PROJECT REPORT

ON
FIRE AND SMOKE CONTROL IN AN ENCLOSEMENT

BY

EDIM CHIDI HENRY

090404019

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
AKOKA, LAGOS.

IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BSC)
IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

SUPERVISOR: DR. O.T. OLAKOYEJO

JULY 2014

CERTIFICATION

We hereby certify that this project was carried out by Edim Chidi Henry
under my supervision, it conforms to acceptable and it is fully adequate in
scope and quality as a project in mechanical engineering.

Supervisor: Dr. O.T Olakoyejo

Date

DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to the Almighty God for his unconditional
love, mercy and guidance in making all these possible and successful.
2

Also to my Parents, for their love and care, financial and moral support. I
am sincerely grateful.
To the lecturers of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Lagos, Akoka, I express my loyalty.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to the Almighty God for the gift of life, his mercies and
compassion and for his overall guidance and protection towards me,
especially during this academic journey and experience.

I would also like to thank all the lecturers of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering for their prowess in rendering quality education to all the
students. And of course my supervisor, Dr. O.T. Olakoyejo for his help,
advice, words of encouragement and close supervision since the
commencement of my project.
Finally, to my mother; Ms Lucy Ojong Nsan, for their unconditional love
and care, I say thank you.

ABSTRACT
The move towards fire performance based design in building and
engineering regulations has

led to increase used of fire models. This

increased use of these models and the evolution of different regulations

have put high demands on the productive capability of fire models.
4

The purpose of this project is to give a detailed of different activities

relating to the validation and verification of computational fluid dynamics
(CFD). For fire safety engineering purposes and how they relate to other
areas of CFD, they greater part of this project would focus on Fire Dynamic
Simulation (FDS) which is one aspect of Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) used in safety engineering, CFD will also be used to evaluate the
assessment of risk situation and also for fire investigation which would be
used to analyse a real fire or verify the risk for new or existing buildings.
In this project simulation would be carried out to detect smoke and heat in
an enclosement.
This project would introduce the general theory of Computational Fluid
Dynamics modelling of fire; governing equations would be used in
describing fluid flow as well as some of the fire specific models that would
be used
This project would also introduce the role of safety and fire engineers and
they various roles played in different aspect of engineering like
mechanical industry. Chemical industry, electrical industry, building and
construction, and oil and gas industry
This project would also stress the importance of understanding the
general features of code would also be emphasized
This project would also give explanation on different zone modelling;
governing equations would also be used in determining some basic
parameter which is conservation of mass, conservation of momentum,
conservation of energy, conservation of specie.

Table of Contents
FIRE AND SMOKE CONTROL IN AN ENCLOSEMENT.
1
5

CERTIFICATION
..2
DEDICATION
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
..4
ABSTRACT
.5
CHAPTER ONE.
..7
1.0OBJECTIVES....
..7
1.1

WHAT

IS

FIRE

PROTECTION

ENGINEERING.7
1.2

SFPE

DEFINITION
7
1.3

FIRE

PROPAGATION
.8
1.4

FIRE

CONTROL

AND

SAFETY9
1.5

COMPUTER

FLUID

DYNAMIC

MODEL12
1.6

COMPREHENSIVE

FIRE

PROTECTION

AND

SAFETY

WITH

CONCRETE.13
CHAPTER
TWO
15
6

2.0

LITERATURE

REVIEW
15
CHAPTER
THREE
.19
3.0
METHODOLOGY
..19
3.0

FIRE

DYNAMIC

SIMULATOR

(FDS)

19
REFERENCES
.21

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The ultimate goal is to understand the behaviour of fire and its
propagation in structures involving fire spread rate, ventilation, and
burning rate in real-life scenario through fire modelling as well as its
control measures with the use of sprinklers amongst others and safety
processes.

1.1 WHAT IS FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING

STRUCTURAL

STANDPOINT;

Fire

protection

engineers

concern

themselves with the strength, thickness and fire resistance rating of

7

building

construction material; the location of and

protection

of

openings in fire walls or fire barrier; and the ability of a structure to

support the weight of water filled sprinkler piping. The also concern
themselves with earthquake resistance.
MECHANICAL STANDPOINT; Fire protect engineers calculate the flow of
water through sprinkler piping, the discharge of special extinguishing
agents through the nozzle and flow of air and gases through smoke
control system
ELECTRICAL STANDPOINT; They address the wiring of fire alarm system
detection systems , special extinguishing system and fire pumps, they
also address power supplies

emergency lighting , and electrical

equipment for use in hazardous location.

CHEMICAL STANDPOINT; Fire protection engineers analyse the hazards
of chemical interaction and processes, this include:

Recognizing hazard of materials and material interactions

Identifying potential sources of ignition

1.2 SFPE DEFINITION

Fire protection engineering is the application of science and engineering
principles to protect people and their environment from fire destruction.it
include;

Analysis of fire hazard

Mitigation of fire damage by proper design

Design, installation , and maintenance of fire detection

Post fire investigation and analysis.

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical

process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction
products.
Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the
potential to cause physical damage through burning.
In the simplest case, fire is observed as it starts at a certain time with a
certain rate of heat release, and continuing at that rate for a specified
interval, then stopping through any controlled means.
Fire in its commonly known form has the potential to cause damage
through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological
system around the globe. The positive effects of fire include simulating
growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Fire has been used by
man for various activities such as cooking, generating heat, light,
signalling, and propulsion process. The negative effects of fire include soil
erosion, water contamination, atmospheric pollution and hazard to both
life and properties as well

1.3 FIRE PROPAGATION

Concept
Fire starts or begins when a flammable and/or a combustible material,
together with an appropriate quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or
another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist), is
shown to a source of heat or ambient temperature more than the
flashpoint for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid
oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is known as the fire
tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in the right
proportions.
Flame is a mixture of gases (reacting) and solids emitting visible, infrared,
and ultraviolet light. In most scenarios, the dominant colour of a flame
varies with different temperatures. A common distribution of flame under
gravity conditions depends on convection, as the black dust given off by
9

fire (also known as soot) tends to move to the top of a general flame, for
example, the fire produced in a candle stick in normal gravity conditions
becomes yellow. In zero gravity, like in outer space, convection seizes to
occur, and the flame is spherical, with a probability to become bluish and
proficient.
In combustion engines, several steps are taken to remove a flame. The
methods and steps depend squarely on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a
high- energy fuel such as jet fuel.
Fire Propagation is simply the ability of fire to realistically spread and burn
objects in the world in real time.
The concept of the fire propagation is to give game games the ability to
have fire that actually acts like fire! When a flammable object is lit up with
whatever you have by a match, it creates a small fire. As we all know, fires
get bigger over time with whatever it is burning. The fire will eventually
get to a size where it can start burning other objects and the fire will
spread. Some of these objects after they have burned out will look
scorched and have a burnt look to them.
Fire propagation is a class of algorithms use to stimulate the spread of fire
under dynamic-systems. The complexity of fire propagation is that this
involves destruction of the environment and requires a game engine that
supports a degree of modification level geometry. Modelling fire can be
done simply by determining which components of the game environment
are combustible and then having fire spread to adjacent combustible
elements with each clock tick, or by more completely modelling the
elements of fuel, oxygen and heat which are required to spread fire.
In a 3D game engine, fire is modelled using a particle system, using a
small number of discrete particles which simulate the behaviour of flame.
Weapons such as flamethrowers or matches can be used to set game
elements on fire and fire may be transmitted from one game element to
the next based proximity. For example, in Half-Life 2, fire is propagated
between sources of fire such as gas canisters and gas valves which when
shot or lit by electric sparks, cause enemies in close proximity to burn and
10

take damage continuously until the flames go out or the enemy dies. In
this instance, the flames do not affect the level geometry, only NPCs and
certain physics objects within the level.

1.4 FIRE CONTROL AND SAFETY

Fire Safety
Fire safety refers to precautions that are taken to prevent or reduce the
likelihood of a fire that may result in death, injury, or property damage,
alert those in a structure to the presence of an uncontrolled fire in the
event one occurs, better enable those threatened by fire to survive in and
evacuate from affected areas, or to reduce the damage caused by a fire.
Fire safety measures include those that are already standing and those
that are taught to occupants of the building.
Threats to fire safety are referred to as fire hazards. A fire hazard may
include a situation that increases the likelihood a fire may start or may
impede escape in the event a fire occurs.
Fire safety is often a component of building safety. Those who inspect
buildings for violations of the Fire Code and go into schools and educate
children on Fire Safety topics are fire department members known as fire
prevention officers. The chief Fire Prevention Officer or chief of Fire
Prevention will normally train newcomers to the Fire Prevention Division
and may also conduct inspections or make presentations.
Public fire safety education may include organising an fire prevention
programme that will educate the masses on various ways of reducing the
hazards caused by fire outbreaks. Fire prevention programs may include
distribution of smoke detectors, visiting schools to review key topics with
the students and implementing nationally recognized programs such as
NFPAs Risk Watch and Learn not to burn.
most cases the fire department representative is regarded as the expert
and is expected to All programs tend to mix messages of general injury

11

prevention, safety, fire prevention, and escape in case of fire. In present

information in a manner that is appropriate for each age group.

Fire Issues
Fire issues come in different areas and forms; we can only talk about few
of them. In buildings, the presence of vertical shafts such as elevators,
escalators promotes and encourages fire spread through smoke and heat.
Also, buildings with limited vent holes such as windows would prevent fire
fighters from entering the building in time to extinguish the fire.
A buildings interior finish could spread fire to various places/ rooms in
within the building hence increasing the altitude and volume as well
destruction. Tall buildings or high rise buildings (e.g. six stories) are
difficult to approach in the case of fire accidents because of their height
and complexity.
Fire Control
There are several methods adopted in the issue of fire control, the most
frequently talked about methods include water-mist, sprinklers, fire
extinguisher to mention but a few.
The fire extinguisher is the handiest of them all. It can be said to be a
manual method of fire control. Fire Extinguisher is a portable device used
to put out fires of limited size. Such fires are grouped into four classes,
according to the type of material that is burning. Class A fires include
those in which ordinary combustibles such as wood, cloth, and paper are
burning. Class B fires are those in which flammable liquids, oils, and
grease are burning. Class C fires are those involving live electrical
equipment. Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium,
potassium, and sodium. Each class of fire requires its own type of fire
extinguisher.
In the case of fire outbreak, fire alarms and detection systems are used to
alert rapid response and assistance. The alarms are triggered either by
manual or automatic means. The alarms are used to notify the occupants
12

for evacuation process and also alert people who would engage in control
measures like the use of fire extinguishers.
Other various methods including the sprinkler, a system for extinguishing
fires, is designed to release water from overhead nozzles that open
automatically when a specific temperature is reached within the room
where it is installed. This is a much advanced system compared to the
manual fire extinguishers as it clears out the fire much quicker. The major
problem is that it equally ruins the room with water; therefore, in places
like offices, important files and folders could be lost or damaged.
Fire protection and control using sprinklers is the most cost effective way
of fire safety. They produce large scale sprays using sophisticated design
concept. Water is forced through an orifice to generate a continuous water
jet. This jet then strikes a deflector to form a thin sheet of water. The
sheet then disintegrates into ring-like ligaments and eventually into drops.
Despite diversity in size, shape, and design details, most modern fire
sprinklers use the same fundamental method of spray generation.
Several fundamental atomization studies have developed theories to
describe physical processes relevant to fire sprinkler spray generation.
There is also a separate body of more applied research focused on
quantifying discharge characteristics (such as drop size and velocity) and
dispersion behaviour from fire sprinklers. (according to an article on
KNOWING THE FIRE SPRINKLER SPRAY by N. Ren, C. T. Do, and A. W.
Marshall).
FDS (Fire Dynamic Simulator)
FDS is a large eddy simulation code for low speed flows, with an emphasis
on smoke view and heat transport from fires. It is computational fluid
dynamic (CFD) software
SMV (Smokeview) is a visualization program used to display the output
of FDS and CFAST simulations. Smokeview is a code developed as a
plotting and visualization tool to display results from FDS.

13

The FDS programme is used to run simulations on various fire incidents

with the aid of the SMV option which runs the display command to help
users visualize a given model and view the fire propagation around the
place where the incident occurred in relation to a real-life scenario.

SMOKE
Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases
emitted when a material undergoes combustion, together with the
quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is
mostly and commonly seen as an unwanted product of fire.
FLAME
The flame is the visible portion of the fire. When it becomes really hot, the
gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the
substances alight, and any impurities outside, the colour of the flame and
the fires intensity differ/vary.

1.5 COMPUTER FLUID DYNAMIC MODEL

Is a tool for predicting smoke and fire spread?

Is most sophisticated

Provides best picture at the cost of long simulation times

Is a tool use to investigate any process involving a motion of gas or

liquid

APPLICATION

Design of smoke control systems

Assessment of condition for evacuation

Assessment of thermal conditions in fire compartment

14


1.6

Fire investigation
COMPREHENSIVE

FIRE

PROTECTION

AND

SAFETY

WITH

CONCRETE
In comparison with other common construction materials concrete offers
superior performance on all relevant fire safety criteria, easily and
economically.
Using concrete in buildings and structures offer exceptional levels of
protection and safety in fire:

Concrete does not burn and does not add to fire load

Concrete has high resistance to fire and stop fire spreading

Concrete in effective fire shield

Concrete does not produce any smoke or toxic gases, so help reduce
risk.

CONCRETE PERFORMANCE IN FIRE

Concrete does not burn

Concrete is a protective material

Concrete provides effective compartment

Concrete is easily repair after

RISK OF USING COMBUSTIBLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

An increase in fire load

An increase in smoke and pyrolysis

High amount of carbon monoxide

Fire ignition of structural element

Increasing occurrence of flashovers

15

FIRE SAFETY OF OBJECTIVES

To protect life

To protect property

To ensure that a disaster never happen again

STEP IN FIRE SAFETY DESIGNS

Define hazard area

Identified people , property, and processes at risk from fire

Define the fire safety objective

Asses material that can be burn

Asses sources of ignition

Asses agents that course fire

Estimate the probability of fires being caused

Asses the means of limiting fire

Estimate the course of fire behaviour

Fire stages
Incipient - invisible combustion gases, without smoke or flame, no
appreciable heat release.
Smouldering - heat still absent, combustion gases now visible as smoke.
Flame - actual fire is produced, a column of gases made luminous by
intense heat.
Heat - follows concurrently or just after flame stage tremendous
amounts of heat released.

16

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
In recent time many journals on fire protections engineering has being
publish regularly and a list of recent published peer reviewed papers and
book of relevant to fire protection engineering. work was done by
Raymond Friedman he considered various elements of fire protection
engineering on regard to the blend of science and he also itemize some
scientific questions which is relevant to fire protection engineering which
include chemistry, fluid mechanics, heat transfer( radiation, convection,
conduction). He also made comments on fire behaviour, comments on fire
resistance of structures including internal partitions, comments on human
behaviour, comment on toxic effects, comment on smoke control,
comments on fire risk analysis [1].
Work was also carried out by Raymond Friedman on survey of computer
models fire and smoke. A worldwide survey was conducted of operational
computer programs, from 10 countries, were identified, and including
compartment fire models, fire-sprinkler interaction models, and submodels for fire endurance, building evacuation, thermal detector actuator,
fire spread on wall , and smoke movement[2].
Andrew K. et al wrote on newly-developed compress air foam system and
it fire suppression performance based on overhead fixed pipe installation,
17

and presents results showing its fire suppression performance. The

compartment air foam systems generate foams by injecting compressed
air into the flowing foam solution. The result foam is characterised by
excellent fire mitigation properties [3].
The systems performance was compare to the performance of water mist
and sprinkler-based installations. The experiment confirmed that the
compartment air foam system is effective in suppressing class A and B
fires. The compressed air system generated foams with sufficient
momentum to penetrate the fire plume and to reach the fire surface. And
the experimental result indicate that, in an open space, the foam system
performs much better than water mist in extinguishing wood crib and
flammable liquid pool fire [3]
Also work was done by Poologanathan Keerthan et al, on numerical
modelling non-load-bearing light gauge cold-formed steel frame walls
under fire conditions, they use composite panel system, where a thin
insulation layer was used external between two plasterboards to improve
the fire performance of light gauge cold- formed steel frame walls [4].
Serkan kayili et al, carried out an experiment on the effects of blockage
ratio and ventilation velocity on heat release rate of tunnel fire, they
accurately predicted the fire-induced air velocity, temperature, and smoke
concentrations in tunnel fires to design efficient fire protection systems.
The impact of varying longitudinal ventilation velocity and the crosssectional area of the burning substances on the heat release rate and
temperature distribution in tunnel were measure [5].
Georges Guigay, et al, their works was based on fire in an enclosement;
density-driven vent flow through an opening to the fire compartment is
directly dependent on the state of the fire and the evacuation of smoke
and hot gases. If a fire is strongly under-ventilated, there may be heavy
production of smoke and hot gases.
Carlos J. Hilado and Heather J. Cumming discussed Fire safety aspects of
thermal insulation as a method of conservation of energy. This in turn,
provides us with different approach to fire safety engineering.
18

They

dialogued on the prevention of self-heating and spontaneous combustion

as it relates to thermal insulation, in that its temperature is observed to
increase without any external application of heat. If this process
continues, it could lead to ignition of the combustible material[6].
Raymond Friedman discussed on fire protection engineering in relation to
a subject of knowing its proper discipline, either science or arts. He talked
about engineering and how science has developed over the years, by
these advancements; scientists were able to understand better some of
the basis of scientific element of fire protection engineering. In conclusion,
fire protection engineering was seen to be a substantial base of science as
any engineering design based on science is likely to always remain useful .
[7]

Edward k.Budnick their works was base on principle of smoke control and
the practical application of these principles to zoned smoke control
systems. Zoned smoke can use dedicated fans or the fans of buildings
heating, ventilating and air conditioning(HVAC) systems. The paper also
discusses concerns with systems that only purge in an attempt to control
smoke movement[8].
Colleen Wade, addressed a subject in the issue of fire risk assessment
using building fire safety engineering method. This building fire safety
engineering method (BFSEM for short) was used to assess fire scenarios
and rooms in buildings that potentially form the worst case scenarios. The
use of networks and chats were used to highlight the various scenarios,
assess the room in question and produce or evaluate alternative
prevention strategies to counter the problem [9].
The calculation of combustion process with the mixture-fraction concept is
based on a simple one-step reaction assumption. The combustion model
in the simple chemically reacting system was summarised by Lockwood
and Naguib. A conserved property (the quantity, )) of the flow under
chemical reaction is defined as follows: =Y f (1r ) Y o 2

19

where Yf is the mass fractions of fuel; Yoz is the mass fraction of

oxidant; r is the stoichiometric oxidant requirement to burn 1 kg fuel[15].
Combustion in
controlled

by

the gas phase

is

complicated

process which

is

mixing of gases or chemical reaction kinetics. With the

concept of mixture-fraction, the stoichiometric combustion model is

commonly used for the calculation of turbulent diffusion flames in
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. With this concept, it is
assumed that the rate of combustion is narrowed by gas phase mixing;
namely that the chemical kinetics rates are much faster than the gas
mixing and that all species have the same diffusivity; that is, the
exchange coefficients for the fuel and oxidant are equal [16].
Modelling flame spread and growth in a complex enclosure requires an
accurate and precise calculation of the thermal flux onto the solid
exteriors, and vigorous sub-models of the thermal decomposition and
pyrolysis of the exterior materials. Due to the cost of the threedimensional, time-dependent calculation of the gas phase flow, the
radiation and the solid phase schedules must be moderately simple and
efficient. In FDS, the radiative transport equation for a non-scattering gas
is solved using a finite volume method. [Version 1 of FDS was publicly
released in February 2000, and Version 2 in December 2001. To date,
close to half of the applications and uses of the model have been directed
towards the design of smoke handling systems and sprinkler/detector
activation analysis. The other half comprises of residential and industrial
fire reconstructions. Initially, FDS was aimed primarily at the first set of
applications, but after the initial release, it became obvious that some
enhancements to the fundamental algorithms were needed to address the
second set of applications. The two most obvious needs were for better
combustion and radiation models to deal with large, spreading fires in
relatively small spaces like residences as opposed to industrial settings [19].
Notarianni

and

Jackson

discussed

the

effects

of

corrosion

and

sedimentation on the life and performance of water-based, metal fire

sprinkler piping systems. They categorized four factors influencing
corrosion degradation in the sprinkler system. According to them, Oxygen
20

dissolved in water being charged is one source of reactive oxygen, and air
trapped during charging into unvented piping is another source. Three
other factors listed by them are; (1) selection of pipe material, e.g., lowcarbon steel versus copper versus plastic, (2) the corrosivity (corrosive
properties) of the available water supply, and (3) ambient environmental
conditions, e.g., temperature and pressure. The consistency and stability
of metal fire sprinkler piping systems depend on how the designers and
operators address the factors, as well as the spontaneous, localized
acidification of water that tend to occur during long confinement times[18].
Fire sprinklers have been subjected to constant concerns from corrosion
because of their water-filled and pressurized low-carbon steel piping
system. Corrosion has been a threat in pressurized, water-filled, lowcarbon steel piping systems for a long time. 1951 Speller talked on the
effect of oxygen in increasing ironwater corrosion and concluded that
reducing exposure of water-filled, low-carbon steel pipe to dissolved
oxygen would reduce internal corrosion in the sprinkler[19].

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.0 FIRE DYNAMIC SIMULATOR (FDS)
Fluid Dynamics Simulator is one aspect of computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) model of fire-driven fluid flow. The software calculates numerically

21

all Navier-Stokes equations and shows how smoke and heat propagation
from fire.
Smoke-view is the companion visualization program that is used to view
the display output of FDS.
FDS is basically a computer program that is designed to solve equations
that describe the evolution of fire. It reads the input parameters from a
text file (WordPad, notepad), computes the numerical solution of these
parameters with the governing equations and writes user specified output
data to file.
In this case, the FDS programme was used to simulate numerically, a fire
scenario in a car park, propagating from the top of a car and ultimately
spreading around a certain range.
How to predict fire spread
Physical models of fire spread estimate the flux between burning and
unburned fuel in order to determine the rate of fire spread. It is assumed
that all heat transfer involved in the combustion reaction satisfies the
conservation of energy. The conservation of energy is expressed as
this equation states that, under steady-state condition, the rate of fire
spread R, in m/s, is equal to the ratio of the heat received by unignited
fuel ahead of the fire, q, in j/s-m2, over the heat required to ignite the fuel
at the leading edge of the fire, Q, in j/m3. The total energy flux received
by the unignited fuel, q, is equal to the sum of the individual u energy
fluxes received due to heat transfer via radiation, convection and
conduction.

22

FIGURE 1: An illustrative diagram of a Car in a Car Park before the fire

incident.

GOVERNING EQUATIONS
ENERGY EQUATION
Q E w
=
+
t t t

Rate of heat input

rate of change of internal energy

done

COTINUITY EQUATION

+ . j =
t

MOMENTUM EQUATION
F= Q(U o utU i n)

REFERENCES
23

work

[1] R. Friedman, An Internal Survey of Computer Models for Fire and

Smoke, Second Edition December 1993
[2] Adrew K. Kimi and Bogdan .Z. Dlugogorski, National Research council
Canada, Ottawa
[3] Y.C. wang Performance-Based Fire Hazard Analysis of a Combustible
Liquid Storage Room in an Industrial Facility
[4] K. Poologanathan numerical modelling of non-load-bearing light gauge
cold-formed steel frame walls under fire-condition
[5] Serkan Kayili, Ahmet Yozgatligil Experimental Study on the Effects of
Block Ratio and Ventilation on the Heat Release Rate of Tunnel Fires
[6] Carlos J. Hilado and Heather J. Cumming - Fire Safety Aspects of
Thermal Insulation
[7] Fire Protection Engineering Science or Art? - Raymond Friedman
[8] Budnick, E.K, The Capabilities of Smoke Control: part II- System
Performance and Stairwell Pressurization, Presented at NFPA meeting,
November 1987, Portland.
[9] Fire Risk Assessment Using the Building Fire Safety Engineering
Method - Colleen Wade and Peter Whiting
[10] BS 7346-7:2006, components for smoke and heat control systems
Code of practice on functional recommendations and calculation methods
for smoke and heat control systems for covered car parks.

[11] EUR 18868 EN, Development of Design Rules for Structures to Natural
Fire in Large Compartments, European Commission, Technical Steel
Research Report, 1999.
[12] Development of Standards for Field Models; Fire Research Report
Number 85, November 2003, Brian Hume , ODPM,
[13] A Computer Model of

Fire Spread from Engine to Passenger

Compartments in Post-collision Vechicles; James A. lerardi. May 1999

24

[14]

Morgan,

H.P.,

Ghost,

B.K.

and

Garrad,

G.

(1999).

Design

Methodologies for Smoke and Heat Exhaut Ventilation, Building Research

Establishment Report BR368, Building Research Establishment, Garston,
UK
[15] Thomas, P.H. (1987). On the Upward Movement of Smoke and Related
Shopping

Mall Problems, Fire Safety journal, 12. Lockwood, F.C., and

Naguib, A.S., "The Prediction of the Fluctuations in the Properties of free,

Round-Jet, Turbulent, Diffusion Flames", Combustion and Flame, 24, 109124, 1975
[17] Sinai, Y.L., and

Owens, M.P., "Validation of CFD Modelling of

Unconfined Pool Fires With Cross-Wind: Flame Geometry", Fire Safety

Journal, 24, 1-34, 1995 S. Hostikka, H.R. Baum, and K.B. McGrattan. Large
Eddy Simulations of the Cone Calorimeter. In Proceedings of US Section
Meeting of the Combustion Institute, Oakland, California, March 2001.
[18] K.B. McGrattan, H.R. Baum, R.G. Rehm, G.P. Forney, J.E. Floyd, and S.
Hostikka. Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 2), Technical Reference Guide.
Technical Report NISTIR 6783, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, November 2001.
[19] Speller, F.N., Corrosion Causes and Prevention, Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951. Prevention of
Corrosion in Closed Water Systems by Removal of Dissolved Gases,Vol.
99.

25

26