
Gk. Greek.
12
Acc. to 38. 79. 2020. vg
cl
ep Lugd in Eus. Hist. Eccl., V, 1, 58. Cyprian Testimonia, III, 23 (CSEL, 3, 1, p. 140): justiota faciat. In any case
the here simply follows the . Nestle has: .
opp. oppositum.
Ps. Sol. Psalms of Solomon, Pharisaic collection of the 1st century B.C., consisting of 18 songs, ed. O. Gebhardt, 1895.
Pass. F. Passow, Wrterbuch der griechischen Sprache
5
, 1841 ff., completely revised by W. Crnert, 1913 ff.
13
instead of in B
2
CDEF sy
sc
is based on Lk. 7:35, where it occurs in all MSS but . It is doubtful whether we should follow the
suggestion of P. de Lagarde, Agathangelos, AGG, 35 (1888), 128 that an Aram original might be understood as their
servants or their works (or : , servants, , works), since Lk. could hardly have used for servants. If there
is any truth in the hypothesis of Schl. Mt., 374 f. that we have to take into account here the different meanings of
(Hellenistically, to condemn), so that the meaning in Lk. is that wisdom is condemned by its children, this would have to be pre-Lucan,
since Lk. himself uses the term only in the positive sense. with means on account of, for the sake of, and with it has
the force of (cf. Mt. 16:21; Jm. 1:13). Hence there is no need of the suggestion of M. Dibelius, Joh. d. Tufer (1911), 19, that means
far from, or of J. Wellhausen, Das Ev. Mt. (1904), 55, that it is a rendering of the Aram. (Heb. ), before, over against.
The are not merely ascetic manifestations but the whole life of the messengers.
14
Cf. Str.-B., I, 604. Supra ( 213) in Ps. Sol. and Rabb. Euthymius, ad loc. (MPG, 129, 357c) already expounds
. For a similar usage in Joseph., cf. Schl. Mt., 375 f.
par. parallel.
O. Sol. Odes of Solomon, Christian-Gnostic collection of songs of the 2nd century, extant in Syriac, ed. J. Rendel Harris, 1916 ff.
pass. passive.
15
Str.-B., II, 247 f.
16
The B L Or, better than D and K, is to be taken in an absolutely exclusive sense,
cf. 4 Esr. 12:6: prae multis ( 213). Hence it has nothing whatever to do with the comp. or superl. use of ( ,
183), nor with an expression like 1 . 24:18: , thou art more righteous than I.
17
Rabb. par. in Schl. Mt., 412.
6 | P a g e


a. The Legal Aspect of the Term. In Paul the legal usage is plain and indisputable. The opposite of is
(R. 8:34). For Paul the word does not suggest the infusion of moral qualities, a justum efficere
in the sense of the creation of right conduct. It implies the justification of the ungodly who believe, on the basis of
the justifying action of God in the death and resurrection of Christ. To be sure, the is an act of grace
rather than of retribution according to works. Yet this act of grace in the cross can be called forensic because in the
judgment is executed on all sin in the Substitute,
18
The original Pauline usage envisages as
an act of God in the saving present, though it is left an open question how this relates to the decision in the last
judgment, which is still maintained ( , 208). The most distinctive, use of is in R. 4:5 ff. (of
Abraham): . The opposite is the of civic justice (
212). Here the inconceivable factor of an act of grace is consciously contrasted with ordinary legal procedure. This
is the judicial acquittal which takes place in the saving present. It is neither exclusively objective in the
cross nor exclusively subjective in experience. It has rather the objectivity of relationship, enacted at the cross and
apprehended in faith ( , 206). The idea of a judicial act is not applied to the present process of the
religious life, but reserved for the last judgment. Thus in Gl. 2:16 f. means to become a righteous
man in the eyes of God, the essence of justification being that God helps the sinner to the position and status of
one who is righteous in His eyes.
19
This interpretation is valid, though it should be emphasised that the new position
and status are the result of a judicial pronouncement.

It may be conceded that the usus forensis is not given prominence in every passage by express emphasising of the
judicial act. Thus Gl. 5:4: means quite simply you who would be righteous by the
law. Yet the idea of judgment is everywhere present, as we can see from statements like Gl. 3:11:
, or R. 3:20: (quoting 142:2). On the other hand, the main point is
obscured if we forget that the actus forensis takes place in an act of grace from which it is not to be severed. Only
thus do we see the new element as compared with the Rabbinic doctrine of justification, which at root postpones the
judicial act until the last judgment. It should also be noted, however, that to think of one-sidedly in
terms of experience is to imperil the forensic objectivity of the process.

b. Experience and the Act of Salvation. Does the Pauline use of make any contribution to the
understanding of the related question of experience? In the following passages there is clear reference in the present
tensewhich is the mark of the new insightto the present character of justification: Gl. 3:8: ; 3:11:
, cf. also 2:16 and 3:24; R. 3:24: ; 3:26: ; 3:28: , cf.
in Ac. 13:39. In addition to the present tenses the preterites ( 217, n. 22) are no less important, since
they treat justification as something which has already happened, as an event. Simply to emphasise the character of
justification as an experience, and to reject the view that refers to the universal act of salvation
accomplished at the cross,
20
is to miss the fact that this act is always present as salvation and therefore available for
personal apprehension. This is, of course, necessary. When there is reference to , is always

18
J. T. Beck, Rm. (1884), 217223 (excursus on ) argues that the forensic concept should be restricted to the principles of the
legal norm which applies in the OT ( 212) and which is linked with the last judgment in R. 2:13. But this contradicts the use of in
Paul, whose concern is to clothe the act of grace in legal imagery. Quite logically Beck rejects any thought of judgment at the cross (222),
where God acts only as Father and not as Judge ( , 204).
19
Zn. Gl., 124 f. Zn. agrees with Beck in limiting the thought of judgment to the last judgment, cf. n. 18.
217, n. The completed act of grace is meant in 1 C. 6:11 with ; R. 4:2 of Abraham: ; R. 5:1, 9; Tt. 3:7:
. Dib. Past. on Tt. 3:7 is probably wrong to question the genuine Pauline sense of . Here, as in
1 C. 6:11, baptism is linked with justification. We also have here, as in genuine Pauline writings, the interconnexion of justification,
inheritance and the reception of the Spirit (on justification and baptism, , 206). The attempt of Joh. Weiss to explain 1 C. 6:11
(1 K., 41, 154f.) by Corp. Herm., XIII, 9 is unconvincing, since there is no question of the setting aside of sin and becoming sinless (for the
most energetic defence of this conjecture cf. Reitzenstein Hell. Myst., 259). This view overlooks the connexion between Pauline justification
and the OT, and also Pauls conception of a continuing struggle against the in the Christian life. On justification and mysticism
, 209. In relation to , the of Gl. 2:17 is important (cf. ., Phil. 3:9).
20
Zn. R., 179 f.; 209, n. 17; 258. Zn.s view is dogmatically determined by the question of the ordo salutis.
7 | P a g e

included.
21
It is impossible to separate once-for-all justification at the cross and personal justification in faith (
, 206). R. 5:9: , expressly refers to the act of salvation in indication
of the Where of justification. This is the effective basis of , the invading and self-actualising present of
salvation. The in R. 5:1 is preceded by . One is thus
in consequence of the . Here, too, the fact is imperfectly rendered by the mere statement of
experience. For the saving act at the cross and personal apprehension belong directly together, so that the one
cannot be considered apart from the other. The preterite expresses an accomplished act of grace.
22
Always,
however, we have the accompanying (Gl. 3:8, 11, 24; R. 3:30; 5:1) or (Gl. 2:16) to guard against a
formulation divorced from experience, relationship to the event of salvation being indissolubly enclosed in .
In R. 8:30: / it is not appropriate to speak of past
23
justification, since here the catena of aorists
denotes the certainty of the event from all eternity in the counsel of God. This leads to the decisive point in this
view of time. The eternal character of the justifying event of salvation prevents any severing of past and present.
The act of salvation is a continuing present.

c. How does the use of reflect the interrelation of present justification and justification at the last
judgment? Paul speaks most clearly of at the last judgment when he treats of retributive judgment by
works, as in 1 C. 4:4 ( , Cf. Mt. 12:37, 215). In the full sense a man is judicially
acquitted and declared righteous only when the retributive sentence of the last judgment has been pronounced in his
favour as regards the whole of his lifes work. This is clearly a different use of the term from that which we have
considered thus far. It shows us that in Paul, too, is linked with the last judgment. The decision
whether the word is used in this sense elsewhere cannot be taken with certainty merely in the light of future forms
of . In the denial of justification by works of the Law ( , 207) in Gl. 2:16 and R. 3:20, the
is taken from 142:2 ( 213), and as a quotation it hardly provides a definitive answer to the
question. What is obvious is that in the light of the understanding of the doctrine in the Synagogue Judaism
necessarily referred this future to the last judgment ( , 197).

The context shows beyond question that the of R. 2:13 treats of the last judgment (cf. ,
and the continuation in v. 16). But this is a presupposition which must he laid down to convince
opponents irrespective of the redemption in Christ. The assumption is that, since the is of universal validity,
only perfect doers can be declared righteous in the last judgment and therefore neither Jew nor Gentile can stand
before God. The whole exposition makes it plain that this statement cannot be a final or adequate formula for
justification at the last judgment as it may be expected by the believer in Christ, even though the basic principle
remains that God judges action in the Last Day.

In R. 5:19: , as in R. 3:30 ( ), we seem to have a temporal as well as
a logical
24
future, for even the fundamentally important and solemn declaration of R. 8:33:
(preceded by the fut. ) obviously refers to the last judgment. Here again ( , 207) it is thus
evident that is an eschatological term and that the divine justification which was accomplished at the
cross, which is now believed and which is a continuing gift in the present, is to be expected as a consummated and
definitive acquittal in the Last Day. This agrees with the fact that for Paul all present redemption is such only
because it establishes solid hope: (R. 8:24).

d. . The use of in connexion with ( 214) gives emphatic expression to the
thought of redemption. Thus liberation from guilt is meant in Ac. 13:38 f.:
, . Here again we have legal justification. Only

21
On nine occasions Paul links with statements: Gl. 2:16 (twice); 3:8, 11, 24; R. 3:28, 30; 4:5; 5:1.
23
Zn. R., 209.
v. verse.
24
Lips., Zn., Khl. R., ad loc.
fut. future.
8 | P a g e

tendentious criticism
25
can think that the . affirms a partial justification by the Law. R. 6:7:
, is an erratic block among the statements of Paul. Here again the
denotes the liberation of man, this time from the service of sin. Our old man is crucified with Christ that the body of
sin might be destroyed and that we should not be able or compelled to serve sin any more; forand this brings us
to the statementhe who dies is (thereby) declared free from sin. The saying thus relates to the man who has died
with Christ, and who is thus free from the bondage which chained him to sin.

The statement is plainly shown to be a Rabbinic one
26
by the parallel in S. Nu., 112 on 15:31, where in relation to
Nu. 15:31: That soul shall utterly be cut off; his iniquity shall be upon him, it is said:
27
==
all who die attain expiation through death, but of this man ( from Nu. 15:31) it is true that his iniquity shall be
upon him. Cf. also S. Nu., 4 on 5:8: If a man had to bring a sin offering to make recompense for the embezzling of
something entrusted to him (Lv. 5:21 ff., esp. v. 25), but died before he could bring it, the heirs need not offer the
sacrifice, for ; the soul of this man has already atoned for him (namely, by the fact that he has died).
Even apart from these main passages there is other evidence that the basic principle, i.e., that all who die attain
expiation by death, is firmly rooted in Jewish thinking (cf. expiation by dying as a martyr, etc.).
28


The Rabbinic saying that the soul of the dead achieves expiation by death, and the Pauline statement that he who
dies is thereby pronounced free from sin, are fully identical in substance. Paul is thus using here a Rabbinic
theologoumenon. But the true significance and force of the statement derive from belief in identification with the
death of Christ and the consequent pronouncing free from sin. The Rabbinic parallel is also instructive in that it
shows us how closely linked are justification and atonement in the thinking of Paul. In other words, we have here
another confirmation of the significance of the as the basis of justification.
29

6. in James.

In James the formula occurs three times. The reference is again to present justification. This
is ascribed to Abraham and Rahab on the basis of works. From this fact a general deduction is made in respect of
belief in justification. While Paul in R. 4:2 ( ) denies that the patriarchs were
justified by their works, James in his struggle against non-ethical and purely orthodox monotheism ( ,
201) expressly emphasises that faith unaccompanied by works will not be enough for . James could
hardly accept Pauls definition of Abraham as a (R. 4:5). For him he is a
righteous man whose works are recognised. The statements remind us of Paul, e.g., the quotation from Gn. 15:6,
, the problem of and , the . But we need not see here a conscious polemic
against pseudo-Paulinism or a misunderstanding of Paul. The form of treatment and the use of similar expressions
may be explained by their common basis in the tradition of the Synagogue. If there is in this no inner approximation
to the Pauline belief and its new insight, there is agreement with the early Christian view that true faith is not idle
but active ( , 201).

.
*


A. outside the NT,

25
Cf. along the lines of F. C. Baur, F. Overbeck, Kurze Erklrung der Ag. (1870), ad loc., and also Pr. Ag., where there is reference to the
ambiguity of the passage.
26
This was first maintained by K. G. Kuhn, R. 6:7, ZNW, 30 (1931), 305 ff., who argues that the saying was formulated prior to the 2nd cent.
A.D. and thus existed in the 1st cent. A.D.
S. Nu. Sifre Numeri, Tannaitic Midrash on Numbers (Strack, Einl., 201), ed. H. G. Horovitz, 1917.
27
Horovitz (1917), 121, 13.
esp. especially.
28
Cf. Kuhn, op. cit.
29
This explanation of R. 6:7 by the Rabb. formula renders superfluous any recourse to magico-mystical motifs in Corp. Herm., XIII, 9,
Reitzenstein Hell. Myst., 259 f.
*
. In addition to Cr.-K., Moult.-Mill., s.v., Zn. R., 278 f.; Sickb. R.
4
, 216; Rohr Hb.
4
, 40. Def.: Aristot. Rhet., I, 13, p. 1373b, 20ff.;
Eth. Nic., V, 10, p. 1135a, 914; Ps-Just. Quaest. et Resp. ad Orth., III, 2, 138c (Otto); Orig. Selecta in Ps. 18 (MPG, 12, 1244c).
9 | P a g e


In consequence of the action (words in ), the which establishes right gives rise to . This is
the fixed form of , whether as a legal claim, a written right (and therefore a legal document), a statute or
ordinance, or a judicial sentence, especially of punishment. It also signifies the legal act corresponding to this
ordinance or requirement, and therefore the actualisation of justice.

a. Legal ground or claim. Thuc., I, 41, 1 (cf. VI, 80, 2): : the established
legal claims of allies. Dio C., 37, 51: (civic rights); Polyb., III, 28, 2 Cod.
Augustanus (vl. ): , against all legal claims, the Carthaginians were forced to
evacuate Sardinia. This use has left traces in the LXX. Thus in 2 . 19:28 ( ) means the legal claim
of Meribaal with David. In Jer. 11:20 we read of Jeremiah: (for ). In Bar.
2:17 it is also said of the dead: , though here we can see the
influence of the use of for the vindication of God ( , 213). In the edict of Claudius in Jos. Ant.,
19, 285 there is reference to the confirmation of earlier legal claims. Ap., 2, 37 refers to the rights granted to the
Jews by Caesar. The word is often used for a legal claim in the pap. P. Lond., II, 360, 8 (250 a.d.)
, claim on a slave. CPR, 20, 19 (250 a.d.): , my greatest claims were
met. P. Oxy., VIII, 1119, 15 (254 a.d.): . b. Written proof,
document, validation, acts or other legal pieces, esp. those which serve to vindicate. The
in Aristot. Fragm., p. 427 (Rose)
1
are written statutes. According to Jos. Ant., 17, 228
Archelaus presents his to Augustus in a letter. In Jos. Ant., 17, 130 are proofs in vindication
(though not in writing). The term is commonly used in the pap. for supporting documents, acts or titles.
2
It means
supporting documents in P. Tor., I, 1, 3, 20 (117 b.c.): ;
P. Lille, I, 29, 25 (3rd cent. b.c.); Ditt. Or., I, 13, 13; credentials in BGU, 1, 113, 10 (143 a.d.):
; ibid., 1, 265, 17 (148 a.d.). c. Statute, decree or ordinance. It is used very frequently in the LXX
for and , being used not for commandments, as in the Decalogue, but for statutes in the wider sense
(including cultic and social obligations): Gn. 26:5; Ex. 15:25 f.; Dt. 4:1, 5, 8, 40; 6:1; 7:11; 118:8. It is used for
in Ex. 21:1; Nu. 36:13; Ex. 21:9: ; 1 . 2:12: ; 8:9 etc.: :
the law of daughters, of the priests, of the king. Very rarely it is used for : Dt. 30:16; 3 . 2:3, being

Thuc. Thucydides, of Athens (c. 460396 B.C.), the classic historian of the Greeks, who as a contemporary wrote a history of the
Peloponnesian War, ed. C. Hude, 1898 ff.
Dio C. Dio Cassius Cocceianus, of Nicea in Bithynia (c. 155235 A.D.), a high Roman official, the author of a history of Rome in 80 books
from Aeneas to his own time, ed. P. Boissevain, 1894 ff.
Polyb. Polybius, of Megalopolis, in Arcadia (c. 210120 B.C.), hostage of Rome in 167, general and statesman, and the greatest historian of
Hellenism. In 40 books he depicts in essentials the rise of Roman world dominion in the period 221168 B.C., ed. T. Bttner-Wobst, 1905.
vl. varia lectio.
Jos. Flavius Josephus, Jewish author (c. 3797 A.D.) in Palestine and later Rome, author in Greek of the Jewish War and Jewish Archaeology,
which treat of the period from creation to Nero, ed. B. Niese, 1887 ff.
Ant. Antiquitates.
Ap. Contra Apionem.
pap. Papyrus, shortened to P. when specific editions are quoted.
P. Lond. Greek Papyri in the British Museum, ed. F. G. Kenyon and others, 1893 ff.
CPR Corpus Papyrorum Raineri archiducts I, ed. C. Wessely, 1895.
P. Oxy. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ed. B. Grenfell and A. Hunt, 1898 ff.
esp. especially.
Aristot. Aristotle, of Stageiros (c. 384322 B.C.), with his teacher Plato the greatest of the Greek philosophers and the founder of the
peripatetic school, quoted in each case from the comprehensive edition of the Academia Regia Borussica, 1831 ff.
Fragm. Fragmenta (-um).
1
Cf. Aristot. Fr., p. 386 f. (Rose) and the reference in Harpocration: Lexicon in Decem Oratores Atticos (Dindorf, 1853), s.v. .
2
Cf. APF, VI, 1 (1913), 36; Moult.-Mill. and Preisigke Wrt., s.v. Dikaiomata, Auszge aus atexandr. Gesetzen und Verordnungen, ed. by
the Graeca Halensis (1913), 26.
P. Tor. Papyri Graeci Regii Taurinensis Musei Aegyptii, ed. A. Peyron, 1926 ff.
P. Lille Papyrus Grecs Lille, ed. P. Jouguet, P. Collart and others, 1912.
Ditt. Or. W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graecae Inscriptiones, 1902 ff.
BGU gyptische Urkunden aus den Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, 1895 ff.
10 | P a g e

the usual word for this in the LXX. It is used freely for in Job 34:27. On in Lk. 1:6, cf.
Gn. 26:5; Nu. 36:13; Dt. 4:40; 1 Macc. 2:21: . The LXX usage is followed by Philo with his
many references to statutes, Det. Pot. Ins., 67 and 68; Rer. Div. Her., 8; Congr., 163. For duties as
, cf. Decal., 109. Jos. Ant., 17, 108 speaks of . It is interesting
that in their emphasis on the etc. the post-apostolic fathers return to the legal view of the
LXX. Here the are almost always decrees or statutes: 1 Cl., 2, 8 (cf. 58, 2); Barn., 21, 1 (cf. v. 5); so
also 2, 1; 4, 11; 10, 2 (quotation); 16, 9: ; Herm. m., 12, 6, 4. In spite of its legal flavour,
however, the word is meant to denote the NT revelation and amongst other things it can thus be found in the sense
of the promulgation of salvation (Barn., 1, 2), which includes the gift of the Spirit. Here there is an obvious
reminiscence of as salvation in the OT ( , 195). Similarly Prv. 8:20 Hexapla has
(Mas. , LXX: ). d. Punishment, sentence. In accordance with the
negative use of ( , 211) in non-biblical Greek, we find a similar use of in Plato Leg.,
IX, 864e, where there is reference to other punishments as well as , damages.
In 3 . 3:28 it is used neutrally of Solomons just judgment in the matter of the infant:
( ). More positively, we have (cf. 2 Ch. 6:35) in 3 . 8:45, 59 for to secure right, to
help to right. In the Bible we thus have the same movement towards the positive sphere as in the case of .
e. In correspondence with it can mean right action (opp. ). Aristot. Rhet., I, 3, p. 1359a, 24 f.:
. Acc. to Rhet. I, 13, p. 1373b, 20 ff.:
, == . Again, in Eth. Nic., V, 10, p.
1135a, 914 is set over against and explained as follows:
(restitution) . What is in view here is restitution for an evil act.
Cf. Aristot. Cael., I, 10, p. 279b, 8 f.: : setting right.
Theodoret an Ps. 118:2 (MPG, 80, 1821b): ,
.
3
In the LXX it is used for a right act: Bar. 2:19: . Cf. 44:1 ,
where the of the Mas. (== carmina, , LXX: ) is given an ethical turn by the rendering:
.

B. in the NT.

1. That the sense of statute, requirement or ordinance is the most common in the NT accords with the
close link between the language of the NT and that of the LXX. Lk. 1:6 is in full agreement with LXX usage:
( 220). On the other hand, the distinctive use of the term in Paul shows that in such
expressions as or he goes beyond the LXX in his main employment of the word;

Det. Pot. Ins. Quod Deterius Potiori insidiari soleat.
Rer. Div. Her. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres sit.
Congr. De Congressu Eruditionis Gratia.
Decal. De Decalogo.
1 Cl. Epistle of Clement
Barn. Epistle of Barnabas.
v. verse.
Herm. Pastor Hermae.
m. mandata.
NT New Testament.
OT Old Testament.
Mas. Masora.
Leg. Leges. [Plato, of Athens]
opp. oppositum.
Rhet. Rhetorica.
Eth. Nic. Ethica Nicomachea.
Cael. De Caelo.
MPG Patrologia, Series Graeca, ed. J.P. Migne, 1844 ff.
3
Used by Suid., s.v. .
NT New Testament.
11 | P a g e

for in the LXX the plural is preferred, and, even where the singular is used, it normally refers to one of many
statutes. The closest parallel to Pauls use is to be found in passages like Prv. 8:20; 19:25. In R. 1:32 (
) the reference is to the knowledge of Gods statutes or ordinances which obtains among men,
so that the corruption of worship and sexual life and the general disintegration of society are worthy of death (with
perhaps a play on the sense of punishment or sentence, 220). In Pauls eyes it is important to emphasise that
there is for the Gentiles a recognisable divine order which is to be embraced, not as a sum of commands, but (in the
sing.) as the one divine will. There is an intentional distinction when in R. 2:26 Paul refers to the statutes of the
Law in the plural: . Nor is it accidental that in 8:4, which refers to the fulfilment of this
demand by walking in the Spirit, the singular is used again to denote the Law in its unity: .
In Hb. 9:1 means ordinances of divine service or cultic rules; in 9:10 the reference is to the
carnal ordinances of precepts concerning meats and purification. Here the LXX plural is adopted ( 220) and the
term is not given the radical significance which it bears in Paul.

2. The next most common use of the word is for a right act in fulfilment of legal requirement. In this sense
it is used a. of Christ, While is the opp. of in R. 5:16 ( 222), in v. 18 is
the opp. of (, the fall as a result), and in v. 19 it is replaced or explained by
(opp. ). The , which elsewhere in vv. 1219 (ten times apart from v. 18, and in every case
with incontestable reference to Adam and Christ) is always masc., is best related here, too, to Adam and Christ, so
that in 18b as well the reference is to the right action or conduct of Christ.
4
Materially this agrees with other
statements of Paul to the effect that Christ, placed under the Law (Gl. 4:4), did not merely fulfil it negatively by
haying no personal knowledge of sin (2 C. 5:21), but also positively by obedience even to death (Phil. 2:8). In R.
5:18 all this is gathered up in the single statement that His total life is , i.e., a perfect fulfilment of the
divine requirement (cf. Mt. 3:15, , 198).
5


There is another view that in v. 18, as in v. 16, should be translated sentence of Justification.
6
This
would give a uniform sense throughout the passage. But in the narrower sphere of the antitheses here presented it
fails to meet the urgent need to maintain a clear parallelism to and . It has also to take
as a neut. rather than in the predominant masc., for elsewhere Paul never says that the sentence of justification is
pronounced by Christ.
7
The greatest internal difficulty, however, is caused by the ensuing , for if
we take this view of , then we are forced to conclude that Paul distinguishes between the objective
sentence and subjective justification.
8
comprehensive view of the apostles message, however, shows us (
, 206; , 216) that no such distinction is present in Paul, since the justifying act of God (which
would be the of v. 18) is always seen also as an incisive reality in believers.

b. It is also used of God in Rev. 15:4: , his righteous acts, with emphasis on
judgment, and therefore his righteous judgments (a combination of A. d. and e., cf. what was said on R. 1:32
221).

sing. singular.
opp. oppositum.
v. verse.
masc. masculine.
4
So Hofmann, Zn., Ltzm., ad loc. Althaus, NT Deutsch, ad loc. has the neutr. durch eine Rechttat.
5
Cf. Zn., ad loc. Becks righteous state of the One is thus correct. In view of the above parallels there is no cause to think only of the
embracing act of the cross. This concentration is undoubtedly Pauline, cf. Phil. 2:8, yet even in this passage Paul says even rather than
only in relation to the cross.
6
So B. Weiss, Godet, Schl., Khl. and others. The latter prefers judgment, though, as he formulates it, this is conceived far too formally in
relation to the actuality of the process.
7
Barth, ad loc. attempts the logical translation: the justification disclosed in the One, but this is not precise enough.
8
So most clearly Coder and Lipsius (the pronouncement of justification is in content and as an actus judicialis), ad loc.
But if we consider R. 5:16 ( supra) we see that in the one sure place where is used for the sentence of justification the antonym
makes it plain that this sentence is conceived in its full efficacy.
12 | P a g e

c. It is used of members of the community in Rev. 19:8: , the righteous
deeds of the saints.

3. In R. 5:16: ,
, the reference is to the sentence of justification ( 220),
9
since here the antonym is and
is a synonym. Materially the meaning is the act of justification, the . One can see from a
comparison of the different meanings of and that the two are interchangeable as punishment,
claim, demand and statute ( , 220), and that in relation to the sense of just act ( ,
223) there are also points of contact, e.g., restitution, or defence. There can be little question that in R. 5:16 the
other words used by Paul inclined him stylistically to this rather uncommon application of the term.
10
Yet
Paul is simply following the positive usage of the LXX ( 220; and cf. the parallel procedure in respect of
, 195; , 212). The indeterminate meaning of makes it possible for him to adopt a
striking change of meaning in R. 5 (cf. v. 18). In view of the varied usage, we cannot assume a consistent
employment of the term even in this section. The antonyms make it plain what is the meaning at each point. It can
also be seen from R. 1:32; 2:26 and 8:4 that Paul could use this many-coloured word in other senses also.

.

A. in Greek generally.
is the act of executing the . It implies the validation of the legal norm in punishment, defence or
requirement. But the can also be a personal preference.

The word is rare and is not found in Polyb., Philo
1
or Epict. No traces have been found in the inscr. or pap. a. Its
most common sense is that of condemnation or punishment ( , 211). Thuc., VIII, 66, 2;
2
Plut. Def.
Orac., 21 (II, 421d, vl. [Eusebius]). Plut. De Artaxerxe, 14, 2 (I, 1017 f.); cf. also Plut. Ser. Num. Pun., 22 (II,
565a).
3
Similarly Dio C., 40, 43, 3, and Jos. Ant., 18, 14; 18, 315, this being the only sense in Joseph. b. Judicial
defence and vindication as an act ( , 211; 212 f.), the sense adopted by Pl.: Lys., 9, 8.
4
Cf. also 34
(35):23 (LXX: == ; ). This sense is particularly common for more general self-exculpation or

9
So correctly Fritzsche, Meyer, Philippi, Godet, Barth, ad loc. Becks reference to righteousness of life is quite impossible.
10
Ltzm. R., 60; Pr.-Bauer, 308.
Polyb. Polybius, of Megalopolis, in Arcadia (c. 210120 B.C.), hostage of Rome in 167, general and statesman, and the greatest historian of
Hellenism. In 40 books he depicts in essentials the rise of Roman world dominion in the period 221168 B.C., ed. T. Bttner-Wobst, 1905.
1
The vl. for in Philo Deus Imm., 79 yields no good sense (the only passage).
Epict. Epictetus, Phrygian slave of Hierapolis in the days of Nero (50130 A.D.), freed at the imperial palace, Stoic of the younger school and
preacher of ethics tinged with religion. From his lectures his pupil Arrian collected 8 books of diatribes which have been preserved, ed. H.
Schenkl
2
, 1916.
pap. Papyrus, shortened to P. when specific editions are quoted.
Thuc. Thucydides, of Athens (c. 460396 B.C.), the classic historian of the Greeks, who as a contemporary wrote a history of the
Peloponnesian War, ed. C. Hude, 1898 ff.
2
is not to be equated here with , (Cr.-K., 332). We are rather to prefer the scholiast (Hirzel, Dike, 138, cf.
Liddell-Scott, s.v.) who interprets as . Cf. Harpocration, Lexicon in Decem Oratores Atticos (Dindorf), s.v. ;
.
Plut. Plutus.
Def. Orac. De Defectu Oraculorum.
vl. varia lectio.
Ser. Num. Pun. De iis qui sero a numine puniuntur.
3
As opposed to Cr.-K., 332.
Dio C. Dio Cassius Cocceianus, of Nicea in Bithynia (c. 155235 A.D.), a high Roman official, the author of a history of Rome in 80 books
from Aeneas to his own time, ed. P. Boissevain, 1894 ff.
Jos. Flavius Josephus, Jewish author (c. 3797 A.D.) in Palestine and later Rome, author in Greek of the Jewish War and Jewish Archaeology,
which treat of the period from creation to Nero, ed. B. Niese, 1887 ff.
Ant. Antiquitates.
Lys. Lysias, of Athens (445380 B.C.), belongs to the canon of the 10 Attic orators, ed. T. Thalhelm, 1901.
4
Cf. Harpocration, op. cit.: , , .
13 | P a g e

the defence of certain actions in daily life. Plut. De Virtute Morali, 9 (II, 449b): to justify an action sophistically
(opp. ). Dio C., 41, 54, 3: of the advancing of justifying reasons, c. The claim to a real or apparent
right, legal demand. Thuc., I, 141, 1: , demand advanced at law. Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom., I,
87, 1: of resistance to a legal claim, cf. VII, 16, 2. Plut. Demetr., 18 (I, 896e) of demands made on subjects, d.
Arbitrary judgment, caprice (cf. the common meaning of , 211: to regard as fair and right): Thuc., III,
82, 4: : they changed as they saw fit. e. A
final meaning is statute, law. Lv. 24:22: ( ) . Plut. De
Fortuna, 5 (II, 99c) (as parallels to and ). Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom., III, 10, 3:
, nature reverses human law.

A comparable Rabbinic phrase is the judgment of life: (or ) == , ;
5
opp.
(or ) jRH, 57a, 49.
6
Cf. also the (in peace), jRH, 59c, 51
7
and (with
pardon), Pesikt., 155b,
8
both of which are a result of the divine judgment.

B. in the NT.
In R. 4:25 and 5:18 is the subst. corresponding to and means the act of justification by the
divine acquittal (5:18, opp. ) and with reference to the whole existence of man before God.

In R. 4:25: , the first denotes the cause
and the second the goal. If we take
9
the second ( 70) in the sense of because we are justified, i.e., that we
may be partakers of on this basis, this is out of line with the example of Abraham, whose justification
is represented as the result of faith in God who awakens the dead. Justification is here brought about by the
resurrection, on which the faith of Abraham causes great stress to be laid. If we adopt the exposition
10
that the
resurrection was needed to actualise , since faith is kindled only by the resurrection, a corpse being no
true object of faith, this is to substitute the of R. 5:9 or the of 8:34 for the kind of parallel
statement which is in fact made here. The death and resurrection of Christ are closely related for Paul. The
Crucified is what He is only because He is also the Resurrected. Hence Paul can say that we are justified by the
death of Jesus, but also that He was raised for our justification. The form of the statement corresponds to the
synthetic parallelism
11
of the matter. It is itself synthetic parallelism. The same thought is here presented in parallel
statements, but with an emphasis on the in view of the story of Abraham.

In R. 5:18 ( ) the reference is again to the actualisation of the divine sentence of justification by
the blessing of believers. The attributive tells us that justification and life are correlative, that the content of
is life, that it entails life in the full sense, that life is the eternal result and goal, just as the final end of
transgression consists in . V. 17 and v. 21 show plainly that must be understood throughout in an
eschatological sense. Pauls use of elsewhere (R. 6:4; 8:2, 6, 10) shows also that this life begins now in the
justified. Nevertheless, the phrase , like the of v. 19, confirms the view
that in Paul justification looks to the consummation in which alone it will attain its and final establishment
( , 207; , 217).

Dion. Hal. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, from 30 B.C. a teacher of rhetoric in Rome, Atticist and historian, author of an old Roman history, ed.
C. Jacoby, 1885.
Ant. Rom. Antiquitates Romanae.
Demetr. De Demetrio.
5
Cf. S. Krauss, Griech. u. lat. Lehnwrter in Talm. u. Midr., II (1899), 101 f.
6
Str.-B., III, 230 f.
7
Ibid., 217 f.
Pesikt. Pesikta (de Rab. Kahana), collection of homilies (Strack, Einl., 202 f.).
8
Ibid., 218.
subst. substantive.
9
R. A. Lipsius, Komm. z. R.
2
(1892), 120.
10
Zn. R., 241 ad loc.; Khl. R., 155 ff.
11
J. Weiss, Beitrge z. paul. Rhetorik (1897), 171.
14 | P a g e


.
*


is righteous judgment as the quality of a .
1
The word is very rare and late. The earliest
examples occur in Jewish Hellenistic literature. a. Test. L. 3:2: ; 15:2:
; both with reference to the last judgment. Cf. materially from
the same background, En. 27:3; 60:6; 93:14, except that here is not expressly presented as a divine quality,
as in . On the other hand, God is personally called : 2 Macc. 12:41; Sib., 3, 704. The same
word is found in P. Ryl., 113, 35 (2nd cent. a.d.). b. Hos. 6:5 E
1
(quinta of the Hexapla) (for ). LXX B
.
2
c. The remaining examples are from a later period: Hephaestio Astrologus, III, 34 (4th cent. a.d.).
3
P.
Oxy., I, 71 col. 1, 3 (written request, 303 a.d.): ; VI, 904,
2 (petition, 5th cent. a.d.); P. Flor., I, 88, 26 (3rd cent. a.d.).

In the NT R. 2:5: , is to be understood in the strict
eschatological sense. The day of wrath reveals the character of God as the Judge who judges righteously. This is
contrasted with the moralising of those who condemn heinous evils but do them themselves, so that their judgment
is not like that of God. 2 Th. 1:5: , links with
but has two separate words.
4
The statement is to be expounded as follows. The will be revealed in the
fact that the persecuted will be accounted worthy of the and their persecutors will receive appropriate
retribution.
5

1








before the heading of an article indicates that all the New Testament passages are mentioned in it.
*
. Apart from Liddell-Scott, Cr.-K. and Moult. Mill., s.v.; cf. Deissmann LO, 72; N.geli;, 48; W. Sanday-A. Headlam on R.
2:5.
1
The instances in the pap. demand a correction of the definition in Cr.-K., namely, a judgment which creates law rather than a judgment
which conforms to law. They emphasise particularly the character of the judge. Cf. Moult. Mill., s.v.
Test. L. Testament of Levi.
Sib. Sibyllines, the Sibylline Oracles in 14 books, collected in the 5th or 6th century A.D. for the propagation of Judaism or Christianity,
composed at various periods, and predominantly Jewish but partly Christian in derivation.
P. Ryl. Catalogue of the Greek Papyri in the John Rylands Library at Manchester, ed. A. Hunt and others, 1911.
2
is not found in Jos. or Philo, though they have the similar constructions and . Cf. in
Joseph. and and in Polyb.
3
Ed. A. Engelbrecht (1887) in Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum.
P. Oxy. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ed. B. Grenfell and A. Hunt, 1898 ff.
col. column.
P. Flor. Papyri Florentini, I, ed. G. Vitelli, 1906; II, ed. D. Comparetti, 1908 ff.
4
For textual material cf. Dob. Th., 242. in Ephrem, Antiochus, Euthymius shows approximation to R. 2:5.
5
Dob. Th. and Wbg. Th., ad loc. bring as a predicative noun into the relative clause and take the sufferings as proof that Gods
judgment is just. But it is better to follow Dib. Th., ad loc., who sees in the start of a new statement and an amplification of .
1
Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G.
Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (2:221-225). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.