Strong Roots

Strong Roots
Liberation Teachings of Mindfulness in North America

JAKE H. DAVIS
DHAMMA DANA Publications
at the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies
Barre Massachusetts
! "##$ b% Ja&e H. Da'is
(his boo& )a% be co*ied or re*rinted in +hole or in *art
for free distribution +ithout *er)ission fro) the *ublisher.
Otherwise, all rights reserved.
Sabbadna dhammadna jinti ,
(he -ift of Dha))a sur*asses all -ifts.
.
Co)e and See/
. Dh*.01$ )% trans.
Table of Contents
TO MY SOURCES............................................................................................................. II
FOREWORD........................................................................................................................... V
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 1
Part One
DEEP TRANSMISSION AND OF W!AT"................................................................ 1#
Def$n$ng t%e To&$'(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((1)
t%e &ro'ess of trans*$ss$on a'ross %+*an 'onte,ts
Tra-$t$ons De&en-entl. Co/Ar$s$ng 00
Tea'%$ng $n Conte,t 01
Co**on !+*an$t. 21
Inter&ret$ng !$stor.(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((2)
s$n'e t%e 3+--%a
Pass$ng 3as4ets Along 51
A 6C+*+lat$7e Tra-$t$on8 59
A 6S4$llf+l A&&roa'%8 10
Trans/lat$on((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((1:
t%e &ro'ess of $nter&retat$on an- $ts a+t%ent$' 'o*&let$on
I*balan'e )2
Re'$&ro'$t. 9;
To t%e So+r'e :1
Part T<o
FROM 3URMA TO 3ARRE......................................................................................... 1;)
Con-+'t((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((101
&rote't$ng t%e <orl-
Ren+n'$ates an- Ren+n'$at$on 102
Def$n$t$on an- Conf+s$on 12)
A Pra't$'al I*&erat$7e 1#0
=earn$ng((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((1#:
<%at $s %ear-
T%eor. an- Pra't$'e 110
Worl-/V$e<s 1)5
A't$on an- Rea't$on 19#
D$s'+ss$on((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((1::
t%e role of a tea'%er
Man. Tea'%ers 0;0
Fa$t% an- W$s-o* 0;1
Energ. an- Con'entrat$on 01#
Tran>+$l$t.((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((00#
t%e 'lar$t. of 'on'entrat$on
En7$ron*ental Prote't$on 00)
Settl$ng t%e Intelle't 020
?+ar-$ng t%e Senses 021
Ins$g%t((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((052
see$ng '%aos as '%aot$'
Per'e&t$ons of Progress 05)
Un-ef$n$ng t%e Un'on-$t$one- 0#)
6Engage-8 63+--%$s*8 011
COMIN? FU== CYC=E............................................................................................... 0)2
?=OSSARY...................................................................................................................... 0:1
I==USTRATION INDE@.................................................................................................. 0:)
3I3=IO?RAP!Y............................................................................................................... 0::
(he Blessed 2ne said3 4A *erson of inte-rit% is -rateful 5
ac&no+led-es the hel* -i'en to hi). (his -ratitude this
ac&no+led-)ent is second nature a)on- fine *eo*le.6
"
Imya
Dhammnudhamma- pariyattiy
Buddha !jemi
(hrou-h this stud% of the Dha))a
in accord +ith the Dha))a I
honor the A+a&ened 2ne
Imya
Dhamma !jemi
honor the (eachin-
Imya
Sangha !jemi
honor the Co))unit%
Imya
"tpitar# !jemi
honor )% Mother and 7ather
Imya
$%ariye !jemi
honor )% (eachers
" Kata889 Sutta :A.II.0#; trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
To M. So+r'es
(o Karen and Da'id Da'is )% <earl% teachers= and to their <earl%
teachers= and so on> +ithout an% one of %ou this +ould not
be>
(o the Venerable Pa?@itArA)a 2'AdAcari%a Sa%ada+ B
Pa?@itAbhi'aCsa the K%as+a Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a and
(hA)ana% K%a+ Sa%ada+ B Dha))i&Abhi'aCsa +ho cared
for )e in Bur)a and nurtured )e in the stud% and *ractice of
Dhamma-&inaya>
(o Ste'en S)ith and Michele McDonald +ho ha'e been friends
:mitt; to )e in so )an% -ood thin-s :'alay( dhamm;>
(o J.E.:(.; (ho)as +ho hel*ed )e to deconstruct )%
inter*retation of the order of thin-s :dhamma;> and to
Ed)und Brelsford +ho hel*ed )e to reconstruct )%
inter*retation for )%self and others in *articular b%
introducin- )e to the +or& of Eeor-e Steiner>
(o Jose*h Eoldstein Michael Fuc&er Gebecca Bradsha+ and
Alan Da)*o- +hose carin- and insi-htful su--estions hel*ed
to steer this +or& clear of a nu)ber of *hiloso*hical and
*olitical *itfalls>
(o the Venerable VaHira8A?i B Hla M%int K%a+ Andre+
2lendI&i Mu Soen- Eraha)e Jhite D%nne Bousfield and B
Khin Hlain- +hose shared interest in the intricacies and
ironies of inter*retin- the Dhamma for Jesterners and +hose
confidence in )e hel*ed to ins*ire this boo&>
(o the Venerable Bhi&&hu Bodhi the Venerable Khe)adi*a
Bhi&&hu and Alan Cle)ents> their careful readin- and incisi'e
critiKues -reatl% i)*ro'ed the final *roduct>
(o JinL Hastin- and Ker)it Blac&+oods +ho hel*ed )a&e this
boo& accessible to a broader audience>
(o D%nette Gu))el +ho s*onsored )% career at Marlboro
Colle-e if not )% senior thesis> to Eeraldine Pit)an de Batlle
+ho read throu-h this )anuscri*t as an under-raduate
dissertation :to its -reat benefit; )ore ti)es than I did> to
(o) (oleno +ho introduced )e to the funda)ental debates
in the *s%cholo-% of reli-ion> and to Go% Jri-ht +ho hel*ed
)e to thin& criticall% about Steiner=s assertions and the stud%
of lan-ua-e in -eneral>
(o the *eo*le of Pa?@itArA)a SAsana Mei&tha K%as+a
Monaster% Vi*assana Ha+ai=i the Insi-ht Meditation Societ%
the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies and Marlboro Colle-e
+ho ha'e su**orted and challen-ed )e in )% efforts to be an
inter*reter and to be a trul% hu)ane bein- :manussa;>
(o )% close biolo-ical &in as +ell as all )% hanai ... and
dhamma fa)il%>
(han& %ou/ .~.~.~/ Sdhu/
:with palms t#gether at my %hest in gratitude and respe%t;
Fore<or-
Earl% one )ornin- in .NOO a friend and I +ere +al&in- alon-
treePlined *ath+a%s at the reno+ned MahAsi Meditation Center
in Gan-oon after s*endin- our first ni-ht in Bur)a. A doIen of us
had Hust co)e fro) Bodh Ea%a India +here had been in
)editati'e seclusion for se'eral )onths. (o+ard the end of )%
retreat Vi*assana teachers Jose*h Eoldstein and Jac& Kornfield
had co)e to BodhEa%a +ith so)e students follo+in- the first 0P
)onth retreat at the ne+l% founded Insi-ht Meditation Societ% in
Barre Massachusetts. Co)in- out of retreat to -reet )% friends
and t+oP%earPold dau-hter Chandra I arran-ed and )ana-ed
:+hile bein- a dad as +ell/; the first retreat led b% Jestern
teachers in the Mahasi tradition. It +as in a (hai )onaster%
surrounded b% acres of rice *add% a fe+ hundred feet fro) the
)aHestic Maha Bodhi te)*le and the sacred Bo (ree under +hich
the Buddha had attained s*iritual liberation "1## %ears a-o.
I had co)e to India to *ractice under the -uidance of Jose*h=s
first teacher Ana-ari&a MunindraPHi +ho in turn had *racticed
in Bur)a +ith one of the )ost *ro)inent and influential
)indfulness )editation teachers of the centur%, the MahAsi
Sa%ada+. Je ca)e to Bur)a fro) Bodh Ea%a to honor and
eL*ress -ratitude to this -reat Dha))a linea-e holder +ho
*la%ed a *i'otal role in brin-in- the teachin-s out of the
)onasteries and into the co))unit% o'er the *ast centur%. (he
7$ A Fore<or-
MahAsi Sa%ada+=s influence sha*ed the rest of our li'es and has
*rofoundl% i)*acted the e)er-in- Dha))a throu-hout the
+orld.
(he establish)ent of the t+ent%Pacre MahAsi center in .N$O
+ith the aid of donors includin- the for)er Pre)ier and
co))itted *ractitioner B Nu i))ediatel% set a standard of
eLcellence and eLce*tional trainin-. (his linea-e of )indfulness
)editation has s*read throu-hout the +orld +ith hundreds of
MahAsi or MahAsiPins*ired centers and )onasteries.
M% tra'elin- co)*anion Alan Cle)ents and I +ere u* at
sunrise strollin- throu-h the )onastic -rounds entranced +ith
the +orld +e had entered the e'enin- before. MultiProo)
residential li'in- Kuarters and indi'idual huts for )on&s nuns
and la%*eo*le filled the landsca*e> a uniKue )iL of traditionalP
st%le tea& structures and encroachin- ce)ent buildin-s all
donated b% a societ% of *eo*le stee*ed in the *ractice of
-enerosit%. At the ti)e this +as one of the )ost *ro)inent
*ractice and stud% centers in the Buddhist +orld.
Suddenl% and si)ultaneousl% Alan and I -aIed at each other
+ith the sense that +e had ste**ed into another +orld and ti)e.
Je +ere trans*orted b% a hauntin- )elodic rh%th) of ancient
sound currents +aftin- throu-h the )onastic co)*ound and
*ulled s*eechlessl% to+ard its source. A s*irited feelin- tre)bled
in )% chest at once fa)iliar and forei-n. Je ca)e u*on a lar-e
hall of )on&s chantin- Dha))a teLts b% )e)or%.
(he chantin- +as in the ancient Buddhist lan-ua-e of the PAQi
teLts the )on&s -i'in- 'oice to the BuddhaRs discourses
trans)itted orall% for centuries before e'er bein- co))itted to
+ritin-. (hou-h I did not then understand the )eanin- I felt the
de*th and beaut% of articulation in chantin- for). I felt I had
co)e ho)e to a )%ster%, a *rofound sense of *lace. Here a
*o+erful lifePtransfor)in- linea-e of +isdo) teachin-s +as
Fore<or- A 7$$
*reser'ed in their ra+ ori-inal for) of trans)ission held in a
sacred container +ith ut)ost re'erence.
M% *ractice studies and teachin- of the Bur)ese tradition of
(hera'Ada Buddhis) still dra+ fro) those )o)ents of tre)blin-
in )% chest three decades a-o.
Dha))a is its o+n intelli-ence. A ri'er rolls fro) )ountain
sanctuaries o'er e'erPchan-in- continental drifts and
catastro*hic shifts flo+in- on+ards to find its +a% fro) source
to sea. Just so o'er the course of t+ent%Pfi'e centuries throu-h
the 'icissitudes of cultures and ci'iliIations de'elo*in- and
cru)blin- Dha))a has risen and receded in the ebbs and flo+s
of Asian histor%. (ruth has its o+n )%ster% of sur'i'al strate-ies
and *rotecti'e )easures enfolded +ithin it +ell be%ond the
a-endas of )en and +o)en. Ins*ired disci*les are at best si)*l%
a *art of this *rocess findin- creati'e +a%s to &ee* the teachin-s
a li'in- rele'ant s*iritual *ractice. Met e'er% fe+ centuries a
-round s+ell of Dha))a ener-% interest and re'i'al arises
enhanced b% the efforts of indi'iduals throu-h +hose li'es the
current of Dha))a )o'es resourcefull% and creati'el% to &ee*
flo+in- throu-h ti)es of intense chan-e and challen-e.
In the S#s and O#s Euro*eans and A)ericans set out fro) the
Jestern +orld on s*iritual Hourne%s to Asia see&in- out
le-endar% )asters to recei'e teachin-s leadin- to ha**iness and
the *eace of the *ure heartRs release. Buddhist )editati'e
traditions +ere a)on- the stron-est attractions *erha*s in *art
because these teachin-s are offered freel%. (he Dha))a is
re-arded as *riceless and therefore offered at )onasteries
+ithout char-e or eL*ectation of donation for food shelter or
teachin-s.
7indin- *ractice centers and teachers in Asia +as the first
ste*. Sincere students and de'elo*in- Jestern teachers ha'e had
to internaliIe these teachin-s so that the% beca)e real e)bodied
+ith *ractice so that the% beca)e our o+n. NeLt returnin- to
7$$$ A Fore<or-
the Jest and sharin- these He+els of the East +e ha'e +or&ed to
)a&e Dha))a *ractice rele'ant and a**licable to JesternersR
eL*erience -raduall% learnin- to inte-rate ancient but ti)eless
teachin-s into our o+n culture )a&in- the teachin-s ours. Di&e
Pro)etheus -rabbin- the fire fro) the -ods the earl% see&ers
too& the torch of Dha))a fro) )asters of the (hera'Ada the
RJa% of the EldersR and then returned ho)e ins*ired to share
such *riceless teachin-s.
Jithin the first fe+ %ears of Vi*assanA *ractice in the Jest
*articular *arts of the inte-rated Ei-htfold Path +ere s+e*t u*
and assi)ilated b% Jestern culture. Mindfulness for eLa)*le
one of three essential factors in )ental de'elo*)ent has been
eLtracted fro) the conteLt of the Ei-htfold Noble Path for
'arious secular uses, stress relief *ain clinics *o*ular boo&s on
*s%cholo-% and Renli-htenedR +or&in- en'iron)ents. (he
benefits of )indfulness cannot be denied and there are )an%
+ho contend that Jesterners +ould not *ractice )indfulness
)editation if it +ere *resented in the sacred container of the
traditional three trainin-s, the ethical foundation of nonP
har)in-> trainin- the )ind in concentration> and the
de'elo*)ent of transfor)ati'e +isdo). Nonetheless all hun-er
for the truth of ho+ thin-s are and +ant to &no+ ho+ to
culti'ate the beautiful Kualities of ethical beha'ior a+areness
&indness co)*assion and +isdo).
Si)ilarl% the )odern )editation student )a% reKuire
creati'e techniKues for +or&in- +ith the )ental and e)otional
conditionin- uniKue and s*ecific to our era. Man% students find
an i)*asse +hen difficult e)otions earl% childhood trau)a and
dee*Pseated feelin-s of lo+ self +orth arise in )indfulness
*ractice. (he use of )odern )eta*hors and of su**orti'e
*ractices such as )editations on lo'in- &indness and
co)*assion create for )an% *eo*le an inner attitude of
o*enness and acce*tance +hile at the sa)e ti)e fosterin-
Fore<or- A $,
coura-e and heroic effort. Je need such a fearless *resence to
face our o+n and othersR sufferin- and &no+ P +ithout Hud-in-
the) P our uns&illful states of )ind +hen the% arise. Such
coura-e and o*enness allo+s for )indfulness to discern co)*leL
le'els of e)otional entan-le)ent and attach)ent.
Ada*tation of Buddhist teachin-s to the Jest includes
discernin- the difference bet+een insensiti'e forcefulness and
fierce co)*assion. Jithout this discern)ent +e )a% sabota-e
the ai) of relinKuishin- -reed hatred and delusion. 7ierce
co)*assion arises out of a *o+erful but nonPa'ersi'e intention of
heroic ener-% +hereas bein- forceful P out of cra'infor results
or a'ersion to *resent )o)ent eL*erience P *ollutes the natural
*urit% and *o+er of )indfulness.
7or thousands of %ears (hera'Ada linea-es ha'e
de)onstrated a co))it)ent to *reser'e the essential bod% of
the BuddhaRs teachin-s for the benefit of future -enerations. (he
*ri)ar% conduit for this lon- trans)ission has been the ordained
renunciates of the (hera'Ada SaT-ha. It is the% +ho ha'e
*reser'ed +ith deliberate disci*line the BuddhaRs teachin-s in
the earl% discourses as +ell as the eldersR later co))entaries.
Jithout the SaT-haRs un*aralleled stren-th +e +ould not ha'e
toda% the *rofound teachin-s of the PAQi Canon scul*ted to s*ea&
both si)*l% and *rofoundl% to indi'iduals of e'er% dis*osition
le'el of learnin- and nati'e abilit%.
Jith all that said the boo& %ou hold in %our hands Stron-
Goots b% Ja&e H. Da'is is a He+el of s*iritual literature. Si)*l% it
offers 'ision and 'alue in ho+ an ancient +isdo) can be
trans)itted into conte)*orar% culture +ithout losin- its
authenticit% and *o+er. Jith a RlionRs roarR of confidence clarit%
and re'erence Da'is ins*ires -ratitude and -i'es sound -uidance
for the trans)ission of a ti)eless +isdo) teachin- P fro) one
culture into another fro) classical st%le to conte)*orar%
rele'ance and fro) one era to another.
, A Fore<or-
Da'is is a %oun- and -ifted student and scholar of Dha))a in
the Bur)ese linea-e of the MahAsi Sa%ada+. His is a so*histicated
and uniKue offerin- in Dha))a literature addressin- the -larin-
di'ides bet+een scholars and *ractitioners. Stron- GootsR
uniKueness and rarit% co)bines Da'isR substantial *ersonal
*ractice under Bur)ese )asters and senior Jestern teachers in
Bur)a North A)erica and Ha+aiRi alon- +ith disci*lined PAQi
teLt stud% under the -uidance of s&illed Bur)ese and Jestern
scholars.
Stron- Goots challen-es us to be intelli-ent and hu)ble
throu-h its consistent the)e of Dha))a trans)ission. Ho+ can
Jestern and Asian Dha))a teachers and scholars contribute to
the *rotection and sustainabilit% of Bur)ese Dha))a linea-es in
the delicate *rocess of trans)ission to the soils of conte)*orar%
societ%U
Chaos often acco)*anies an initial -round s+ell of interest
and fascination in *o*Pculture *roducts such as health diets
eLercise re-i)es thera*ies and s*iritual *aths. Nature *ro'ides
a)*le clues to -uide our +a% throu-h chan-in- conditions of the
+orld +ith the intention to *reser'e and *ass alon- the tradition
the 'ehicle for sho+in- the Dha))a As It Is yath-bh!ta.
(urbulent +eather s%ste)s in the (as)an Sea for eLa)*le
-enerate )assi'e -round s+ells that )o'e S### )iles across the
Pacific 2cean. In their )o'e)ent natureRs la+s of for)ation
create beautiful sha*es and lon- lines of +a'es brea&in- on the
shores of Ha+aiRi a +ee& later. Natural la+ is hidden +ithin the
chaos. Pol%nesian +a%farers eL*lorin- the blue +ilderness of the
Pacific 2cean on double hull sailin- canoes for thousands of %ears
found ne+ islands in the sea. Mindful attention to turbulent
s%ste)s of +ind rain clouds +a'es currents and bird
)i-rations alon- +ith intuition -uided the bold eL*lorers in
R*ullin- the islands out of the seaR.
Fore<or- A ,$
In the sa)e +a% Dha))a *ioneers toda% learn to na'i-ate
these earl% s+ells arri'inin ne+ lands and cultures. (he +a% is
often clouded and stor)%, Dha))a teachin- trans)issions clash
+ith ne+ cultures. Brid-in- and ada*tin- classical Dha))a
teachin- techniKues into conte)*orar% rele'ant )odels
challen-es Dha))a teachers scholars and see&ers ali&e to
a**roach the trans)ission *rocess +ith -race -ratitude and
)indfulness as a co)*ass. (he +a% to s&illfull% na'i-ate the ne+
often dis*arate +aters of Dha))a reachin- our shores lies
+ithin.
No+ as +e enter the third )illenniu) C.E. +e are fortunate
to find oursel'es in this +hirl+ind of Dha))a interest and
teachin-s. Stron- Goots is a leadin- ed-e )anual illu)inin- the
s*iritual ur-enc% of attunin- +ith a careful ear -ratitude and
reci*rocit% to sustainin- the *urit% of the ori-inal bas&et of
teachin-s as the% )o'e fro) Asia to the Jest.
Euideboo&s and road)a*s ha'e not %et been created for
trans*lantin- the BuddhaRs Dha))a East to Jest and East a-ain.
Da'is )a&es a case for the clear co)*rehension of this *rocess.
As the -round s+ell of Dha))a s*reads across ne+ lands and
into ne+ cultural settin-s +hat for)s of trans)ission +ill s*ea&
to students in the Jest and +orld+ide +ho hold a R*ostP)odernR
outloo&U Jhat ne+ )eta*hors of ins*iration +ill acco)*lish the
challen-in- art of &no+in- the )indVbod% the nature of thin-s
as the% areU Stron- Goots offers 'ie+s of ho+ these challen-es
are bein- )et fro) +ithin a *ioneerin- +or& in *ro-ress.
A)on- the )ost substanti'e the)es in Stron- Goots is the
e)*hasis on -ratitude, realiIin- +here the teachin-s ca)e fro)
+ho trans)itted the) ho+ the% reached us. As *ractitioners
scholars and teachers of (hera'Ada Buddhis) it see)s
i)*erati'e that +e a**reciate the sacrifices of those +ho ca)e
before us es*eciall% the ordained SaT-ha those +ho laid do+n
,$$ A Fore<or-
ste**in- stones for us to recei'e ada*t and inte-rate the rare
and *recious liberation teachin-s.
Ho+ are +e to honor and re*a% such a debt of -ratitudeU
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita sa%s that the best +a% to sho+ -ratitude is to
do the *ractice. Meditation is *ractice teachin- )editation and
PAQi teLts is *ractice life itself and ho+ +e li'e it can be *ractice
if +e )a&e it so.
(he c%cle of reci*rocit% has its )ore ob'ious and its )ore
subtle as*ects. Geturnin- to the source )a% )ean su**ortin- our
teachers and their )onasteries. It )a% in'ol'e hu)anitarian
*roHects in the countr% +here +e ha'e recei'ed these teachin-s.
It )a% also in'ol'e s*ontaneous collaborations +here Easterners
and Jesterners teach retreats to-ether both in the source
countr% such as Bur)a and in areas that ha'e onl% recentl%
recei'ed this trans)ission such as Euro*e or North A)erica. 2n
subtler le'els as Da'is *oints out reci*rocit% )a% render the
Dha))a in the *lace of ori-in in ne+ and uneL*ected +a%s
illu)inatin- as*ects of the teachin- *re'iousl% not full%
a**reciated that )a% no+ ha'e *rofound rele'ance in the *lace
or ori-in as +ell as the reci*ient culture. (his see)s e'ident
alread% in brid-in- classic traditional st%les of teachin- and
conte)*orar% inte-rated )ethods and )eta*hors of teachin-. It
is also e'ident in the coPtau-ht retreats led b% ordained Bur)ese
SaT-ha and Jestern la%Pteachers. (here is a beautiful )%ster% to
this reci*rocit% +hen reci*ients of trans)ission and ori-inal
linea-e holders )eet in the )iddle.
Geci*rocit% is the essence of Da'isR ins*ired and insi-htful
*resentation. He -i'es coura-eous 'oice to the *o+er and
*ur*ose of linea-e, an authentic trans)ission of truth into the
hearts of )editation students and a +orld star'infor )eanin-.
Stron- Goots is a )ustPread for sincere students of )indfulness
)editation for teachers and scholars ali&e.
Fore<or- A ,$$$
Da'is and I share a )utual interest in the trans)ission of "###
%earPold linea-es +ithin the conteLt of -eo-ra*hical *lace of
ori-in. (he )an% as*ects of Bur)a the land *eo*le nuns
)on&s *a-odas and )onasteries co)e to-ether as a sacred
container for the ti)eless teachin-s and their trans)ission. (he
re'erberations of PAQi teLts bein- chanted as I first heard decades
a-o at the MahAsi Meditation Center in Gan-oon lea'e a *al*able
feelin- of Dha))a throu-hout the land and in *articular at
sacred Buddhist sites such as the Sa-ain- Hills of B**er Bur)a
+ith its O## )onasteries and O### nuns and )on&s.
In Bur)ese there is a sa%in-, %e se& soun de. It literall% )eans
R+aterPdro* connectionR or the confluence of t+o strea)s. (his
eL*ression describes the feelin- that arises bet+een *eo*le +ho
eL*erience a stron- )utual connection a sense of ha'in- &no+n
each other for a 'er% lon- ti)e. It is said that *ositi'e s&illful
actions *erfor)ed to-ether in *ast li'es result in friends co)in-
to-ether a-ain in this lifeti)e. I felt this the )o)ent I )et )%
teacher Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita. I felt the sa)e feelin- for Ja&e Da'is
+hen I )et hi) as a .$P%earPold student of Dha))a. Je can loo&
for+ard to a +ealth of insi-htful +ritin- fro) this bri-ht li-ht of
s*iritual intelli-ence.
S(EVEN V. SMI(H
2ctober "##0
Honolulu Ha+ai=i
Intro-+'t$on
So*e B+est$ons
Ho+ does a hu)an *ractice chan-e and ho+ can it *ossibl%
sta% the sa)e in the *rocess of trans)ission bet+een 'er%
different culturesU As one (hera'Ada Buddhist )ethod of
)indfulness )editation is i)*orted fro) Bur)a to the Bnited
States for instance ho+ is the *ractice reborn and ho+ are
A)ericans transfor)edU If *eo*le arri'e at certain eL*eriences
throu-h intesi'e a**lication of )indfulness ho+ are their
understandin-s *resented throu-h and sha*ed b% different
lan-ua-esU
In considerin- these Kuestions each *art of the follo+in-
discussion )ust address so)e as*ect of inter*retation. I focus on
oral and +ritten discourses referrin- to these collecti'el% as
<teLts=. Hu)an bein-s inter*ret *articular *atterns of sound
)ar&s on a *a-e or bodil% )otions I ar-ue based on *ast and
*resent conteLt, their cultural herita-e their indi'idual histor%
and the *articular situation in +hich the% find the)sel'es.
<7reedo)= for eLa)*le has a )eanin- in the conteLt of the
Buddha=s teachin-s that is different fro) +hat is )eant +hen
0 A STRON? ROOTS
+hen sin-ers of the 4Star S*an-led Banner6 eLtol the 4Dand of
the freeV and the ho)e of the bra'e.6 Meditation teachers )ust
use social and lin-uistic )echanis)s to co))unicate +ith
students to offer -uidance and ins*iration. (hus in anal%Iin- the
trans)ission of )indfulness )editation fro) Bur)a to the
Bnited States +e are eLa)inin- the *rocess of renderin- 'arious
teLts in the ter)s of different social conteLts.
Such understandin- and inter*retation is a ubiKuitous *art of
hu)an acti'it%. Acade)ic scholars use the ter) <her)eneutics=
to refer to the +a%s of understandin- that 'arious *eo*le e)*lo%
our )ethods of inter*retation. 7or eLa)*les of her)eneutical
a**roaches to the Buddha=s teachin-s I dra+ )ainl% fro) the
tradition I ha'e *racticed in for the last decade and &no+ best
)indfulness )editation as tau-ht b% the linea-e of teachers
descended fro) the Venerable MahAsi Sa%ada+ :.N#$P.NW";.
Since the establish)ent of )indfulness satipa))hna ai)s at
the de'elo*)ent of <insi-ht= the *ractice is )ore often referred
to a)on- En-lish s*ea&ers as vipassan or Insi-ht Meditation.
.

Al)ost all )on&s in Bur)a (hailand and Sri DaT&a *ractice and
teach 'arious traditions of (hera'Ada Buddhis) +hereas the
MahA%Ana schools *redo)inate in (ibet China and Ja*an. (he
Mahasi Sa%ada+ an influential (hera'Adin )on& born in Bur)a
at the turn of the last centur% +as res*onsible for -ainin- one
*articular for) of )indfulness *ractice +orld+ide *o*ularit%.
Practitioners such as Ana-ari&a Munindra and Di*a Ma throu-h
their -uidance of %oun- A)ericans in the .NS#s and O#s hel*ed
. (hou-h co))onl% translated as <foundations of )indfulness= satipa))hna
refers *ri)aril% to the acti'it% of bein- )indful the *resence of attention
rather than the obHects of a+areness. In the ran-e of co))entarial
literature t+o *ossible deri'ations for the latter half of the ter) are -i'en,
fro) pa))hna <foundation= or alternati'el% fro) upa))hna <*resence=
<attenti'eness= or <establish)ent=. ELa)inin- the use of these ter)s in the
PAQi teLts AnAla%o "##0, "NP0# de)onstrates that understandin-
satipa))hna as an acti'it% P deri'in- the ter) fro) upa)thna - is far
*referable both *racticall% and et%)ol-icall%. Cf. Also (hanissaro "##"a, NS.
Intro-+'t$on A 2
establish the MahAsi )indfulness )ethod as the *ri)ar% *ractice
tau-ht at IMS.
2ne of the MahAsi Sa%ada+=s leadin- teachin- disci*les the
Venerable Sa%ada+ B Pa?@itAbhi'aCsa :.N".P; has *la%ed a
)aHor role in culti'atin- the seeds of this tradition in A)erican
soil. Man% of the senior teachers fro) North A)erica as +ell as
Euro*e and Australia trained under B Pa?@ita in Bur)a and at a
series of threeP)onthPlon- )editation retreats that he tau-ht in
the .NW#s at IMS. It +as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita +ho *ro*osed and
then *ersonall% su*er'ised )% o+n ter) of fifteen )onths as a
)on& i))ersed in the lan-ua-e and culture of Bur)a stud%in-
(hera'Adin theor% and the lan-ua-e of the PAQi teLts and
en-a-inin intensi'e lon-Pter) *ractice of satipa)) hna. (his
+orld +as o*ened u* for )e in the first *lace b% t+o of the
A)erican teachers +ho studied +ith B Pa?@ita Ste'en S)ith and
Michele McDonald.
(here are a nu)ber of different st%les and )ethods of
Vi*assanA or Insi-ht Meditation bein- tau-ht in the Bnited States
toda%. In order to )ana-e so)e de*th of anal%sis the sco*e of
this stud% is li)ited to one *articular -rou* of teachers and
*ractitioners. I focus on the MahAsi tradition )ainl% for
con'ience, I &no+ it best. Since al)ost all of the senior A)erican
teachers and )aHor A)erican centers in this tradition branched
out fro) the IMS co))unit% and since I -re+ u* in the
i))ediate 'icinit% +ith inti)ate eL*erience of that co))unit%
I focus on it in *articular. Nonetheless the issues that I eLa)ine
at IMS are current at other Insi-ht Meditation co))unities in
North A)erica Euro*e and Australia as +ell to a -reater or
lesser eLtent.
(he IMS co))unit% is no+ at critical *oint in its life c%cle, a
ne+ -eneration of teachers is ta&in- u* res*onsibilities and the
interest of a %oun-er -eneration of *ractitioners is a+a&enin-.
7or o'er a Kuarter centur% no+ the A)erican ideals of
indi'idualis) and freePinKuir% ha'e challen-ed teachers at IMS
5 A STRON? ROOTS
to ada*t the MahAsi tradition to a ne+ conteLt> therein lie the
co))unit%=s -reatest stren-ths and also its -reatest +ea&nesses.
In both res*ects the +a% that )odern teachers and *ractitioners
relate to their herita-e see)s critical for the +a% +e relate to our
*ast deter)ines our direction into the future.
(he ter) used in the PAQi teLts for <-ratitude= 'ata**ut
literall% )eans <&no+in- +hat +as done=.
"
(hose of us ali'e toda%
ha'e access to the teachin-s of a+a&enin- onl% because of the
co)*assionate +or& of indi'iduals +ho dee*l% recei'ed and
hu)bl% trans)itted this treasure -eneration after -eneration for
t+oPandPaPhalf )illennia. In order to )aintain a relationshi* of
res*ect and reci*rocit% to+ards our source as *ractitioners and
teachers +e )ust first of all &no+ the linea-e:s; throu-h +hich
our *ractices +ere *assed do+n. Jithout these roots into our
histor% +e ris& for-ettin- that this -eneration did not in'ent the
Dhamma. In s*iritual teachin-s as in acade)ia citin- one=s
sources is critical. As the 4Kata889 Sutta6 *uts it 4A *erson of
inte-rit% is -rateful 5 ac&no+led-es the hel* -i'en to hi).6
0

(he central ai) of Str#ng +##ts is to de)onstrate theoreticall%
and *racticall% the i)*ortance of o*eratin- fro) a coherent
teachin- linea-e and continuall% returnin- to it to fra)e ne+
inter*retations. At first -lance such an attitude )a% a**ear
inco)*atible +ith the 'alues of inde*endence and selfPreliance
that )an% A)ericans hold dear. Peo*le in the Jest ha'e been
Kuite eclectic in choosin- ele)ents fro) 'arious <s*iritual=
traditions and often reluctant to en-a-e in serious scholarshi* of
an% one. (o elucidate the 'ital role of tradition I e)*lo% the
her)eneutical theor% of a critic in the Jestern hu)anist
tradition Eeor-e Steiner to sho+ ho+ a &ind of reci*rocal
relationshi* +ith the source renders a translation or a
trans)ission authentic. I eLtend this a**roach to su--est that
continuit% of *ractices bet+een different cultural conteLts is
" Please see the reference for this et%)olo-% in note S to the Elossar% *."N".
0 Kata889 Sutta :A.II.00;XIS.Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
Intro-+'t$on A #
)ade *ossible b% an on-oin- c%cle of return to the tradition=s
fra)e+or& of understandin-. (herefore e'en +hile celebratin-
the *ioneerin- s*irit that *lanted the seeds of satipa)) hna
*ractice in the Jest I ad'ocate a conte)*orar% trans)ission of
the )indfulness *ractice that is fir)l% rooted in its source. In
*articular I a) as&infor eL*licit and *er'asi'e
ac&no+led-)ent of the teachers +ho de'elo*ed and trans)itted
the 'arious *ractices e)*lo%ed toda% and for a sincere atte)*t
to understand the (hera'Adin teachin-s on their o+n ter)s.
Is this discussion a reli-ious *ole)ic b% a true belie'er then
or a scholarl% and scientific stud% of an historical *heno)enonU
Can an%one reall% ha'e an unbiased stand*oint fro) +hich to
anal%Ie social realit%U Jestern acade)ics ha'e been reli-ious in
their o+n +a% about the <&no+led-e *roHect= of rational
Enli-hten)ent an ideal that ca)e to *ro)inence in Ei-hteenth
centur% Euro*e. E'en disci*lines based on rational lo-ic )ust
seriousl% en-a-e forei-n +a%s of thin&in- and be +illin- to
ac&no+led-e and dra+ fro) other rational traditions in areas
+here the% ha'e sur*assed the achie'e)ents of the Jest.
$
Bnless
*hiloso*hical s%ste)s descended fro) the Eree&s and the
Hebre+s ha'e so)e *ri'ile-ed clai) to truth )odern
scholarshi* should onl% be li)ited to the) if no )ore
eL*lanator% theories for the e'idence at hand are a'ailable. I
eL*lore a nu)ber of (hera'Adin *rinci*les that *ro'ide the basis
for a *ra-)atic and historical a**roach to inter*retin- teLts
tradition and hu)an eL*erience in -eneral. Scholars and
*ractitioners can best dee*en and refine their understandin- of
the MahAsi tradition b% e)*lo%in- this nati'e her)eneutic I
su--est.
An anthro*olo-ical stud% of the Bur)ese could not achie'e
)uch de*th of understandin- nor )uch acade)ic credibilit% if
$ As Earfield "##", "S# so a*tl% *uts it 4Ei'in- the Jestern *hiloso*hical
tradition *ride of *lace as 4*hiloso*h%6 +hile )ar-inaliIin- in our
de*art)ents or in our indi'idual life all other traditions... i)*licates us
directl% in institutional racis).6
1 A STRON? ROOTS
the researcher had ne'er been to Southeast Asia. Si)ilarl% so)e
recent scholarshi* addressin- )indfulness )editation or the
MahAsi tradition suffers fro) a lac& of *ractical eL*erience +ith
the techniKue. 7ar fro) obscurin- or obstructin- ri-orous
anal%sis firstPhand a**lication of the teachin-s is i)*ortant if
not *rereKuisite for an understandin- of the teLts and the
tradition that is <authentic= in Steiner=s sense.
1
(hou-h I had not
thou-ht of this enter*rise in ter)s of co)binin- the <heart= and
the <intellect= these +ere the +ords so)e friends +ho loo&ed at
*re*ublication co*ies of this )anuscri*t used to describe the
ac&no+led-e)ents in *articular. Indeed I ad'ocate and tr% to
de)onstrate throu-hout an a**roach that inte-rates theor% and
*ractice.
=a.o+t An- =ang+age Of T%e Te,t
(he stud% of the Buddha=s teachin-s and the institutions that
inter*ret and trans)it the) has been underta&en throu-h the
disci*lines of co)*arati'e reli-ion histor% anthro*olo-%
*hilolo-% and *hiloso*h% a)on- others. Scholars in )odern
acade)ia as +ithin the (hera'Ada ha'e inherited different
a**roaches to the subHect )atter and ha'e arri'ed at different
inter*retations. Jhere such debates )i-ht be of *articular
interest to *eo*le +ith bac&-round in these fields I include the)
in the footnotes. Di&e+ise the reader +ill find there references
and 'ital conteLt for citations fro) 'arious sources. Short essa%s
in the footnotes eL*lore a nu)ber of issues that are tan-ential to
the )ain line of ar-u)ent different as*ects of +hich +ill *ro'e
interestin- I ho*e to *eo*le +ith interests or bac&-round in
rele'ant fields. 7or that reason ho+e'er I caution es*eciall%
1 Please see Eeor-e Steiner=s definition on *.W# and also the discussion of
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s 4<Jhen Mou Kno+ 7or Moursel'es=, the authenticit%
of the Pali Suttas6 on *.S0.
Intro-+'t$on A )
readers +ith less bac&-round in the (hera'Ada or the Hu)anities
not to -o so far off on such tan-ents that understandin- of the
)ain discussion in the bod% of the teLt is sacrificed. (he )ain
ar-u)ent is necessaril% co)*act and the *rose at ti)es Kuite
dense. Str#ng +##ts is not li-ht readin- but I ha'e been told that it
does re+ard the in'est)ent of ti)e and ener-% reKuired for
thou-htful consideration.
(hrou-hout this in'esti-ation I tr% to ta&e care +ith )%
ter)s to use +ords in a +a% that is infor)ed b% ho+ the% ha'e
been used in other conteLts. Based on a critical e'aluation of
4Dee* (rans)ission and of JhatU6 I a'oid certain co))onl%
used *rinci*les and 'ocabular% and select others +ith +hich to
understand the trans)ission 47ro) Bur)a and Barre.6 I do not
belie'e in <Buddhis)= for eLa)*le. (hat is )% studies ha'e
con'inced )e that the 'arious teachin-s and *ractices re-arded
as <Buddhis)= b% Bur)ese (ibetans and A)ericans actuall%
dis*la% )uch )ore di'ersit% than co))onalit%. B% usin- the
)odern conce*t of <Buddhis)= +e )a% un+ittin-l% i)*ose our
idea of co))onalit% on the historical realit% rather than
allo+in- anthro*olo-ical e'idence to su--est +hich teachin-s
and *ractices are coherent and consistent +ith one another.
S

(herefore I do not use the ter) <Buddhis)= to describe teachin-
and *ractice at IMS and I caution others to eLa)ine the
conce*t=s i)*lications before s*ea&in- of <Buddhis)= as a
tradition.
So)eti)es +e ha'e to )a&e concessions. 7or lac& of a )ore
*recise adHecti'e and +ith a*olo-ies to the rest of North and
South A)erica I use the ter) <A)ericans= throu-hout to refer
s*ecificall% to the *eo*le of the Bnited States. Nonetheless
careful use of lan-ua-e can clear u* so)e hurtful
)isunderstandin-s. In the PAQ i teLts the Buddha often
reinter*rets certain +ords that +ere co))onl% used in ancient
India usin- the) in no'el and edif%in- +a%s. (he ter) bhi''hu
S Please see the discussion 4Definin- the (o*ic6 **. .Off.
9 A STRON? ROOTS
for instance +as -enerall% used at the ti)e to refer to ascetic
+anderers +ho had renounced the household life to see&
s*iritual -ains. In the Dhammapada ho+e'er the Buddha declares
that e'en if adorned +ith the colorful -arb of a la% *erson one
*racticin- +ith eKui*oise a 4cal)ed ta)ed 5 assured6 s*iritual
*ractitioner ha'in- set aside 'iolence to+ards all bein-s is trul%
a brahman :a hol% *erson; a sama(a :renunciate; a bhi''hu.
O
(he
Co))entar% cites this 'erse to de)onstrate that +hen the
Buddha uses the address <bhi''have= in discourse after discourse
he is s*ea&in- to all those underta&in- the *ractice for liberation
fro) sufferin-, +o)en and )en la% and ordained. In such cases
disre-ardin- the +a% (hera'Adin teLts use their ter)s )a&es the
tradition a**ear eLclusi'e or discri)inator% in areas +here this
is un+arranted.
Ado*tin- a critical attitude to+ards the 'ocabular% +e use to
understand the (hera'Ada can enable us to e)*lo% ter)s fro)
that tradition in a +a% that is consistent +ith their historical
usa-e. 7or thousands of %ears the ter) p, i for instance has been
understood b% (hera'Adins to )ean <teLt=> onl% +ithin the *ast
fe+ hundred %ears has it co)e to refer s*ecificall% to the st%liIed
literar% transfor)ation of the ancient Indian lan-ua-e in +hich
the (hera'Adin teLts are *reser'ed. 2ut of res*ect for the
O Dh*..$"XDh*.".Y> I a**reciate the *recision of (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s -losses
4cal)ed ta)ed 5 assured6 +hich is +h% I ha'e used the) here but )%
*ara*hrase differs sli-ht% in their relation to the rest of the 'erse as +ell as
-losses for other +ords. (eLts such as the co))entar% on the
MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta :DA."";XIIIO11Y state that in the discourses bhi''hu
refers to an%one underta&in- the *ractice 4pa)ipattisampda'apuggala.6
A**arentl% the uncon'entional use of bhi''hu to refer to *ractitioners in
-eneral beca)e *art of the +a% the suttas +ere codified and recorded. (his
<SuttaTtaPusa-e= of the ter) bhi''hu is differentiated fro) that e)*lo%ed in
the Vina%a PiZa&a=s eL*lanation of the Disci*line +herein bhi''hu refers
solel% to a full% ordained renunciate :as in Datin )ale for)s such as
bhi''hu are used +here'er the -ender is uns*ecified and thus can refer to
both )ales and fe)ales;.
Intro-+'t$on A :
traditional usa-e I refer throu-hout this in'esti-ation to the
teLts of the (hera'Adin (i*iZa&a as <the PAQi=.
W

(he trans)ission of a (hera'Adin tradition based on the PAQi
fro) a Bur)ese to an A)erican conteLt inti)atel% in'ol'es three
different lan-ua-es. Jith a fe+ &e% eLce*tions the bod% of the
teLt is free of lan-ua-e forei-n to A)erican readers +hile the
footnotes include i)*ortant +ords and eLcer*ts in the ori-inal.
(hose ter)s fro) the PAQi that do co)e u* re*eatedl% in the boo&
are defined in the Elossar%.
Dan-ua-es fro) India include so)e consonants not found in
En-lish but I ho*e that a little eL*lanation here +ill render the
Indic characters used in the teLt less obscure. (he )acrons in
characters such as <A= si)*l% indicate a lon- 'o+el :as in <call=;
and <8= is *ronounced VnyV as in S*anish. Consonants s*o&en
+hile breathin- out or as*iratin- are differentiated in Indic
lan-ua-es fro) nonPas*irated consonants. (he <(h= in
<(hera'Ada= is *ronounced not +ith a VthV as in <(horou-hbred=
or <(hor= but rather +ith a breath% :as*irated; <t= li&e
<(ho)*son= or <(ha)es=. (hou-h a +ord *ronounced Vt#mV
+hile holdin- one=s breath does not ha'e a different )eanin- in
En-lish than Vht#mV +ith a breath% <t= )ost consonants are
as*irated in North A)erican En-lish. A)ericans often find it
difficult in fact to learn to consistentl% *ronounce nonPas*irated
consonants. Nonetheless the distinction bet+een so)e of these
sounds is crucial in Indic lan-ua-es> a +ord *roduced +ith the
as*irated 'ersion of a *articular consonant or the lon- 'ersion of
a *articular 'o+el can ha'e an entirel% different )eanin-
+ithout these. (he Buddha=s discussion of att :<self=; is one of the
central issues in the PAQ i teLts but in order to distin-uish the
+ord for <self= fro) the +ord attha :<*ur*ose= <)eanin-=; one
)ust ta&e care to *ronounce the as*irated <t= follo+ed b% the
short <a= in the latter ter) and not in the for)er.
W Please see the discussion on *.10.
1; A STRON? ROOTS
-ttha is distin-uished a-ain fro) the nu)ber a)) ha :<ei-ht=;.
(he dots belo+ consonants such as <Q= <Z= and <?= )ar& the) as
retrofleLed. Pronouncin- these Hust as one +ould <l= <t= or <n=
+ithout the retrofleL +ill -i'e a -eneral a**roLi)ation but to
'ocaliIe the actual Indic consonant one first bends the ton-ue
o'er bac&+ards until the underside of the ti* of the ton-ue is
touchin- the roof of the )outh and then one 'ocaliIes the
consonant as in En-lish. (hese *articular differences in
*ronunciation are not distin-uished in En-lish and +ould not
affect the )eanin- of an En-lish +ord. (he -enerous use of such
retrofleLed <t=s and <d=s is a *articularl% char)in- as*ect of Indian
En-lish. A little selfPobser'ation can illu)inate )an% such
interestin- as*ects of lan-ua-e usa-e in one=s o+n *articular
ti)e and *lace and inti)ate the di'ersit% *ossible in hu)an
lan-ua-e.
(hou-h )ost of the PAQ i (i*iZa&a +as translated and
*ublished b% the Pali (eLt Societ% in the late nineteenth and earl%
t+entieth centuries the lan-ua-e of those renditions can often
see) stilted and outdated to )odern A)ericans. (he distinct
differences bet+een translations of a centur% a-o and those
*roduced )ore recentl% illustrate ho+ the abilit% of an%
inter*retation to co))unicate is de*endent on a *articular
historical conteLt. Da)entin- the de-radation of )odern
lan-ua-e Eeor-e Steiner +rites that 4+here the )odern scholar
cites fro) a classic teLt the Kuotation see)s to burn a hole in his
o+n drab *a-e.6
N
(o *resent citations fro) the PAQ i in a )anner
that +ill resonate +ith )% o+n audience to allo+ the Buddha to
burn holes in )% *a-es I ha'e relied on the +or& of )ore recent
inter*reters. In *articular the translations and co))entaries of
t+o A)erican )on&s Bhi&&hu Bodhi and (hanissaro Bhi&&hu
trained in Sri DaT&a and in (hailand res*ecti'el% are )ost
careful co-ent and faithful to the PAQ i. (his bein- an
eLa)ination of the *rocess of inter*retation in the footnotes I
N Steiner .NW$, .1N.
Intro-+'t$on A 11
discuss so)e differences bet+een 'arious scholars= En-lish
renditions of discourses cited fro) the PAQi.
Fo'+se- In>+$r.
In anal%Iin- the trans)ission of these teachin-s I tr% to
e)ulate the )ethodolo-% of the tradition itself. Since +e hu)an
bein-s each li'e in our o+n +orld of eL*erience since none of us
has an i)*artial co)*lete 'ie+ inKuir% is often a )ore s&illful
a**roach than assertion. (hat is +h% each )aHor unit be-ins +ith
three Kuestions a heuristic de'ice intended to ins*ire and to
orient the reader=s eLa)ination of the issues to be *resented.
(eachin- b% ins*irin- eL*loration rather than dictatin-
do-)a is an a**roach re*eatedl% e)*lo%ed b% the Buddha in the
discourses of the PAQi. (his a**roach of inKuir% is balanced b% a
ri-orous focus on one issue, sufferin- and the end of sufferin-.
(hou-h co)*osed thousands of %ears a-o in a 'er% different
cultural conteLt teLts such as the 4Discourse on the S[sa*A
Dea'es6 resonate still +ith )an% )odern A)ericans because the%
*resent stri&in- )eta*hors and radical ideas in a consistent and
coherent fra)e+or& ai)ed at a sin-ular -oal.
2ne ti)e the Blessed 2ne +as sta%inin a s.sap -ro'e in
Kosa)bi. (hen -ras*in- a fe+ s.sap lea'es in his hand the
Blessed 2ne addressed the bhi&&hus. 4Jhat do %ou thin&
bhi&&hus +hich are )ore nu)erous, these fe+ s.sap lea'es
-ras*ed in )% hand or those o'erhead in the s.sap -ro'eU6
4S)all in nu)ber Venerable Sir are the fe+ lea'es -ras*ed in
the Blessed 2neRs hand so those o'erhead in the s.sap -ro'e are
)ore nu)erous indeed.6
4Just so bhi&&hus a)on- the thin-s I ha'e directl% &no+n )ore
nu)erous indeed are the ones I ha'e not sho+n to %ou. And +h%
bhi&&hus are these thin-s not sho+n b% )eU (he% are not
connected +ith the -oal> the% are not rele'ant to the basic
s*iritual life> the% do not lead to disenchant)ent to dis*assion
10 A STRON? ROOTS
to cessation to *eace to direct &no+in- to enli-hten)ent to
NibbAna. (hat is +h% I ha'e not sho+n the).
And +hat bhi&&hus ha'e I sho+nU I ha'e sho+n, <(his is
sufferin-=> I ha'e sho+n, <(his is the ori-in of sufferin-=> I ha'e
sho+n <(his is the cessation of sufferin-=> I ha'e sho+n, <(his is
the +a% of *ractice leadin- to the cessation of sufferin-.= And
+h% bhi&&hus are these thin-s sho+n b% )eU (he% are
connected +ith the -oal> the% are rele'ant to the basic s*iritual
life> the% do lead to disenchant)ent to dis*assion to cessation
to *eace to direct &no+in- to enli-hten)ent to NibbAna. (hat
is +h% I ha'e sho+n the).6
.#
.# S[sa*A Sutta :S.DVI.0.;XV$0OY author=s trans. In his translation of this and
other discourses (hanissaro Bhi&&hu uses a -loss of 4stress6 for du''ha
+hich does not con'e% \ to )e at least \ )an% of the ori-inal=s
connotations includin- the a-on% and an-uish of death loss of lo'ed ones
etc. (herefore I ha'e follo+ed Bhi&&hu Bodhi in usin- the broader and
)ore standard translation 4sufferin-.6 Indeed throu-hout the discourse I
ha'e sou-ht e)ulate the accessible st%le of BodhiRs translation. 2n the
other hand Bodhi=s -loss for nibbid 4re'ulsion6 connotes stron- a'ersion
and thus see)s at least *otentiall% confusin- if not o'erstated so in this
case I ha'e follo+ed (hanissaro +ith 4disenchant)ent.6
PART ONE
East Eate of the Sa8c[ Stu*a Madh%a Pradesh India
:Co'er i)a-e third *anel fro) botto) on left *illar;.
Dee& Trans*$ss$on an- of W%at"
Jhat has arri'ed here +ith centers and teachers and
*ractitioners of )indfulness )editationU Ho+ ha'e the Buddha=s
teachin-s and the *rocess of their trans)ission been understood
historicall%U Jhat )a&es a *articular inter*retation fro) one
lan-ua-e to another or fro) one *erson to another authenticU
I
Def$n$ng t%e To&$'
t%e &ro'ess of trans*$ss$on a'ross %+*an 'onte,ts
In order to eLa)ine this trans)ission fro) Bur)a to Barre it
)i-ht hel* to s*ecif% +hat eLactl% is bein- trans)itted. Is it
Buddhis)U Man% Bur)ese thin& of Buddhis) as recitation of
teLts and elaborate ordination cere)onies and )a&in- offerin-s
to )on&s. (hese are not central or e'en co))on acti'ities at
IMS. So)e Jesterners e'en ar-ue for a Buddhis) +ithout beliefs
or rituals. (here are )an% definitions of <Buddhis)=> +hose is the
ri-ht oneU
Gather than *ri'ile-e an A)erican idea of Buddhis) o'er a
Bur)ese one or the Bur)ese o'er a (ibetan idea I su--est
settin- this un+ield% conce*t <Buddhis)= aside +hen +e +ant to
)a&e *recise state)ents about doctrine or *ractice. Instead I
offer belo+ +or&in- definitions of three )ore s*ecific and )ore
a**ro*riate cate-ories +ith +hich to eLa)ine the trans)ission
fro) Bur)a to Barre. Jithin the MahAsi tradition I describe :.;
the *ractice :"; the *rocess b% +hich social conteLt defines this
*ractice and :0; the continuit% of trans)ission of the *ractice
across historical conteLts.
If al)ost e'er%one alread% uses the ter) <Buddhis)= thou-h
+h% should +e set it asideU Mainl% because so )an% *eo*le use
the ter) to refer to so )an% different thin-s that in effect
<Buddhis)= does not )ean an%thin- in *articular. It is i)*ossible
19 A STRON? ROOTS
to -i'e a *recise definition +ithout ne-atin- so)ebod%=s idea of
<Buddhis)= because there is no one ter) or idea or acti'it%
co))on to e'er% for) that -ets called b% that na)e. As the
astute scholar of reli-ion Jilfred Cant+ell S)ith *oints out
conce*ts of <reli-ions= such as <Christianit%= and so on are
4i)*recise and liable to distort +hat the% are as&ed to
re*resent.6
.
Bur)ese /at S*irit Shrine
"
(he )odern conce*t of <Buddhis)= *erha*s )ainl% )isleads
us. (his cate-or% as +e &no+ it arose in Euro*e and onl% in the
nineteenth centur%. Accordin- to 7redic Denior 4the ter)3 is
sheer in'ention on the *art of the first Euro*ean orientalists.6
0

Pre'ious to Euro*ean scholarl% research of Asia Bur)ese and
Ja*anese did not thin& of the)sel'es as sharin- a co))on
<Buddhist= faith an% )ore than ancient Indians and ancient
Eree&s thou-ht of the)sel'es as sharin- a co))on <IndoP
Euro*ean= culture. Ironicall% so)e of the scholars )ost
res*onsible for *o*ulariIin- the stud% of <Buddhis)= stated
cate-oricall% that 4the earl% Buddhists had no such ideas as +e
co'er +ith the +ords Buddhist and Indian.6
$
. S)ith .NOW, ."1.
" Photo used +ith the -enerous *er)ission of (o) Giddle.
0 ]ccordin- to Denior .NNN, .WO 4(he +ord <Buddhis)= a**eared fro) the
.W"#s on+ards and +ith it the first conce*tualiIation of a tree +ith )an%
branchin-s.6 He continues in the endnote 4A)on- the 'er% first
occurrences note the +or& of the 7rench)an MichelPJeanP7rancois 2Iera%
Gecherches sur Buddou ou Bouddou instituteur reli-ieuL de lRAsie
orientale. :Paris, BrunotPDabbe; +ho cites the +ord <Buddhis)= in .W.O. (he
ter) +hich is not found in Asia is sheer in'ention on the *art of the first
Euro*ean orientalists. (he s*ellin- of the +ord 'aries considerabl% until the
.WS#s +hen <Buddhis)= :in En-lishPs*ea&in- areas; and bouddhis)e :in
7rance; +ere finall% established. As for the Asians the)sel'es the% s*ea& of
dhar)a :Sans&rit; or dha))a :Pali; to describe the teachin-s and the la+
of the Buddha.6
$ 4...-riya does not eLactl% )ean either. But it often co)es 'er% near to +hat
the% +ould ha'e considered the best in each6 Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4ari%a6
OO.
Def$n$ng t%e To&$' A 1:
Bur)a assi)ilated a -reat )an% cultural for)s fro) India
alon- +ith *ractices descended fro) the Buddha all of +hich
blended to 'arious de-rees +ith nati'e beliefs. B% suffiLin- the
+ord used in the PAQi for <lan-ua-e= or <dialect= bhs to
<Buddha= <Christ= and <Musli)= the British colonial -o'ern)ent
of Bur)a +as able to desi-nate a citiIen=s <reli-ion=. Nonetheless
Bur)ese +ho identif% the)sel'es as <Buddhist= see no
contradiction in )a&in- offerin-s to nature s*irits as +ell as to
Buddhist )on&s> on i)*ortant occasions the% do both and use
the sa)e honorific 'erb to describe the action.
1
At least until
recentl% the Chinese did not ha'e ter)s eKui'alent to
<Confucian= <(aoist= or <Buddhist= *recisel% because 4closed
co))unities3 *arties +ith clearPcut boundaries and an either0#r
sense of adherents and outsiders6 had not de'elo*ed there.
S

Gal*h Jaldo E)erson introduced a nu)ber of ideas descended
fro) the Buddha +ithout his A)erican readers sus*ectin- the)
to be <Buddhist=. Peo*le in Ja*an and in Af-hanistan in Indonesia
and in the A)ericas ha'e inherited )an% such teachin-s alon-
+ith other i)*orts and nati'e inno'ations often +ithout
distin-uishin- historical ori-ins. A conce*t li&e <Buddhis)= +ould
ha'e been forei-n to the 'ast )aHorit% of these *eo*le not least
because there +as no discernable entit% in their +orld
corres*ondin- to it. As Cant+ell S)ith *uts it the% 4si)*l% did
not thin& in such ter)s.6
O
1 S*ecificall% <~= :hlu; an honorific for) of <-i'e= used onl% in relation to
eLalted reci*ients. Bur)ese +ords are transliterated throu-hout accordin-
S S)ith .NOW, SW. Cant+ell S)ith=s is a co)*rehensi'e critiKue of the *rocess
O S)ith .NOW, S#. A**l%in- Cant+ell S)ith=s obser'ations to the case of the
Sinhala (hera'Ada Carter .NOO, "WS +rites 4(hose of us +ho )a&e it our
business to stud% the (hera'Ada tradition +hich of course assu)es the
stud% of (hera'Ada Buddhists should atte)*t to see the +orld as
(hera'Ada Buddhits ha'e and are 'ie+in- it. (his )eans that +e beco)e
a+are that (hera'Ada Buddhists ha'e onl% rather recentl% seen <Buddhis)=
or loo&ed for <Earl% Buddhis)=.6
0; A STRON? ROOTS
(he +a% +e understand the +orld can transfor) it. In 1ulture
and Imperialism the lu)inar% literar% critic Ed+ard Said
de)onstrates ho+ Euro*ean and A)erican cultural narrati'es
not onl% inter*reted but in a +a% *roduced the rest of the +orld
as +e &no+ it. (his is e'ident in the +a% Euro*eans stud%in- and
coloniIin- the 2rient colluded +ith nati'e interests to *roHect
conce*tuall% and then *oliticall% di'isions bet+een <Buddhis)=
and <Hinduis)= onto the di'erse reli-ious )ilieu of the Indian
subcontinent. Colonial -o'ern)ents found that e)*hasiIin- this
di'ision enabled <di'ide and conKuer= )ethods of control.
Ad)inistrati'e *olicies based on the conce*tual distinction
bet+een <Hindus= and <Buddhists= at least eLacerbated if not
created )uch of the <ethnic= tension that has resulted in such
tra-edies as the Sri DaT&an ci'il +ar.
7or )odern A)ericans <Buddhis)= is connected +ith 'arious
ideas ideals and i)a-es. (he ter) thus has )eanin- for these
indi'iduals ho+e'er 'a-ue and di'erse their definitions )a% be.
Ho+e'er Bur)ese <Buddhist= astrolo-% has 'er% little in co))on
+ith )editation at IMS. Gichard Eo)brich re*orts on one
conference at +hich a *anel of British historians tried to discern
features shared b% all the 'arious for)s of Buddhis). 4(he%
In his co))ents on a draft of Str#ng +##ts Januar% "##0 Khe)adi*a Bhi&&hu
*ointed out that althou-h 4<Buddhis)= )a% be a )odern +ord since earl%
ti)es <Buddhists= +ere seen as a *articular sect e'en if couched in looser
ter)s such as <follo+ers of the ascetic Eota)a=. In )edie'al India :or +hat
is *resentl% &no+n as <India=; the% +ere referred to as Bauddha as distinct
fro) Jaina and other established sects. (he *rohibition of )e)bers of a
<sect= fro) en-a-inin traditional fol& *ractices :such as nat +orshi*; and
su**ortin- the reli-iouL fro) other sects see)s to be a thin- of JudeoP
ChristianPIsla). As in )odern Ne*al the lines bet+een sects in historical
India *robabl% +eren=t so clearl% dra+n althou-h the distinctions +ere
there.6 In &ee*in- +ith the *rinci*les of understandin- the Dhamma on its
o+n ter)s +e can refer to follo+ers of *articular teachin-s in ancient
India or )odern North A)erica +ithout e)*lo%in- the Jestern idea of
eLclusi'e reli-ious identit% i)*lied b% the ter) <Buddhist= or i)*osin- the
co))onalit% i)*lied b% the ter) <Buddhis)= on e'er%thin- that falls under
that headin-.
Def$n$ng t%e To&$' A 01
failed to find an%36
W
No descri*tion is true of e'er%thin- that
e'er%bod% calls Buddhis). (herefore +e should be 'er% cautious
about )a&in- state)ents such as <Buddhis) is an eL*eriential
tradition=. If +e assu)e our o+n *articular definition of
Buddhis) in order to )a&e such a state)ent +e i)*licitl%
dis)iss as notPBuddhist so)e thin-s that other *eo*le ta&e to be
*art of their Buddhist *ractice. 2ften *eo*le find such dis)issals
of their faith offensi'e to sa% the least. Al)ost an% state)ent
about Buddhis) in -eneral is bound to be either *artiall%
inaccurate or i)*licitl% *eHorati'e or both.
Most such difficulties can be a'oided si)*l% b% bein- )ore
s*ecific. (he *ro*er ans+er to a Kuestion li&e <Jhat is the
Buddhist understandin- of selfU= is <In +hich traditionU= or )ore
*recisel% <In +hich teLtU As defined b% +ho)U=. Je can describe
for instance the anal%sis of self -i'en +ithin a *articular
coherent tradition such as the (hera'Ada or the (ibetan
MAdh%a)i&a. 2f course to -i'e a -eneral audience a clue as to
the subHect +e )i-ht ha'e to refer to <(hera'Ada Buddhis)= or to
the <Buddhist PAQ i teLts=. Nonetheless +ith this a**roach +e
+ould not ha'e to de*end on the ter) <Buddhis)= to add an%
*recise )eanin- to the sentence +hich is -ood because it reall%
does not.
If the conce*t <Buddhis)= is neither nati'e to the traditions it
re*resents nor a**ro*riate to describe )an% of their historical
for)s +hat alternati'es are a'ailableU En-lish s*ea&in-
*ractitioners often refer to the teachin- and *ractice of Dharma a
ter) that carries )an% )eanin-s includin- <truth= and
<ri-hteousness= and hence the <doctrine= of such. Jon KabatPFinn
W Eo)brich .NNS, S notes that -rou* 4reached the rather des*airin-
conclusion that Buddhis) +as therefore not a useful conce*t at all6
thou-h Eo)brich hi)self thin&s this 4to -o too far.6 Eo)brich outlines and
tries to de)onstrate an a**roach based on the lo-ic of de*endendent coP
ori-ination, reco-niIin- the -enetic relation bet+een 'arious traditions
descended fro) the Buddha=s teachin-s +ithout tr%in- to find an essence
co))on to all )odern for)s.
00 A STRON? ROOTS
la%s out his a**roach 4(o+ard the Mainstrea)in- of A)erican
Dhar)a Practice6
Althou-h I teach Buddhist )editation it=s not +ith the ai) of
*eo*le beco)in- Buddhist. It=s +ith the ai) of the) realiIin-
that the%=re buddhas. (here=s a hu-e distinction and so I *refer
to thin& in ter)s of Dhar)a as o**osed to ter)s of Buddhis) *er
se because it -enerates a lot of confusion.
N
So)e of us use the ter) dhamma to be consistent +ith the
(hera'Adin PAQi rather than its Sans&rit co-nate dh2ma
:corru*ted in A)erican *ronunciation as <dhAr)a=;. In either
case usin- this ter) alone e)*hasiIes the *hiloso*hical
*s%cholo-ical as*ect +hile discountin- an as*ect )an%
A)ericans )a% be less co)fortable +ith, in the PAQi discourses
the Buddha freKuentl% refers to indi'iduals= a**lication of
Dhamma-&inaya the Doctrine and Disci*line he teaches in their
o+n li'es.
.#
<Dhamma-&inaya= is the first of three conce*ts nati'e
to the (hera'Ada that I su--est are crucial to an authentic
understandin- of the tradition. (he ter) <Buddhist *ractice=
)i-ht include )an% different hu)an actions and interactions.
7ollo+in- the PAQi +e can use the conce*t of Dhamma-&inaya to
refer s*ecificall% to the restraint of a *erson=s uns&illful )ental
and *h%sical acti'it% and the culti'ation of s&illful )ental and
*h%sical acti'it% for the *ur*ose of de'elo*in- insi-ht and thus
-ainin- total liberation fro) sufferin-. (his is the *ractice.
Tra-$t$ons De&en-entl. Co/Ar$s$ng
Another Kuestion re)ains ho+e'er one that is *erha*s )ore
challen-in-, if the *ractice is a hu)an acti'it% defined b%
lan-ua-e and co))unit% can it be )o'ed fro) one culture to
another and still be the sa)e thin-U
N KabatPFinn .NNW, $ON.
.# (hanissaro .NN$, Introduction. E.-. Bd.V.1 fo r +hich *lease see *.0".
7ro) the accounts of the PAQ i it see)s that the Buddha
*resented an understandin- of realit% +hich asserted that thin-s
eList or not de*endent entirel% on their conteLt. 7or eLa)*le
an un*leasant thou-ht or sound )i-ht arise. If +e for-et to be
a+are and *resent +ith the sensation an-r% thou-hts about it
can *roliferate brin-in- +ith the) further un*leasant effects.
Jhen )indfulness is stron- on the other hand a screechin-
noise and the hearin- of it can Hust arise and chan-e and *ass
a+a% +ithout an% identification +ith the *rocess +ithout an%one
to +ant the sound -one. (hus +e are s*ared the stressful c%cle of
a'ersion to the eL*erience and )ental *roliferation about it.
(here is the case +here a disci*le of the noble ones notices,
Jhen this is that is. 7ro) the arisin- of this co)es the arisin- of
that. Jhen this isnRt that isnRt. 7ro) the cessation of this co)es
the cessation of that.
..

(his doctrine of de*endent coParisin- pa)i%%a-samuppda is
*resented in the PAQ i as a )iddle +a% majjhima-pa)ipad bet+een
the *hiloso*hical eLtre)es of absolutis) and nihilis).
."
(he
Buddha a**lies this teachin- solel% as a 4strate-% for <)ental
culture=6 deconstructin- the )ost basic hu)an conce*t that of
selfPidentit%.
.0
Nonetheless the *rinci*le that e'er% *heno)enon
arises to-ether +ith and de*endent on related *heno)ena can be
easil% and *rofitabl% eLtended to describe social )o'e)ents and
cultural for)s as +ell. Perha*s then +e )a% be *er)itted to use
the lo-ic of de*endent coParisin- to +ard off both absolutis) and
nihilis) in social science b% understandin- reli-ious traditions to
be defined b% historical conteLt. 7ro) this *ers*ecti'e the
Buddha=s teachin- itself +ould den% the inherent inde*endent
eListence of an%thin- such as <Buddhis)= or <Dhamma-&inaya= that
could be isolated fro) one conteLt and inserted into or recreated
under entirel% ne+ conditions.
.. Bha%a :Vera; Sutta :A.^.N";XV.W"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
." E.-. KaccAna-otta Sutta :S.ÎI..1;XII.OY.
.0 Collins .NN#b, ....
05 A STRON? ROOTS
De*endent coParisin- contradicts the eListence of an%
se*arate or *er)anent as*ect of eL*erience that could be called
the self but also eL*lains the a**arent continuit% of a
*ersonalit%. In one (hera'Adin teLt recountin- a 'er% earl%
renderin- of the Buddha=s teachin-s for a Euro*ean the elder
)on& NA-asena eL*lains to the Eree& &in- Menander ho+ it can
be that <he +ho is reborn is neither the sa)e nor different fro)
the one +ho died=. Illustratin- ho+ there can be continuit%
+ithout an% *er)anent soul the )on&=s re*l% includes an
eloKuent analo-% bet+een the continuit% of a strea) of
consciousness and the trans)ission of a teachin- across hu)an
conteLts.
4(here is no trans)i-ration _to future li'es` but there is a
connection bac&+ardsU ...Ho+ Venerable NA-asenaU Ma&e an
analo-%.6
4If a )an +ere to li-ht one oilPla)* fro) another -reat &in-
+ould the the li-ht ha'e trans)i-rated fro) the first la)*U
..._2r` %ou &no+ ho+ ho+ a child )i-ht learn a certain 'erse fro)
a *oetr% teacherU ...Jould the 'erse ha'e trans)i-rated fro) the
teacherU6
.$

Else+here the Venerable NA-asena -i'es another analo-%,
(he )an-oes that a far)er har'ests are not the sa)e *ieces of
fruit that he *lanted. Nonetheless there is an undeniable
relationshi* of cause and effect, e'en +ith all the reKuisite sun
soil and +ater +ithout the -enetic instructions fro) a seed no
fruit +ould result. Pheno)ena arise because of *ast and *resent
conditions> *resent occurrences *lant seeds for the future.
A**l%in- this *ers*ecti'e to the social real) +e can see a
tradition of *ractice as reborn +ith each ne+ set of conditions
but +e can also trace the -enetic continuit% bet+een for)s of the
*ractice in different conteLts.
I ha'e -i'en a +or&in- definition for the *ractice of Dhamma-
&inaya abo'e and outlined its i)*ortance for understandin- the
trans)ission of the MahAsi tradition of )indfulness )editation
.$ Miln.V.1XO.Y author=s trans.
Def$n$ng t%e To&$' A 0#
to the Bnited States. (he *hiloso*hical a**roach to *heno)ena
as de*endentl% coParisin- pa)i%%a-samuppda is the second
conce*t nati'e to the PAQ i that I su--est as a crucial tool for
understandin- this trans)ission. 7ro) the lo-ic of de*endent coP
arisin- it follo+s that an% tradition de'elo*s in relation to *ast
and *resent *hiloso*hical assu)*tions social interactions and
biolo-ical s%ste)s. At the )ost basic le'el *articular s*o&en
sounds or )ar&s on a *a-e are si-nificant \ the% si-nif% \ onl% to
*eo*le +ho ha'e de'elo*ed connections bet+een certain sti)uli
and certain ideas throu-h a lifeti)e of socialiIation. (his is +h%
translation is necessar% for those +ho ha'e not been educated in
the lan-ua-e of a *articular teLt but e'en s*ea&ers of the sa)e
lan-ua-e can read a teLt differentl%. In his treatise on lan-ua-e
and inter*retation -3ter Babel Eeor-e Steiner obser'es that the
)eanin- of an% *articular instance of a +ord is 4deter)ined b%
the conHunction of t%*o-ra*hical *honetic -ra))atical facts
+ith the se)antic +hole.6
.1
Just as a +ord ta&es on )eanin-
+ithin a *articular -ra))atical structure conce*ts and *ractices
ta&e on )eanin- +ithin a *articular social structure. (eLts oral
or +ritten ha'e )eanin- onl% in conteLt.
.1 Steiner .NNW, 0N$.
01 A STRON? ROOTS
Tea'%$ng In Conte,t
In the broadest sense si-nificance is con'e%ed b% the built
en'iron)ent as +ell as b% the hu)an b% silence as +ell as b%
s*eech. Dan-ua-e Steiner *oints out is co)*osed in lar-e *art of
4+hat is n#t said in the sa%in- +hat is said onl% *artiall%
allusi'el% or +ith intent to screen.6
.S
(he Buddha is re*orted to
ha'e ans+ered +ith silence a nu)ber of )eta*h%sical inKuiries
that he did not consider )eanin-ful or beneficial for instance.
.O

4Eenius econo)iIes fro) its outset6 +rites Steiner echoin- the
Buddha=s descri*tion of s&illful co))unication in the 4Discourse
on Jhat is Heard.6
.W
I do not sa% brah)an that e'er%thin- that has been seen should
be s*o&en about. Nor do I sa% that e'er%thin- that has been seen
should not be s*o&en about. I do not sa% that e'er%thin- that has
been heard... e'er%thin- that has been sensed... e'er%thin- that
has been co-niIed should be s*o&en about. Nor do I sa% that
e'er%thin- that has been co-niIed should not be s*o&en about.
Jhen for one +ho s*ea&s of +hat has been seen3 heard3
sensed3 co-niIed uns&illful )ental Kualities increase and
s&illful )ental Kualities decrease then that sort of thin- should
not be s*o&en about. But +hen for one +ho s*ea&s of +hat has
been seen3 heard3 sensed3 co-niIed uns&illful )ental Kualities
decrease and s&illful )ental Kualities increase then that sort of
thin- should be s*o&en about.
.N

(eachers of )indfulness )editation do not si)*l% *our out
the entire contents of the PAQ i. Care )ust be ta&en to *resent the
*articular as*ects of *s%choP*h%sical restraint and de'elo*)ent
a**ro*riate to the conteLt those teachin-s that +ill lead to the
increase of s&illful Kualities and decrease of uns&illful ones -i'en
a *articular *erson=s 'alues and sensiti'ities. In the PAQi
discourses the Buddha does not *resent a sin-le fiLed for)ula>
.S Steiner .NNW, "$#. (he italics are Steiner=s.
.O See for instance the discussion of the ananda Sutta *.0N.
.W Steiner .NW$, .S.
.N Suta Sutta :A.IV..W0;XII.O"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
Def$n$ng t%e To&$' A 0)
rather his teachin-s 'ar% in res*onse to the audience. 7or so)e
the Buddha concentrates on *ractices of -enerosit% and )oralit%>
for those alread% acco)*lished in these areas he *roceeds
directl% to intensi'e )indfulness *ractice. He uses culti'ation
)eta*hors to reach far)ers and lo-ical ar-u)ent to con'ince
*hiloso*hers. 2ne co))entar% tells the stor% of a %oun- +o)an
+ho brin-s the cor*se of her dead son to the Buddha *leadin-
for a cure. 4(he )aster seein- her situation6 tells the distrau-ht
)other to find hi) a )ustard seed fro) a household that 4has
ne'er before eL*erienced an% death.6 Jhat the %oun- lad% finds
of course is that e'er% fa)il% has eL*erienced death that
i)*er)anence is uni'ersal thus she <a+a&ens to truth=.
"#
Such
in'enti'e \ and a**arentl% successful \ instructions de)onstrate
a sin-ular sensiti'it% to students= 'ar%inco)*etencies and
*otentials. No ri-id for)ulation could be an authentic rendition
of such insi-htful teachin-.
(o be effecti'e in different conteLts *resentations of a
teachin- )ust 'ar%. Dan-ua-e for one 'aries -reatl% a)on-
hu)an bein-s toda% and has been used in Kuite di'erse +a%s
o'er the course of histor%. E'en as -lobaliIation increases
hu)an&ind=s lin-uistic and cultural ho)o-eneit% the -a*
bet+een -enerations +idens. Electronic technolo-% alone has
transfor)ed the +a% hu)an bein-s co))unicate )ore
drasticall% in the last centur% than in the *re'ious fi'e since the
in'ention of the *rintin- *ress. I)a-ine the chan-es in ho+
*rinted )aterial is <read= since St. Au-ustine=s obser'ation that
4his teacher +as the first )an he &ne+ ca*able of readin-
+ithout )o'in- his li*s.6
".

E'en at one ti)e *articular ter)s can be used in 'arious
senses 4fro) nuance to antithesis.6 Steiner notes ho+ co)*etin-
"# <S&inn% Eota)i= -oes on to beco)e a nun and before lon- to attain full
a+a&enin-> she is credited +ith a nu)ber of 'erses in the PAQi (i*iZa&a. Her
stor% is detailed in the (her[-AthAPaZZa&athA :.#..; translated b% 2lendI&i
"##", $#P..
". Steiner .NOW, ".
09 A STRON? ROOTS
ideolo-ies often use the sa)e +ord in o**osite +a%s *ointin- to
the 4fiercel% dis*arate )eanin-s6 of conce*ts such as 4*o*ular
+ill6 and 4freedo)6 in the res*ecti'e Cold Jar era leLicons of
the B.S.S.G. and the Bnited States.
""
Such connotations also affect
*eo*le=s inter*retations of the PAQi ter) vimutti as <liberation=
<freedo)= or <release=. Di&e+ise there are si-nificant \ and
*otentiall% confusin- \ differences bet+een the ei-hteenth
centur% Euro*ean ideal of rational <Enli-hten)ent= and the -oal
of b#dhi *resented in the discourses attributed to the Buddha. (he
ter) b#dhi is used )eta*horicall% in the PAQi to refer to
de'elo*)ent of the +isdo) that ends sufferin- but its root
)eanin- is one of <a+a&enin-= fro) slee* or fro) a drea).
"0

"" Steiner .NNW, 0$P01.
"0 (he ter) b#dhi offers an instructi'e dile))a in PAQi translation. (he root
)eanin- of the ter) is <a+a&enin-= as fro) slee* or a drea). Moreo'er
the *o*ular -loss of b#dhi as <enli-hten)ent= see)s liable to confuse the
-oal of )indfulness *ractice +ith the rational &ind of &no+led-e *ri'ile-ed
in the Euro*ean Enli-hten)ent. (hus I ar-ued in a *re'ious draft of Str#ng
+##ts that (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s 4to selfPa+a&enin-6 for samb#dhya is )ore
a co)*lete and accurate literal translation of the )eta*hor than Bhi&&hu
Bodhi=s 4to enli-hten)ent.6 In a *ersonal aco))unication re'ie+in- that
draft Januar% "##0 Bhi&&hu Bodhi offered a incisi'e critiKue 4I +ould
contend to the contrar% that <enli-hten)ent= is a )ore satisfactor%
renderin- than <a+a&enin-= for t+o reasons, :.; Althou-h for)s based on
the root <budh= are used to )ean <to a+a&en= it is eLtre)el% rare for
un*refiLed for)s to be used in the sense of a+a&enin- fro) slee*. In fact
to )% &no+led-e in the Pali Canon there are onl% a fe+ rando) 'erses
usin- <budh= to )ean a+a&en and the% use the *refiLed for) pabbudh. In
)ost Indian *hiloso*hical literature <budh= ta&es on the )eanin- <to &no+
to understand= and in Buddhist doctrinal conteLts <b#dhi= and <samb#dhi=
etc. si-nif% a state of *rofound and co)*lete co)*rehension. (o )% )ind
<enli-hten)ent= con'e%s this )eanin- )uch )ore effecti'el% than
<a+a&enin-= +hich su--ests a first -li))er of understandin-...6 Indeed
readin- this anal%sis in Jul% "##0 Michele McDonald co))ented to )e that
one reason Jestern teachers use the ter) <a+a&enin-= is that it sounds to
students li&e a )ore achie'able -oal than <enli-hten)ent=. She li&e Bodhi
*refers <enli-hten)ent= for con'e%in- the full challen-e and achie'e)ent
of dis*ellin- the for)idable forces of -reed hatred and delusion.
Bodhi sees his second reason as 4*erha*s )ore co-ent. (hou-h the root <budh=
has of course no connection +ith the idea of li-ht +hen the teLts describe
the Buddha=s attain)ent of sa)bodhi )eta*horicall% the% consistentl% use
Def$n$ng t%e To&$' A 0:
Just as there is an ob'ious -a* to be brid-ed bet+een societies
re)o'ed b% thousands of )iles or hundreds of %ears bet+een
an% t+o indi'iduals= accu)ulated eL*eriences and leLicons there
is a di'ide. (he differences in accent and 'ocabular% bet+een the
Southeast and the Northeast of the Bnited States are +ell &no+n.
Dialect usa-e of conte)*orar% indi'iduals nati'e to the sa)e cit%
can still differ )ar&edl% across socioPecono)ic strata and ethnic
-rou*s as +ell. Deborah (annen has described si-nificant
differences bet+een the bod% lan-ua-e and s*eech habits of
)ales and fe)ales in the Bnited States as +ell as in other
cultures.
"$
Je can so)eti)es notice distinct differences bet+een
the +ord usa-e of a *reschooler a teena-er and a -rand)other
in the sa)e fa)il%. (he connections *eo*le )a&e +ith certain
+ords 'ar% +ith locale class a-e -ender and +ith the
*articulars of an% *ersonal histor%. (hus the trans)ission of the
*ractice be it throu-h an ancient )anuscri*t or throu-h
discussion +ith a conte)*orar% teacher al+a%s in'ol'es
i)a-es of li-ht not i)a-es of a+a&enin- fro) slee*. I can thin& of onl% a
fe+ stra% 'erses +here a +ord *la% is )ade bet+een pabuddha )eanin-
<a+a&ened= and the realiIation of truth. But the i)a-er% of li-ht is
ubiKuitous, 4%a''hum udapdi4 l#'# udapdi6 etc. etc. (he Buddha=s
function in relation to the +orld is not described as that of a+a&enin-
others fro) slee* but of sheddin- li-ht and dis*ellin- dar&ness. (he
Buddha is the li-htP)a&er the best of li-hts the li-ht that is al+a%s
shinin- etc. I-norance is co))onl% illustrated not b% slee* and drea)s
but b% dar&ness and -loo). a** the factor that cul)inates in samb#dhi is
also co)*ared to li-ht radiance lu)inosit% aura brilliance etc. (hus the
associated )eta*hors and i)a-er% su**ort <enli-hten)ent= o'er
<a+a&enin-= +hich )oreo'er su--ests that ordinar% eL*erience :or the
+orld itself; is a drea) rather than a condition of dar&ness.6 7ollo+in- the
)ethod of the PAQi *erha*s +e could use the ter) <a+a&enin-= to refer to
the -oal es*eciall% since translators need a transiti'e 'erb corres*ondin-
to abhisabujjhati :<a+a&en to=; %et use the )eta*hor of li-ht and
illu)nation to describe the attain)ent. As +ith an% inter*retation the
decision rests on a careful P thou-h ne'er co)*lete P understandin- of +hat
these ter)s connote in the ori-inal and the ne+ conteLt.
"$ E.-. (annen .NN$.
2; A STRON? ROOTS
)o'e)ent bet+een different hu)an conteLts. Steiner *uts it
+ell 4All co))unication <inter*rets= bet+een *ri'acies.6
"1

Peo*le use s%)bols to co))unicate bet+een indi'idual
*ri'acies as bet+een lan-ua-es b% acti'atin- a +eb of
associations.
"S
Since o'er the course of a lifeti)e each indi'idual
builds u* a sli-htl% different set of )e)ories connected +ith an%
*articular s%)bol translations are not uni'ersall% 'alid but
rather are )ost effecti'e for a *articular audience. (he further
fro) this tar-et conteLt the less adeKuate the translation. (his is
ob'ious at the eLtre)e translation into a forei-n ton-ue but an
inter*retation intended for a Je+ishPA)erican lad% +ith a Ph.D.
li&e+ise acti'ates different often unintended associations for a
%oun- AfricanPA)erican bo%. (he trans)ission of the *ractice
e'en bet+een t+o s*ea&ers of the sa)e social conteLt )ust
res*ond to their current eL*erience. 2n intensi'e )editation
retreat the *articular hindrances a *ractitioner is facin- and
thus the s*ecific instruction necessar% can chan-e ra*idl% and
dra)aticall%. (he selection of techniKues the *articular as*ects
of doctrine e)*hasiIed and those left uns*o&en are uniKue to
each teacherPstudent interaction.
(he si-nificance of a teLt then de*endentl% coParises +ith
the audience=s understandin- of it, associations are onl% acti'ated
+hen s%)bols are *resented s%)bols con'e% )eanin- onl% b%
acti'atin- associations. 7or the *ractice to be actualiIed *eo*le
)ust &no+ it +ell enou-h to )a&e it a *art of their o+n life.
Indi'iduals= understandin-s of the teachin-s and the teachin-s
the)sel'es are coPdefined. (hat is if there is no essence of the
*ractice inde*endent of ho+ *eo*le inter*ret it then +e can onl%
define Dhamma-&inaya in relation to hu)an +a%s of
understandin- +hich 'ar% bet+een indi'iduals as +ell as
bet+een different cultures and -enerations.
"1 Steiner .NNW, "#O.
"S Da&off and Johnson .NW#, .$#.
Co**on !+*an$t.
(he a**licabilit% of co))on *ractices across di'erse conteLts
su--ests ho+e'er that 'er% si)ilar +a%s of bein- and
understandin- are *resent e'en +here there are a**arentl% -reat
cultural differences. Co))on +a%s of understandin- +hat
Steiner calls 4the shared lo-ic of e)otions6 )a&e translation
*ossible.
"O
Peo*le in 'er% different cultures share )an% net+or&s
of associations. Much of the +a% +e *ercei'e thin-s is sha*ed b%
the *h%sical realit% of our bodies and hu)an bein-s differ little
in ter)s of our basic biolo-%. (he electroPche)ical *rocess b%
+hich a certain set of connections are acti'ated in the brains of
)odern A)ericans +as nearl% identical in the brains of ancient
Indians> +e can sur)ise as )uch because this *rocess differs
little in fact fro) the ner'ous s%ste) of an% ani)al. B% 'irtue of
ha'in- our onl% e%es on the front of our head hu)an bein-s ta&e
the *ath of the *erson ahead of the)> it is no accident that both
the En-lish <follo+= and its Bur)ese co-nate <~~ :lai; can be
used in relation to a <teachin-= as +ell as a <leader=. E'e S+eetser
de)onstrates one *attern co))on in hu)an lan-ua-e that of
4)eta*horical )a**in-6 fro) the *h%siolo-ical real) onto
*s%cholo-ical *heno)ena.
"W
(hus +e can <-ras*= a conce*t as +e
do an a**le <see= a *oint as +e do a cloud or <feel= bad Hust as +e
<feel= heat. IndoPEuro*ean +ords for <listen= often double for
<obe%= as does the Bur)ese <,..~= :na5 htaun;. Jhen the
Buddha asserts in the PAQi that 4this Doctrine and Disci*line has a
sin-le taste, that of release6 he does not )ean that %ou ha'e to
lic& it> that )uch is clear to )odern A)ericans Hust as it +as I
sus*ect to ancient Indians.
"N
(he co))onalities bet+een hu)an
bein-s allo+ us to co))unicate certain )eanin-s clearl% and
"O Eeor-e Steiner Kuoted +ithout s*ecific reference b% BirHe*atil "##., W.
"W S+eetser .NNW. S+eetser=s eLa)ination of the *attern of )eta*horical
)a**in- a)on- IndoPEuro*ean *erce*tion 'erbs underscores the fact that
references to <touchin-= <eL*eriencin-= or <realiIin-= the <-oal= of Dhamma-
&inaya are inherentl% )eta*horical rather than ontolo-ical descri*tions.
20 A STRON? ROOTS
*recisel% e'en across 'er% different cultural and historical
conteLts.
Just as t+o 'er% different +ords )a% ha'e al)ost *recisel%
the sa)e )eanin- -i'en their res*ecti'e conteLts the sa)e ter)
can )ean 'er% differentl% de*endin- on ho+ it is used.
Geco-niIin- that there is no absolute or correct definition of an%
+ord allo+s for a )ore accurate and less *artisan eLa)ination of
reli-ious lan-ua-e.
0#
Nathan KatI de)onstrates that the ter)s
<arahat= and <arahant= are effecti'el% -i'en different definitions in
the res*ecti'e (hera'Ada and MahA%Ana traditions> thus he
ar-ues that the dis*ute bet+een the t+o o'er the s*iritual status
of the arahat is a se)antic difference rather than a disa-ree)ent
o'er the 'alue of 'arious teachin-s or *ractices.
0.
(hese
traditions are not funda)entall% lo-ocentric> 4in Buddhis) there
ne'er +as a l#g#s tradition> fro) the be-innin- the +ord has been
sus*ect as are e-ocentric )odes of *ercei'in- the +orld.6
0"

Accordin- to the Jestern tradition defined b% the Hebre+s and
de'elo*ed b% the Eree&s on the other hand 4in the be-innin-
there +as the Jord.6 Modern A)erican ci'iliIation is
funda)entall% 'erbal and often +e ta&e this +a% of bein- for
-ranted Steiner *oints out. He +arns us not to for-et that
(here are )odes of intellectual and sensuous realit% founded not
on lan-ua-e but on other co))unicati'e ener-ies such as the
icon or the )usical note. And there are actions of the s*irit
rooted in silence. It is difficult to spea' of these for ho+ should
s*eech Hustl% con'e% the sha*e and 'italit% of silenceU
00

(he transcendence of lan-ua-e does eList in Jestern
ci'iliIation Steiner sa%s> it is dubbed <)%sticis)= but does not
"N B*osatha Sutta :Bd.V.1;XBd.1.Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu 4-ya6
dhammavinay# e'aras# vimuttiras#.6
0# Jith his deconstruction of +eligi#us 78perien%e, Proudfoot .NW1 re'eals the
inadeKuac% of lan-ua-e used to s*ecif% si)ilarities bet+een the eL*eriences
of *ractitioners in different traditions.
0. Please see the discussion on *.WO.
0" Peter Ere-or% 4Geflections6 as cited in Maraldo .NWS, "O.
00 Steiner .NW$, "W0.
threaten the *ri)ac% of the +ord in the traditions descended
fro) the Eree&s and Hebre+s. Si)ilarl% the Brah)anical
tradition de'elo*ed the idea that &no+led-e of so)ethin-=s na)e
\ es*eciall% in the deva bhs the di'ine lan-ua-e of Sans&rit \
-a'e one *o+er o'er the thin- itself. 7ro) this 'ie+ the tantri%
traditions de'elo*ed the use of mantra +ords that are *o+erful
)erel% b% their recitation. (he PAQ i discourses ho+e'er do not
su**ort the idea that +ords in an% lan-ua-e could ha'e inherent
*o+er.
0$
Steiner obser'es that in Buddhis) and (aois) a nonP
conce*tual t%*e of i))ediate understandin- is the 4hi-hest
*urest reach of the conte)*lati'e act.6
Jhere such understandin- is attained the truth need no lon-er
suffer the i)*urities and fra-)entation that s*eech necessaril%
entails. It need not confor) to the nai'e lo-ic and linear
conce*tion of ti)e i)*licit in s%ntaL3 It is the te)*oral
structure of lan-ua-e that &ee*s _*ast *resent and future`
artificiall% distinct. (hat is the crucial *oint.
01

(he PAQi teLts the)sel'es *oint out the li)ited utilit% of
+ords. (he first of the ei-ht conditions for the de'elo*)ent of
+isdo) is li'in- 4in a**renticeshi* to the (eacher _the Buddha`
0$ Collins .NN#b, .#1.
01 Steiner .NW$, "W0. I ha'e o)itted Steiner=s su--estion that in the conteLt of
these traditions 4in ulti)ate truth *ast *resent and future are
si)ultaneousl% co)*rised6 because it is not clear that this is true for the
(hera'Ada. Perha*s Steiner )eans so)ethin- si)ilar to cA?a*o?i&a .NNW,
.." +ho +rites that in the *resent )o)ent 4*arts of the *ast and future
are thou-h not real %et a%tual in the sense of actin- in the *resent.6
Co))entators such as Buddha-hosa for+arded the idea of an <ulti)ate
realit%= paramattha co)*rised of basic ele)ents arisin- to-ether in the
)o)entar% *resent 'ha(a-pa%%uppana. Bodhi "###, .0O follo+in- this
standard co))entarial anal%sis +rites that there can be co-niIance of 4an
obHect belon-in- to an% of the three *eriods of ti)e \ *ast *resent or
future \ or one that is inde*endent of ti)e :'lavimutta;. (his last
eL*ression refers to NibbAna and conce*ts. NibbAna is ti)eless because its
intrinsic nature :sabhva; is +ithout arisin- chan-e and *assin- a+a%>
conce*ts are ti)eless because the% are de'oid of inherent nature.6 7or the
classical (hera'Ada then ti)e is either di'ided or it is not *resent. 7or
)ore on the (hera'Adin understandin- of ulti)ate realit% *lease see the
discussion on *..W#.
25 A STRON? ROOTS
or to a res*ectable co)rade in the hol% life in +ho) _one` has
established a stron- sense of conscience fear of bla)e lo'e 5
res*ect.6
0S
(he second condition is as&in- such teachers
Kuestions at a**ro*riate ti)es.
(hose 'enerable ones then disclose to hi) +hat has not been
disclosed clear u* +hat is obscure and dis*el his *er*leLit%
about )an% *er*leLin- *oints. (his is the second cause and
condition for obtainin- the +isdo) funda)ental to the hol% life
+hen it has not been obtained and for brin-in- about the
increase )aturation and fulfill)ent b% de'elo*)ent of the
+isdo) that has alread% been obtained.
0O

Presentations of Dhamma-&inaya *ractice are effecti'e
*recisel% because of \ *erha*s onl% +ithin \ the on-oin- *rocess
of trans)ission fro) teacher to student and not as static and
literal definitions of truth. Effecti'e co))unication of the
teachin-s de*ends on stron- resonance bet+een co))on as*ects
of hu)anit%. (rans)ission can indeed ha**en across thousands
of %ears such as +hen a student reads a teLt fro) the PAQ i and
*uts its -uidance into *ractice but this de*ends on resonance
+ith the ancient author. At 'arious *oints in *ractice *articular
teLts can s*ea& to the 'er% issues bein- confronted but rarel% do
students *ossess the selfPconfidence and balance of )ind
necessar% to na'i-ate throu-h all the 'icissitudes of the *ractice
+ithout an% *ersonal -uidance.
Balance is critical for *ractice and nearl% i)*ossible to
)aintain in the face of the terrif%in- and seducti'e eL*eriences
that are *art of the *ath. (his is one *lace +here the stabiliIin-
*resence of a -uide can be in'aluable. (o be effecti'e a teacher
)ust ins*ire confidence +here it is lac&in- and selfPeL*loration
+here there is blind faith create the conditions for de'elo*in-
concentration +hen a**ro*riate and for de'elo*in- ener-% +hen
it is +ea&.
0S Pa88a Sutta :A.VIII.";XIV.1.Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
0O Pa88a Sutta :A.VIII.";XIV.1.Y trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi.
Def$n$ng t%e To&$' A 2#
At the be-innin- of *ractice a teacher ascertains the
eL*erience and 'arious stren-ths of the student to deter)ine the
)ost s&illful a**roach to+ards culti'atin- )indfulness and
concentration. (eacher and student co))unicate throu-h +ords
and other s%)bols +hich allo+ both *eo*le to )a&e the
connection to si)ilar hu)an eL*eriences. As )ore su*erficial
la%ers of conce*tual *roliferation are attenuated in the course of
intensi'e *ractice as one na'i-ates dee*er and dee*er le'els of
*s%cholo-ical conditionin- lin-uistic and cultural differences
beco)e less and less i)*ortant. At these *oints the crucial
Kualit% of teachers is the eL*erience the% ha'e in eL*lorin- the
de*ths of their o+n hu)anit%.
Durin- intensi'e *ractice students= bearin- and re*orts
indicate their current state. (eachers reflect on their o+n
eL*eriences and -uidance that hel*ed the) throu-h *articular
challen-es as the% i)*art techniKue and tr% to foster balance of
)ind. Students +ho a**l% this -uidance in their o+n *ractice
+ith coura-e and co))it)ent and dee*l% realiIe the benefit of
the teachin-s can offer 'aluable ad'ice to the neLt -eneration of
*ractitioners. A)erican students cherish the abilit% of Asian
)asters such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita to -i'e this &ind of
&no+led-eable -uidance throu-h le'els of eListence eLtre)el%
difficult to discern or to face full%. (his &ind of inter*retation
necessaril% e)*lo%s the 'ocabular% and fra)e+or& of one or
)ore cultural traditions but the rendition flo+s fro) the de*ths
of the teacher=s o+n bein-. Such is dee* trans)ission.
II
Inter&ret$ng !$stor.
s$n'e t%e 3+--%a
(he Buddha=s teachin-s for liberation fro) sufferin- +ere
radical in India t+ent%Pfi'e hundred %ears a-o as the% are in
t+ent%Pfirst centur% A)erica. 2ne discourse relates ho+ Hust
after his o+n a+a&enin- the Buddha reflected on the difficult% of
con'e%in- +hat he had found.
(his Dha))a that I ha'e attained is dee* hard to see hard to
realiIe *eaceful refined be%ond the sco*e of conHecture subtle
toPbePeL*erienced b% the +ise. But this -eneration deli-hts in
attach)ent is eLcited b% attach)ent enHo%s attach)ent. 7or a
-eneration deli-htin- in attach)ent eLcited b% attach)ent
enHo%in- attach)ent thisVthat conditionalit% and de*endent coP
arisin- are hard to see. (his state too is hard to see, the
resolution of all fabrications the relinKuish)ent of all
acKuisitions the endin- of cra'in-> dis*assion> cessation>
_/ibbna`. And if I +ere to teach the Dha))a and if others +ould
not understand )e that +ould be tireso)e for )e troubleso)e
for )e.
.

(his discourse de*icts the Buddha as -ra'el% concerned that
*eo*le be able to understand his *rofound teachin-s. If 4all
co))unication inter*rets bet+een <*ri'acies=6 the
her)eneutical enter*rise )ust ha'e been *art and *arcel of the
'er% first interactions bet+een the Buddha and his disci*les.
"

. a%Acana Sutta :S.VI..;XI.0SY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
" Steiner .NNW, "#O.
29 A STRON? ROOTS
4(he *oint of interest6 +rites Gichard Eo)brich 4is not Hust
+hat the Buddha said but +hat his hearers ha'e heard.6
0
(he
teLts that +ere trans)itted throu-h the (hera'Adin tradition
the PAQ i (i*iZa&a and its co))entaries eL*licitl% address +ord
usa-e and literal inter*retation. (he 4EL*osition of NonPConflict6
asserts that 4one should not insist on local lan-ua-e and one
should not o'erride nor)al usa-e6 but rather o*t for a )iddle
+a%.
$

3in different localities the% call the sa)e thin- a <dish= _pti` a
<bo+l= _patta` a <'essel= _vittha` a <saucer= _serva` a <*an=
_dhr#pa` a <*ot= _p#(a` or a basin _pis.la`. So +hate'er the% call it
in such and such a localit% +ithout adherin- _to that eL*ression`
one s*ea&s accordin-l% thin&in-, <(hese 'enerable ones its
see)s are s*ea&in- +ith reference to this.=
1

(hus a s*ea&er is to use +ords to si-nif% in their nati'e
conteLt +ithout 4fir)l% adherin-6 to a *articular dialect and
insistin- on a *articular *hrasin- or ter)inolo-% as uni'ersal
42nl% this is truth all else is foolishness.6
S
Steiner=s *oint that
<fidelit%= does not i)*l% literal facsi)ile is illustrated -ra*hicall%
in another discourse that co)*ares -ras*in- the letter rather
than the s*irit of the teachin-s to -ras*in- the +ron- end of a
sna&e.
O
0 Eo)brich .NN.b, "..
$ Ara?a'ibhan-a Sutta :M..0N;XIII"0#Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and
Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
1 Ara?a'ibhan-a Sutta :M..0N;XIII"0$Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and
Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
S Ara?a'ibhan-a Sutta :M..0N;XIII"01Y author=s trans.
O Ala-dd9*a)a Sutta :M."";XI.0#Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi. Eo)brich .NNS, ""P$ contends that AriZZha=s )ista&e consisted of
literalis). Indeed this a-rees +ith the conteLt of the si)ile> later in the
discourse +e read, 4so)e )is-uided )en learn the Dha))a \ discourses
stanIas eL*ositions 'erses eLcla)ations sa%in-s birth stories )ar'els
and ans+ers to Kuestions \ but ha'in- learned the Dha))a the% do not
eLa)ine the )eanin- of those teachin-s +ith +isdo)3 do not -ain
reflecti'e acce*tance of the). Instead the% learn the Dha))a onl% for the
sa&e of criticiIin- others and for +innin- in debates and the% do not
eL*erience the -ood for +hich the% learned the Dha))a. (hose teachin-s
bein- +ron-l% -ras*ed b% the) conduce to their har) and sufferin- for a
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 2:
So)eti)es it is best to sa% nothin- at all. In one discourse the
+anderer Vaccha-otta a**roaches the Buddha and as&s hi)
4Ho+ is it no+ Master Eota)a is there a selfU6
Jhen this +as said the Blessed 2ne +as silent.
4Ho+ is it no+ Master Eota)a is there no selfU6
A second ti)e the Blessed 2ne +as silent.
(hen Vaccha-otta the +anderer rose fro) his seat and de*arted.
W

After Vaccha-otta is -one the Buddha eL*lains to ananda
that assertin- a self +ould ha'e been inconsistent +ith the
a+a&ened &no+led-e that 4all *heno)ena are nonself.6 If on the
other hand the Buddha had denied the eListence of a self 4the
+anderer Vaccha-otta alread% confused +ould ha'e fallen into
e'en -reater confusion thin&in- <It see)s that the self I for)erl%
had does not eList no+=.6
N
(he Buddha=s s&illful a**roach to instruction is a**arent
throu-hout the PAQi. 7irst he ins*ires *eo*le to trust and *a%
attention to the teacher and the teachin-s. Secondl% he hel*s
students to -ras* the )eanin- throu-h his careful renditions on
their o+n ter)s. (his enables *eo*le to a**l% the teachin-s to
their o+n eL*erience the third ste*, -radual a+a&enin- to truth.
Based on their no+ fir) con'iction in the teachin-s *eo*le
naturall% continue to culti'ate this *ractice +hich cul)inates
finall% in a return to the ins*iration for the Buddha=s o+n
teachin- full a+a&enin-. (he -randfather of PAQi studies in
)odern acade)ia (.J. Gh%s Da'ids noted )ore than a centur%
a-o ho+ in the teLts the Buddha consistentl% e)*lo%s a
s%)*athetic her)eneutic in teachin-.
Eota)a *uts hi)self as far as *ossible in the )ental *osition of
the Kuestioner. He attac&s none of his cherished con'ictions. He
acce*ts as the startin-P*oint of his o+n eL*osition the
desirabilit% of the act or condition *riIed b% his o**onent \ of
the union +ith Eod :as in the 9evijja; or of sacrifice :as in the
lon- ti)e.6
W ananda Sutta :S.^DIV..#;XIV$##Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
N ananda Sutta :S.^DIV..#;XIV$##Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
5; A STRON? ROOTS
:!)adanta; or social ran& :as in the "ahli; or of the soul theor%
:as in the #))apda;. He e'en ado*ts the 'er% *hraseolo-% of his
Kuestioner. And then *artl% b% *uttin- a ne+ and :fro) the
Buddhist *oint of 'ie+; a hi-her )eanin- into the +ords> *artl%
b% an a**eal to such ethical conce*tions as are co))on -round
bet+een the)> he -raduall% leads his o**onent u* to his
conclusion. (his is of course al+a%s Arahatshi* _full
a+a&enin-`3
.#
(he Buddha=s social conteLt de)anded careful consideration
of discourse and understandin-. (he centuries leadin- u* to the
be-innin- of the Co))on Era sa+ )ulti*le +a'es of ar%an
)i-ration into the Ean-es *lain and a co)*leL *rocess of
assi)ilation +ith the *re'ious inhabitants. (he resultin- )ilieu
included di'erse and dis*arate *hiloso*hical reli-ious cultural
and lin-uistic influences. (he Buddha +as teachin- in a
)ulticultural societ% co)*arable to the Bnited States toda% +ith
'er% different cultural -rou*s s*ea&in- )an% lan-ua-es in close
*roLi)it%. Since the traditional accounts tell of the Buddha
teachin- a)on- a nu)ber of different lin-uistic -rou*s such as
the KAs[s Kosalas VrHis and Vatsas Dancaster sur)ises that 4this
+anderin- teacher )ade his o+n translations as he )o'ed
a)on- a hetero-eneous audience.6
..
(he +ords used and the *hiloso*hical assu)*tions )ade in
teachin- necessaril% 'aried +ith the conteLt. As di'erse as the
*resentations in the PAQ i discourses are a full record of the
Buddha=s teachin- +ould li&el% re'eal an e'en -reater fleLibilit%
in st%le since 4it is lo-ical to eL*ect that the tradition le'eled out
)an% of the inconsistencies of eL*ression6 as Gichard Eo)brich
*oints out.
."
.# (. J. Gh%sPDa'ids 4Introduction to the Kassa*aPS[hanAda Sutta6 :.WNN,
"#SPO; Kuoted in Eo)brich .NNS, .O.
.. Dancaster .NN$, $"1.
." Eo)brich .NNS, .N.
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 51
Pass$ng 3as4ets Along
And the Venerable Sari*utta addressed the )on&s3 friends this
Dha))a has been +ell *roclai)ed b% the Dord the full%
enli-htened 2ne. And so +e should all recite it to-ether +ithout
disa-ree)ent so that this hol% life )a% be endurin- and
established for a lon- ti)e thus to be for the +elfare and
ha**iness of the )ultitude out of co)*assion for the +orld for
the benefit +elfare and ha**iness of de'as _s*irit bein-s` and
hu)ans.
.0
(he discourses and 'erses of the Buddha and his disci*les
+ere )e)oriIed and trans)itted orall% for hundreds of %ears
after his death and parinibbna the final brea&Pu* of his )indP
bod% *rocess. 2ften the teLts +ere )e)oriIed in isolated areas
and so)eti)es in different dialects. Co))entarial teLts and
inscri*tions fro) the second centur% B.C.E. )ention schools of
bh(a'as reciters each ta&in- res*onsibilit% for the oral
trans)ission and *reser'ation of a *articular di'ision of the
discourses. 47or so)e ti)e after the parinibbna of Sa&%a)uni
Buddha the sound +as <teLt= and the s*o&en +ord beca)e the
handedPdo+n *ro*ert% of custodial bh(a'as.6
.$
Gecitation fro)
)e)or% in -rou*s ser'ed to -uard a-ainst the *ossibilit% of an
indi'idual alterin- the teLts +hereas the later co*%in- of the
teLts to *al) leaf +as li&el% a solitar% affair lea'in- the )ista&es
of the scribe unchec&ed. 4(he technical )ne)onic )ethods of
oral trans)ission ha'e so)eti)es been so hi-hl% de'elo*ed as to
render the oral teLt )ore reliable than the )anuscri*t tradition6
.0 San-[ti Sutta :D.00;XIII"..Y trans. Maurice Jalshe.
.$ B. C. Da+ - ;ist#ry #3 ali <iterature :Varanasi, Bharti%a .N00; Vol. I. as
Kuoted in Hoff)an .NN", .NOPW *oints to e'idence of references to the 7i'e
Ni&A%as b% the second

centur% B.C.E. in Aso&an inscri*tions and to the
Milindha*a8ha=s list of D.ghabh(a'a :Geciters of the Don- Discourses; the
"ajjhimabh(a'a :3of the Middle Den-th Discourses; the Sa6yuttabh(a'a
:3the Connected Discourses; and the -nguttarabh(a'a :3the 7urtherP
factored Discourses; and the :hudda'abh(a'a :...the S)all Boo&s; thou-h
the last re)ained o*en to additions at that *oint.
50 A STRON? ROOTS
+rites Jillia) Eraha).
.1
In the cli)ate of north India at the ti)e
of the Buddha the )aterials used for +ritin- \ lea'es bar& and
the li&e \ deco)*osed Kuic&l% and +ritin- +as used al)ost
eLclusi'el% for calculations.
.S
(o )odern sensibilities oral
trans)ission see)s fallible and *rone to corru*tion but the earl%
follo+ers of the Buddha a**arentl% considered the teachin-s too
'aluable to entrust to scri*ture. As in other *laces
at first +ritin- +as *ercei'ed as si)*l% a )ne)onic de'ice to
facilitate or to ensure that the oral renderin- be accurate. (he
oral for) +as clearl% *ri)ar% and for )an% centuries it had
been unsu**le)ented.
.O
(he oral trans)ission of the teLts has had a )aHor i)*act on
ho+ the% ha'e been understood and inter*reted. Ste'e Collins
has de)onstrated ho+ e'en after the PAQ i +as +ritten do+n Hust
before the be-innin- of the Co))on Era (hera'Adin teLts
continued to be 4recited and listened to> in Buddhis) as in *reP
)odern Euro*e silent readin- +as the eLce*tion rather than the
rule.6
.W
(he )odern (hera'Ada eLhibits a si)ilar e)*hasis on
oral trans)ission. In the MahAsi tradition )editators on
intensi'e retreat listen to an hourPlon- <dha))a tal&= each da%
for instance> this *ractice continues at IMS. Another interestin-
eLa)*le ca)e to li-ht +hen a fa)ous t+entieth centur% PAQ i
scholar of Bur)a the MahA-anda%one Sa%ada+ B
Jana&Abhi'aCsa su--ested that students ta&in- the -o'ern)entP
ad)inistrated PAQi eLa)s be allo+ed to refer to +ritten teLts as
in Jestern institutions of hi-her learnin- rather than rel%in-
entirel% on rote )e)oriIation and recitation. More conser'ati'e
.1 Jillia) A. Eraha) Bey#nd the =ritten =#rd :Ca)brid-e, Ca)brid-e
Bni'ersit% Press .NWO; as Kuoted in Hoff)an .NN", "#0.
.S I a) indebted here to a *resentation b% Andre+ 2lendI&i at the Barre
Center for Buddhist Studies of +hich he is ELecuti'e Director Dece)ber
"##..
.O Jilfred Cant+ell S)ith discussin- the *rePIsla)ic A'esta 4Scri*ture as
7or) and Conce*t6 in +ethin'ing S%ripture ed. Miria) De'erin- "NP1O
:Alban%, State Bni'ersit% of Ne+ Mor& Press .NWN; as Kuoted in Hoff)an
.NN", .NN.
.W Collins .NN", .0#.
)on&s reHected the *ro*osal on the -rounds that it +ould brea&
+ith the "1## %earPold tradition of oral trans)ission throu-h
)e)oriIation echoin- a senti)ent found in classical (hera'Adin
teLts 4Kno+led-e in boo&s _is li&e` )one% in so)eone else=s
hand, +hen %ou need it it=s not there.6
.N
(he oral nature of trans)ission in the Buddha=s ti)e sha*ed
the )odern (hera'Ada in another +a% as +ell. E'en in the PAQi
discourses the Venerable Sari*utta is seen de'elo*in- 'arious
)ne)onic lists of dhamma subHects +hich are then 4confir)ed6
b% the Buddha.
"#
Such lists referred to as mti' de'elo*ed into
co)*rehensi'e s%ste)iIations of the conce*ts contained in the
discourses and ca)e to be called the -bhidhamma the teLts of
<7urther Doctrine= or <Concernin- the Doctrine=. (he Venerable
Ge+ata Dha))a and Bhi&&hu Bodhi note that the tradition
ascribes to the Venerable Sari*utta 4the teLtual order of the
Abhidha))a treatise as +ell as the nu)erical series6 in one of
the teLts the a))hna.
Perha*s +e should see in these ad)issions of the _(hera'Adin
Co))entar%` the -tthaslin. an i)*licit ac&no+led-e)ent that
+hile the *hiloso*hical 'ision of the Abhidha))a and its basic
architecture ori-inate fro) the Buddha the actual +or&in- out
of the details and *erha*s e'en the *rotot%*es of the teLts
the)sel'es are to be ascribed to the illustrious Chief Disci*le and
his entoura-e of students.
".
In this sa)e co))entar% Buddha-hosa *oints out that +ith
uns&illful use of the Abhidha))a the )ind runs off *onderin-
the i)*onderables thus resultin- in )ental deran-e)ent.
""
In
the Bur)ese tradition of the MahAsi Sa%ada+ the Abhidha))a
.N (he debate around the PAQi eLa)s +as rela%ed to )e b% )% PAQi teacher at
the Pa?@itArA)a SAsana Mei&tha B Khe)i&a +ho studied at the
MahA-anda%one. (he 'erse is Kuoted fro) Collins .NN", .0# 4:Dhn 0S$ d
D&n .0; freel% translated.6
"# E.-. San-[ti Sutta :D.00;XIIY trans. Maurice Jalshe.
". Bodhi "###, .#P...
"" AtthasAlin[ ed. E. Meller :Dondon, Pali (eLt Societ% .WNO; "$, 4abhidhamme
duppa)ipann# dhamma%ittam atidhvant# a%inteyyni pi %inteti, tat#
%ittavi''hepa6 ppu(ti.6
55 A STRON? ROOTS
anal%ses are used to inter*ret indi'iduals= eL*erience in
)editation *ractice as +ell as to understand teachin-s -i'en in
the PAQi discourses. At least one earl% school the Sautranti&as
did not acce*t the Abhidha))a for)ulations as authoritati'e
and 4it is in this section of the 9ripi)a'a that there is the -reatest
discre*anc% bet+een the 'ersions of the 'arious schools.6
"0
(he )ore conser'ati'e factions of the earl% follo+ers of the
Buddha ado*ted strict standards for considerin- a teLt as
authoritati'e, it )ust ha'e been either s*o&en b% the historical
Buddha s*ecificall% authoriIed b% hi) or s*o&en b% a disci*le he
had authoriIed. Si-nificantl% the list of authoritati'e teLts +as
finite> at least theoreticall% the canon closed +ith the death of
the last disci*le the Buddha had *ersonall% authoriIed. Bsin- the
analo-% of earth *assed in bas&ets alon- a line of construction
+or&ers teLts *assed orall% alon- a linea-e of teachers ca)e to
be -rou*ed into 'arious pi)a'a bas&ets.
"$
Most of the earl%
schools reco-niIed an authoritati'e 9ipi)a'a or 9ripi)a'a
co)*osed of <three bas&ets= of teLts thou-h s*ecific contents
'aried so)e+hat bet+een schools. (he 'arious 9ipi)i'as each
consisted of a &inaya i)a'a of disci*line a Sutta i)a'a of
discourses and an -bhidhamma i)a'a containin- so*histicated
anal%ses of *s%choP*h%sical *heno)ena and the *rocess of
liberation. (raditional accounts of co))unal recitations sa>g.ti
or sa>ghyan held to fiL the teachin-s after the Buddha=s death
later ser'ed as a rhetorical Hustification for discountin- )ore
recentl% introduced teLts and inter*retations.
(he first )aHor debate o'er the inter*retation of *articular
disci*linar% rules is docu)ented as bein- resol'ed b% 'ote at
"0 Jarder "###, OPW 4(he third section or tradition of the 9ripi)a'a is the
-bhidharma +hich ter) )eant ori-inall% <concernin- the doctrine= and
after+ards +as used for a s%ste)ic stud% of the doctrine.6 (his -loss of
abhidhamma +ould indeed follo+ fro) the basic )eanin- of the IndoP
Euro*ean root ?abhi +hich de'elo*ed else+here into the En-lish
*re*osition <u*on= as +ell as the co-nate Datin *re*osition <e*iP= accordin-
to Go% Jri-ht.
"$ B. C. Da+ - ;ist#ry #3 ali <iterature Kuoted in Hoff)an .NN", .NO.
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 5#
-atherin- of renunciates in the to+n of VesAl[ around 0WS B.C.E
onl% a hundred %ears after the Buddha=s parinibbna. An asse)bl%
held so)e thirt%Pse'en %ears later in PAZali*utta )ar&ed the first
lar-ePscale di'ision bet+een different factions of the follo+ers of
the Buddha o'er doctrine. (he -rounds for disa-ree)ent
centered on the Kualities of one full% a+a&ened an arahat
:Sans&rit arahant;. 7irst and fore)ost +as the Kuestion of
+hether lust could arise in an arahat +hile drea)in-. 2ther
*oints +ere debated includin- Kuestions re-ardin- the eLtent of
an arahat=s &no+led-e and 4+hether one )a% enter the Ja% as
the result of s*o&en +ords.6 Nonetheless 4the t+o *arties +ere
less far a*art than at first si-ht the% a**ear to be eLce*t on the
first -round6 accordin- to co)*arati'e teLtual studies b% a
distin-uished scholar of Indian histor% A. K. Jarder. (he
)aHorit% faction at PAZali*utta +hich +as thus called the <-reat
asse)bl%= the "ahsa>gha )aintained that since actions in
drea)s +ere in'oluntar% the% could not ser'e as indications of
)ental *urit%. A )inorit% held that the )indPstrea) of an arahat
+as co)*letel% and *er)anentl% *urified of the defile)ents
includin- lust e'en durin- slee*. (his +as the understandin-
su**orted b% )an% of the )ost senior )on&s a**arentl% and
thus ca)e to be called the Sthaviravda <the doctrine of the
elders=.
"1
Bnresol'ed doctrinal disa-ree)ents bet+een the t+o -rou*s
at the PAZali*utta asse)bl% led to se*arate traditions +ith 'er%
different conce*tions of the historicit% of the Buddha and his
teachin-s. Maintainin- a definition of arahat as one co)*letel%
*ure of uns&illful intentions the PAQi teLts de*ict the BuddhaRs
o+n a+a&enin- to be the sa)e in nature as that of an% arahat
thou-h distin-uished of course b% bein- the first. (he
Sthaviravda -enerall% held to this *osition thou-h 4-raduall%
the% attributed a hi-her status to the Buddha e'entuall%
co)*lete <o)niscience= :sarvaj*at; es*eciall% in their )ore
"1 Jarder "###, "..P".
51 A STRON? ROOTS
*o*ular *ro*a-anda.6 Althou-h its Sans&rit na)e is co-nate +ith
the PAQi 9heravda the )odern school b% that na)e is one of a
nu)ber of traditions that descended fro) the earl% Sthaviravda.
Met +e can still see in the )odern (hera'Ada reflections of this
basic *rinci*al of the Buddha as an arahat and also the tendenc%
to ele'ate hi) to o)niscience.
(hose +ho too& the o**osin- side at the PAZali*utta
asse)bl% definin- an arahat as less than co)*letel% *urified
held the Buddha to ha'e a Kualitati'el% different t%*e of
realiIation. (he MahAsaT-ha too& the Buddha to be 4far abo'e
other hu)an bein-s or *erha*s not reall% a hu)an bein- at all.6
Accordin- to Jarder
(he% thus be-an that transfor)ation of the Buddha and his
doctrine +hich led ste* b% ste* to the MahA%Ana fro) the
hu)anis) of the ori-inal 9ripi)a'a to the su*ernaturalis) of
)ost of the MahA%Ana s!tras.
"S
Jhile the 4doctrinal +idenin-6 of the MahA%Ana e'entuall%
did include this &e% chan-e in the Buddha=s status accordin- Paul
Jillia)s it is incorrect to identif% the s*lit bet+een the
Sthaviravda and the "ahsa>gha as the ince*tion of the
MahA%Ana )o'e)ent. Instead he ar-ues that the )o'e)ent had
its roots in a nu)ber of different -rou*s for)ed for the
'eneration of *articular teLts that beca)e *o*ular after the
Buddha=s parinibbna.
"O
Certain ele)ents of so)e of these teLts
)a% in fact ha'e de'elo*ed fro) teachin-s of the historical
Buddha *ossibl% o)itted fro) the canons of the )ore
conser'ati'e schools.
"W
Jillia)s ho+e'er +rites of
"S Jarder "###, "..P" refers to the clai) of the Buddha=s o)niscience in the
Sabba88uta8A?aniddeso :PaZis.I...O"P0;XI.0.ffY.
"O Jillia)s "##., ""ff. Nonetheless 4the a'ailable e'idence sho+s that the
)aHorit% of Buddhists in India at all ti)es ha'e follo+ed the earl% schools
and the MahA%Ana there +as al+a%s a )inorit% )o'e)ent, it is onl% in
certain countries outside India :China and (ibet and the countries +hich
deri'ed their Buddhis) fro) the); that the MahA%Ana co)*letel%
su**lanted the earlier Buddhis)6 Jarder "###, 01S.
"W Jarder "###, .NWPN *oints to state)ents in the PAQi itself that certain teLts
+ere added after the first Sa>gyana. He *oints as +ell to the interestin-
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 5)
a tradition found in the MahA%Ana s!tras the)sel'es +hich
+ould associate the ori-ins of these teLts not +ith the historical
Buddha +ho died *erha*s in $W0 or 0O# B.C.E. but rather +ith
'isionar% eL*erience and ins*iration b% one of a nu)ber of
Buddhas +ho continue to eList on a hi-her *lane in their Buddha
7ields or Pure Dands.
"N
Dater MahA%Ana schools de'elo*ed an eL*licitl% aPhistorical
a**roach further distancin- their her)eneutic *rinci*les fro)
those of nonPMahA%Ana schools> East Asian inter*retations of the
Dotus Sutra for instance *osit the eListence of a BuddhaPessence
fro) +hich re'elations of teachin-s could co)e at an% *oint in
hu)an histor%. Man% of these inno'ati'e teachin-s contained
s*ecific clai)s of su*eriorit% to the discourses alread%
established. 2ften these teLts +ere selfPst%led as the onl%
authoritati'e renderin- so that adherents necessaril%
inter*reted the entire cor*us of established teLts in li-ht of their
chosen one. Indeed the na)e this )o'e)ent ado*ted for itself as
a +hole "ahyna or <Ereat Vehicle= +as and is a *ole)ic de'ice
i)*l%in- su*eriorit% o'er the traditions that did not ado*t its
inno'ations> these latter are referred to in MahA%Ana teLts \ and
in certain acade)ic literature \ as the ;.nayna the <Desser
Vehicle=.
0#
2'er the course of historical de'elo*)ent in North
account -i'en in the &inaya teLts of PurA?a a )on& +ho +as Hourne%inin
the south at the ti)e of the recital. 2n his return the elders in'ited hi) to
acce*t the Dha))a and Vina%a as the% had been recited. PurA?a *olitel%
re*lies that the Dha))a and Vina%a ha'e been +ell recited b% the elders
but that he +ill Hust continue to re)e)ber the teachin-s the +a% he heard
the) directl% fro) the Master. Jarder notes that 4If there +ere a nu)ber
of )on&s in distant *arts +ho )issed the 7irst Gehearsal it is li&el% enou-h
that Kuite a nu)ber of discourses re)e)bered b% the) and handed do+n
to their *u*ils eListed +hich +ere )issed at the Gehearsal thou-h
*erfectl% authentic. Bnder these conditions it +ould see) *erfectl%
reasonable to incor*orate such discourses in the 9ripi)a'a later des*ite the
ris& of acce*tin- unauthentic teLts. (he "ahparinirv(a S!tra4 )a&es the
Buddha la% do+n a rule to co'er Hust this situation6 for +hich see note ."
on *."W0.
"N Jillia)s "##., "N.
0# Jarder "###, 0$#P. on the recurrin- MahA%Ana 4denunciation of the
<inferior= :h.na; +a% of the *u*ils3 contrastin- rather un*leasantl% +ith the
59 A STRON? ROOTS
Asia )an% different teLts containin- dis*arate doctrines +ere
incor*orated into the MahA%Ana canon so that schools such as
the Mo-acAra the PraH8a*ara)ita and the Pure Dand defined
the)sel'es and the <authoritati'e= teachin- of the Buddha 'er%
differentl% de*endin- on the *articular teLt to +hich the%
adhered. As Harold Co+ard *oints out 4the crucial role of
scri*ture in Buddhist selfPdefinition beco)es e'en )ore e'ident
+hen the s*lit bet+een the 9heravda and "ahyna Buddhists is
eLa)ined.6
0.
A 6C+*+lat$7e Tra-$t$on8
Aso&a Mori%a e)*eror of the first *anPIndian state +as a
-reat *atron of the earl% co))unit% of )on&s and nuns and
see)s to ha'e been es*eciall% 4closel% associated +ith
Stha'ira'Ada school.6
0"
(hrou-h his efforts durin- the third
centur% B.C.E. the Buddha=s teachin-s +ere inter*reted for
*eo*le all o'er India, north to )odernPda% Af-hanistan> +est
throu-hout )uch of the for)er Persian E)*ire> and south as far
as the island of :Sri; DaT&a. (hera'Adin historical chronicles note
as +ell a )ission east to Suva((abh!mi the <Eolden Dand=. (his
Mfn countr% in +hat is no+ southern Bur)a and (hailand 4'er%
li&el% +as3 the first6 area in SouthPEast Asia to recei'e teachin-s
descended fro) the Buddha but the earliest fir) archeolo-ical
e'idence is a set -old *lates inscribed +ith PAQi teLt fro) the fifth
centur% C.E.
00
(he )odern Bur)ese tradition ho+e'er descends *ri)aril%
another of the Aso&an )issions, be-innin- about a decade after
tolerance and understandin- characteristic of )ost earlier Buddhist teLts.6
0. Co+ard .NN", .$..
0" Jarder "###, "S0 follo+in- Bareau .N11 <es premier %#n%iles b#uddhi@ues
:Paris;.
00 Jarder "###, 00.P" follo+in- Coedgs .N$W <es Atas ;ind#uisBs et dInd#nBsie
Histoire du Monde VIII. " :Paris, Boccard;, .#W.
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 5:
about a decade after Aso&a ca)e to *o+er his son Mahinda and
his dau-hter SaT-ha)ittA both ordained renunciates led
entoura-es south to the island of DaT&a +here the% established
co))unities of both nuns and )on&s as +ell as a tradition of
Dhamma stud% and *ractice. (he first of these set out fro) the
<Hill of the Shrine= no+ &no+n as Sa8c[ the sa)e )onu)ent
+hose eastern -ate is adorned +ith the relief featured on the
co'er of Str#ng +##ts. Both SaT-ha)ittA and Mahinda had been
born nearb% in their )other=s nati'e to+n of Vedisa.
0$
It is
si-nificant es*eciall% in eLa)inin- the roots of the MahAsi
tradition that the )issions to DaT&a +ere launched fro) 4the
heart of the re-ion +here the Stha'ira'ada is &no+n to ha'e had
its -reatest stren-th in this *eriod.6
01
Bur)a and Ce%lon ha'e had a lon- histor% of )issions in both
directions 'arious linea-es bein- :re;introduced fro) abroad
+hen one had died out or lost the su**ort of the ruler. Kin-
Ana+ratha of Pa-an :.#$$POO C.E.; i)*orted teLts and teachers
fro) the Mfn ca*ital and established this (hera'Adin linea-e
a)on- the Bur)ese. (his &in- at the reKuest of his Ce%lonese
counter*art sent a )ission in .#O# to the island to hel* re'i'e
the tradition there. About a centur% later a Mon )on& na)ed
BttaraHi'a and his *u*il Cha*ata tra'eled to Ce%lon and on their
return established a )o'e)ent to refor) the Bur)ese SaT-ha in
accord +ith the 4abhidha))ic orthodoL% of Buddha-hosa that
characteriIes the Sinhala (hera'ada.6
0S
2'er ti)e this Sinhala
influenced faction ca)e to do)inate the Bur)ese reli-ious
establish)ent.
0O
0$ Malase&era .NO$, 'ol. t+o s.v. 4Mahinda (hera6 1W0> 4SaT-ha)ittA (her[6
NN#> 4Vedisa6 N"".
01 Jarder "###, "1S.
0S Mendelson .NO1, 0W> S+earer .NWO.
0O (he earl% histor% of the Buddha-Ssana in Bur)a is not +ell established.
Eliot .NS", Vol. III 1. re*orts earl% 4H[na%Ana6 inscri*tions found in
Pro)e. HeinI Bechert notes the assi)ilation b% the P%u and Ara&anese
ci'iliIations of Sar'Asti'Ada MahA%Ana and (antric teachin-s Bechert
.NN., .$O.
#; A STRON? ROOTS
(hus the tradition in +hich the MahAsi Sa%ada+ trained
descends *ri)aril% fro) the Aso&an trans)ission to DaT&a in
*articular the conser'ati'e school of the MahA'ihAra :established
"1S B.C.E at Anuradha*ura; +hich e)*hasiIed 4an historicist
and eLclusi'ist idea of its <Canon= <the Buddha=s Jord:s;=.6
0W
Ste'e
Collins ar-ues con'incin-l% that the later threat of MahA%Anist
inno'ation and eL*ansion in DaT&a +as *roLi)ate cause for the
Bechert describes a )iLture of indi-enous and Indian beliefs *resent in the
Mfn ci'iliIation of DrA'ati in Do+er M%an)ar +here art and culture
flourished fro) the siLth to the tenth centuries C.E. (he Mfns traced their
(hera'Adin linea-e to the Aso&an )issionaries So?a and Bttara. Jhen
Ana+ratha ca)e to the throne of Pa-an he atte)*ted to i)*ort so)e
as*ects of the -lorious Mfn culture. After his 4con'ersion6 b% the Mfn
)on& Shin Arahan Ana+ratha conKuered (haton the ca*ital of the Mfn
&in-do) in .#1O C.E. and brou-ht bac& )an% s&illed crafts)en alon- +ith
(hera'Adin scri*tures and relics accordin- to Bur)ese chronicles. (he
i)*ortation of Mfn (hera'Ada +as *erha*s the )ost crucial turnin- *oint
in the histor% of the Buddha-Ssana in Bur)a. Ha'in- consolidated his
control o'er )ost of lo+land Bur)a Ana+ratha e)bar&ed on an a)bitious
ca)*ai-n to *urif% the SaT-ha accordin- to (hera'Adin orthodoL% as
defined b% the Mfn )on& Shin Arahan. Mendelson Sa>gha and State 0W
cites Eordon Duce=s contention that it +as in fact K%anIitta :.#W$P...0 C.E.;
and not Ana+ratha +ho finall% su**ressed the (antric Buddhis) *resent in
Pa-an and i)*osed (hera'Ada. In an% case *o*ular belief held u*
Ana+ratha as the )odel for later Bur)ese dhammarj <ri-hteous &in-s=.
7or the *ast )illenniu) u* throu-h the *resent +ith the eLce*tion of the
*eriod of British control 4al)ost e'er% ruler6 in B**er and Do+er Bur)a
atte)*ted *olitical le-iti)ac% throu-h the *rotection *ro*a-ation and
*urification of the 4orthodoL6 SaT-ha +rites (han .NN0, .1.
As a result of continued ro%al *atrona-e the (hera'Ada has *la%ed a do)inant
role in the de'elo*)ent of )odern Bur)ese societ%. ConseKuentl% the
*o*ular understandin- of Buddhist histor% in M%an)ar dis)isses )ost of
the *hiloso*hical schools *resent before Ana+ratha=s *urification.
Mendelson .NO1, 0. +rites that in fact 4the Bur)ese 'ie+ of histor% is a
)onastic 'ie+ of e'ents.6 He dis*utes 01 the *o*ular conce*tion of a
4unified unchan-in-6 Bur)ese (hera'Adin tradition fro) the ti)e of
Ana+ratha. Historicall% Bur)ese la% *eo*le ha'e continued to *ro'ide
refu-e and sustenance for factions su**ressed b% the *re'ailin- authorities
accordin- to 7er-uson .NOW, SN. (hus +hen Ana+ratha i)*osed (hera'Ada
as the state reli-ion Sar'Asti'Ada MahA%Ana (antric and other su**ressed
cults +ere )erel% dri'en under-round or out be%ond the li)its of the
&in-=s control. (han .NN0, .1 notes that in the fifteenth centur% the Mfn
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A #1
s%ste)iIation of the (hera'Adin tradition as +e &no+ it. (he
)on&s +ho first co))itted the PAQ i (i*iZa&a to +ritin- Hust
before the Co))on Era li'ed and +or&ed fi'e hundred %ears
before the inter*reters +ho collated and authored the classical
co))entaries such as Buddha-hosa> nonetheless both the
transcribers and the co))entators +ere +or&in- at the sa)e
institution the MahA'ihAra and both +ere consciousl% definin-
an <orthodoL= tradition in o**osition to MahA%Ana inno'ations.
0N

(he tradition thus de'elo*ed at the MahA'ihAra defined itself as
the <Doctrine of the Elders= the 9heravda. As the na)e i)*lies
this tradition has continued to use the her)eneutical *rinci*le of
conser'ati'e orthodoL% to define itself and its canon.
&in- Dha))aceti forced all )on&s in his &in-do) to rePordain in the
linea-e of the Sinhalese MahA'ihAra. Jhile so)e factions +ere i)*ressed
+ith the re*uted orthodoL% of the Sinhala SaT-ha 4a'ailable e'idence
sho+s that there lon- re)ained refractor% ele)ents6 o**osed to the
4SinhaliIation6 of the Bur)ese SaT-ha accordin- to Mendelson 1". He
notes 1. that )on&s +ho had ordained in Bur)a +ere es*eciall% o**osed
to rePordination as it effecti'el% -a'e the )on&s +ho had studied and
ordained in DaT&a seniorit% o'er all others re-ardless of *re'ious standin-.
0W Collins .NN#a, ."OP0W.
0N Collins .NN#a, ."OP0W. (he PAQi (i*iZa&a of the MahA'ihArins +as co))itted
to +ritin- for the first ti)e durin- the rei-n of the DaT&an &in-
VaZZa-A)a?i :"NP.O B.C.E.; +ho not incidentall% su**orted a ri'al -rou*
the Abha%a-iri +hich had been eL*elled b% the MahA'ihArins in "W B.C.E.
and subseKuentl% 4*ro'ed to be less conser'ati'e and orthodoL rece*ti'e
to the ideas of the MahA%Ana and thus di'er-inin doctrine fro) the
Stha'ira'Ada6 accordin- to Jarder "###, 0#SPO. Je should note ho+e'er
follo+in- Jarder that the a )ilitar% in'asion had occurred shortl% before
si)ultaneous +ith a fa)ine. (his left one teLt re)e)bered on DaT&a b% a
sin-le )on& and surel% hel*ed con'ince the MahA'ihArins to co))it their
(i*iZa&a to *al) lea'es. Nonetheless the schis) of the MahA%Anist
Abha%a-iri sealed the decision. Jhile the )on&s of the MahA'ihAra retired
to the 4alo&a VihAra far fro) the dissensions of the ca*ital6 to inscribe the
9ipi)a'a on *al) lea'es around "# B.C.E. the% +ere nonetheless +or&in- as
*art of the co))unit% and institution fro) +hich the% ca)e and to +hich
their +or& +as returned. Di&e+ise Buddha-hosa translated and authored
co))entaries at the MahA'ihAra durin- the rei-n of the &in- MahAnA)a
:$#NP$0. C.E.; +ho also fa'ored the Abha%a-iri. Jarder "OW notes that
another school that of the Jeta'ana had bro&en a+a% around 0## C.E.
#0 A STRON? ROOTS
Monaster% Co)*leL at Anuradha*ura Sri DaT&a
:trou-h at bac& left used to -ather dail% food donations for the SaT-ha;.
Ha'in- defined an orthodoL bod% of teLts +ith )ost of its
discourses addressed to renunciates of the Buddha=s da%
(hera'Adin )on&s in South and Southeast Asia faced the
challen-e of renderin- their tradition )eanin-ful to the la%
*eo*le on +ho) the% de*ended for su**ort and social
le-iti)ation. (o )a&e the teachin-s accessible and a**licable in a
la% social conteLt (hera'Adins increasin-l% *ortra%ed the
*ractice as a 4-radual *ath.6 (+o )aHor co))entarial +or&s on
(hera'Adin her)eneutics characteriIe the teachin-s b% citin- a
'erse fro) the "ajjhima /i'ya 4Bhi&&hus I shall teach %ou a
dhamma that is -ood in the be-innin- -ood in the )iddle and
-ood in the end...6
$#
(hus -enerous -i'in- and *urit% of conduct
*erha*s )ore achie'able than intensi'e )editation *ractice in
the e%es of *eo*le su**ortin- households ha'e been e)*hasiIed
as necessar% and 'aluable *arts of the *ath to the final -oal of
a+a&enin-.
$# Chacha&&a Sutta :M..$W,";. Ha'in- said that he +ill teach the Dha))a
+hich is -ood in the be-innin- )iddle and end the Buddha *rescribes the
4true &no+led-e6 +hich leads to dis*assion and liberation.
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A #2
(hera'Adin her)eneutics enabled teachers to relate the
traditional teLts to the hu)an conteLt of their historical
)o)ents. Accordin- to the traditional account the 'er% first
teachin-s -i'en on the island of DaT&a b% Aso&a=s son Mahinda
+ere *resented in the local lan-ua-e. (he accounts of the
Buddha=s o+n teachin-s ho+e'er continued to be )e)oriIed
orall% in a north Indian dialect. (hou-h 'arious translations and
co))entaries +ere later +ritten in Sinhala these beca)e
difficult to deci*her +ithin a fe+ hundred %ears of their
co)*osition as the li'in- lan-ua-e de'elo*ed. 2n the other hand
)on&s continued to stud% the canonical teLts in their ori-inal
north Indian dialect +hich ca)e to be called the <lan-ua-e
:bhs; of the teLts :p, i;=.
$.
Scholars be-an to use the +ord <p,i=
as the na)e of a lan-ua-e *erha*s throu-h a )isunderstandin-
of the s%ntaL in'ol'ed in the co)*ound <p,i-bhs= *robabl%
so)eti)e durin- the nineteenth centur%. In an% case b% the ti)e
of Buddha-hosa an eLtre)el% influential (hera'adin
co))entator of the fifth centur% C.E. the <lan-ua-e of the teLts=
+as lon- since a dead one. Perha*s due to his u*brin-in- as an
educated Brah)an in northern India Buddha-hosa fa'ored this
classical lan-ua-e and set the *recedent for the neLt )illenniu)
b% +ritin- his eLtensi'e co))entarial +or&s in it.
$"
$. Accordin- to Jarder "###, "W$ the Sthaviravdin teLts +ere recorded in 4a
+est Indian lan-ua-e a**arentl% that of A'anti +hen the school had its
)ain centre in that countr%.6 (he ter) <p,i= first )eant 4a line brid-e or
cause+a% and thence a <teLt=6 accordin- to Collins .NN#a, N.. 4It is often
found in o**osition to a))ha'ath +hich is usuall% translated <co))entar%=
and so so)e scholars ha'e ta&e p,i to )ean <canon=.6 As Collins *oints out
4...the *ri)ar% use of the distinction bet+een p,i and a))ha'ath is not to
classif% docu)ents into different cate-ories :althou-h it did co)e to ha'e
that function, e.-. S* 1$N S' 1W.; and still less to denote eL*licitl% a closed
list of teLts as the ter)s <canon= and <co))entar%= )i-ht i)*l%> rather it
+as to distin-uish bet+een the *recise +ordin- of a teLt in the teLtPcritical
sense and the )ore fleLible tas& of <sa%in- +hat it )eans= +hich is the
literal translation of a))ha'ath.6 M% eL*erience is that Bur)ese )on&s
tend to use the ter) Rp,iR to )ean RteLtR in the inclusi'ist sense Collins
*oints to.
$" Eo)brich .NN.b, .$WP.10.
#5 A STRON? ROOTS
(he de'elo*)ent of <PAQi= as an international lingua sa%ra has
allo+ed scholars fro) all o'er South and Southeast Asia to
*artici*ate in (hera'Adin discourse but it has also had the effect
of eLcludin- those +ho +ere not educated in the classical
lan-ua-e. It is true that 4for the co))on *eo*le at lar-e such
teLts and &no+led-e ha'e a referential and le-iti)atin- function
e'en if the% the)sel'es ha'e no direct access to the).6
$0

Nonetheless throu-hout the histor% of the (hera'Ada )ost la%
*eo*le ha'e been fa)iliar onl% +ith the s)all section of the teLts
*resented to the) in tal&s b% )on&s )ainl% a**ealin- stories
rather than )editation instructions.
$$
Authentic trans)ission of
the PAQi for )ost )odern (hera'Adins in Asia is not *ri)aril% a
function of a**l%in- the teLts= -uidance in this 'er% life to realiIe
full liberation fro) sufferin-> rather )an% Bur)ese )on&s
e)*hasiIe the i)*ortance of 'erbati) re*roduction of the
9ipi)a'a teLts and their orthodoL inter*retation accordin- to
co))entators such as Buddha-hosa. In Bur)a scri*tural
orthodoL% has been the ideal and the selfPdefinition of the
(hera'Ada o'er the *ast thousand %ears.
$1
(he (hera'Ada=s lon-standin- and do)inant 4historicist6
a**roach to its teLts sets this tradition a*art fro) )ost other
-rou*s classified as <Buddhist=. Be-innin- in the earl% centuries
C.E. a -reat nu)ber of chronicles va6sa +ere co)*osed on
DaT&an histor% as +ell as that of the Buddha and his teachin-s.
(he (hera'Adin a**roach +as not identical +ith )odern Jestern
historicit% ho+e'er, the va6sa -enre e)*hasiIes -enetic
continuit% detailin- *articular linea-es and allo+in- 4onl% one
$0 (a)biah Buddhism and the Spirit 1ults 0P$ Kuoted in Collins .NN#b, .O.
$$ Eo)brich .NN.b, .10PO notes es*eciall% the case of Sri DaT&a but )odern
*ractices and archaeolo-ical e'idence +ould su--est that in Southeast Asia
as +ell )on&s ha'e lon- relied on Cta'a stories and other si)ilar )aterial
in their *resentations of Dhamma-&inaya for la% audiences.
$1 E.-. Kin- .NOS, W. 4Bur)ese Buddhis) )i-ht be defined as a thousandP
%earPlon- atte)*t to be literall% and scru*ulousl% faithful in thou-ht +ord
and deed to the +orldP'ie+ and +a% of reli-ious *ractice set forth in the
PAQi canon as the 'erbati) +ords of the historical :Eauta)a; Buddha.6
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A ##
le-iti)ate successor at ti)e.6 In describin- the trans)ission of
*ractice be-innin- +ith the Buddha this *articular historical
a**roach confined le-iti)ac% and authorit% to a sin-le linea-e of
teachers. Collins sees the +ritin- do+n and catalo-in- of the PAQ i
(i*iZa&a the de'elo*)ent of an historical account of its
trans)ission and the s%ste)iIation of doctrine and
inter*retation strate-ies in the Co))entaries as 4connected
*arts of a strate-% of selfPdefinition and selfPle-iti)ation6 b% the
(hera'Ada. Here Collins cites HeinI Bechert=s *oint that the
va6sa re*resent the onl% 4historical literature in the strict sense
of the +ord _in South Asia` *rior to the *eriod of the Musli)
in'asions.6 (his reference recalls Cant+ell S)ith=s obser'ation
that the Musli) in'asion also *redicated the first <Hindu= selfP
consciousness de)onstratin- once a-ain the inti)ate tie
bet+een conce*tions of histor% and the definition of a -rou*=s
identit%.
$S
Her)eneutics and historicit% are ineLtricabl% bound> the
'arious assu)*tions about histor% )ade b% researchers
deter)ine ho+ the% inter*ret oral and +ritten discourse of the
*resent as +ell as the *ast. A**roaches ta&en b% acade)ic
scholars of Asian reli-ions ha'e -reatl% i)*acted the li'in-
traditions the)sel'es. Bntil the ter) <Buddhis)= -ained currenc%
in the nineteenth centur% fe+ if an% Bur)ese thou-ht of
the)sel'es as en-a-ed in a co))on cause +ith the Ja*anese or
the (ibetans> )ost Bur)ese still do not. Fen (hera'Ada and
VaHra%Ana ha'e each e'ol'ed o'er thousands of %ears but the
tradition of *ic&in- a fe+ ele)ents out of these res*ecti'e
conteLts and )er-in- the) to-ether \ conce*tuall% or *racticall%
\ is a )odern one. In a 'er% real +a% Buddhis) and )odern
$S Collins .NN#a, NNP.#.. Accordin- to Collins an alternate and *erha*s )ore
basic )eanin- of va.msa is <ba)boo= a *lant +hich re*roduces b% sendin-
out a sin-le shoot> the Indic va6sa -enre +as *ri)aril% used to chronicle
linea-es of succession and thus +as +ell suited to rhetorical use b% the
)on&s of the MahA'ihAra. 4A *articular characteristic of the de'elo*)ent
of the MahA'ihArin tradition is its rich and 'aried collection6 of va6sa.
S)ith .NOW, S$.
#1 A STRON? ROOTS
Jestern conce*tions of it arose to-ether de*endent on one
another.
2ne of the first )aHor Jestern studies +as underta&en b% the
scholars of the Pali (eLt Societ% :P(S; in the later *art of the
nineteenth centur% +ho atte)*ted to unearth the ori-inal 4earl%
Buddhis)6 fro) the la%ers of (hera'Adin tradition.
$O
(.J. Gh%s
Da'ids and his associates at the P(S ha'e been indicted b%
)odern scholars for establishin- an a**roach that 4essentialiIed
Buddhis) in ter)s of its <*ristine teachin-s=.6
$W
Influenced b% the
a**roach of the P(S a nu)ber of )odern anal%ses includin-
notabl% Melford S*iro=s studies of Bur)a ha'e tried to
distin-uish the <Ereat (radition= of Buddhis) as re*resented in
the PAQ i teLts fro) the <later accretions= to *o*ular Buddhis)
the <little traditions= of ritual and <fol& su*erstitions=.
$N

Si-nificantl% the En-lish and Eer)an scholars +ho established
$O Bond .NW", .NS Kuotes Caroline A. Gh%sPDa'ids= fa'orable co)*arison of
teLtual scholars to archaeolo-ists +ho 4di- for the ori-inal (ro% beneath
)ore than one su*eri)*osed cit%.6
$W Hallise% .NN1, 0$ citin- Stanle% J. (a)biah .NW$ 9he Buddhist Saints #3 the
D#rest and the 1ult #3 -mulets :Ca)brid-e, Ca)brid-e Bni'ersit% Press;, O.
Hallise% reco-niIes (.J. Gh%sPDa'ids as an eLa)*le of +hat Said .NOW, .""
describes, the 4inau-ural hero... +ho car'ed... out a field of stud% and a
fa)il% of ideas +hich in turn could for) a co))unit% of scholars +hose
linea-e traditions and a)bitions +ere at once internal to the field and
eLternal enou-h for -eneral *resti-e.6
$N S*iro .NW" distin-uishes the <Ereat (radition= of 4nibbanic6 Buddhis) fro)
the <little traditions= of 4&a))atic6 and 4a*otro*aic6 Buddhis)
res*ecti'el% concerned +ith better rebirth and +ith 4)an=s +orldl%
+elfare.6 (hese )a% in fact be better understood as *oles boundin- a
s*ectru) of *ractices. I ha'e +itnessed 'ie+s and acti'ities at Kuite
dis*arate *oints alon- this continuu) dis*la%ed b% indi'idual )odern
Bur)ese Buddhists :.NNWP"##" C.E.; both la% and ordained. Stanle% J.
(a)biah +rites that dichoto)ies bet+een <Ereat= and <Dittle= traditions
4ha'e been )ista&en in t+o i)*ortant res*ects, first insufficient re-ard
+as *aid to the fact that -reat literar% tradition is itself 'aried and has been
both cu)ulati'e and chan-in-> secondl% it has for so)e curious reason not
been seen that conte)*orar% li'e reli-ion e'en that obser'ed in the
'illa-e incor*orates a -reat deal of the literar% tradition6 in Buddhism and
the Spirit 1ults #3 /#rth-east 9hailand :Ca)brid-e, Ca)brid-e Bni'ersit% Press
.NO#; 0P$ cited in Collins .NN#b, .O.
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A #)
the P(S +ere fir)l% e)bedded in their Protestant conteLt +ith
its reHection of reli-ious inter)ediaries do-)a and ritual in
fa'or of *ersonal reli-ion and scri*tural funda)entalis). (heir
translations and scholarshi* *ro'ided 4i)*etus6 for the
<Protestant Buddhis)= that flourished a)on- Sinhalese and
Bur)ese educated under the En-lish colonial s%ste) of the
nineteenth and earl% t+entieth centuries. (his )o'e)ent
4underlined and eLtended6 the traditional (hera'Adin
4conser'ati'e andVor refor)ist teLtPoriented selfPdefinition.6
1#

Modern educated urban <Buddhists= thus reHected reli-ious
tradition +ith its )%tholo-% and ritual atte)*tin- a return to an
<ori-inal= Buddhis) +hich the% asserted had been both <rational=
and <scientific=. Gichard Eo)brich *oints out ho+e'er that such
clai)s could onl% be )ade +ith reference to the En-lish
conce*ts e'en in Sinhala discourse.
1.
(he Vi*assanA )editation )o'e)ent lead b% the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ beca)e *o*ular in the conteLt of the <Buddhist Ge'i'al=
the *ostPinde*endence )anifestation of <Protestant Buddhis)= in
Bur)a. It has continued to e)*hasiIe scri*tural stud% and
)editati'e *ractice of the <ori-inal= teachin-s +hile discountin-
the i)*ortance of *o*ular <Buddhist= rituals and s*irit +orshi*.
(he Pri)e Minister of Bur)a durin- the Ge'i'al B Nu
consciousl% )odeled his -o'ern)ent=s *atrona-e of Buddhis) on
archet%*al fi-ures fro) Buddhist histor%. S*ecificall% the
accounts of co))unal recitations held to establish the <orthodoL=
teachin-s of the Buddha under E)*eror Aso&a in the third
1# Collins .NN#a, .#". (hou-h 4conser'ati'e andVor refor)ist6 )i-ht be a
confusin- descri*tion of the (hera'Ada it is true that the tradition defined
itself as conser'ati'e about the PAQi and as a refor) bac& to the earl%
ori-inal teachin-s.
1. Eo)brich .NN.b, .N1. Eo)brich and 2be%ese&ere in Buddhism 9rans3#rmed
Eo)brich and 2be%ese&ere .NWW, ""0P$ note that the 4)odern Sinhala
+ord for reli-ion is gama and for Buddhis) is Buddhgama.6 In one .NS1
*ublication an author re*resentin- <Buddhis)= as a <+a% of life= rather than
a <reli-ion= a**arentl% 4tried to translate his En-lish idea +ordPforP+ord
into Sinhala6 resultin- in 4a sentence that one can onl% translate literall%
as <(he Buddhist reli-ion is not a reli-ion=.6
#9 A STRON? ROOTS
centur% B.C.E. and a-ain under the Bur)ese &in- Ana+ratha
:.#$$POO C.E.; *ro'ided the i)*etus and the for) for the SiLth
SaT-hA%ana held in Gan-oon in .N1$ at +hich the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ +as a+arded the central role of Kuestioner.
1"
(he Bur)ese tradition to +hich the MahAsi Sa%ada+
belon-ed has not follo+ed )odern acade)ics= reHection of the
Co))entaries in inter*retin- the (i*iZa&a PAQi. At its eLtre)e
the search for an essential and <ori-inal= Buddhis) buried
beneath the co))entarial strata denies that the effecti'eness of
a teachin- de*ends on the hu)an conteLt. E'en -i'en a
co)*rehensi'e and historicall% accurate account of the Buddha=s
+ords there is no -uarantee that those +ords +ould )ean the
sa)e thin- in the conteLt of Euro*ean thou-ht. Modern scholars
ha'e 4no *ri'ile-ed access to totalit%6 but rather a**roach the
stud% of histor% +ith *articular obHecti'es and assu)*tions
conditioned b% their o+n situation.
10
Eeor-e Bond *oints out that
1" As pu%%ha'a <Kuestioner= the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +ould inKuire as to the
details and content of each PAQi teLt +hich his counter*art in this case the
Min-un (i*iZa&adhAra Sa%ada+ +ould furnish fro) )e)or% to be
confir)ed b% the asse)bl% of )on&s. (he MahAsi Sa%ada+=s *resti-ious
credentials )ade hi) uniKuel% suited to re*resent the Bur)ese <Buddhist
Ge'i'al= of +hich the SaT-hA%ana held in Gan-oon in .N1S +as the
4centre*iece.6 In *articular he +as a *roficient scholar of the PAQi teLts a
4+idel% res*ected6 teacher of satipa))hna )editation and a friend of B Nu
and his -o'ern)ent notes Mendelson .NO1, "SOPW. (he second centur%
B.C.E. success of the )on& Mo--ali*uttaPtissa and his ro%al *atron Aso&a in
*urif%in- the Sa>gha and <definin- orthodoL%= throu-h such a SaT-hA%ana
has 4shone as a )odel and an ins*irin- eLa)*le before e'er% later Buddhist
&in-6 +rites Gichard Eo)brich 4(he E'olution of the SaT-ha6 accordin-
to Eo)brich .NN.a, W0. Another such *air the Bur)ese &in- Ana+ratha and
the Mon )on& Shin Arahan are re*orted to ha'e established the
(hera'Ada in Bur)a b% *urif%in- the Sa>gha of the MahA%Ana and (antric
schools +hich *receded it there. (heir eLa)*le has i)*acted the
le-iti)ation of rulers in Bur)a throu-h toda%> 4a fa'orite Bur)ese
)eta*hor is that the -reat &in- shines li&e the res*lendent -olden sun and
he should be )atched b% a *ure and radiant )oon of a )on&hood li'in- b%
the orthodoL teachin-s of the Buddha6 notes 7er-uson .NOW, SO.
10 (he Kuotation here is abstracted fro) Steiner .NNW, 0#N that since
inter*retation de*ends on indi'iduals= *artial descri*tions of the +orld
there can be no 4<co)*lete translation= i.e. a definiti'e insi-ht into and
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A #:
if )ore than t+ent% schools of thou-ht arose throu-h
disa-ree)ents o'er +hat constituted the <ori-inal= teachin-s Hust
in the first fe+ hundred %ears after the Buddha=s parinibbna it
see)s unli&el% that )odern scholarshi* re)o'ed b% t+o
)illennia of social and *hiloso*hical chan-e +ill be able to do
)uch better.
If tr%in- to unco'er so)e <essential= or <ori-inal= for)ulation
underneath 'arious traditions is not a 'alid a**roach to the
di'erse teachin-s ascribed to <the Buddha= +hat are the
alternati'esU In order to understand the *luralit% of different
traditions Bond ad'ocates careful stud% of the cu)ulati'e
tradition of co))entarial )aterial as +ell as the canonical teLts.
Man% (hera'Adins ha'e re-arded the classical Co))entaries as
the authoritati'e indeed indis*ensable eLe-esis of the PAQ i
(i*iZa&a. Modern Bur)ese )on&s often ascribe these
co))entaries to full% a+a&ened arahats a)on- the Buddha=s
i))ediate disci*les. (here is thus a stron- tendenc% to re-ard as
corru*ted those canonical teLts that +ould contradict the
assertions of the co))entators. A fe+ *o+erful )on&s ha'e
ta&en issue +ith this eLtre)e stance ho+e'er notabl% the
MahAsi Sa%ada+. (he (hera'Adin co))entators a**arentl%
intended their +ritin-s in the -))ha'ath \ literall% <discussions
on the )eanin-= \ )ore as eL*lorations than absolute state)ents
of truth accordin- to Jarder=s readin-.
3+e ha'e in these ancient <discussions on the )eanin-= not a
do-)atic s%ste) but an enKuir% carried on b% these old teachers
of the school into the real nature of thin-s. (he% build on +hat
has co)e do+n to the) but the% also see& to eLtend and i)*ro'e
it and so)e conclusions the% offer as tentati'e or contro'ersial.
1$
Dater scholars in Southeast Asia )a% not al+a%s ha'e
understood these +or&s in the +a% the% +ere ori-inall% intended
-eneraliIation of the +a% in +hich an% hu)an bein- relates +ord to
obHect.6
1$ Jarder "###, 0.# *oints to e)*irical eL*lorations such as obser'ations of
ho+ sound tra'els at DhsA 0.0.
1; A STRON? ROOTS
accordin- to their nati'e inter*reti'e *rinci*les. It is clear in an%
case that the Co))entaries ha'e -reatl% influenced +hat
(hera'Adins ha'e ta&en to be the *ractice and that )odern
scholars ne-lect these +or&s at the ris& of failin- to
understandin- ho+ the tradition has understood itself.
(he (hera'Adin co))entators e)*lo%ed a *articular
historicist a**roach to the teLts and the tradition. (he
Co))entaries use a ter) fro) the PAQ i to s*ecif% the linea-e of
teachin- *ractice and realiIation ori-inatin- +ith the Buddha
and concerned +ith <a+a&enin-=, Buddha-Ssana. I ha'e alread%
discussed the i)*ortance of Dhamma-&inaya and pa)i%%a-samupd
as anal%tical conce*ts nati'e to the tradition itself. Buddha-Ssana
is the third such conce*tual tool that I su--est ado*tin- in order
to co)e to an authentic understandin- of the trans)ission of the
MahAsi Sa%ada+=s teachin-s across ti)e and cultural differences.
In the PaQi <sAsana= refers to an 4order )essa-e or
teachin-.6
11
Here the truth of ho+ thin-s are is distin-uished
fro) the co))unication of these truths. Gichard Eo)brich
contends that 4the Buddha too& a nonPessentialist 'ie+ of
Buddhis) itself6 se*aratin- 4the content of the teachin-s the
dharma fro) their institutionaliIation +hich in the (hera'Ada
tradition ca)e to be called ssana.6
1S
In the <Discourse on the
2rder of (hin-s= the Buddha elaborates on his direct &no+led-e
of realit% describin- three uni'ersal characteristics of
*heno)ena, i)*er)anence ani%%a the sufferin- this lac& of
reliabilit% en-enders du''ha and the lac& of solid lastin-
identit% +ithin this fluL anatt.
(he Blessed 2ne said <Jhether or not there is the arisin- of
(athA-atas _Buddhas` this *ro*ert% stands \ this steadfastness of
the Dha))a this orderliness of the Dha))a, All *rocesses are
inconstant... stressful... notPself... (he (atha-ata directl% a+a&ens
to that brea&s throu-h to that. Directl% a+a&enin- 5 brea&in-
throu-h to that he declares it teaches it describes it sets it
11 Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4sAsana6 O#O.
1S Eo)brich .NNS, $.
forth. He re'eals it eL*lains it 5 )a&es it *lain, All *rocesses are
inconstant... stressful... notPself...
1O
2ne +ho has *enetrated these truths can then eL*lain the)
to others as +ell as the *ath to reach this realiIation. In a fe+
PAQ i discourses the Buddha *redicted ho+ lon- such <true
teachin-s= +ould last and the causes that +ould lead to the
4lon-e'it% of the true Dha))a.6
1W
In discussin- this *oint
co))entators used the ter) <ssana= in the sense of the li'in-
tradition outlinin- its rise continuation and decline.
1N
(he Co))entaries elaborate three as*ects of the Buddha-
Ssana, :.; the pariyatti ssana the theoretical stud% of the
teachin-s> :"; the pa)ipatti ssana the *ractical a**lication of the
teachin-s> and :0; the pa)ivedha ssana the realiIation of the
teachin-s. 4If (hera'Ada Buddhists +ant to refer to Buddhis) not
Hust as a doctrine but as a *heno)enon in histor% a +hole
reli-ion the% usuall% call it the SAsana the (eachin-6 Eo)brich
obser'es.
S#
(he Buddha-Ssana includes teachin-s for a+a&enin-
trans)itted throu-h a *rocess of co))unication and
inter*retation fro) teacher to student fro) the ti)e of the
Buddha throu-h to toda% as +ell as the historical a**lication of
these teachin-s and the a+a&enin-s that ha'e follo+ed. Bsin-
this sense the Bur)ese teacher Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a +hile I +as
actin- as his inter*reter recentl% s*o&e of ho+ his *artnershi*
+ith A)erican teachers benefits the Satipa)) hna Ssana +hich
he defined as
the *rocess of establishin- of the Buddha=s true dhamma the
*eaceful true dhamma in the hearts of all the +o)en and )en of
1O Dha))aPni%a)aVB**AdA Sutta :A.III..0O;XI"WSY trans. (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu. (hese lin-uistic for)ulations are of course re*resentations of the
truth not the *rinci*les the)sel'es :thou-h subHect to the);.
1W E.-. Eota)i Sutta :A.VIII.1.;XIV"OWY> Saddha))a**atir9*a&a Sutta
:S.^VI..0;XII""1Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
1N SA. ^VI..0XII"#"ffY
S# Eo)brich .NN.b, 0.
10 A STRON? ROOTS
the +orld of all the hu)an bein-s here _on Earth`. Jhen this is
successful the earth beco)es )ore and )ore *eaceful.
S.
(he Ssana is an historical *heno)enon a tradition of
inter*retation and a**lication that chan-es o'er ti)e. Je can
use the ter) ssana to refer to +hat Jilfred Cant+ell S)ith calls
a 4cu)ulati'e tradition6, causall% connected instances of
her)eneutical institutions. Such an a**roach can eL*lore
historical de'elo*)ents +ithout offendin- the faith of adherents
of an% reli-ion b% allo+infor success in an% tradition as that
teachin- defines it. (his *er)its an eLa)ination of the Bur)ese
(hera'Ada based not on the Kualit% or authenticit% of realiIations
+ithin an% *articular linea-e or of an% *articular *erson but
rather on the 4-enetic bond of continuit% and3 the sociolo-ical
one of cohesion.6 (hus +e can 'ie+ 'arious *ractices 4as bein-
historicall% related +ithout necessaril% bein- unifor)> for the
eListential association no essential identit% is reKuired :or
denied;. (he historical realit% can thus be seiIed.6
S"
A 6S4$llf+l A&&roa'%8
I ha'e tried here to de'elo* an a**roach to the trans)ission
of the MahAsi s%ste) based on three conce*ts nati'e to the
tradition itself, the <Doctrine and Disci*line= :Dhamma-&inaya;
de*endent coParisin- :pa)i%%a-samuppda; and a <cu)ulati'e
tradition= of a+a&enin- :Buddha-Ssana;. Bsin- these three
to-ether +e can describe the arisin- of the *ractice to-ether
+ith and de*endent on *resent conditions and their antecedents
throu-h a historicall% continuous and culturall% cohesi'e *rocess
of inter*retation and trans)ission. (his a**roach resonates +ell
+ith so)e recent scholarshi* on the earl% histor% of the Buddha=s
S. B Da&&ha?a K%as+a 7orei-n Mo-i Getreat Sa-ain- Hills B**er Bur)a
Januar% "##".
S" S)ith .NOW, .SO.
teachin-s. (he +or& of Ste'e Collins includin- an article 42n the
Ver% Idea of the Pali Canon6 has con'incin-l% de)onstrated that
earl% (hera'Adin understandin-s +ere sha*ed b% their historical
conteLt. In this a**roach Collins follo+s his doctoral su*er'isor
Gichard Eo)brich.
(o see the -enesis of the Buddha=s teachin-s as conditioned b%
the reli-ious )ilieu in +hich it arose is to ado*t a trul% Buddhist
'ie+*oint +hich I also belie'e to be -ood historio-ra*h%.
S0
A fe+ scholars ha'e reflected on ho+ 'arious a**roaches to
teLtual inter*retation influence the understandin- of Buddhist
histor%. At least until recentl% )odern acade)ics ha'e )ainl%
e)*lo%ed an a**roach to histor% that assu)ed their o+n
*ri'ile-ed <scientific= 'ie+ of Buddhis). Such scholars ha'e used
the teLtPcritical a**roach in order to discount as <s*urious= for
instance the teLts <concernin- dha))a= +hich de'elo*ed out of
the earl% mti'a lists na)el% Abhidha))a. Ho+e'er Hud-in-
ancient teLts based on our o+n *eculiar set of 'alues )a% tells us
)ore about +hat +e belie'e than about +hat the Buddha
belie'ed. As Steiner *uts it 4+e are -ro+in- +ar% of the
her)eneutic circularit% +hich )a% sub'ert the deci*her)ent of
a )essa-e fro) the *ast or fro) culturalPsocial conteLts radicall%
alien to our o+n.6
S$
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu -i'es a radical critiKue of
Jestern scholars= nu)erous atte)*ts to a**l% the historical
)ethod to the PAQi testin- +hether these teLts are an
authoritati'e record of the Buddha=s o+n +ords. Such efforts he
sa%s ha'e resulted in 4a )ass of )inor facts and *robabilities \
sho+in- that the Pali Canon is pr#bably the closest detailed record
+e ha'e of the Buddha=s teachin-s \ but nothin- )ore certain
than that.6 (hanissaro su--ests that such inconclusi'e findin-s
de)onstrate 4the inadeKuac% of the historical )ethod as a tool
for ascertainin- the Dha))a6 rather than indicatin- that the
teachin-s of the PAQi are not authentic on their o+n ter)s.
S1
S0 Eo)brich .NNS, .$.
S$ Steiner .NNW, 0O$.
S1 (hanissaro "##"b.
15 A STRON? ROOTS
Modern atte)*ts to unearth the ori-inal <earl% Buddhis)=
fro) the la%ers of (hera'Adin :or other; traditions lar-el%
assu)e a linear conce*tion of histor% that belon-s to the ErecoP
Judaic tradition. (he Hebre+s sa+ ti)e as *ro-ressin- fro) the
)o)ent of creation throu-h to a final tele#s. (he ci'iliIations of
India that *redated the ar%ans on the other hand understood
the *rocess of histor% as a be-innin-less and endless round. (his
c%clical understandin- resurfaced in the ideals of the renunciate
)o'e)ent "1## %ears a-o and beca)e e)bedded throu-hout the
discourses of the PAQ i. 7ro) this *ers*ecti'e <earl%= and <late= are
not such i)*ortant distinctions. I su--est belo+ that a *articular
cu)ulati'e tradition is defined )ore b% the +a% it selects and
inter*rets infor)ation than b% the content of an% *articular
selection that the efficac% of a bod% of teachin- and *ractice at
achie'in- its stated -oals deri'es )ore fro) its her)eneutic
*rinci*les than fro) the subHects it focuses on.
SS
If so a tradition
that defines authenticit% as a function of *osition in ti)e
accordin- the Jestern historical :teLtPcritical; )ethod is a
disci*line of Histor% rather than a buddha-ssana.
Jonathan Jalters *oints out that the 4final results of an
enter*rise de'oted entirel% to Hud-in- suttas on the basis of
standards +hich do not belon- to the) turns out to be handP
+rin-in- uneas% co)*ro)ise and ennui.6 Jalters de)onstrates
ho+ PAQi discourses can be seen as <social facts= of the cultural
conteLts that *roduced the). (hus rather than ta&in- a teLt at
face 'alue )odern scholars can read it as a reflection of the
interests and concerns that *ro)*ted the co)*osition or later
inter*retations of the teLt.
SO
7ollo+in- this a**roach it )i-ht
SS Please see the discussion on *.WW.
SO Jalters .NNN, "1N. He anal%Ies four a**roaches be-innin- +ith the
<2rientalist= 4historical source )ode.6 Jalters describes a second )ode,
eLa)ination of a sutta as a 4teLt of its da%6 reflectin- discourse 4to and
about outsiders6 and a third, 4teLtual +hole )ode6 eLe)*lified b% Ste'e
Collin=s +or& focusin- on e'idence of later co)*osition in the conteLt of
inter*retation b% fello+ Buddhists. (he fourth 4later readin- )ode6 +ould
eLa)ine e'idence of +hich and ho+ teLts ha'e been inter*reted b% the
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 1#
*ro'e re+ardin- to loo& carefull% at those discourses that the
historical )ethod itself +ould su--est belon- to the )ost recent
Buddha. (he *rinci*les that I find i)*licit and eL*licit in these
teLts include a -uideline \ different fro) that of Jestern Histor%
\ for deter)inin- +hich *arts of the PAQi teLts should be tau-ht
as authentic Dha))a, that +hich leads to a+a&enin-.
SW
John Maraldo has *ointed to the 4*ossibilit% of a Buddhist
sense of histor%6 +ritin- that acade)ics 4should not hesitate to
articulate Buddhist notions of histor% and their rele'ance for
)odern buddholo-%.6 K. G. Nor)an a late *resident of the P(S
ar-ued for 4the need to be i)*artial +hich is essential if one is to
be accurate in one=s translation.6
SN
(he +ord <i)*artial= ho+e'er
in Jestern scholarshi* often co'ers for <*artial to the 'alues of
the Euro*ean Enli-hten)ent= as o**osed to an% other a**roach
to &no+led-e and understandin-. E'er% inter*reter brin-s so)e
set of 'alues to their +or&. Geferrin- to Martin Heide--er=s *oint
that an% hu)an understandin- arises in a *articular historical
conteLt Maraldo ar-ues that )odern scholars
need to reflect u*on our o+n <her)eneutical strate-ies= and our
o+n <her)eneutical situation= 'isPhP'is the tradition if +e are to
do Hustice to the fi-ures and teLts that +e in'esti-ate.
O#
Most scholarshi* on <Buddhis) in A)erica= has not addressed
these )ethodolo-ical issues.
O.
I &no+ of no inPde*th
later tradition.
SW E.-. Siisa*a Sutta Kuoted on *a-e ...
SN Nor)an .NW$, WS 4(here are undoubtedl% so)e +ho translate because the%
+ish to *rosel%tiIe. (he% re-ard the contents of the _PAQi` teLts as re'ealed
truths +hich the% +ish to )a&e &no+n to others in order to *ersuade the)
to Hoin their reli-ion. It is debatable ho+ far this can be consistent +ith the
need to be i)*artial +hich is essential if one is to be accurate in one=s
translation.6
O# Maraldo .NWS, $.P".
O. Cole)an "##., .# does include a 'er% brief discussion of +h% the author
4decided to loo& at this ne+ Buddhis) as a +hole6 but other+ise see)s not
to address the issue of )ethod as +ell as so)e the )ost recent and
*enetrati'e scholarshi* in this field. In his introduction Sea-er .NNN, iL
+rites that 4in a boo& for -eneral readershi* there is no call for eLtensi'e
reflection on )ethodolo-% or a len-th% eLa)ination of the contributions of
11 A STRON? ROOTS
eLa)inations of (hera'Adin her)eneutics in the A)erican
conteLt no anal%ses of ho+ *eo*le nati'e to the liberal
*hiloso*hical en'iron)ent of )odern A)erica are -oin- about
the eLe-esis and understandin- of this conser'ati'e tradition.
O"

Acade)ic interest in the her)eneutical )ethods of Buddhist
traditions in Asia is stron- but +ith 'er% fe+ eLce*tions nonP
MahA%Ana traditions ha'e been ne-lected.
O0
7or its )ethodolo-%
as for its na)e the field of Buddhist Her)eneutics has dra+n on
the Euro*ean tradition of her)eneutics +hich de'elo*ed fro)
strate-ies of Biblical eLe-esis. Maraldo critiKues the
unselfconscious a**lication of such theories to Asian histor% and
ad'ocates an eLa)ination of acade)ic scholars= o+n +a%s of
understandin- Buddhist traditions. (his enter*rise is critical I
earlier scholars.6 E'en Jillia)s and jueen .NNN in a 'olu)e entitled
-meri%an Buddhism5 "eth#ds and Dindings in +e%ent S%h#larship do not *ro'ide
an eL*licit *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& for thier eLa)ination of 4Modes of
Dhar)a (rans)ission.6 Prebish .NNN does include an interestin- discussion
of Jestern scholars= a**roaches to <Buddhis)=. Batchelor "###, .#NP.."
de'elo*s a so*histicated historical a**roach to Buddhis) that 4re'eals
each of its for)s to lac& a solid fiLed essence6 as he describes it.
Bnfortunatel% her)eneutical issues are not addressed eL*licitl% in
Batchelor .NN$ 9he -wa'ening O3 9he =est5 9he 7n%#unter O3 Buddhism -nd
=estern 1ulture thou-h the cha*ter on 4Sati*aZZhAna, Mindful A+areness6
contains so)e insi-htful co))ents about the Vi*assanA co))unities in
Euro*e and the Bnited States.
O" Nu)rich .NNS Old =isd#m in the /ew =#rld5 -meri%aniEati#n in 9w# Immigrant
9heravada Buddhist 9emples, is *ri)aril% a sociolo-ical anal%sis of
co))unities +hich ha'e i)*orted their entire *hiloso*hical conteLt fro)
Asia> the focus is thus on ho+ (hais and Sri DaT&ans are ada*tin- their
reli-ious establish)ents to the B.S. (hou-h Nu)rich does touch on an
interestin- *heno)enon of 4*arallel con-re-ations6 of A)erican con'erts
this +or& is onl% *eri*herall% rele'ant to the Kuestion of ho+ (hera'Adin
)editation *ractices are inter*reted b% and for nati'ePborn A)ericans.
(+or&o' .NWN and Do*eI .NNW discuss inter*retations of t+o MahA%Ana
traditions in )odern A)erica. (+eed .NN" -i'es an historical account of
9he -meri%an 7n%#unter with Buddhism FGHH-FIFJ5 &i%t#rian 1ulture and the
<imits #3 Dissent.
O0 (he antholo-% Buddhist ;ermeneuti%s edited b% Do*eI .NWW is the lar-est
bod% of +or& %et in this field. Aside fro) so)e stra% co))ents in
Da)otte=s sur'e% onl% one out of t+el'e cha*ters Bond=s 4(he Eradual
Path6 deals +ith a nonPMahA%Ana tradition.
Inter&ret$ng !$stor. A 1)
thin& not onl% for acade)ics but also for *ractitioners to
understand their o+n traditions. Since *eo*le understand
Dhamma-&inaya in different +a%s and since +hat indi'iduals
*ractice de*ends on +hat the% ta&e to be the authoritati'e
teachin-s the *rocesses of inter*retin- and of en-a-in- the
tradition are ineLtricabl% bound.
(eLt and conteLt are bound to-ether in a relationshi* of
)utual eLchan-e. (he -reat -enerousit% and hi-h )oralit% of the
Bur)ese *eo*le are testi)on% to the enor)ous i)*act teLts can
ha'e on sha*in- the societ% that )aintains the). (he sheer
di'ersit% of traditions toda% illustrates that +hat is ta&en to be
Dhamma-&inaya de*ends 'er% )uch on the hu)an conteLt.
Modern scholarshi* has sho+n ho+ later historical de'elo*)ents
ha'e sha*ed +hich earl% teLts are -i'en authorit%. Harold
Co+ard +rites that 4the relationshi* bet+een a reli-ious
co))unit% and its scri*ture is co)*leL reci*rocal and3 central
to the nor)ati'e selfPdefinition of a reli-ion.6
O$
Modern readin-s
b% scholars and *ractitioners of the (hera'Ada also eLhibit this
&ind of co)*leL interaction, inter*retation of the teLts and of
eL*eriences sha*es the definition of the tradition +hich in turn
sha*es later understandin-s. Steiner reco-niIes that 4such
circularit%3 is an ine'itable *erha*s necessar% attribute of an%
discourse of an% articulate co))entar% +hose obHect is itself
<teLtual=.6
O1
(o act +ithin such a reci*rocal relationshi* +e )ust ta&e
care. An%thin- done to the teLt alters the culture that surrounds
it and an% chan-e in the social en'iron)ent affects ho+ the teLt
is inter*reted. (his holistic understandin- of the Ssana has
ins*ired so)e of us in recent %ears to return to the source of the
MahAsi tradition oursel'es and to *ro'ide su**ort for others to
co)e and *ractice in Bur)a as +ell. B% *racticin- the classical
(hera'Adin teachin-s in the Bur)ese conteLt +e atte)*t to
O$ Co+ard .NN", ."N.
O1 Steiner .NOW, . in the article 4(eLt and ConteLt.K
19 A STRON? ROOTS
&no+ the tradition as )uch as *ossible on its o+n ter)s to *a%
attention and *a% res*ect to this culture that has so benefited us.
A si)ilar &ind of reci*rocit% is necessar% as +ell in acade)ic
stud% of the (hera'Ada, if the scholarl% co))unit% dra+s
infor)ation and &no+led-e fro) this tradition it is incu)bent
on us to tr% to understand and *resent the teachin-s on their
o+n ter)s. (o )isre*resent the tradition b% i)*osin- Jestern
assu)*tions on it is not onl% *oor scholarshi* it directl% affects
the obHect of our stud%.
At least one *assa-e in the PAQ i describes ho+ effecti'e
*ractice de*ends on upya 'usal# a <s&illful a**roach=.
OS
If
*eo*le=s understandin- of Dhamma-&inaya defines the tradition of
*ractice acade)ics and )editation teachers )ust e)*lo% a
si)ilar t%*e of care in order to inter*ret the MahAsi Sa%ada+=s
teachin-s res*ectfull% and res*onsibl%. In anal%Iin- the
trans)ission fro) Bur)a to Barre I tr% to e)*lo% a <s&illful
a**roach= that is rooted the (hera'Adin tradition itself.
S*ecificall% I describe the *ractice as it arises to-ether +ith and
de*endent on both *resent conditions at IMS and the <cu)ulati'e
tradition= that has been trans)itted and inter*reted in South and
Southeast Asia for the *ast t+o and a half )illennia.
OS E.-. Adhi-a))a Sutta :A.VI.ON;XIII$0.Y +here the ter) is listed alon- +ith
ya 'usal# and apya 'usal# <s&illful -oin-= and <s&illful co)in-=. (hou-h
<upya 'usal#= is often translated as <s&illful )eans= the -loss <s&illful
a**roach= actuall% follo+s )ore directl% fro) the ter)=s et%)olo-% and
conteLt in the PAQ i. Gh%s Da'ids .NNN s.v. 4u*A%a6 .$N -i'es the *ri)ar%
)eanin- as 4a**roach6 thou-h it does note fi-urati'e uses, 4+a% )eans
eL*edient strata-e).6
III
Trans/lat$on
t%e &ro'ess of $nter&retat$on an- $ts a+t%ent$' 'o*&let$on
Jatchin- and *artici*atin- in inter*retation at )editation
retreats o'er the *ast fi'e %ears I ha'e found a ran-e of st%les.
2n the one eLtre)e are literal +ord for +ord renderin-s +here
the inter*reter *ic&s the )ost a**ro*riate En-lish -loss to )atch
the ori-inal Bur)ese and i-nores the si-nificant differences
bet+een A)erican and Bur)ese eL*ectations for sentence
structure or-aniIation of thou-hts a)ount of re*etition
*olitical correctness and so on. 2n the other eLtre)e Asian
teachers= state)ents so)eti)es see) to be used as a s*rin-board
for inter*reters to es*ouse their o+n 'ie+s. (here is a ran-e of
o*tions bet+een literal renderin- and total recreation. No )atter
+here alon- this s*ectru) the inter*reter chooses to +or&
ho+e'er the )eanin- of the ori-inal teLt in its ori-inal lin-uistic
conteLt is altered e'er% ti)e it is )o'ed into the 'ocabular% of a
different culture.
.
Jord for +ord inter*retation is not necessaril%
. Steiner .NNW, $0O 4(here is bet+een <translation *ro*er= and
<trans)utation= a 'ast terrain of <*artial transfor)ation=. (he 'erbal si-ns
in the ori-inal )essa-e or state)ent are )odified b% one of a )ultitude of
)eans or b% a co)bination of )eans. (hese include *ara*hrase -ra*hic
illustration *astiche i)itation the)atic 'ariation *arod% citation in a
su**ortin- or under)inin- conteLt false attribution :accidental or
deliberate; *la-iaris) colla-e and )an% others. (his Ione of *artial
transfor)ation of deri'ation of alternate restate)ent deter)ines )uch of
our sensibilit% and literac%. It is Kuite si)*l% the )atriL of culture3 (o
); A STRON? ROOTS
)ore true to the ori-inal )eanin- than +hat Steiner calls
4a**ro*riate recreation6 often Kuite the o**osite. 7or instance
Bur)ese )on&s tend to e)*hasiIe a *articular *oint b%
re*eatin- it nearl% 'erbati) )an% ti)es in the sa)e tal&>
A)erican s*ea&ers &no+ that the% +ill bore the audience or
insult their listeners= intelli-ence if the% re*eat the)sel'es
+ithout 'ar%in- ho+ the% *hrase their *oints. In such cases
inter*reters are forced to )a&e choices bet+een co))unicatin-
+hat the% thin& the teacher intended and renderin- the Bur)ese
+ord for +ord.
Jith the luLur% of ti)e reference to dictionaries and other
resources translation of a +ritten teLt can achie'e so)e
*recision if ne'er *erfection. Si)ultaneous or consecuti'e
inter*retation of s*o&en discourse is hurried and ineLact in
co)*arison thou-h the her)eneutic )otion is si)ilar. An
analo-ous *rocess is in'ol'ed +hen A)ericans trained b% Asian
)editation )asters teach in turn to A)erican students.
(eachers inter*ret fro) and throu-h the understandin-s the%
ha'e de'elo*ed in their o+n *ractice. (he challen-es for such
dee* trans)ission are 'er% si)ilar to those for consecuti'e
inter*retation and +ritten translation. Jhether one is renderin-
+ords s*o&en )o)ents before or understandin-s of ancient
teachin-s de'elo*ed o'er %ears of *ersonal eL*erience
(he craft of the translator is3 dee*l% a)bi'alent, it is eLercised
in a radical tension bet+een i)*ulses to facsi)ile and i)*ulses
to a**ro*riate recreation. In a 'er% s*ecific +a% the translator
<rePeL*eriences= the e'olution of lan-ua-e itself the a)bi'alence
of the relations bet+een lan-ua-e and +orld bet+een
<lan-ua-es= and <+orlds=.
"
+hat eLtent is culture the translation and re+ordin- of *re'ious )eanin-U6
And 0.N 4(he *erennial distinction bet+een literalis) *ara*hrase and
free i)itation turns out to be +holl% contin-ent. It has no *recision or
*hiloso*hic basis. It o'erloo&s the &e% fact that a fourfold hermeneia
Aristotle=s ter) for discourse +hich si-nifies because it inter*rets is
conce*tuall% and *racticall% inherent in e'en the rudi)ents of
translation.6
" Steiner .NNW, "$S.
Trans/lat$on A )1
If each indi'idual occu*ies a different <+orld of eL*erience= if
each of us has sli-htl% different associations +ith +ords then
e'er% inter*retation in'ol'es )otion and chan-e.
0
4An% )odel of
co))unication is at the sa)e ti)e a )odel of transPlation of a
'ertical or horiIontal transfer of si-nificance6 Steiner obser'es
referrin- to the ter)=s deri'ation throu-h 7rench fro) the Datin
trns- and ltus the *ast *artici*le of 3erre :<to bear=; thus <borne
across=.
$
(o deter)ine ho+ their )essa-e <-ets across=
)editation )asters )a&e conscious and unconscious choices in
renderin- and in lea'in- unsaid as*ects of the tradition the%
ha'e inherited. If so teachin- of Dhamma-&inaya )ust in'ol'e
her)eneutics \ +hat Steiner calls the 4disci*lined understandin-
of understandin-6 \ be it i)*licit or eL*licit.
1
Ho+ do *eo*le -o about inter*retin- bet+een hu)an
conteLtsU Steiner for one doubts that there can e'er be 4in an%
ri-orous sense of the ter) a <theor% of translation=.6 No one can
full% understand ho+ an% other *erson 4relates +ord to obHect6
so there can be no i)*artial assess)ent of inter*retation in
-eneral. Nonetheless the s&etch of translation bet+een
lan-ua-es that Steiner does 'enture *ro'es Kuite illu)inatin-
and useful for anal%Iin- the *ractice of this 4eLact art.6
S
Dra+in- on the Euro*ean tradition of translation studies
Steiner describes four sta-es in the *rocess of inter*retation
+hat he calls the 4her)eneutic )otion.6 An inter*reter be-ins b%
0 Please see ananda=s definition of l#'asa**. on *..ON.
$ Steiner .NNW, $O> -meri%an ;eritage Di%ti#nary #3 the 7nglish <anguage 0rd ed.
:Boston, Hou-hton Mifflin .NN"; s.v. 4translate6 .N#" 4Middle En-lish
translaten fro) 2ld _si%` 7rench translater fro) Datin trnsltus *ast
*artici*le of trns3erre to transfer, Ptrns Ptrans b ltus brou-ht.6 Accordin-
to the a**endiL on 4IndoPEuro*ean Goots6 "."N the Datin 3erre and En-lish
<bear= are both deri'ed fro) *rotoPIndoPEuro*ean ?bher a burden or load.
Accordin- to Go% Jri-ht translater +as used in Middle not 2ld 7rench.
1 Steiner .NOW, .. (hou-h Paul Gicoeur a)on- others uses the ter)
<her)eneutics= eLclusi'el% to refer to eL*licit )ethodolo-% of
inter*retation the definition used here follo+s Steiner and recent
scholarshi* in Buddhist studies.
S Steiner .NNW, 0...
)0 A STRON? ROOTS
ad'ancin- to+ards
the undeci*hered
teLt *resu)in-
so)e 'alue there.
NeLt is the 4in'asi'e
and eLhausti'e6
a**ro*riation of
)eanin- fro) the
source +hich
dis*els the )%stiKue
of the un&no+n and
lea'es the teLt
eL*osed to
eLa)ination. (he
inter*reter then
brin-s the )eanin- ho)e assi)ilatin- forei-n s%)bols and ideas
into the nati'e culture and lan-ua-e. Callin- so)ethin- a
translation assu)es these three, a**roach deci*her)ent and
renderin- in a ne+ ton-ue. (his )uch )a% be so)e+hat ob'ious.
Steiner=s -reat contribution lies in his reco-nition of the
fourth and final *art of the <her)eneutic )otion=. It is throu-h a
return to the source throu-h fulfillin- unfulfilled *otential as
+ell as throu-h re'ealin- and de)onstratin- the ori-inal=s o+n
stren-ths that a renderin- beco)es authentic. As +e eLa)ine
the intricacies of this fourfold *rocess and es*eciall% as +e
eLtend Steiner=s anal%sis to the *rocess of dee* trans)ission it is
i)*ortant to re)e)ber that this analo-% is of course an
abstraction and a si)*lification.
(he relations of a teLt to its translations i)itations the)atic
'ariants e'en *arodies are too di'erse to allo+ of an% sin-le
theoretic definitional sche)e. (he% cate-oriIe the entire
Kuestion of the )eanin- of )eanin- in ti)e of the eListence and
effects of the lin-uistic fact outside its s*ecific initial for). But
Trans/lat$on A )2
there can be no doubt that echo enriches that it is )ore than
shado+ and inert si)ulacru).
O
I*balan'e
(he first )o'e)ent Steiner obser'es is one of 4initiati'e
trust.6 (he translator )ust *osit so)e si-nificance so)e
understandin- to be -ained b% deci*herin- the teLt. (he
'ulnerabilit% here is si)ilar in )an% +a%s to that of an
indi'idual=s or a societ%=s introduction to the teachin-s of
Dhamma-&inaya. In the be-innin- sta-es of the *ractice as in
those of translation 4the donation of trust re)ains ontolo-icall%
s*ontaneous and antici*ates *roof often b% a lon- arduous -a*.6
(hou-h this initiation is often ta&en for -ranted it is not
necessaril% selfPe'ident that translation bet+een t+o 'er%
different s%ste)s of lan-ua-e and culture is e'en *ossible. (he
reKuisite trust
deri'es fro) a seKuence of *heno)enolo-ical assu)*tions about
the coherence of the +orld about the *resence of )eanin- in
'er% different *erha*s for)all% antithetical se)antic s%ste)s
about the 'alidit% of analo-% and *arallel.
W
(rans)ission be-ins +ith a tentati'e faith in the source
+hose 'alue is %et unconfir)ed.
(he second )o'e)ent of translation is 4incursi'e and
eLtracti'e6 +rites Steiner. Here he follo+s Heide--er=s anal%sis
of understandin- as 'iolent and 4inherentl% a**ro*riati'e.6 (he
translator of teLts li&e the student of the Buddha=s teachin-s
)ust <-ras*= the )eanin-. In doin- so each brea&s o*en the shell
of eLotic <otherness= lea'in- the ori-inal eL*osed to 'ie+ to
critiKue as +ell as to a**reciation.
O Steiner .NNW, 0.O.
W Steiner .NNW, 0."P0.
)5 A STRON? ROOTS
E'er% schoolchild but also the e)inent translator +ill note the
shift in substanti'e *resence +hich follo+s on a *rotracted or
difficult eLercise in translation, the teLt in the other lan-ua-e
has beco)e al)ost )ateriall% thinner the li-ht see)s to *ass
unhindered throu-h its loosened fibres. 7or a s*ell the densit% of
hostile or seducti'e <otherness= is dissi*ated.
N
Inter*retation bet+een lan-ua-es al)ost b% definition
)a&es ideas fro) one societ% a'ailable to another. Modern
A)erican hi-h schools= use of <Indian= )ascots +ith their
lobsterPred s&in feather headdresses and to)aha+&s is onl% one
of the )ost recent instances in a lon- histor% of Euro*eans=
a**ro*riation of the Nati'e A)ericans= +orld:s;, their land their
s%)bols their li'es. Indeed cultural a**ro*riation is occasionall%
*h%sicall% 'iolent and rarel% is it an eKual eLchan-e. Ja% Earfield
*oints out that in discussions of *hiloso*h% 4EuroPA)erican
acade)ics )eet (ibetan or Indian acade)ics on ter)s of uneKual
*o+er.6 Earfield *oints to not onl% the dis*arit% in ter)s of
access to funds librar% resources technolo-% and *ublishin-
but also to the fact that 4)ost of the *rofessional literature on
(ibetan *hiloso*h% is *ublished in En-lish Italian or Eer)an
lan-ua-es that )an% of the )ost distin-uished (ibetan
*hiloso*hers neither read nor s*ea&.6
.#
All as*ects and traditions
of <A)erican Buddhis)= are born of i)*ortation and not e'er%
instance has been reci*rocated.
Marco Polo and his conte)*oraries *ro'ided Euro*eans +ith
the first *o*ular accounts of India and Asia> the eLotic i)a-es of
*eace har)on% and s*iritual riches *roHected east+ard since
that ti)e *ersist toda% +ith roc& bands na)ed 4Nir'ana6 and
)o'ies li&e 9he L#lden 1hild. (he act of inter*retation necessaril%
ta&es fro) the source and transfor)s it to so)e de-ree> +e need
not conde)n *o* culture re*resentations of forei-n ideas and
ideals to reco-niIe that the% are inco)*lete that the% lea'e
so)ethin- to be desired that the% are not totall% authentic
N Steiner .NNW, 0.$.
.# Earfield "##", "0..
Trans/lat$on A )#
renderin-s.
..
A nu)ber of cultures ha'e *rotected sacred teLts
teachin-s and rituals b% restrictin- or *rohibitin- their
translation for outsiders> certain sects in India for instance
traditionall% restricted onePonPone teachin- of the sacred teLts to
)ales of their *articular caste and re-arded an% inter*retations
that )i-ht arise outside of that *ersonal trans)ission as
unauthentic in the sense of not con'e%in- the )eanin- of the
teLts at all.
(ranslation al+a%s in'ol'es incor*oration and 4assi)ilation6
into a ne+ lin-uistic conteLt. (his third c%cle of the her)eneutic
)otion is *otentiall% dan-erous Steiner +arns. (he essential
)essa-e can be lost or distorted in the *rocess of trans)ission
for one. Mar& E*stien *oints out ho+ the 7reudian idea of Re-oR
has been )isre*resented b% En-lishPlan-ua-e accounts of
(hera'Adin satipa))hna.
(he +ord used in translation _for anatt` <e-olessness= has
brou-ht +ith it connotations of an u*sur-e in *ri)ar% *rocess
thin&in- and idPdo)inated intra*s%chic forces that are often
)ista&enl% e)braced b% Jestern *ractitioners ea-er to Hettison
their e-os. As a result conce*ts that include the Buddhist
<anat)an= :noPself; doctrine and the *s%chod%na)ic <e-o= are
often understood onl% su*erficiall% ha)*erin- dialo-ue and
understandin- bet+een the t+o traditions.
."
(he act of translation contains a *otential threat not onl% to
the )essa-e but also to the recei'in- cultural conteLt. Ne+
+ords and understandin-s enter a 4nati'e se)antic field3
alread% eLtant and cro+ded6 and threaten 4infection6 and
transfor)ation. (he ecolo-ical analo-% here is to the fra-ile +eb
of interactions bet+een ende)ic s*ecies and the transfor)ations
+rou-ht b% alien introductions both ill and +ell intentioned
.. Do*eI .NNW has catalo-ued the Jestern idealiIation of (ibet and (ibetan
Buddhis) thorou-hl% if so)e+hat uns%)*athicall% in a boo& titled in
reference to 4(ibetan la)as in eLile and their students6 the ris#ners #3
Shangri-<a .0.
." E*stein .NWW, S..
)1 A STRON? ROOTS
such as the )osKuito and the )on-oose in Ha+ai=i.
.0
If s%)bols
ha'e )eanin- b% 'irtue of their associations a ne+ creation or
i)*ortation sets off 4a &ind of re'erberation do+n throu-h the
net+or& of entail)ents that a+a&ens and connects our
)e)ories6 and fra)es future eL*erience.
.$
(hrou-h Kuiet
infiltration or ra*id delu-e forei-n i)*orts can o'er+hel)
*articular as*ects of a culture=s identit%. (he 7rench ha'e *assed
strin-ent la+s *rohibitin- certain *ublic uses of En-lish because
their lan-ua-e has beco)e so endan-ered b% the do)inance of
4B.S. fil)s and (V *o*ular )usic and co))ercial fiction3 alon-
+ith De'iRs _si%` and CocaPCola.6
.1
(his is a *ri)e instance of ho+
the eLchan-e of cultural ideas does not al+a%s -enerate )utual
understandin-. Steiner sees an% &ind of inter*retation as
inherentl% 4a--ressi'e and at one le'el destructi'e.6
Nonetheless he *oints out ho+ unhealth% intentions )oti'atin-
the i)*ortation or the fra-ile state of a reci*ient conteLt can
sabota-e efforts to i)*ort forei-n understandin-s to a ne+
culture. In such cases the ne+ introduction
.0 Jhen the Euro*ean roof rat :+attus rattus; ca)e to Ha+ai=i on Jestern
shi*s in the .WO#s it *roliferated in the cane fields *lanted b% ha#le
:Caucasian; settlers. In one of the )ost illPconcei'ed ecolo-ical
)ani*ulations b% hu)an bein-s to date Indian )on-ooses :;erpestes
aur#pun%tatus; +ere introduced to Ha+ai=i fro) Ja)aica as *redators for the
rats. Since the roof rat is *ri)aril% a nocturnal and arboreal s*ecies
+hereas the )on-oose is *ri)aril% diurnal and terrestrial the t+o had
little effect on each other. (o-ether ho+e'er the% ha'e deci)ated the
indi-enous bird s*ecies b% da% and b% ni-ht. Culline% .NWW, "1O.
(hen in .W"S a shi* too& on +ater at San Blas MeLico on its +a% to the harbor
at Dahaina Maui> on arri'al the sailors found to their dis)a% that the
Christian )issionaries \ to *re'ent 'ice and 'enereal disease \ had be-un
*rohibitin- Ha+aiian +o)en fro) s+i))in- out to )eet ha#le 'isitors. In
retaliation the cre+ &no+in-l% du)*ed into the harbor +ater infested
+ith lar'ae of the tro*ical ni-htPfl%in- )osKuito :1ule8 pipens 3atigans;. (he
offs*rin- of these insects ha'e brou-ht a'ian )alaria to all the )aHor
Ha+aiian islands lea'in- onl% the )ost re)ote hi-hPaltitude forests as
'iable habitat for the re)ainin- indi-enous birds +ith the eLce*tion of a
'er% fe+ hard% s*ecies. Jarner .NO0, 0SPW.
.$ Da&off and Johnson .NW#, .$#.
.1 Dott)an .NN$, .SP.O.
Trans/lat$on A ))
+ill -enerate not an inte-ral res*onse but a +ash of )i)icr%3
After a ti)e the nati'e or-anis) +ill react endea'orin- to
neutraliIe or eL*el the forei-n bod%.
.S
(he histor% of the trans)ission of the Buddha=s teachin-s to
China and (ibet illustrates the dan-er Steiner +arns of. In both
cases an initial success includin- state *atrona-e for the stud%
and *ro)ul-ation of the teachin-s +as follo+ed b% an
4indi-enous bac&lash6 a-ainst the forei-n intrusion.
.O
More than
a fe+ i)*ortations of forei-n ideas ha'e in'ol'ed i)*osition> the
te)*tation to *rosel%tiIe )enaces at this sta-e. Ge-ardless of the
)ode or intention the induction of ne+ understandin-s can
threaten a societ%=s identit% +hen it is in a *eriod of )aHor
transition. Steiner cites the 4car-oPcults of Ne+ Euinea in +hich
the nati'es +orshi* +hat air*lanes brin- in6 as a stri&in-
illustration of cultural identit% loss.
.W
(hou-h the *o+er d%na)ic
is 'er% different indiscri)inate Ne+PA-e a**ro*riation of
sensationaliIed Eastern S*iritualit% is unsettlin-l% si)ilar.
Jhat allo+s such blind faith in forei-n i)*orts to de'elo*U
Su*erficial and inco)*lete understandin- of the ori-inal )essa-e
in its ori-inal conteLt. Jithout eLtensi'e stud% of an Indian or
Celtic or Ja*anese cultural *ractice in its nati'e en'iron)ent
+ithout &no+in- ho+ the *arts fit to-ether and ho+ the% relate
to the culture around the) )odern teachers cannot ho*e to -et
such *ractices to A)erican soil ali'e. (oda% +e find for instance
Insi-ht )editation bein- tau-ht +ithout the foundation of
)oralit%> such )an-led and *iece)eal trans)issions cannot last
lon-. 2nl% b% &no+in- the roles the (hera'Ada has *la%ed in
other cultures can +e realiIe the *otential of the (hera'Ada in
the B.S.A. E'en A)erican ada*tations of the Buddha=s teachin-s
done +ith the best of intentions but +ithout returnin- to the
source or +ithout a source to return to e'entuall% de-rade the
Kualit% of the teachin-s that +ill reach future -enerations.
.S Steiner .NNW, 0.1.
.O Batchelor "###, $".
.W Steiner .NNW, 0.S.
)9 A STRON? ROOTS
Cultural and teLtual i)*ortation +ithout the co)*letion of
reci*rocit% lea'es the s%ste) 4offPbalance.6 (he her)eneutic
)otion be-ins +ith an ad'ance to+ards the teLt. (he inter*reter
del'es in <-ets so)ethin- out of= the source and heads ho)e
4laden.6 In the *rocess of teLtual i)*ortation the reci*ient
co))unit% -ains ne+ understandin-s. 4(here has been an
outflo+ of ener-% fro) the source and an inflo+ into the
rece*tor alterin- both and alterin- the har)onics of the +hole
s%ste).6 Both the translated teLt and the ne+ conteLt are
chan-ed to a -reater or lesser de-ree for better or +orse.
.N
In the ne+ lan-ua-e certain +ords can ha'e associations that
are Kuite different fro) their connotations in the ori-inal
conteLt> an inter*reter can not hel* but to add )eanin- and <read
into= the ori-inal in *laces or to )iss so)e of the source=s
si-nificance and subtle a)bi-uities in other *laces. In the *rocess
of inter*retation a *oet=s +or& or a discourse fro) the PAQ i is
)ade 'ulnerable to )isreadin- )isunderstandin-
)isre*resentation. (he teLt=s 'er% identit% is on the line.
Moreo'er +here a renderin- *ro'es no'el or 'aluable the
reci*ient culture has been broadened au-)ented enriched.
(ranslation and trans)ission thus entail a res*onsibilit% to the
source.
(he aP*rioristic )o'e)ent of trust *uts us off balance. Je <lean
to+ards= the confrontin- teLt3 Je circle and in'ade co-niti'el%.
Je co)e ho)e laden thus a-ain offPbalance ha'in- caused
diseKuilibriu) throu-hout the s%ste) b% ta&in- a+a% fro) <the
other= and b% addin- thou-h *ossibl% +ith a)bi-uous
conseKuence to our o+n. (he s%ste) is no+ offPtilt. (he
her)eneutic act )ust co)*ensate. If it is to be authentic it )ust
)ediate into eLchan-e and restored *arit%.
"#
(ranslation can benefit the source )aterial in a nu)ber of
+a%s. (he ori-inal teLt li&e the ancient tradition is 4enhanced6
b% translation> it -ains access to a ne+ audience> its *resti-e is
.N Steiner .NNW, 0.OPW.
"# Steiner .NNW, 0.S.
Trans/lat$on A ):
increased e'en at ho)e. Seein- forei-ners co)e -reat distances
to Bur)a to stud% +ith )editation )asters has ins*ired )an%
local Buddhists to underta&e )editation the)sel'es. Moreo'er a
teLt )a% be illu)inated understood in -reater de*th throu-h the
focused scrutin% translation entails. (he DondonPbased Pali (eLt
Societ% atte)*ted such an eLca'ation translatin- the entire
(hera'Adin canon and )an% of its co))entaries into En-lish.
(he critical scholarshi* s*a+ned b% these efforts has re'ealed
)an% 'aluable insi-hts into the histor% and lan-ua-e of the teLts.
(he reci*rocit% that Steiner ad'ocates as a )oral i)*erati'e
of translation ho+e'er has less to do +ith enhance)ent than
+ith 4fidelit%.6 7aithfulness to the source co)*letes the c%cle
initiated b% trust. Jhat Steiner intends here is 4not literalis) or
an% technical de'ice for renderin- <s*irit=.6
2ften in the records of translation a fortunate )isreadin- is the
source of ne+ life. (he *recisions to be ai)ed at are of an intense
but uns%ste)atic &ind. Di&e )utations in the i)*ro'e)ent of a
s*ecies )aHor acts of translation see) to ha'e a chance
necessit%. (he lo-ic co)es after the fact. Jhat +e are dealin-
+ith is not a science but an eLact art.
".
(he translator intuits +a%s in +hich the source teLt resonates
+ith the ne+ conteLt brinin- the audience=s attention to the
ori-inal discourse as )uch as brin-in- the discourse to the
audience. 4(he enact)ent of reci*rocit% in order to restore
balance is the cruL of the mBtier and )orals of translation.6
""
No
rendition eLists autono)ous of its source thou-h so)e +ould
-i'e that i)*ression. Jhere conte)*orar% *resentations of
*hiloso*hical and *s%cholo-ical teachin-s deri'ed fro) the
(hera'Adin tradition do not ac&no+led-e their source nor direct
inKuir% to+ards the PAQ i teLts for instance students can be
de*ri'ed of the *rofundit% and *recision of understandin-
a'ailable in the ori-inal. 2n the other hand )an% scholars +ithin
the (hera'Ada and in )odern acade)ia ha'e denied in 'arious
". Steiner .NNW, 0...
"" Steiner .NNW, 0.S continues 4But it is 'er% difficult to *ut abstractl%.6
9; A STRON? ROOTS
+a%s the for)ati'e influence *eo*le after the Buddha=s death
ha'e had on the co)*osition and inter*retation of the
discourses. Modern renditions do not increase their le-iti)ac% b%
disre-ardin- their herita-e. Gather the translation of a teLt li&e
the trans)ission of a teachin- beco)es authentic b%
ac&no+led-in- and re*a%in- its debt to the source.
Re'$&ro'$t.
Eenuine translation +ill3 see& to eKualiIe thou-h the )ediatin-
ste*s )a% be len-th% and obliKue. Jhere it falls short of the
ori-inal the authentic translation )a&es the autono)ous 'irtues
of the ori-inal )ore *recisel% 'isible3 Jhere it sur*asses the
ori-inal the real translation infers that the sourcePteLt *ossesses
*otentialities ele)ental reser'es as %et unrealiIed b% itself.
"0
(he her)eneutic )otion is co)*leted b% eLtendin- the
ori-inal=s a**licabilit% and b% re'ealin- its stren-ths. Ha'in-
entered eLtracted and i)*orted fro) it the res*onsible
inter*reter does not abandon the source. (he act of
a**ro*riation creates an i)balance> eKuilibriu) )ust be
restored b% -i'in- the audience=s attention to the source b%
creditin- its 'irtues and res*ectin- its *rinci*les. (hus the ne+
rendition re)ains rooted in the ori-inal. (he tas& of translation
or trans)ission is onl% full% co)*leted the debt to the ori-inal is
onl% full% re*aid +hen the 4balance of forces of inte-ral
*resence6 is restored. Perfect *arit% is ne'er entirel%
acco)*lished of course 4but the ideal )a&es eL*licit the
de)and for eKuit% in the her)eneutic *rocess.6
"$
In the MahAsi tradition teachers atte)*t to eL*lain s*iritual
*ractices throu-h the )eans )ost a**ro*riate and beneficial in
each uniKue situation. A hall full of eL*erienced )editators
"0 Steiner .NNW, 0.W refers here to Schleier)acher=s ideal of a her)eneutic
that 4&no+s better than the author did.6
"$ Steiner .NNW, 0.W.
Trans/lat$on A 91
de)ands a different 'ocabular% than a cor*orate boardroo)
does as Ste'en S)ith has found.
"1
4B% 'irtue of tact and tact
intensified is )oral 'ision6 dee* understandin-s of the *ractice
of a+a&enin- are nurtured in di'erse conteLts and 4the
translatorPinter*reter creates a condition of si-nificant
eLchan-e. (he arro+s of )eanin- of cultural *s%cholo-ical
benefaction )o'e both +a%s.6
"S
(he annual retreat for forei-n *ractitioners held at the
K%as+a Monaster% in the Sa-ain- Hills of B**er Bur)a is uniKue
\ to the best of )% &no+led-e \ in that it is coPtau-ht b% a
Bur)ese )on& Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a and A)erican )editation
teachers such as Ste'en S)ith and Michele McDonald. (he
Sa-ain- Hills are a s*iritual heartland of the Bur)ese (hera'Ada
+ith hundreds of nunneries and )onasteries and *a-odas dottin-
a hill ran-e that has been a center of stud% and *ractice for
centuries. (he 7orei-n Mo-i Getreat offers an o**ortunit% for
those not fluent in the lan-ua-e or custo)s of Bur)a to further
their *ractice +hile su**orted b% the cultural conteLt in +hich
the MahAsi tradition of satipa))hna de'elo*ed. At the closin- of
the "##" retreat Sa%ada+ +as Kuite eL*licit about the reason for
his collaboration +ith Jestern teachers.
Each benefits the other of course. _In ter)s of` certain
eL*ressions usa-es and inter*retations the understandin-s of
Jesterners and those of our (hera'Ada Buddha-Dhamma are ali&e.
Ho+e'er +hile I tr% to )a&e the teachin-s accordin- to the
"1 Ste'en S)ith described in a *ersonal co))unication his eL*eriences
+or&infor the Conte)*lati'e Mind in Societ% *ro-ra) +ith leaders fro)
cor*orate or-aniIations such as Monsanto and Hoff)an Daroche as +ell as
CE2s of national en'iron)ental or-aniIations.
"S Steiner .NNW, 0.W. Earfield "##", "1# )a&es a si)ilar *oint in outlinin- an
a**roach to 4-enuine dialo-ue6 in the interPcultural and intraPcultural
stud% of *hiloso*h%. 4Presu)e that an%thin- of 'alue )ust be
transactionall% -ained6 he ad'ises 4(o co)e to the tas& as a *irate or as a
distributor of intellectual charit% is to *reclude understandin- b%
*recludin- interaction. 2nl% throu-h -enuine o*enness can the flo+erin-
of t+o traditions distant enou-h to *er)it *ers*ecti'e %et close enou-h to
tal& %ield the fruits of crossPfertiliIation and render difference not a
barrier to but a facilitator of understandin-.6
90 A STRON? ROOTS
(hera'Adin 'ie+ understandable the Jestern teachers restate
the eL*lanations to )a&e the) clearer to further illu)inate
the). (his is _beneficial` because althou-h Jesterners can -i'e
teachin-s often these lac& *recise infor)ation because the
Jesterners &no+ )ore or less onl% +hat their o+n teachers ha'e
tau-ht. (he )odes of )eanin- and understandin- in the
(hera'Ada are 'er% subtle in fact> the noble dhamma is eLtre)el%
*rofound. 7or those +ho ha'en=t heard such clarifications before
and +ho therefore don=t %et -ras* these nuances the (hera'Adin
Sa%ada+s can be of hel*. And the M%an)ar Sa%ada+s -et )erit
too. Meditation teachers fro) the Jest hel* us to -et across the
thin-s +e +ant to sa% and the% -et )erit as +ell. Jhen Jestern
teachers and our o+n (hera'Adin scri*tural tradition of
M%an)ar... co)e to-ether +ith this understandin- and function
har)oniousl% e'er%one realiIes -reater success.
"O
Bur)ese )on&s such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita and Sa%ada+ B
Da&&ha?a +ho understand En-lish Kuite +ell ta&e -reat care to
)a&e sure that inter*reters -et their full )essa-e across>
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita is *articularl% 'i-ilant not infreKuentl%
correctin- the inter*reter=s En-lish +ord usa-e as +ell as PAQi
*ronunciation and -eneral *resentation st%le. 7orei-n students of
Bur)ese )editation )asters so)eti)es feel that the inter*reter
is -i'in- the) short shrift notin- for instance that each ti)e
the teacher tal&s for fi'e )inutes the inter*reter tal&s for one.
(his can ha**en because the inter*reter +ishes to s*are the
"O Althou-h I +as actin- as inter*reter for B Da&&ha?a +hen he )ade these
re)ar&s as I re'ie+ed the ori-inal recordin- I +as struc& b% the hurried
and ineLact nature of the consecuti'e inter*retation I had done on the
s*ot so I ha'e *assed on to readers here the luLur% of a re+ind button
rerenderin- the *assa-e fro) the ori-inal Bur)ese. (he idea I ha'e
translated in the second sentence as <understandin-s= <~ = Mju hsa. p#un;
could be rendered )ore literall% as <+a%s of ta&in- and +ei-hin- _in )ind`=.
Jhere this sa)e construction occurs +ith < = :adei pe; <)eanin-= as
its obHect I ha'e used <inter*retation=. 7or the Bur)ese <~_.= :b#u da N
taja5; I ha'e -i'en the PAQi <Buddha-Dhamma=> the first ter) is actuall% an
unaltered PAQi loan+ord in Bur)ese. (he Bur)ese +ord <~~= :'u. dh#u;
+as deri'ed b% a )ore circuitous route fro) the Sans&rit 'uOala <)erit
-ood deed= 'ia the 2ld M%an)ar 'usuil and the 2ld Mon 'usuiw accordin- to
Nai Pan Hla .NNW, "0.
Trans/lat$on A 92
audience the traditional re*etition or because the inter*reter
has not di-ested the discourse +ell enou-h to render its full
si-nificance. 2n the other hand so)eti)es inter*reters add Kuite
a fe+ of their o+n conclusions to the *resentation. Jhere an
inter*reter=s attitude a-rees +ith that of the audience such
e)bellish)ents )a% not result in noticeable conflict but this is
not al+a%s the case. (he best inter*reters 4-et out of the +a% as
)uch as *ossible.6
"W
(o achie'e satisfaction on all sides 4both
for)all% and )orall% the boo&s )ust balance.6
"N
Northern End of the Sa-ain- Hills
on the Irra+add% Gi'er B**er Bur)a
Je ha'e obser'ed so)e of the challen-es in'ol'ed in
translation and inter*retation. (he analo-ous *rocess of dee*
trans)ission is subHect to the sa)e 4radical tension bet+een
i)*ulses to facsi)ile and i)*ulses to a**ro*riate recreation6
that Steiner describes.
0#
Man% indi'idual decisions about +hich
ideas and understandin-s to include and +hich to eLclude
accu)ulate o'er ti)e and co)e to define a tradition. (he
her)eneutical *rinci*les that direct these choices are at the 'er%
heart of trans)ission. Decisions about inter*retation are *erha*s
the -reatest challen-e in teachin- an ancient tradition in a ne+
conteLt. (he British scholarP*ractitioner Ste*hen Batchelor *uts
it +ell in a recent inter'ie+.
(his has been the challen-e e'er% ti)e Buddhis) has -one fro)
one culture to another, to be truthful to the sources of the
"W Michele McDonald *ersonal co))unication.
"N Steiner .NNW, 0.WPN.
0# (his Kuotation fro) Steiner .NNW, "$S is discussed abo'e on *.O#.
95 A STRON? ROOTS
tradition +hile articulatin- the) in a +a% that )eets the needs
of one=s ti)e.
0.
(eachers of )indfulness )editation in the B.S. ha'e ta&en
)an% different a**roaches to this *roble) so)e choosin- a
strictl% conser'ati'e inter*retation of the (hera'Ada others
includin- understandin-s fro) Jestern Science Ps%cholo-%
Judais) Christianit% and so on. Each of these a**roaches has
stren-ths and +ea&nesses. In order to illustrate in sufficient
de*th the critical issues in'ol'ed +ithout s*endin- too )an%
*a-es on the subHect I focus here on the )ost recent +or& of one
+idel% *ublished and +ellP&no+n teacher of Insi-ht Meditation.
Jose*h Eoldstein is one of a fe+ A)ericans +ho *la%ed a )aHor
role in establishin- the MahAsi tradition in the Bnited States. He
tries to )eet the <need of his ti)e= +ith his )ost recent boo& One
Dharma. Notin- the ra*id rate of intellectual eLchan-e bet+een
traditions no+ established in A)erica such as the (ibetan
DIo-chen the Ja*anese Fen schools and (hera'Adin Vi*assanA
Eoldstein=s definition of One Dharma e)braces )an% different
<Buddhist= *ractices. As he +arns us thou-h
(his eL*loration leads to so)e funda)ental and thorn% issues, 3
Do different )ethods of )editation *ractice in fact lead to
different endsU 2r on the *ath of 2ne Dhar)a is there a +a% of
holdin- e'en o**osin- *ers*ecti'es in a -reater unit%U
(he in'esti-ation of these Kuestions reKuires -reat hu)ilit%.
Jhen +e ste* outside the safe bounds of the 'arious indi'idual
traditions each consistent +ithin itself +e need to ac&no+led-e
the eL*lorator% nature of a unified theor% of Dhar)a continuall%
testin- it a-ainst both our eL*erience and the teachin-s as the%
ha'e been *assed do+n o'er thousands of %ears.
0"
Eoldstein=s caution is certainl% a**ro*riate. (here are real
dan-ers in tr%in- to unif% the di'ersit% of <Buddhist=
understandin-s. (he selfPconsistenc% of each li'in- tradition
+hich Eoldstein notes abo'e )a% be its )ost 'aluable asset. A
coherent fra)e+or& and consistent 'oice su**ort the clarit% of
0. Batchelor "##", 1$P11.
0" Eoldstein "##", $.
Trans/lat$on A 9#
*ur*ose necessar% for success in an% tradition as Bhi&&hu Bodhi
su--ests.
3a s%ste) of )editati'e *ractice does not constitute a selfP
contained disci*line. An% authentic s%ste) of s*iritual *ractice is
al+a%s found e)bedded +ithin a conce*tual )atriL that defines
the *roble)s the *ractice is intended to sol'e and the -oal
to+ards +hich it is directed. Hence the )er-in- of techniKues
-rounded in inco)*atible conce*tual fra)e+or&s is frau-ht +ith
ris&. Althou-h such )er-ers )a% a**ease a *redilection for
eL*eri)entation or eclecticis) it see)s li&el% that their lon-P
ter) effect +ill be to create a certain 4co-niti'e dissonance6 that
+ill re'erberate throu-h the dee*er le'els of the *s%che and stir
u* e'en -reater confusion.
00
(here )a% be unseen dan-ers as +ell in *ic&in- *articular
as*ects fro) li'in- traditions and s%nthesiIin- the) to-ether.
Je )i-ht )a&e a useful analo-% to the de'elo*)ent of cro*s
such as corn )odified +ith -enetic )aterial fro) bacteria +hich
is raisin- serious obHections toda%. Des*ite the biotechnolo-%
industr%=s assurances o**onents *oint to the i)*ossibilit% of
*redictin- or containin- the effects that Eeneticall% Modified
or-anis)s ha'e on the surroundin- en'iron)ent includin-
other far)ers +ishin- to -ro+ *urel% or-anic cro*s. Jhat
e'idence do teachers and *ractitioners of the 'arious <Buddhist=
traditions toda% ha'e that the benefits of crossPfertiliIation +ill
out+ei-h the costs o'er the lon- ter)U (his should not be a
fore-one conclusion des*ite the tendenc% \ so stron- in the
<)eltin- *ot= of the Bnited States \ to+ards assi)ilation and
)ini)iIin- differences. Ges*ectin- di'ersit% is another o*tion
and )a% +ell *ro'e )ore beneficial in the case of )editation
*ractices.
Des*ite his cautions Eoldstein sees benefit in cou*lin-
(hera'Adin satipa))hna +ith certain DIo-chen *ractices for
eLa)*le to achie'e a co))on *ur*ose. His confidence in such
unions rests on the idea that 4all Buddhist traditions con'er-e in
one understandin- of +hat liberates the )ind.6 Clin-in- to
00 Bodhi .NN$.
91 A STRON? ROOTS
nothin- +hatsoe'er as <I= or <)ine= 4is the essential unif%in-
eL*erience of freedo)6 as Eoldstein defines it.
0$
He su--ests
ho+e'er that 4*hiloso*hical conce*ts are onl% descri*tions of
eL*erience and not the eL*erience itself.6
01
(hat is a *articular
teachin- could define its -oal as <nonPclin-in-= and %et not
*roduce the sa)e results as other <Buddhist= traditions> b% the
sa)e to&en teachin-s that )a&e no )ention of the <Buddha= or
<nonPclin-in-= could lead *ractitioners to the <essential unif%in-
eL*erience of freedo)=. If so +e )i-ht find eL*eriential
con'er-ence in )an% different hu)an *ractices not all of the)
thin-s that -et called <Buddhist= or e'en <s*iritual=. If +e
disre-ard the 'arious traditions= s*ecific definitions of their
-oal:s; are there an% li)its on crossPfertiliIation +ith
satipa)) hnaU Jhose 4eL*erience of freedo)6 Kualifies a
*articular *ractice to be *art of One DharmaU
Gecentl% I ha'e be-un to hear *ractitioners and teachers tal&
of One Dharma as an e)er-in- tradition of its o+n a *articular set
of teachin-s and *ractices to be trans)itted bet+een hu)an
bein-s. (hou-h this readin- *erha*s -oes further than Eoldstein
intended it is nonetheless not that farPfetched -i'en that he
subtitled the boo& 9he 7merging =estern Buddhism. In an% case this
understandin- of One Dharma is seriousl% *roble)atic, if the selfP
definition used b% a *articular li'in- tradition is not the basis for
inclusion in this trans)ission then so)eho+ so)eone has to
Hud-e +hich teachin-s reall% brin- about <liberation throu-h nonP
clin-in-= or <the realiIation of nonPself= not Hust for the)sel'es
but for all future -enerations +ho +ill *ractice One Dharma. Jho
is Kualified to do thatU
I do not +ish to su--est that no hu)an bein- could )a&e
co)*etent decisions about +hich *rinci*les and *ractices could
be co)bined to achie'e the -oal of liberation fro) sufferin->
accordin- to the (hera'Ada a sammsambuddha :such as the
0$ Eoldstein "##", .0$.
01 Eoldstein "##", 1
Trans/lat$on A 9)
Sa&%a)uni; does Hust that culti'atin- the <*erfections= o'er
countless lifeti)es to the *oint of bein- born and disco'erin- the
saddhamma the <true orderPofPthin-s= in a ti)e +hen there is no
such teachin- a'ailable and then establishin- a Buddha-Ssana a
tradition of a+a&enin- for the benefit of future -enerations. 2nl%
those of us +ho ha'e %et to *erfect our +isdo) to the le'el of a
sammsambuddha need de*end on \ and ac&no+led-e our
de*endence on \ a *articular linea-e of trans)ission fro) the
)ost recent (eacher.
B*rootin- certain ideas and *ractices fro) the fra)e+or&s in
+hich the% de'elo*ed for thousands of %ears ta&in- the) not on
their o+n ter)s )a% in fact be disres*ectful. In his critiKue of
One Dharma 4Jill it be 2ne or Man%U6 Ge-inald Ga% +rites that
4linea-e at least in )% _(ibetan` tradition re*resents not Hust a
continuit% of *ractices and traditions. At a dee*er le'el it
e)bodies a *articular +a% of eL*eriencin- the a+a&ened state.6
0S

If Ga% is ri-ht eKuatin- the -oal of (ibetan *ractice to those
other traditions +ould a)ount to a denial of the tradition=s o+n
understandin- of that -oal. Ne+ inter*retations create this
disres*ectful and dan-erous &ind of d%na)ic Steiner +arns
unless the% return to the source.
Nathan KatI *oints out in Buddhist Images #3 ;uman er3e%ti#n
that b% holdin- the arahat :Sans&rit arahant; to be less than full%
a+a&ened the later MahA%Ana teLts si)*l% defined the ter)
differentl% than the (hera'Adin PAQi. (he disa-ree)ents bet+een
the t+o o'er the s*iritual status of the arahat then arise because
the% are usin- the sa)e ter) to s*ecif% different le'els of *urit%.
(heir disa-ree)ent is o'er the definition of the +ord then and
not reall% about the relati'e 'alue of 'arious teachin-s. (he
0S 4If so can Buddhis) reall% be reduced to one thin-U Can +e be so certain
that all the *ractices lead to one -oal and that realiIation is the sa)e
throu-hout Buddhis)U 2r is it *ossible that each linea-e had its o+n
distinct *ersonalit% and that its *ractices lead to an enli-hten)ent that
sho+s itself uniKuel% accordin- to linea-eU If that is true +hat is lost +hen
+e -i'e u* the identit% inte-rit% and continuit% of indi'idual linea-eU6 Ga%
"##", SW.
99 A STRON? ROOTS
unnecessar% conflict and e'en hostilit% en-endered b% this
dis*ute *ro'ides a *erfect eLa)*le of +h% res*onsible
inter*reters )ust not i-nore or -loss o'er differences bet+een
inter*reti'e fra)e+or&s. (hou-h B Pa?@ita and the Dalai Da)a
)a% use co-nate PAQi and Sans&rit ter)s such as nibbna and
nirv(a to refer to the -oal:s; of their res*ecti'e traditions such
)asters of both theor% and *ractice not onl% define these ter)s
'er% differentl% but s*ecificall% assert that the other=s tradition
does not acco)*lish the final *ur*ose of their o+n. If so can +e
res*onsibl% dis)iss their state)ents b% teachin- and *racticin-
as if the -oal of DIo-chen and the -oal of satipa)) hna are one and
the sa)eU Jhat if the% are notU
B% reducin- 'arious traditions to the 'ocabular% and subHects
that the% ha'e in co))on +e seriousl% ris& )issin- the *oint of
each. A tradition -ets its eL*lanator% *o+er its abilit% to ins*ire
and to -uide not so )uch fro) the infor)ation it focuses on but
fro) the *rinci*les b% +hich it inter*rets the e'idence at hand.
Various 'ocabular% and ideas are related to one another and tied
to-ether b% these her)eneutical *rinci*les. Such an inter*reti'e
fra)e+or& is the -eno)e carried +here'er the seeds of a
tradition are so+n its source.
0O
If a tradition is indeed defined not b% its subHects but b% its
her)eneutic *rinci*les then +e need to ta&e care not to seiIe on
su*erficial si)ilarities. If +e *luc& enou-h state)ents fro) an%
0O Jhile I do dra+ here on Michel 7oucault=s idea of 4discourse6 )%
descri*tion of 'ocabular% connected b% her)eneutical *rinci*les *uts less
e)*hasis on *o+er relations in order to focus )ore on the *rocess of
inter*retation. (he t+o are inti)atel% related ho+e'er> +hich renderin-s
are considered authentic de*ends lar-el% on +ho is authoriIed as an
inter*reter. 7oucault a**arentl% understood that if one assu)es no lo-ic to
be uni'ersal tradition is the onl% )eans of le-iti)ation. In his inau-ural
lecture at the Collg-e de 7rance 4(he Discourse on Dan-ua-e6 7oucault
.NW" be-ins b% reco-niIin- an% be-innin- as artificial> he concludes and
co)*letes his o+n ar-u)ent b% referrin- res*ectfull% to his teachers=
+or&s and to the intellectual linea-e +hich *receded the). I)*licit here is
the understandin- of authenticit% as a function of the return to the source
+hich Steiner articulates so +ell.
Trans/lat$on A 9:
t+o traditions e'entuall% so)e of these +ill be-in to sound 'er%
si)ilar. Ho+e'er other state)ents could Hust as +ell be *ic&ed
out of these sa)e conteLts ones that +ould sound as if the% +ere
in shar* disa-ree)ent. Eoldstein=s eL*loration of One Dharma
arose out of *ersonal eL*erience +ith this latter *roble), star&
differences bet+een the definitions of freedo) -i'en b% different
traditions. (his is +h% the *rinci*le that 4*hiloso*hical conce*ts
are onl% descri*tions of eL*erience and not the eL*erience
itself6 is listed first and fore)ost in Eoldstein=s her)eneutic.
0W
In
order to understand +hat an% *articular tradition )eans b% its
'ocabular% then +e )ust eLa)ine the fra)e+or& of
assu)*tions and 'alues in +hich these ideas are e)*lo%ed.
(his is an a**roach e'idenced in a nu)ber of (hera'Adin
+or&s. (he co))entar% on one -bhidhamma teLt )a&es clear
that it is not the 4eL*ression6 or 4+ords6 :va%an; +hich are the
4)easure6 :4standard authorit%6, pam(a; but rather the
*ur*ose or 4)eanin-6 :atth#; that defines a teLt.
3the lo-ical ter) then is in this school not the +ords for +hich
s%non%)s could be substituted but the *rinci*le the% refer to
the )eanin-> their lo-ic is a lo-ic of )eanin- of *rinci*les not of
+ords3
0N
Al)ost all of the traditions -rou*ed under the na)e
<Buddhis)= do ha'e in co))on certain 'ocabular%, <Buddha=
<nonPself= and <s&illful )eans= for instance. Ho+e'er such ter)s
are defined 'er% differentl% de*endin- on the 'er% different
her)eneutical *rinci*les of the 'arious traditions +hich is one
reason I ha'e su--ested that the conce*t <Buddhis)= is
0W Eoldstein "##", 1 47our basic *rinci*les or understandin-s lie at the heart
of One Dharma, first that *hiloso*hical conce*ts are onl% descri*tions of
eL*erience and not the eL*erience itself> second that )indfulness
co)*assion and +isdo) +ea'e to-ether as the essential strands of a
nonsectarian *ath of *ractice> third that +hat is called in Buddhis) <the
t+o truths= \ the relati'e and ulti)ate *ers*ecti'es of realit% \ to-ether
*ro'ide a fra)e+or& for holdin- di'er-ent *oints of 'ie+> and last that
the )ind of non-ras*in- is the essential unif%in- eL*erience of freedo).6
0N Jarder "###, 0.. referrin- to the co))entar% on the Ma)a&a
XPa8ca**a&ara?a1WY.
:; A STRON? ROOTS
)isleadin-. I also &no+ that 4hearin- acco)*lished )asters fro)
different traditions tal& about liberation in 'er% different +a%s
each +ith descri*tions that +ere 'erified in their o+n
eL*erience6 has caused serious doubt and indecision for a
nu)ber of *ractitioners.
$#
Di&e+ise in )% o+n +or& inter*retin-
for inter'ie+s at satipa))hna retreats I ha'e seen Bur)ese
teachers caution a nu)ber of lon-Pti)e *ractitioners that their
*ractice +as bein- subtl% co)*ro)ised b% tr%in- achie'e a
*articular state of )ind, rather a**l%in- nonPHud-e)ental
a+areness to +hate'er +as arisin- these students +ere :)ostl%
unconsciousl%; carr%in- o'er DIo-chen *ractices that atte)*t to
culti'ate a cal) and s*acious attention. So)e of these students
sa+ for the)sel'es the error of tr%in- to ta&e both of these
a**roaches at the sa)e ti)e and then realiIed )ore full% the
'alue of *ure satipa)) hna> others +ere not able to e'en
te)*oraril% *ut aside the habits the% had culti'ated doin- other
*ractices. Most of the students Ste'en S)ith has co)e into
contact +ith o'er t+ent% %ears of teachin- find )ore confusion
than co)*atibilit% bet+een their eL*eriences in different
traditions.
$.
If so are understandin-s fro) different <Buddhist=
traditions reall% as unified as Ste*hen Batchelor assertsU
I=) findin- )ore and )ore that )% understandin- of these
different schools is be-innin- \ and I e)*hasiIe be-innin- \ to
resol'e itself into an inte-ral 'ision. (he different *ractices and
ideas are sufficientl% co)*atible \ the% are after all rooted in
the sa)e source \ to co)*le)ent one another Kuite naturall%.
$"
I do not Kuestion Batchelor=s o+n 4inte-ral 'ision6 but I
cannot hel* but +onder to +hat de-ree all these 4different
*ractices and ideas6 reall% are 4rooted in the sa)e source.6 I ha'e
discussed ho+ different <Buddhist= schools such as the
(hera'Ada the PraH8a*ara)ita and the Pure Dand ca)e to
$# Eoldstein "##", .1O.
$. Ste'en S)ith co))entin- on a draft of Str#ng +##ts A*ril "##0.
$" Batchelor "##", 11.
Trans/lat$on A :1
o*erate fro) dis*arate *hiloso*hical fra)e+or&s.
$0
(his is
further e'idenced b% an alle-or% fro) the MahA%Ana 4Dotus
S9tra6 +here the Buddha caHoles rec&less children fro) a
burnin- house b% *ro)isin- the) 'arious to%s accordin- to their
*articular desires. (he to% 'ehicles the Buddha offers are
co)*ared to the 'arious 'ehicles of <Buddhis)= and +hen the
children co)e out of the house the Buddha -i'es the) onl% the
Ereat Vehicle the <MahA%Ana=. Gichard Eo)brich su--ests that
the teLt=s use of )eta*hor and *unnin- is 'er% )uch in the
tradition of the Buddha=s st%le of ar-u)ent found in the Pali
Canon> but I belie'e that the a**lication of the conce*t <s&ill in
)eans= to sa%in- so)ethin- untrue albeit +ith the noblest
)oti'es is an inno'ation.
$$
(he 4Dotus S9tra6 also introduced an a**roach called 42ne
Vehicle6 +hich held that 4the onl% final 'ehicle is the 2ne
Vehicle to Perfect Buddhahood. -ll +ill e'entuall% beco)e
Buddhas \ the doctrine of the three 'ehicles +as in realit%
nothin- )ore than the Buddha=s s&illful )eans.6
$1
Accordin- to
this *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& *ractitioners cannot -ain liberation
eLce*t after *racticin- for countless lifeti)es to disco'er the
*ath of a+a&enin- for the)sel'es in a -i'en lifeti)e and teach it
to others. In contrast (hera'Adin teachin-s *ast and *resent
hold out the *ossibilit% of different *aths a**ro*riate for
different *ractitioners, those +ho hear the teachin-s of the
Buddha and *ractice for full a+a&enin- and an end to sufferin- in
their *resent life as +ell as those +ho 'o+ to *ractice as lon- as it
ta&es to be born as a *erfected Buddha +ho can teach Dhamma-
&inaya to a -eneration +ithout it.
$S
7or instance Sa%ada+ B
$0 Please see the discussion on *.$O.
$$ Eo)brich .NNS, SN continues 4Det )e hasten to add that I do not intend
this obser'ation to be *eHorati'e. M% o+n ethical o*inion is that l%in- is
Hustified if it achie'es a -reat -ood such as sa'in- life. I a) )a&in- a factual
*oint about ho+ Buddhist doctrine de'elo*ed.6
$1 Jillia)s "##., .$O.
$S See for instance Gatna%a&a .NW$ a +ell researched article on 4(he
Bodhisatt'a Ideal of (hera'Ada6 de)onstratin- that the bodhisatt'a *ath
is e'ident in both the ancient teLts and )odern *ractices of (hera'Adins.
:0 A STRON? ROOTS
Pa?@ita=s 4e)*hasis on heroic effort is Hoined +ith a Ho%ous
confidence that liberation is *ossible in this 'er% life.6
$O
(he Pure
Dand school also e)*lo%s <Buddhist= 'ocabular% but it sees a
contradiction bet+een the doctrine of nonPself and the idea of
)a&in- effort for one=s o+n a+a&enin-. Instead Hfnen ad'ises
4Just call the na)e and %ou +ill be sa'ed b% A)ida.6
$W
Such
dis*arate state)ents can *erha*s be reconciled but onl% b%
a**reciatin- the 'ast differences bet+een the inter*reti'e
fra)e+or&s the% each ca)e fro).
If a sin-le historical indi'idual +ere res*onsible for all the
state)ents )ade b% the <Buddha= in the 4Dotus S9tra6 as +ell in
the PAQi teLts he +ould a**ear to ha'e been rather confused \ or
at least fic&le \ about his )oral and *hiloso*hical fra)e+or&. If
+e sta% +ithin a coherent bod% of teLts such as the PAQ i Ni&A%as
ho+e'er +e find the Buddha and his disci*les s*ea&in- +ith a
re)ar&abl% consistent st%le and set of *rinci*les. It see)s )uch
)ore useful and res*ectful to s*ea& of <the Buddha of the Ni&A%a
PAQ i teLts= <the Buddha of the PraH8a*ara)ita= or <the Buddha of
the East Asian Dotus S9tra= than to attribute all these dis*arate
e'en contradictor% teachin-s to a sin-le source.
M% ar-u)ent is not that +e need 'erif% +hich *articular
state)ents +ere )ade b% a s*ecific indi'idual na)ed Siddhattha
Eota)a in northern India t+ent%Pfi'e hundred %ears a-o in order
to dis)iss the rest> this +ould be an i)*ossible tas& e'en if it
+ere desirable. Di&e+ise the distinction bet+een <earl%= and <late=
<Buddhis)= is not reall% so i)*ortant if +e follo+ the ancient
Indian a**roach to histor% as c%clical. I a) su--estin- a different
Gatna%a&a also sho+s that the arahant *ath cul)inates in the sa)e
unselfish a+a&enin- as that of a sammasambuddha and that both teach the
*ath to others. (he )on& +ho *receded Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a as abbot of
K%as+a Monaster% in the Sa-ain- Hills of Bur)a hi)self too& the b#dhisatta
'o+ :he *ut off his o+n enli-hten)ent 'o+in- to *ractice the *erfections
in order to be born as a sammsambuddha;.
$O Eoldstein .NN0b, O.
$W juoted b% Jillia)s "##., "O.P"O1 fro) MuiPen 9abbish# :K%oto, Hi-ashi
Hon-anHi .NS.; 0P$.
Trans/lat$on A :2
t%*e of distinction, that if certain conte)*orar% traditions
o*erate fro) substantiall% different her)eneutical fra)e+or&s
+e need to res*ect and a**reciate the inte-rit% of each their
4autono)ous 'irtues.6
$N
B% the sa)e to&en +here certain
teachin-s and discussions and social *ractices o*erate fro)
nearl% identical *rinci*les +e need to honor and not 'iolate their
internal coherence as a tradition.
(herefore I seriousl% Kuestion the 'alue Eoldstein *laces on a
4unified theor% of Dhar)a.6
1#
A +ise crossPfertiliIation of s*iritual *ractices can onl% dee*en
and broaden our understandin-. It +ill foster not onl% tolerance
but also -enuine res*ect and unit% as +e each find fro) the
-reat treasurePhouse of Dhar)a those teachin-s that benefit
oursel'es and others.
1.
It is true that <crossPfertiliIation= so)eti)es results in
offs*rin- endo+ed +ith h%brid 'i-or but )ules are sterile as +ell
as stron-> an% tradition )ust continue to be trans)itted to ne+
-enerations of *ractitioners if it is to sur'i'e. De*endin- on the
+isdo) and s&ill of those doin- it <crossPfertiliIation of s*iritual
*ractices= could <dee*en and broaden our understandin-= in so)e
cases but in others it )i-ht result in +ides*read confusion and
doubt. Moreo'er unif%in- 'arious understandin-s fro) di'erse
<Buddhist= traditions does not necessaril% foster -enuine res*ect
tolerance or understandin-. Bhi&&hu Bodhi )a&es this *oint
eloKuentl% re-ardin- the di'ersit% of reli-ious traditions.
(rue tolerance in reli-ion in'ol'es the ca*acit% to ad)it
differences as real and funda)ental e'en as *rofound and
unbrid-eable %et at the sa)e ti)e to res*ect the ri-hts of those
+ho follo+ a reli-ion different fro) one=s o+n :or no reli-ion at
all; to continue to do so +ithout resent)ent disad'anta-e or
hindrance.
1"
$N Steiner .NNW, 0.W. I a) dra+in- as +ell here fro) Cant+ell S)ith=s
ad)irable a**roach to <cu)ulati'e traditions= discussed in 4Inter*retin-
Histor%.6
1# Eoldstein "##", $.
1. Eoldstein "##", S.
1" Bodhi .NN0.
:5 A STRON? ROOTS
Ei'en the *rofound differences described abo'e bet+een the
traditions of the PAQ i the 4Dotus Sutra6 and the Pure Dand
Bhi&&hu Bodhi=s ar-u)ent for res*ectin- di'ersit% is Hust as
a**licable to the differences bet+een the a**roaches and -oals of
these traditions as it is to their res*ecti'e differences fro) the
An-lican church or the +orldP'ie+ of Jestern Science.
(o define an%thin- +e )ust eLclude e'er%thin- that it is not.
E'en if +e +ere to include all <reli-ious= traditions in One Dharma
+e +ould still be den%in- :correctl% I thin&; the effecti'eness of
far)in- or )usic )a&in- or surfin- at achie'in- the -oal of the
PAQ i. Such an a**roach is no less eLclusi'e than Hud-in- the
MahAsi tradition to be the onl% *ath to a+a&enin-> the anointed
-rou* is Hust bi--er. Je need not *ri'eled-e an% *articular -oal
or )eans> far)in- is effecti'e at achie'in- )an% -oals other than
that of the PAQi. Je can a'oid the conceit of Hud-in- *ractices on
*rinci*les that are not their o+n b% ac&no+led-in- success in
an% tradition as that tradition defines it. Instead of Hud-in-
+hether a *articular (ibetan or Bur)ese teachin- is authentic
<Buddhis)= accordin- to our o+n *articular definition +e can
follo+ Jilfred Cant+ell S)ith in usin- 4the -enetic bond of
continuit% and3 the social one of cohesion6 as criteria for
inclusion in a *articular tradition.
10

Both continuit% and cohesion are i)*ortant in definin- a
teachin- linea-e. (ree s*ecies such as a**le and oran-e )anifest
in li'in- re*roducin- or-anis)s because the seeds of each
s*ecies inherit -enetic *rinci*les fro) ancestors that had the
a+eso)e abilit% to or-aniIe ra+ )aterials into -eneration after
-eneration of life. (o insist that a**le trees and oran-e trees
*roduce different fruit is not to den% or dis)iss that fact that
both are s+eet nor e'en that the% ca)e fro) a co))on
ancestor. In one discussion Eoldstein told )e that One Dharma is
concerned +ith the si)ilarities on the <)olecular le'el= bet+een
the teachin-s of DIo-chen and Vi*assanA Fen and the (hai
10 S)ith .NOW, .SO discussed on *.S".
Trans/lat$on A :#
7orest traditions> that is he finds funda)ental *arallels bet+een
the +a%s the 'arious *ractices of these different -rou*s affect
hu)an bein-s. I *ointed out to hi) that +hile the bioche)ical
*rocesses that occur in an a**le tree and an oran-e tree )i-ht be
nearl% identical on the )olecular le'el this does not )ean that
the branches and lea'es of an oran-e can be co)bined +ith the
roots and trun& of an a**le to for) a 'iable tree> the or-ans of
each ha'e e'ol'ed to *la% a *articular role in a *articular
conteLt. (his reco-nition is not *eHorati'e to the su-ar content of
an% s*ecies rather it allo+s for a s&illful a**roach to culti'atin-
and )aintainin- each -enetic linea-e that +ill indeed result in
s+eet fruit in the *resent -eneration and in future ones.
If )odern (ibetan and Bur)ese schools are descended fro) a
co))on Indian ancestor since then these t+o *o*ulations ha'e
under-one )uch )utation and )iLin- +ith other traditions
fro) the ancient ani)istic *ractices of Bur)a to the Vedic ideals
that infor) the (antra%Ana. (he Kuestion is +hether 'arious
*arts of t+o or )ore such )odern traditions can no+ be
s%nthesiIed to *roduce teachin-s that +ould indeed enable
-enerations of *ractitioners to -ain full a+a&enin-. (here are of
course certain closel% related 'arieties of a**les that can be
-rafted to-ether to *roduce fruit for at least one -eneration.
I see a funda)ental difference bet+een the a**roach
eL*licitl% atte)*ted in Str#ng +##ts and the ideal i)*licit in
<unified theories= of <Buddhist= *ractice> this disa-ree)ent centers
on +hat +ould be necessar% \ and +ho +ould be Kualified \ to
define One Dharma that +ould be 'iable and effecti'e as a
tradition of a+a&enin- across different historical conteLts.
1$
(o
achie'e that -oal of unification so)eone )ust decide +hich
1$ As Kuoted abo'e Eoldstein "##", $ +rites that 4Jhen +e ste* outside the
safe bounds of the 'arious indi'idual traditions each consistent +ithin
itself +e need to ac&no+led-e the eL*lorator% nature of a unified theor% of
Dhar)a continuall% testin- it a-ainst both our eL*erience and the
teachin-s as the% ha'e been *assed do+n o'er thousands of %ears.6 A-ain
this be-s the Kuestion +hich teachin-sU (he results of our <tests= can onl%
be as consistent and coherent as the set of teachin-s +e test the) a-ainst.
:1 A STRON? ROOTS
her)eneutical *rinci*les to use in selectin- 'arious co)*onents
to for) a tradition that +ould effecti'el% ins*ire and -uide
-eneration after -eneration of *ractitioners all the +a% to the
end of the *ath> to ta&e a *articularl% central Kuestion ho+
+ould the end be definedU In the absence of a sammsambuddha
*erha*s a council of *eo*le +ho had the)sel'es tra'ersed the
entire *ath of a+a&enin- could co)*etentl% desi-n a coherent
consistent and effecti'e )eans of trans)ission fro) *ieces of
the 'arious traditions ali'e toda%. As Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita *ointed
out to )e re-ardin- One Dharma thou-h if the arahats *resent at
the Second Council atte)*ted and failed to resol'e the
differences that stand bet+een the (hera'Ada and the MahA%Ana
+hat chance do +e ha'e toda%U Jithout such -uidance in an%
case I a) 'er% s&e*tical about our abilit% to s%nthesiIe One
Dharma that is <-ood in the be-innin- -ood in the )iddle and
-ood in the end=.
11
To T%e So+r'e
Seein- the uniKue stren-th of each tradition as )ore than the
su) of its *arts is +hat +ill foster -enuine res*ect bet+een
*ractitioners of the 'arious Vi*assanA -rou*s and students of
DIo-chen or Kabbalah. Jith this a**roach ancient teachin-s
+ould be )ade rele'ant and *o+erful for )odern *ractitioners
b% *resentin- and understandin- the) +ithin their res*ecti'e
nati'e fra)e+or&s. Bur)ese )editation )asters such as B
Pa?@ita dra+ on the teachin-s of the Buddha=s senior disci*les
and fifth centur% co))entators such as Buddha-hosa as +ell as
nineteenth centur% *ractitioners and scholars of the (hera'Ada>
such teLtual &no+led-e +hen co)bined +ith *ersonal
eL*erience in the *ractice results in *otent and effecti'e
11 4te dhamm di'aly( majjhe'aly( pariy#sna'aly(6 e.-.
:A.VIII.";XIV.1.Y.
Trans/lat$on A :)
-uidance. Not to offer A)erican students the +isdo) trans)itted
and accu)ulated o'er thousands of %ears of (hera'Adin tradition
+ould be a -reat loss.
Steiner *ro'ides a co-ent ar-u)ent for a &ind of
inter*retation that 4)a&es the autono)ous 'irtues of the
ori-inal )ore *recisel% 'isible6 and 4infers that the sourcePteLt
*ossesses *otentialities3 as %et unrealiIed b% itself6> this is the
fourth ste* of his <her)eneutic )otion=. At best )odern
A)erican renditions fulfill *otential latent in the traditional
teachin-s but *erha*s unrealiIed in conteLts such as Bur)a. (his
ne+ fulfill)ent can occur +hen )odern scientific and social
understandin-s eLtend the accessibilit% and a**lication of
ancient *ractices. Jhile +o)en=s *otential has been ne-lected
for thousands of %ears in nearl% all the Asian traditions fe)ale
)editation teachers and scholars are *la%in- a )aHor role in the
e)er-in- A)erican Buddhis):s;. Acade)ics and health
*rofessionals in *s%cholo-% ha'e found 'alue in *ractices
descended fro) the Buddha. And of course )an% *eo*le +ho
+ould not ha'e had access to the teachin-s in Asia ha'e found
-reater or lesser de-rees of release fro) sufferin- \ accordin- to
their o+n accounts \ because the teachin-s are bein- offered in
an A)erican conteLt.
Jhere the inter*reter cannot recei'e all that e)anates fro)
the ori-inal res*onsible renditions direct inKuir% into the de*ths
of the source )aterial itself. Jhen Kuestioned on )atters be%ond
their o+n eL*erience +ellPtrained )editation )asters can refer
to the ti)ePtested inter*retation of a coherent tradition. In this
+a% the source is -i'en credit and a chance to fulfill its *otential.
Steiner=s ideal of 4authentic translation3 is one of total
counter*art or reP*etition \ an as&in- a-ain.6
1S
If +e are
inter*retin- fro) a coherent set of her)eneutical *rinci*les
+hen difficulties are encountered +e ha'e a source to return to.
Jhether +e need inter*ret a *articular ter) into En-lish or to
1S Steiner .NOW, 0.W.
:9 A STRON? ROOTS
)a&e the *ractice of )oralit% rele'ant to )odern A)ericans +e
can bounce our Kuestions off the PAQi discourses or the
Co))entaries. Je )ust re)e)ber thou-h that the ans+ers +ill
onl% be as coherent and consistent as the source fro) +hich +e
are o*eratin-. Neither <Buddhis)= nor Eoldstein=s One Dharma are
'iable as traditions of a+a&enin- to )% )ind because the%
enco)*ass too )an% dis*arate *hiloso*hical fra)e+or&s to -i'e
clear -uidance.
If )% ar-u)ent abo'e is co-ent e'er% instance of
understandin- and anal%sis is -uided b% so)e set of *rinci*les
thou-h these )a% often be i)*licit and uneLa)ined. In order to
understand 'arious *ractices one necessaril% Hud-es the) on the
basis of *rinci*les either ne+l% in'ented or deri'ed fro)
so)e+here be it the Jestern Scientific *aradi-) *o*ular
A)erican )iddlePclass 'alues or the ancient PAQi teLts. An
author=s her)eneutic is e'ident in the subHects and e'idence
selected and the conclusions arri'ed at in e'er% *ara-ra*h not
Hust in a fe+ introductor% re)ar&s eL*licitl% addressin- the
*hiloso*hical a**roach. (his is +h% )% )odel of o*eratin- fro)
and returnin- to a li'in- source reKuires that the inter*reti'e
fra)e+or& used to Hud-e 'arious hu)an acti'ities be eL*licitl%
ac&no+led-ed throu-hout.
M% ideal of authentic trans)ission reKuires that the
inter*reter brin- out the ori-inal stren-ths of the source \ b%
*resentin- its ideas in the conteLt of their nati'e her)eneutic
fra)e+or& \ and render these )essa-es accessible and a**licable
to ne+ audiences and ne+ issues. Jhile these t+o *roHects )i-ht
see) contradictor% I ha'e consistentl% found the (hera'Adin
inter*reti'e *rinci*les to be the )ost effecti'e +a% of fra)in-
teachin-s fro) Bur)ese )editation )asters or the PAQi teLts in
order that the% resonate +ith )odern sensibilities. In *articular
the understandin- of a <+orld of eL*erience= in a continuin-
*rocess of de*endent coParisin- see)s to render the Buddha=s
teachin-s on action and its results on rebirth and ho+ to end the
Trans/lat$on A ::
c%cle of sufferin- sensible and e'en attracti'e to )odern
A)ericans. I ha'e found )% +or& inter*retin- the (hera'Adin
anal%sis -reatl% re+ardin- in *art because these teachin-s see)
to resonate +ith such a +ide ran-e of *eo*le fro) those +ith a
-reat deal of fa)iliarit% +ith the tradition to those +ith neLt to
none. Such renderin-s are *otent *recisel% because the -enius
the% con'e% is not )% o+n.
If 4all co))unication <inter*rets= bet+een *ri'acies6 thou-h
ho+ can +e &no+ the author=s intentions ho+ can +e be sure
that the ori-inal actuall% had the <autono)ous 'irtues= our
inter*retation e)*hasiIes or the 4*otentialities6 +e tr% to
realiIeU
1O
I ha'e discussed +a%s that the )eta*hors and
fra)e+or&s of different lan-ua-es e'idence a -reat deal of
4Co))on Hu)anit%.6 State)ents fro) the PAQi can acti'ate 'er%
si)ilar associations in )odern A)ericans and ancient Indians
because of such co))on hu)an lan-ua-e *atterns. B%
eLa)inin- the res*ecti'e hu)an conteLts +e can e'aluate to
+hat de-ree the 'irtues that )ade a *articular teachin- tradition
rele'ant and useful in the *ast are indeed the sa)e as the 'irtues
that *eo*le toda% a**reciate. (hus inter*reters can tr% to brin-
out the stren-ths of a source and fulfill its *otentials +ith a -reat
deal of confidence that these corres*ond closel% to the intention
of the ori-inal.
In the case of Dhamma-&inaya *ractice there is a further
chec& of authenticit%. Accordin- to the (hera'Adin
understandin- of eListence discussed in the cha*ter on 4Insi-ht6
sense eL*erience is nonPconce*tual as are its 'arious Kualities
+hich can include the delusion that allo+s the c%cle of sufferin-
to continue or the <clear seein-= that ends it. (he *resence or
absence of sufferin- can thus be &no+n at the le'el of sensation.
(he +a% this understandin- is then inter*reted into a
*ractitioner=s thou-hts about +hat is ha**enin- de*ends on the
indi'idual=s lan-ua-e culture and linea-e. Ho+e'er discussions
1O Steiner .NOW, "#O.
1;; A STRON? ROOTS
of )indfulness )editation b% ancient and )odern teachers use
co))on hu)an lan-ua-e *atterns to *oint to the <direct
&no+led-e= of the cessation of sufferin-.
1W
If this &ind of
&no+led-e is de*endent si)*l% on sense a+areness and not on
culture and *ersonalit% it +ould ha'e arisen in the sa)e +a% for
ancient Indians that it does for )odern A)ericans.
Accordin- to the PAQi discourses no one eLce*t a
sammsambuddha can 'erif% another *ractitioner=s attain)ents
+ith suret%.
1N
Nonetheless an indi'idual can )ost definitel% be
a+are of sufferin- in his or her o+n life> if there is less -ras*in-
and )ore <lettin- -o= in one=s strea) of consciousness that is
Kuite e'ident as +ell. (hat is *recisel% +h% the Buddha in the PAQi
describes the Dhamma he teaches as sandi))hi'# 4directl%
'isible.6
S#
An indi'idual can be sure that a *articular teachin- is
an authentic inter*retation of Dhamma-&inaya if a**l%in- the
*rescribed *ractices the <taste of release= not onl% in the
be-innin- and in the )iddle but also in the end. Ho+e'er this
)ost definitel% does not i)*l% that an% *ractices that are -ood in
the be-innin- and )iddle of a *articular indi'idual=s *ractice can
be s%nthesiIed or <crossPfertiliIed= to create an authentic and
effecti'e tradition of a+a&enin- across -enerations. If )%
ar-u)ent abo'e for 4A Geturn6 is co-ent those of us less than
full% a+a&ened )ust rel% on and )aintain the coherence and
consistence of *articular linea-e of trans)ission fro) *eo*le
+ho ha'e <done +hat had to be done= e)*lo%in- their *articular
definition of the -oal and the best )eans to reach it.
E'en for those +ho &no+ for the)sel'es the *ractices that
lead to a+a&enin- stron- cra'in- or a'ersion can often lead
*ractitioners to delude the)sel'es and -et stuc& 4either in
1W Je find for instance throu-hout the PAQi the *hrase 4%et#vimutti6
pa**vimutti6 di))heva dhamme saya6 abhi** sa%%hi'atv upasampajja
viharati6 <one enters into and re)ains in )ental release and +isdo)
release ha'in- realiIed the) for oneself throu-h direct &no+led-e in the
'isible +orld :i.e. before death;=.
1N E.-. A.VI.$$ XIII0$OffY.
S# E.-. A.III.1$ XI.1SY trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera and Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
Trans/lat$on A 1;1
sufferin- or in a conditioned &ind of ha**iness6 as Jose*h
Eoldstein *uts it eL*ressin- his a**reciation for B Pa?@ita=s
-uidance.
S.
(his is +h% a *ractitioner needs to return to the
source a-ain and a-ain not Hust in the first sta-es of *ractice but
all the +a% to <full a+a&enin-= as one discourse fro) the PAQ i
)a&es clear. In a discussion +ith a *ro)isin- %oun- Brah)an
scholar KA*aZi&a BhArad'AHa the Buddha la%s out the
<her)eneutic )otion= throu-h +hich a no'ice a**roaches the
teachin-s and co)es to an authentic understandin- of the).
Pro)*ted b% the %oun- Brah)an=s inKuiries the Buddha
describes the initial a+a&enin- to truth and the 4final arri'al at
truth.6
S"
KA*aZi&a is intri-ued.
4But +hat factor Master Eota)a does )ost for the final arri'al
at truthU6
4Pushin- on+ard BhArad'AHa does )ost for the final arri'al at
truth... If one did not *ush on+ard one +ould not finall% arri'e
at truth. And because one *ushes on one does finall% arri'e at
truth. (hus *ushin- on+ard does )ost for the final arri'al at
truth.6
4Conte)*lation does )ost for *ushin- on+ard3 Darin-
endea'or does )ost for conte)*lation3 Ea-erness does )ost for
darin- endea'or3 Satisfaction on scrutiniIin- the teachin-s does
)ost for ea-erness3 EL*lorin- the )eanin- does )ost for
satisfaction on scrutiniIin- the teachin-s3 Bearin- the teachin-s
in )ind does )ost for eL*lorin- the )eanin-3 Hearin- the
teachin-s does )ost for bearin- the teachin-s in )ind3 Ei'in-
ear does )ost for hearin- the teachin-s3 Bein- in attendence
does )ost for -i'in- ear3 Eoin- to see _a teacher` does )ost for
bein- in attendence3 Ha'in- confidence does )ost for -oin- to
see _a teacher`3 If confidence _in a teacher` did not arise one
+ould not -o to see _that *erson`. Because confidence arises one
-oes to see _that *erson`. (hus confidence does )ost for -oin- to
see _a teacher`.6
S0
S. Eoldstein .NN0c, "" Kuoted )ore full% on *.""..
S" As cA?a)oli (hera translates the CaT&[ Sutta :M.N1;XII.S$ffY.
S0 CaT&[ Sutta :M.N1;XII.O$ffY. M% translation dra+s in a nu)ber of *laces
fro) the translations b% Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli :edited b% Bhi&&hu Bodhi; and
b% (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. 7irst of all cA ?a)oli=s-loss of 4final arri'al at
1;0 A STRON? ROOTS
(his discourse *resents the *rocess of de'elo*in- +isdo) in
fourteen ste*s a refined 'ersion of the <her)eneutic )otion=. As
does Steiner the Buddha a**arentl% reco-niIes an 4initiati'e
trust6 as *rereKuisite. 2nl% +hen this &ind of faith is *resent +ill
one a**roach a teacher and -et the o**ortunit% encounter the
teachin-s. B% listenin- carefull% reall% hearin- +hat is said and
absorbin- the teachin-s into )e)or% *eo*le be-in to -ras* +hat
is in'ol'ed in intensi'e *ractice the% )a&e Steiner=s second
)otion of a**ro*riation. (hrou-h eL*lorin- the )eanin- of +hat
the% ha'e heard and reflectin- on this in li-ht of their o+n
eL*erience of sufferin- indi'iduals -ain the )oti'ation to
in'esti-ate the solution. Co))itted *ractice is the best +a% of
reci*rocatin- the -ift of the teachin-s as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita
often sa%s. (he assi)ilation of Dhamma-&inaya into the conteLt of
one=s o+n bein- cul)inates as one 4realises +ith the bod% the
su*re)e truth and sees it b% *enetratin- it +ith +isdo).6
S$
(he *rocess of liberation fro) sufferin- thou-h does not
reach co)*letion +ith this 4a+a&enin- to truth.6 Gather based
on +hat is no+ fir) con'iction in the 'alue of the *ractice the
*ractitioner returns to the teacher and the teachin-s
res*ectfull% and attenti'el% listenin- and di-estin- de'elo*in-
ins*iration in'esti-ation and ener-%. 4(he final arri'al at
truth... lies in the re*etition de'elo*)ent and culti'ation of
truth6 ca*tures the critical a)bi-uit% of sa%%nuppatti> nupatti can )ean
4attained recei'ed -ot to _or` reached6 as in the *hrase 4ha'in- reached
old a-e6 accordin- to Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4Anu*atti6 0O and since there
is no article <the= in PAQi (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s renderin- 4final attain)ent
of the truth6 see)s o'erstated and *erha*s unintentionall% absolutist.
(herefore I ha'e follo+ed cA?a)oli=s -loss here. Secondl% cA?a)oli=s
renderin- of the %oun- brah)in=s Kueries 4But +hat Master Eota)a is
)ost hel*ful...U6 closel% follo+s the s%ntaL of the ori-inal PAQi 4...pana, bh#
g#tama, 'atam# dhamm# bahu'r#U6 and neatl% reflects its con'ersational
st%le so )% o+n atte)*t bears a -reat rese)blence to the Venerable
cA?a)oli=s. 7inall% I found )uch resonance +ith (hansissaroRs -losses for
the t+el'e *ro-ressi'e *ro*erties so althou-h I ha'e rerendered the)
fro) the PAQi in each case differin- fro) (hanissaro in at least a fe+
details his ins*iration is nonetheless e'ident in a nu)ber of *laces.
S$ CaT&[ Sutta :M.N1;XII.O0Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli.
Trans/lat$on A 1;2
these sa)e thin-s.6
S1
So the discourse describes authentic dee*
trans)ission.
(he a**roach de'elo*ed here for the anal%sis of a *articular
(hera'Adin teachin- dra+s on the tradition itself. (hree
anal%tical tools ha'e been offered in this section three conce*ts
used in the PAQ i to *resent the role of the Buddha=s teachin-s in
the +orld three ideas that the (hera'Ada has used to understand
itself,
.. (he *ractice of Dhamma-&inaya the <Doctrine and
Disci*line=.
". (he *rocess b% +hich social conteLt defines this *ractice
and b% +hich the *ractice sha*es the hu)an cultures it touches
na)el% throu-h pa)i%%a samuppda de*endent coParisin-.
S1 CaT&[ Sutta :M.N1;XII.O$Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli.
1;5 A STRON? ROOTS
0. (he continuit% of trans)ission of the *ractice across
historical conteLts, the Buddha-Ssana the li'in- tradition of
stud% *ractice and realiIation.
(hus +e discern the trans)ission of the <Doctrine and
Disci*line= +hich arises to-ether +ith and de*endent on *resent
and *ast hu)an conteLt as a *erson res*ectfull% a**roaches
thorou-hl% di-ests and *ersistentl% a**lies the teachin-s
*resented b% a <cu)ulati'e tradition= of scholarshi* and *ractice.
(his c%cle of understandin- initiated b% faith in a bod% of
teachin-s reaches its authentic co)*letion throu-h faithfulness
to that source.
PART TWO
7ront Eate of the MahAsi SAsana Mie&tha Meditation Center
Gan-oon Bur)a
Fro* 3+r*a to 3arre
an $nstan'e of -ee& trans*$ss$on
Jhat about the *ractice tau-ht b% the MahAsi Sa%ada+
ins*ires A)ericans to be-in and to continue assi)ilatin- it into
their o+n li'esU Ho+ ha'e different *hiloso*hical *s%cholo-ical
and social conteLts sha*ed the teachin-s in Bur)a and in the
Bnited StatesU 7or *eo*le at the Insi-ht Meditation Societ% +hat
is the *racticeU
Fro* 3+r*a to 3arre
(he MahAsi Sa%ada+ *ro*a-ated his 'ersion of )indfulness
*ractice in a ti)e of ra*id social chan-e and his +as *art of a
lar-er )o'e)ent of (hera'Adins to+ards )editation. (he
Buddha=s discourses in the PAQ i freKuentl% *rescribe *ersonal
de'elo*)ent throu-h concentration and insi-ht as +e shall see.
Dater in the (hera'Adin tradition ho+e'er )editation see)s to
ha'e been )uch less 'alued than PAQi scholarshi* and social
rituals. Be-innin- around the first centur% C.E. in Sri DaT&a there
is e'idence of a debate o'er the relati'e )erits of scholarshi* and
vipassan *ractice. Jith ro%al and *o*ular su**ort those
dis)issin- )editation *ractice see) to ha'e -ained the u**er
hand b% the fifth centur% C.E.
.
(here )a% ha'e been e*isodes in
. (hreatened b% ci'il +ar and *erha*s b% the *o*ularit% of earl% MahA%Ana
teachin-s )on&s in Sri DaT&a be-an +ritin- do+n the PAQi teLts be-innin-
in the first centur% C.E. (his led to a ne+ conce*tion of scholarshi* and a
debate bet+een )on&s ad'ocatin- *ractice and those ad'ocatin- scri*tural
stud% and *reachin- +hich the scholars a**arentl% +on. Be-innin- around
the fifth centur% C.E. PAQi literature )a&es a di'ision bet+een the 'ocation
of scholarshi* gantha-dhura and that of insi-ht vipassan-dhura. (he
Co))entaries= allusions to these t+o )a&e clear not onl% that b% that ti)e
insi-ht *ractices +ere dee)ed less i)*ortant but also that scholarshi* of
-bhidhamma the co)*leL anal%sis of )ind and )atter too& *riorit% o'er
the Sutta and &inaya teLts. It see)s that in Sri DaT&a )on&s +ellP'ersed not
onl% in the PAQi teLts but also in Vedic 4lan-ua-es arts sciences histor%
la+6 and )edicine +on ro%al fa'or and thus decisi'el% influenced the later
(hera'Ada. 42ne cannot hel* belie'in- that it +as <scholarshi*= the *o+er
11; A STRON? ROOTS
+hich re-ional linea-es of the (hera'Ada returned to an
e)*hasis on )editation> nonetheless at the ti)e of the British
in'asion in the nineteenth centur% the (hera'Adin
establish)ent in Bur)a +as focused on teLtual scholarshi* and
social functions al)ost to the eLclusion of )indfulness *ractice.
So)e A)erican )indfulness *ractitioners are a+are that la%
*eo*le in Bur)a rarel% en-a-ed in intensi'e )editation until
fi-ures li&e the Dedi Sa%ada+ :.W$SP.N"0; and the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ ad'ocated la% *ractice.
"
Dess +ell &no+n is the fact that
the (hera'Adin establish)ent at that ti)e at least the urban
factions that do)inated reli-ious *olitics and scholarshi* did not
stron-l% encoura-e )indfulness *ractice e'en for ordained
)on&s and nuns. Most +ere *ri)aril% scholars thou-h so)e did
en-a-e in intensi'e absor*tion *ractices.
0
Accordin- to Sa%ada+
B Pa?@ita +hen he +as %oun- )ore *eo*le in Bur)a 4Hust
studied the teLts3 (hese da%s there are )an% *eo*le +ho stud%
and )an% *eo*le +ho *ractice dee*l%.6
$
A**arentl% a nu)ber of nineteenth centur% )on&s +ere
ins*ired b% the )editation techniKues collected fro) the PAQi
discourses in one se)inal teLt Buddha-hosa=s &isuddhimagga.
ScholarP*ractitioners such as the (hePDon Sa%ada+ and the Dedi
Sa%ada+ are said to ha'e *ut this teLtual -uidance into *ractice
+ithout *ersonal teachers to -uide the) in )indfulness
*ractice.
1
(he Buddha and the classical co))entators +ho
of intelli-ence and &no+led-e that enabled the dhamma'athi'a bhi''hus to
establish their *oint of 'ie+ defeatin- the pasu'!li'a bhi''hus thou-h the
latter +ere in confor)it% +ith the funda)ental teachin-s of Buddhis).6
Gahula .NO$, "SP00.
" (he Dedi Sa%ada+ +as an e)inent scholar as +ell as an influential ad'ocate
of )indfulness *ractice. He see)s to ha'e been one of the first )on&s in
the )odern (hera'Ada to encoura-e la% *eo*le to en-a-e in intensi'e
)editation *ractice.
0 Absor*tion *ractices are discussed on *."01.
$ Pa?@ita "##0, 1.
1 (he M%a (aun- Sa%ada+ B Dha))alo&a of the Sa-ain- Hills hi)self a 'er%
e'identl% ha**% *erson and a *ractitioner in a linea-e descended fro) the
(hePDon Sa%ada+ 'ia the Shan Eala% K%un Sa%ada+ related his 'ie+ of the
A 111
collated his teachin-s +ere the)sel'es hu)an *ractitioners>
nonetheless it re)ar&able that these )odern scholarP
*ractitioners +ere able solel% +ith -uidance )editated throu-h
the teLts to found linea-es that ha'e led )an% thousands of
t+entiethPcentur% *ractitioners to achie'e \ accordin- to their
o+n re*orts \ si-nificant le'els of liberation fro) sufferin-.
(he Min-un Jeta+un Sa%ada+ B NArada :.WSWP.N11; +as one
)on& +ho beca)e interested in a**l%in- his theoretical
&no+led-e fro) the PAQi but )indfulness *ractice +as
a**arentl% so rare in nineteenth centur% Bur)a that he had to
tra'el to the +ilderness of the Sa-ain- Hills for -uidance. (here
he found a recluse called the Aleta+%a Sa%ada+ +ho had
*racticed +ith the sa)e (hePDon Sa%ada+ )entioned abo'e.
S
B
NArada inKuired of this reclusi'e )on& ho+ to achie'e the -oal of
the teachin-s that he had studied so eLtensi'el%. (he Aleta+%a
Sa%ada+ re*ortedl% as&ed B NArada in return +h% he +as loo&in-
outside of the Buddha=s teachin-s since the% so clearl% *oint out
the *ath of )indfulness as the +a% to achie'e a+a&enin-.
O
(he satipa)) hna *ractice tau-ht b% the Min-un Jeta+un
Sa%ada+ to the MahAsi Sa%ada+ and others did not reKuire
eLtensi'e tranKuilit% *re*aration *re'ious to insi-ht *ractice.
So)e ha'e su--ested that this s%ste) -ained *o*ularit% because
la% *eo*le did not ha'e the ti)e to de'ote to the scholastic and
absor*tion *ractices traditionall% en-a-ed in b% ordained
renunciates.
W
In an% case the recent e)*hasis on la% *ractice in
Bur)a and Sri DaT&a coincided +ith the i)*osition of British
colonialis) and Euro*ean ideals )ost notabl% Protestantis)
+ith its ethic of un)ediated *ersonal reli-ion. Based on such
e'idence scholars such as Gobert Sharf ar-ue 4that the e)*hasis
on )editati'e eL*erience in Buddhis) )a% +ell be of recent
*ro'enance a *roduct of t+entiethPcentur% refor)s ins*ired in
histor% of these linea-es to a -rou* of us durin- a discussion Januar% "##0.
S S[lAnanda .NW", 01P$#.
O cA?a*o?i&a .NWW, W1.
W Sharf .NN1, "11PS echoes this +ides*read understandin-.
110 A STRON? ROOTS
*art b% 2ccidental )odels.6
N
Accordin- to Sharf )odern
Vi*assanA teachin-s= focus on the <eL*erience of insi-ht= is
deri'ed )ostl% fro) sources other than the (hera'adin tradition.
He ta&es this tendenc% on the *art of an Asian tradition as a t%*e
of selfPdefense a-ainst 4the scour-e of cultural relati'is)6
brou-ht on b% eLtensi'e contact +ith forei-n cultures.
B% *ri'ile-in- *ri'ate s*iritual eL*erience Buddhist a*olo-ists
sou-ht to secure the inte-rit% of Buddhis) b% -roundin- it in a
transPcultural transPhistorical realit% i))une to the relati'ist
critiKue.
.#
It is not onl% )odern students and *ractitioners of reli-ion
ho+e'er +ho ha'e *ut for+ard the idea of direct &no+in-
unaffected b% cultural 'ariables. (he cha*ter on 4Insi-ht6 cites a
nu)ber of PAQ i discourses that ad'ocate a &ind of direct seein- of
sense eL*erience not deter)ined b% conce*tual understandin-.
..

In the teLts the Buddha does not atte)*t to le-iti)iIe the -oal or
the *ractice b% a**ealin- to 4institutional or scri*tural
authorit%6> there +as none to +hich he could refer of course. If
so Sharf )ust ad)it that )odern a*olo-ists +ere not the first to
*ri'ile-e 4*ri'ate s*iritual eL*erience... b% -roundin- it in a
transPcultural transPhistorical realit%.6
."

N Sharf .NN1, "1N.
.# Sharf .NN1, "SW.
.. Please see the discussion on *."$0.
." Sharf .NN1, "SW. Sharf "S# is 'er% s&e*tical about ta&inter)s such as
<concentration= <insi-ht= or <realiIation= to refer to 4clearl% deli)ited
<eL*eriences= shared b% Buddhist *ractitioners.6 He )arshals e'idence to
su--est that the recent e)*hasis on intensi'e indi'idual )indfulness
*ractice deri'es )ore fro) Euro*ean Enli-hten)ent ideals than fro) the
source of (hera'Adin tradition. Sharf cites for instance Gichard
Eo)brich=s *oint that the idea of a <)editation center= is a 'er% recent one.
Neither of these authors notice ho+e'er that these centers fulfill )an% of
the functions that earl% )onasteries *erfor)ed accordin- to the accounts
of the PAQi teLts. Indeed the centers of scholastic acti'it% and social *o+er
occu*ied b% )on&s in t+entieth centur% Bur)a could not *ro'ide the Kuiet
en'iron)ent and co)*etent -uidance for )editation *ractice sou-ht b%
renunciates at the ti)e of the Buddha. If the definition of a <)onaster%= or
<)editation center= is conteLtual thou-h the Buddha did not set u*
<)editation centers= *er se he )a% +ell ha'e set u* institutions that
A 112
Sharf sees the ideal of direct &no+in- as *reci*itated )ainl%
b% the )eetin- of di'erse cultural traditions. Certainl% ta&in-
certain doctrines as absolute truth beco)es )ore *roble)atic
+hen one interacts +ith a**arentl% sane and reasonable *eo*le
+ho hold radicall% different +orldP'ie+s. Perha*s for this reason
)an% )odern A)ericans do see) Kuite stron-l% relati'ist.
Intri-uin-l% si)ilar conditions see) to ha'e been *resent +hen
*erfor)ed )an% of the functions IMS does toda%.
Sharf conflates *ractice at the ti)e of the Buddha +ith later (hera'Adin
tradition. Di&e+ise his account of the transfor)ation of the )odern
(hera'Ada in Asia to+ards an inno'ati'e antiPauthoritarian e)*hasis on
direct eL*erience to the eLclusion of theoretical stud% is o'erstated and
actuall% )uch )ore true of conte)*orar% teachin- in A)erica than of the
MahAsi tradition in Bur)a. Moreo'er Sharf e)*lo%s a Jestern conce*tion
of &no+in- that conflates intellectual inter*retation and the direct
&no+in- of sense consciousness +hich are clearl% differentiated in the PAQi
teLts. (hus he )arshals so)e solid e'idence and cle'er reasonin- to co)e
to conclusions that are Kuite unsound and \ if )% ar-u)ent for a return to
the source is co-ent \ Kuite disres*ectful. Jhen +e dra+ the crucial
distinction bet+een the earl% teachin-s and later (hera'Adin scholasticis)
+e find that Sharf=s e'idence does not su**ort his su--estion "1N that 4the
e)*hasis on )editati'e eL*erience in Buddhis) )a% +ell be of recent
*ro'enance.6 See for instance Dh*.^ÎV,010 trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu
+here the Buddha as&s 4ha'in- full% &no+n on )% o+nV to +ho) should
I *oint as )% teacherU6 I ha'e cited in the follo+in- cha*ters a nu)ber of
)odern authorities as +ell as PAQi teLts attestin- to the fact that the earl%
Buddhist tradition had a stron- e)*hasis on concentrated )indfulness
*ractice. Di&e+ise +hen +e dra+ the crucial distinction bet+een sense
consciousness and conce*tual understandin- the idea that insi-ht or
realiIation is deter)ined b% a certain doctrinal or cultural conteLt a**ears
rather confused.
7or the *roHect of eLa)inin- the Vi*assanA )o'e)ent Sharf=s assu)*tions
ha'e 'er% little to reco))end the). Es*eciall% in the cha*ter on 4Insi-ht6
I *resent reasons +h% the (hera'Adin understandin- of realit% is a )uch
)ore suitable basis fro) +hich to inter*ret the *ractice of the Ei-htfold
Noble Path. (his *ers*ecti'e does not den% that e'er% as*ect of teachin-
and *ractice is conteLtual> rather it asserts that the &ind of clear seein-
that brin-s liberation fro) sufferin- de*ends not on an% *articular
conce*tual or cultural deter)ination but si)*l% on a strea) of sensation.
Indeed in addressin- dee* trans)ission abo'e I su--ested that +e )i-ht
fruitfull% anal%Ie the <Doctrine and Disci*line= as de*endentl% coParisin-
+ith its hu)an conteLts in a continuin- *rocess of inter*retation and
115 A STRON? ROOTS
the PAQ i discourses +ere co)*osed +ith their e)*hasis on the
culti'ation of direct &no+in- abhi**.
(he follo+in- cha*ters )a&e note of )an% si)ilarities
bet+een the social conteLt that the Buddha tau-ht in and that of
IMS. A fe+ conditions stand out, li&e )odern A)erica +ith its
-lobal connections and social <)eltin- *ot= northern India in the
last )illeniu) B.C.E. +as the )eetin- *lace of a nu)ber of
radicall% different +orldP'ie+s as +a'es of ar%an settlers
-raduall% inte-rated into areas *re'iousl% occu*ied b% hunterP
-atherer societies and other re*ublican co))unities. (he *eriod
around 1## B.C.E. also sa+ the rise of a class of )erchants and
s)all lando+ners and of urban co))unities> recent centuries
ha'e featured si)ilar trends in Jestern societies.
.0
Man% of the
Buddha=s follo+ers +ere dra+n fro) the ne+l% arisen )iddle
class> *ractitioners of the Ei-htfold Noble Path constituted a
s)all *art of societ% and not a 'er% insular one. Di&e+ise
A)erican Vi*assanA *ractitioners ha'e the )aHorit% of their
social interactions +ith *eo*le +ho ha'e no alle-iance to this
*articular 'ocabular% and 'alue s%ste). <(hera'Ada= or
<Buddhis)= for these *ractitioners is not a national or ethnic
identit% as it has been for certain Southeast Asians. Based on this
e'idence +e )i-ht )a&e so)e interestin- s*eculations. Perha*s
an e)*hasis on )editati'e eL*erience arises in ti)es of ra*id
social chan-e *redicated in *art b% )ultiPculturalis). In contrast
relati'el% ho)o-enous and isolated societies +here reli-ious
establish)ents such as the (hera'Ada beco)e a crucial *art of
national identit% tend to e)*hasiIe institutionaliIed scholarshi*
and social ritual.
(he establish)ent reli-ion of Bur)a has nonetheless been
able to offer teachin-s that the antiPestablish)ent s*iritual
trans)ission. Such an a**roach +ill result in an understandin- of the
si)ilarities and differences bet+een +hat constitutes the *ractice in Barre
and in Bur)a res*ecti'el% that is )ore authentic \ in the sense of
inter*retin- 'arious cultural ideas as )uch as *ossible on their o+n ter)s.
.0 Jarder "###, "NP0#.
A 11#
see&ers of .NO#s A)erica found no'el and 'aluable. Sa%ada+ B
Pa?@ita often re*eats one of his students= re)ar&s callin-
satipa)) hna 4Bur)a=s finest eL*ort.6 (he MahAsi Sa%ada+ ca)e
to IMS hi)self in .NON at the in'itation of earl% students such as
Alan Cle)ents. B Pa?@ita be-an co)in- to Barre in .NW$ +hen
Jose*h Eoldstein and others 4&ne+ hi) onl% b% re*utation as the
successor to the MahAsi Sa%ada+6 in the *osition of -uidin-
teacher of the MahAsi SAsana Mei&tha.
.$
(he collection of tal&s fro) B Pa?@ita=s first tri* to IMS has
*ro'en re)ar&abl% *o*ular> three editions of In 9his &ery <i3e
ha'e no+ been *ublished. It is notable that these tal&s +ere
inter*reted b% a Mala%sian )on& educated in the An-lo s%ste) B
A--acitta and hea'il% edited b% an A)erican student of B
Pa?@ita=s Kate Jheeler. B% e)*hasiIin- certain *oints and
*hrasin- Jheeler renders Sa%ada+=s )essa-e in Kuite a refined
for) attracti'e to A)erican sensibilities. (his inter*retation has
-reatl% eLtended the ori-inal=s *otential and also )ade )an% of
its autono)ous 'irtues shine. It is Kuite an authentic rendition \
in Steiner=s sense \ but si-nificantl% different in content and st%le
fro) a literal inter*retation of the tal&s.
In 9his &ery <i3e has brou-ht )an% forei-n students to B
Pa?@ita=s centers. Ei'en the 'ast literature in Bur)ese on
)indfulness *ractice it is re)ar&able that e'en a fe+ educated
Bur)ese ha'e been introduced to satipa)) hna throu-h In 9his
&ery <i3e. Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=s +ords ha'e -uided a)on- others
Da+ Aun- San Suu K%i a +inner of the .NN. Nobel Peace PriIe for
her coura-eous nonP'iolent stru--le for de)ocrac% in Bur)a.
Eustaaf Hout)an *oints out ho+
It is interestin- that Aun- San Suu K%i li&e )an% Bur)ese
intellectuals stee*ed in readin- forei-n literature should co)e
to fa)iliarise herself +ith Bur)ese vipassan traditions throu-h
the En-lish )ediu) +hilst there is such 'ast literature on the
subHect in Bur)ese. (his is indicati'e of the role of vipassan at
the interface +ith other countries and it affir)s the role of
.$ Eoldstein .NN0b, O.
111 A STRON? ROOTS
vipassan centres as the onl% Bur)ese establish)ents to
re*resent Bur)a abroad alon-side the Bur)ese e)bass%.
.1
Because it is directed at a si)ilar audience In 9his &ery <i3e
rese)bles <Dhar)a boo&s= b% A)erican teachers )uch )ore
closel% than it does Bur)ese lan-ua-e *ublications on
)editation. Peo*le +ho co)e to IMS are )ostl% la% *eo*le +ith
the financial resources to ta&e ti)e for retreat. Es*eciall% in
A)erica 4)ost see) to be )iddle class6 but I obser'ed a si)ilar
de)o-ra*hic at Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=s centers in Bur)a thou-h
one )editation instructor there disa-reed +ith )% assess)ent.
.S

B)a Cha&ra'arti su--ests that in fact )ost of the Buddha=s la%
students +ere gahapati, )erchants ban&ers and artisans.
.O
In an%
case the 'ast )aHorit% of conte)*orar% A)erican *ractitioners
are educated )an% +ith *rofessional de-rees. Most teLts
addressed to this conteLt thus assu)e not onl% a certain
so*histication of lan-ua-e but also a *articular set of
sensibilities. Jose*h Eoldstein -i'es an interestin- illustration of
such assu)*tions at +or&. Bein- told b% his teacher MunindraPHi
that certain )editation subHects +ere suitable for intelli-ent
*eo*le and others for 4stu*id *eo*le6
I had an i))ediate stron- reaction to the cate-oriIation.
Because of a certain )iddlePclass Jestern conditionin- I +as
offended that an%one +ould be considered stu*id.
It +as freein- to learn that for s*iritual *ractice there is no
*reference re-ardin- intelli-ence.
.W
(here are )an% cases li&e this one +here the traditional
inter*retation actuall% has so)ethin- ne+ and liberatin- to offer
A)erican culture. (here are )an% other +a%s in +hich )odern
e-alitarianis) and free inKuir% can re'italiIe the Bur)ese
(hera'Adin *resentation. All the senior teachers in the MahAsi
.1 Hout)an .NNN, 00N.
.S 7ronsdal .NNW, .OW. Cf. Eo)brich and 2be%ese&ere .NWW, "0O in Sri DaT&a
4)ost )editators are )iddle class.6
.O Cha&ra'arti .NWO, passim.
.W Eoldstein .NN0c, S.
A 11)
tradition that I ha'e s*o&en +ith Bur)ese )on&s as +ell as
A)erican la% *eo*le ha'e e)*hasiIed the i)*ortance of
trans)ittin- the Buddha=s teachin-s in A)erica and Euro*e. In
the course of Jestern inter*reters= atte)*ts to acco))odate the
ErecoPJudaic +orld'ie+ ho+e'er the understandin-s of the PAQ i
teLts ha'e been abrid-ed in *laces and contorted in others. M%
su--estion is that a return to the her)eneutic *rinci*les of the
(hera'Adin tradition such as a concise *resentation of the <+orld
of eL*erience= as a continuin- *rocess of de*endent coParisin-
)i-ht not onl% render the teachin-s of the PAQi discourses e'en
)ore acce*table to )odern sensibilities but also *ro'e Kuite an
eL*lanator% and consistent account of hu)an eListence. (his
&ind of reci*rocit% could eLtend the (hera'Ada=s *otential
*recisel% b% re'ealin- its ori-inal stren-ths doin- Hustice to the
source as +ell as -reatl% benefitin- A)erican *ractitioners.
(he MahAsi Sa%ada+ and his senior teachin- disci*les
consistentl% refer to the PAQ i teLts for their descri*tion of the
*ractice. (he% e)*hasiIe *articularl% the for)ulation -i'en in
the 4Discourse Settin- the Jheel of Dha))a in Motion6
re*orted as the Buddha=s 'er% first teachin-,
And +hat is the )iddle +a% realiIed b% the _<2ne (hus Eone=, the
Buddha` that \ *roducin- 'ision *roducin- &no+led-e \ leads to
cal) to direct &no+led-e to selfPa+a&enin- to _/ibbnaÙ
Precisel% this Noble Ei-htfold Path, ri-ht 'ie+ ri-ht resol'e
ri-ht s*eech ri-ht action ri-ht li'elihood ri-ht effort ri-ht
)indfulness ri-ht concentration.
.N
As *resented in the PAQ i teLts these ei-ht factors constitute
not a linear *ro-ression but a continuin- c%cle of de'elo*)ent
each ad'ancin- the neLt. (hus the initial factor of ri-ht 'ie+ is
.N Dha))aca&&a*a'attana Sutta :S.DVI...;XV$".Y. I use (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu=s translation here in *art because his 4*roducin- 'ision...
&no+led-e6 accuratel% renders %a''hu'ara(. *(a'ara(. +here Bhi&&hu
Bodhi=s translation si)*l% lists these states a)on- those 4led to6 +hich the
PAQi suffiLes clearl% differentiate, upasamya abhi**ya samb#dhya
nibbnya. 7or instances of this teLt=s *ro)inence note the title of MahAsi
.NW# 9# /ibbna via the /#ble 7ight3#ld ath echoed in that of Pa?@ita .NN1
On the ath #3 Dreed#m5 - "ind #3 =ise Dis%ernment and Openness.
119 A STRON? ROOTS
also the cul)ination of the *ractice. 7ro) the first +rites
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita an understandin- of the *rocess of sufferin-
and the )eans to its end 4)ust *ro'ide the i)*etus and the
direction for our s*iritual Hourne%.6
"#
4(he <ri-htness= of ri-ht
'ie+ and other factors of the *ath6 accordin- to (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu 4carries the connotation not onl% of bein- correct but
also of bein- <Hust ri-ht=.6
".
B% *ro'idin- balanced -uidance
to+ards s&illful conduct and concentrated )indfulness ri-ht
'ie+ reaches its cul)ination in the realiIation of full release as
the discussion in the 4Anu--ahita Sutta6 )a&es clear.
(ended +ith fi'e factors Bhi&&hus ri-ht 'ie+ has the liberation
of )ind as its fruit the liberation of )ind its re+ard> it has the
liberation of +isdo) as its fruit the liberation of +isdo) as its
re+ard. Jhich fi'eU
Here ri-ht 'ie+ is tended +ith s&illful conduct tended +ith
learnin- tended +ith discussion tended +ith tranKuillit%
tended +ith insi-ht.
""
(his list of fi'e interde*endent functions is useful as a
conce*tual sche)e +ith +hich to anal%Ie *ractice in Barre.
Modern retreat centers such as IMS *ro'ide a social conteLt that
su**orts and *rotects *ractitioners )uch as )onasteries )i-ht
ha'e at other ti)es. 7or all )e)bers of the co))unit% but
"# Pa?@ita .NN0, "$"ff. follo+in- M...OXIIIO.Y. Bodhi .NN. -i'es a si)ilar
eL*lanation in his introduction to 9he Dis%#urse #n +ight &iew.
". (hanissaro .NNS, Part I A *recedes this state)ent 4Just as a )usical
instru)ent should neither be too shar* nor too flat the )ind on the *ath
has to find a balance bet+een eLcessi'e ener-% and eLcessi'e stillness. At
the sa)e ti)e it )ust constantl% +atch out for the tendenc% for its ener-%
to slac&en in the sa)e +a% that strin-ed instru)ents tend to -o flat.6 (hus
this 4)usical analo-% )a&es 'i'id the need for balance in )editati'e
*ractice a lesson that a**ears re*eatedl% in the teLts6 )ost eL*licitl% at
A.VI.11 but also at S.^DVIII.1# A.V."W M.."W etc.
"" Anu--ahita Sutta :A.V."1;XIII"#Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. (he
distinction bet+een these t+o t%*es of release +as the subHect of a debate
bet+een *ro*onents of intellectual stud% and those of )editati'e
a**lication of the teachin-s be-innin- at the latest a fe+ hundred %ears
after the Buddha=s death. Eo)brich=s discussion of this debate is cited on
*."0".
A 11:
es*eciall% for *eo*le on intensi'e retreat IMS creates a
4container6 for *ersonal *ractice.
"0
(o a -reater or lesser de-ree
-uidelines and *eer su**ort encoura-e s&illful conduct +hich
allo+s concentration to de'elo*. Dearnin- fro) boo&s *eers and
teachers can balance and correct a student=s understandin- of the
*ractice. Di&e+ise durin- intensi'e retreat structured discussion
in inter'ie+s +ith )editation teachers is intended to su**ort
'ie+s that are <Hust ri-ht= for the current situation thereb%
balancin- and correctin- the re)ainin- factors of the student=s
*ractice. (he *resence of all of these su**orts as +ell as a Kuiet
clean and *eaceful en'iron)ent allo+s concentration of
attention and thus cal) and tranKuilit% to de'elo*.
"$
Accordin-
to Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita the establish)ent of concentrated
)indfulness naturall% or-anicall% results in vipassan the +a% of
seein- thin-s Hust as the% arise -enerall% rendered in En-lish as
<insi-ht=. As a *ractitioner *ro-resses to+ards the cul)ination of
ri-ht 'ie+ the <a+a&enin- to truth= 4each sta-e of insi-ht
eli)inates a *articular &ind of +ron- 'ie+ or )isconce*tion
about the nature of realit%.6
"1
A retreat center atte)*ts to create the conditions for
students to en-a-e in s&illful conduct as +ell as learnin- and
discussion of the *ractice in order to de'elo* tranKuilit% and
insi-ht. In each of these areas +e can obser'e Eeor-e Steiner=s
her)eneutic c%cle, onl% if *eo*le find so)e resonance bet+een
the *resentation of the teachin-s and their o+n eL*erience do
the% beco)e interested and )a&e a tentati'e a**roach *erha*s
co)in- to hear a tal& or *artici*ate in a retreat. As the% listen
discuss and a**l% the teachin-s the% a**ro*riate certain
understandin-s and *ractices fro) the tradition and assi)ilate
the) into their o+n li'es or not.
Durin- his first tri* to IMS in .NW$ Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita
referred to the 4Anu--ahita Sutta6 cited abo'e dra+in- fro) the
"0 Michele McDonald often e)*lo%s this analo-%.
"$ Please see the Elossar% entr% for samatha on *."N0.
"1 Pa?@ita .NN0, "$1.
10; A STRON? ROOTS
Co))entar% an analo-% that *ro'es useful for fra)in- the
follo+in- discussion of trans)ission 47ro) Bur)a to Barre.6
Vi*assanA )editation is li&e *lantin- a -arden. Je ha'e the seed
of clear and co)*lete 'ision +hich is the )indfulness +ith
+hich +e obser'e *heno)ena. In order to culti'ate this seed
nurture the *lant and rea* its fruit of transcendent +isdo)
there are fi'e *rotections to follo+. (hese are the 7i'e
Protections or the 7i'e -nuggahitas.
"S
"S Pa?@ita .NN0, "" *ara*hrased fro) AA.V."1XIII""NY. B A--acitta=s :U; choice
of 4*rotections6 in the eLcer*t fro) In 9his &ery <i3e con'e%s one i)*ortant
as*ect of <anuggah.ta=. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s -loss 4su**orts6 in his
translation of this discourse -i'es another. (o include both of these as*ects
of the +ord as +ell as a fe+ other i)*ortant connotations such as the +a%
a *arent cares for a child or a -ardener for a *lant I ha'e used a -loss of
<tended= in )% translation abo'e. 7or the 'erb for) anuMgPga(hti, the 9S
01 -i'es 4to ha'e *it% on to feel sorr% for to hel* -i'e *rotection6 and
cites the C9Qaniddesa XM%an)ar *a-e "$# no P(S editionY +here the *ast
*artici*le anuga(hamn# is -i'en alon- +ith anu'ampamn# :<bein-
co)*assionate=; and anupe''hamn# :<bein- considerate=; as Kualities of a
selfless friend. (he ori-inal Bur)ese tal&s that +ere translated and edited
to *roduce In 9his &ery <i3e ha'e been transcribed and *ublished in Bur)ese
b% (ha)ana% K%a+ as _-meri%a Dhamma-desan` :Man-on, 2r-aniIation for
the Pro*a-ation of (hera'Ada Buddhis) no date;. In the ori-inal B Pa?@ita
uses a strin- of Bu)ese +ords to -i'e a translation of <anuggah.ta= that
co'ers the +hole -a)ut, 4~~ .._~ .~~ _~ 6 could be
-lossed as <*rotection tendin- su**ort=.
IV
Con-+'t
&rote't$ng t%e <orl-
(he 4Discourse on the Protections :or Su**orts;6 of ri-ht
'ie+ )entions first s.la used in the PAQi as an abbre'iation of
'usala s.la <s&illful conduct=. 4Its i)*ortance cannot be
o'erstressed6 sa%s Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita> 4+ithout s[la no further
*ractices can be underta&en.6
.
(o elucidate this factor he
eLtends his culti'ation analo-% for the *ractice,
As -ardeners do +e )ust build a fence around our little *lot to
*rotect a-ainst lar-e ani)als deer and rabbits +ho )i-ht
de'our our tender *lant as soon as it tries to s*rout. (his first
*rotection is s.lQnuggahita )oralit%=s *rotection a-ainst -ross
and +ild beha'ior +hich a-itates the )ind and *re'ents
concentration and +isdo) fro) e'er a**earin-.
"
(his understandin- of s&illful conduct as the absolute
)ini)u) and the foundation of the *ractice a**ears throu-hout
the (hera'Ada in Asia. Jhen Michael Carrithers su--ested to
certain Sri DaT&an forest )on&s that 4after first )editatin- one
+ould realiIe the si-nificance of li'in- a )oral life b% the
Buddhist *rece*ts6 echoin- the 'ie+s of so)e inno'ati'e
)odern s*iritual teachers 4the i)*atience and e'en outra-e
+ith +hich the )on&s heard it and the unit% of 'ie+ +ith +hich
it +as reHected left no doubt that the )on&s *lace )oral *urit% in
. Pa?@ita .NN0, ...
" Pa?@ita .NN0, ""P0.
100 A STRON? ROOTS
the central *osition I had +ished to accord to )editati'e
eL*erience.6
0
(he MahAsi Sa%ada+ and his senior teachin-
disci*les ha'e *ut no s)all e)*hasis on concentrated
)indfulness *ractice but ha'e in'ariabl% held s.la to be
*rereKuisite.
If the trainin- rules are deri'ed fro) a 4basic sense of
hu)anit%6 for B Pa?@ita it is obser'ance of the standard
(hera'Adin disci*linar% for)ulations that constitutes s&illful
conduct.
$
(hus he often sa%s that onl% so)eone +ho refrains at a
)ini)u) fro) &illin- fro) stealin- fro) indul-inin seLual
*leasures the% do not ha'e the ri-ht to fro) l%in- as +ell as
fro) an% and all intoLicants can be called trul% <hu)ane=.
A)erican *ractitioners ha'e -enerall% inter*reted s.la so)e+hat
differentl%. 2ne senior teacher +ho left IMS to found a )ore
eclectic center on the Jest Coast Jac& Kornfield obser'es that
the *rece*ts
are )uch )ore funda)ental to *ractice in Asia... Jith this
foundation of +ise conduct and inner trainin- %ou ha'e a
conteLt for the dee*est +isdo) and it=s naturall% inte-rated in
%our life. Jhat has ha**ened in the Jest see)s to be a re'ersal
of that.
1
Indeed )an% Jesterners beca)e established in intensi'e
s*iritual *ractices includin- (hera'Adin s.la in the search for
+a%s to )aintain or sur*ass *s%chedelic and other <hi-hs=. (his
the <re'ersal= of the traditional *ro-ression to +hich Kornfield
refers.
2f the three as*ects of trainin- s&illful conduct is )anifested
)ore eLternall% than concentration or +isdo)> *erha*s it is
)ore 'ariable in different cultural conteLts for this reason. In an%
case Asians= and A)ericans= inter*retations of s.la see) to ha'e
di'er-ed )ore than other as*ects of *ractice so)eti)es Kuite
si-nificantl%. Perha*s the )ost e'ident difference bet+een
0 Michael Carrinthers cited in Bond .NNS, 0NP$#.
$ E.-. Pa?@ita .NN0, ...
1 Kornfield .NN1, 01.
Con-+'t A 102
(hera'Adin *ractice in Bur)a and in the Bnited States is the
*heno)enon so)e ha'e called 4laiciIation.6
S
Jhile the teachin-
of the MahAsi tradition in Bur)a is al)ost eLclusi'el% the do)ain
of celibate )on&s no nati'ePborn A)ericans are ordained and
teachin- in this tradition toda% as far as I &no+.
O
Differin-
cultural ideals of s*iritualit% are si-nificant factors in this
de'elo*)ent no doubt. Hebre+ *riests and Eree& *hiloso*hers
denied the)sel'es neither +ine nor +o)en so these historical
influences ha'e effected the role of *ractitioners in Barre and in
Bur)a Kuite differentl% than has the ancient Indian ideal of
renunication.
Ren+n'$ates An- Ren+n'$at$on
Around 1## B.C.E. in northern India there de'elo*ed a lar-e
but 'er% di'erse )o'e)ent of s*iritual see&ers +ho renounced
the household life and li'ed as +anderin- ascetics. Accordin- to
the PAQi teLts the first students of the Buddha +ere fello+
renunciates +ho had *re'iousl% li'ed as +ith hi) as forest
ascetics. At the establish)ent of the Buddha=s )endicant
co))unit% the bhi''hu sa>gha there +as no elaborate *rocedure
for ordination nor +ere there an% eL*licit rules. (hese +ere onl%
for)ulated as the bhi''hu sa>gha -re+ and so)e )e)bers
'iolated the nor)s co))onl% eL*ected of renunciates and
S E.-. Kin- .NOS.
O (here are a fe+ A)ericanPborn )on&s teachin- in other (hera'Adin
traditions such as (hanissaro Bhi&&hu of the (hai Dha))a%ut sect.
Bhi&&hu Bodhi ordained and initiall% trained under the Sri DaT&an scholarP
)on& Ven. Balan-oda Ananda Maitre%a and later trained +ith Bhi&&hu
ca?a*o?i&a. Both teachers belon-ed to the Sri DaT&an A)ara*ura Ni&a%a
+hich ori-inated in u**er Bur)a and Bhi&&hu ca?a*o?i&a +as
*articularl% hea'il% influenced b% the Mahasi Sa%ada+. (here are a fe+
A)ericans currentl% li'in- as )on&s after ha'in- trained under senior
students of the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +ho )a% )o'e into the role of teachers in
the future.
105 A STRON? ROOTS
)endicants at that ti)e as the Vina%a PiZa&a )a&es clear.
W
In his
last da%s the Buddha re*ortedl% said 4If it is desired ananda the
SaT-ha )a% +hen I a) -one abolish the lesser and )inor rules6
but *recisel% +hich +ere )eant +as ne'er clearl% stated. (hus
the (hera'Adin tradition at least has follo+ed a *olic% of
)aintainin- all the rules as laid do+n durin- the Buddha=s
lifeti)e rather than abolish rules he had intended to be follo+ed.
N
Modern Bur)ese (hera'Adins ha'e inherited eLtensi'e and
detailed for)ulations of disci*line for )on&s. (he% stud% not
onl% the ""O rules of the a)im#''ha and the thousands of )inor
re-ulations found in other *arts of the Vina%a PiZa&a but also the
eL*lanations and elaborations in co))entarial +or&s ancient
and )odern. (he MahAsi Sa%ada+ and his senior students a)on-
others ha'e *racticed and *reached strict adherence to e'en
)inor Vina%a rules. Accordin- to the Bur)ese )on&s I ha'e
s*o&en +ith ho+e'er *erha*s the )aHorit% of their co)rades
ri-orousl% abstain onl% fro) the nineteen )ost serious
W (he stories behind each rule details ho+ the lait%=s reaction *ro'ided the
*rinci*le i)*etus for for)ulatin- )uch of the Vina%a 4Peo*le +ere
offended and anno%ed and s*read it about <Ho+ can these Sa&%an
conte)*lati'es3=6 e.-. Pacatti%a ..XVin.IV0$Y translated in (hanissaro
.NN$, Ch. W *art II. In the BhaddAli Sutta :M.S1;XI$$1Y trans. (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu the Buddha notes that +hen the order of nuns and )on&s has
beco)e lar-e +ealth% *o+erful learned or lon-Pstandin- onl% then are
there conditions for *roble)s to arise. 4Jhen bein-s ha'e be-un to
de-enerate and the true Dha))a has be-un to disa**ear there are )ore
trainin- rules and fe+er bhi&&hus established in the &no+led-e of
A+a&enin-. (he (eacher does not la% do+n a trainin- rule for his disci*les
as lon- as there are no cases +here the conditions that offer a foothold for
the effluents ha'e arisen in the Co))unit%. But +hen there are cases
+here the conditions that offer a foothold for the effluents ha'e arisen in
the Co))unit% then the (eacher la%s do+n a trainin- rule for his disci*les
so as to counteract those 'er% conditions.6
N MahA*arinibbAna Sutta :D..S;XII.1$Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. Accordin-
to tradition this +as decided at the 7irst Council Hust after the Buddha=s
death +here the sa>gha censured ananda for not ha'in- as&ed s*ecificall%
+hich rules the Buddha )eant +ere <lesser and )inor=> I sus*ect that Kuite
a fe+ )on&s o'er the *ast "1## %ears li'in- +ithin the confines of Kuite
detailed rules for)ulated for a s*ecific conteLt ha'e +ished that ananda
had been )ore inKuisiti'e.
Con-+'t A 10#
infractions.
.#
Des*ite the fact that there are Vina%a rules a-ainst
handlin- )one% for instance )ost Bur)ese toda% do not eL*ect
this of renunciates> in fact the% -i'e cash to )on&s thereb%
illustratin- the fact that for better or +orse the *ractice of
disci*line is defined b% the hu)an conteLt toda% as in the *ast.
(he societ% of the Buddha=s da% directed s*iritual see&ers to a
*articular for) of renunciate life and su**orted the) as lon- as
the% abided b% the con'entions of celibac% and li'in- on al)s as
+ell as a -eneral etiKuette of restraint. 2'er the *ast "1## %ears
those +ho ha'e renounced the res*onsibilities of su**ortin-
fa)ilies ha'e ob'iousl% been )ost able to dedicate their ener-%
to the *ractice and trans)ission of Dhamma-&inaya. (hus the
bhi''hu sa>gha has been al)ost eLclusi'el% res*onsible for the
co)*ilation *reser'ation and inter*retation of the Buddha=s
teachin-s so it is not sur*risin- that the 'ast )aHorit% of
(hera'Adin for)ulations of s&illful conduct are desi-ned for
ordained *ractitioners +ho refrain fro) seLual and econo)ic
acti'it%. Ste'en S)ith cites this as 4-rounds for unsur*assed
-ratitude b% those :Jesterners; +ho ha'e recei'ed and benefited
fro) this le-ac%.6
..
Ne'ertheless the Sutta i)a'a -i'es nu)erous instances of la%
follo+ers of the Buddha )an% +ith 'arious le'els of attain)ent
in the *ractice.
."
A**arentl% a fe+ e'en beca)e dhamma teachers
.# (hese are the four PArAHi&A, seLual intercourse stealin- &illin- a hu)an
bein- and falsel% boastin- of s*iritual acco)*lish)ents as +ell as the
thirteen San-hAdisesa and the t+o Ani%ata +hich include a nu)ber of
rules *roscribin- such thin-s as )asturbation and certain inti)ate
interactions b% a )on& +ith fe)ales as +ell as rules a-ainst falsel%
accusin- another )on& of a trans-ression and so on. Bur)ese )on&s
absol'e the)sel'es of trans-ressions of all the re)ainin- )inor rules b%
usin- a confession *rocedure +hich can be either an ins*ired rene+al of
the co))it)ent to the life of renunciation or for)ulaic and not 'er%
)eanin-ful.
.. Ste'en S)ith in his notes on a draft of Str#ng +##ts A*ril "##0.
." At M.O0XI$N#Y for instance the Buddha eL*licitl% states that )an% :4not
Hust one... t+o... three... four... not Hust fi'e hundred6; of his la% follo+ers
)an% fe)ale and )an% )ale ha'e adandoned the lo+er ties of sensualit%
101 A STRON? ROOTS
+ith students of their o+n.
.0
(hou-h later (hera'Adin tradition
confined the lait% al)ost eLclusi'el% to the role of su**ortin-
ordained *ractitioners it a**ears that at the ti)e of the Buddha
la% *eo*le *racticed all as*ects of the Ei-htfold Noble Path.
In this sense the )odern Vi*assanA )o'e)ent has been a
&ind of <re'i'al=. (+entieth centur% teachers in Bur)a such as the
Dedi Sa%ada+ the Min-un Jeta+un Sa%ada+ and the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ ad'ocated concentrated )indfulness *ractice *ointin-
out that the last three factors of the Ei-htfold Noble Path laid out
in the PAQi teLts are ri-ht effort ri-ht )indfulness and ri-ht
concentration. Satipa)) hna the establish)ent of )indfulness
+as no'el at that ti)e not onl% for la% *eo*le but also for the
)aHorit% of the bhi''hu sa>gha +hich *robabl% since the earl%
*art of the first )illenniu) C.E. had been occu*ied +ith
intellectual stud% and occasionall% +ith absor*tion *ractices.
Since )odern (hera'Adin )onasteries *ri)aril% *erfor)
educational and social functions s*ecialiIed retreat centers ha'e
been created to *ro'ide *eo*le +ith the reKuisite Kuiet shelter
food and -uidance to enable concentrated )indfulness and thus
insi-ht to de'elo*. (his has )eant that la% *eo*le can
te)*oraril% renounce the *leasures and res*onsibilities of fa)il%
and li'elihood in order to de'ote the)sel'es to intensi'e
*ractice )uch as )on&s and nuns of the Buddha=s da% retreated
to the forest. (he *o*ularit% of la% *ractice has had a *rofound
i)*act on the co))unit% of *ractitioners of course but has
and so on thus beco)in- nonPreturners not to )ention those +ho ha'e
achie'ed the lo+er sta-es of enli-hten)ent.
.0 E.-. (he housholder Citto +ho) the Buddha calls the *re)ier dha))a
s*ea&er :i.e. teacher; a)on- his la% disci*les at A.I..$,SXI"SY. Cited b%
Cha&ra'arti S#%ial Dimensi#ns .01. (he Buddha *raises the +a% the
householder Anatha*i?@i&a instructs so)e nonPBuddhist renunciates at
A.^.N0XV.W1Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&u sa%in- 4Mon&s e'en a )on& +ho
has lon- *enetrated the Dha))a in this Doctrine and Disci*line +ould do
+ell to refute the +anderers of other *ersuasions +ith the Dha))a
*eriodicall% in Hust the +a% Anatha*indi&a the householder has done.6
Con-+'t A 10)
been *erha*s less structurall% transfor)ati'e in Asia than Sharf
+ould su--est.
B% renderin- the essence of Buddhis) as an 4eL*erience6 the
lait% successfull% +rested authorit% o'er the doctrine a+a% fro)
the cler-%. (he -uarantee of orthodoL% +as no lon-er ri-orous
adherence to the )onastic code :vinaya; but rather a firsthand
eL*erience of the fruit of )editation \ nirv(a. Meditation
instructors +ith little or no for)al trainin- in canonical eLe-esis
+ere free to *ontificate on the )eanin- of Buddhist scri*tures
or alternati'el% to reHect the need for scri*tural learnin-
alto-ether.
.$
In fact such a descri*tion is )ore true of the MahAsi tradition
in A)erica than in Bur)a +here al)ost all of the teachers are
)on&s. Students rel% on such ordained )editation )asters for
their abilit% to eL*licate )editation *ractice in the fra)e+or& of
scri*tural theor% and to brin- a**ro*riate teachin-s fro) the
discourses of the Buddha in the PAQi to bear on the *articular
difficulties and successes of *racticin- )editators.
2utside Asia the situation has been Kuite different. Al)ost all
of the first Vi*assanA teachers in A)erica +ere under thirt%
+hen the% found the *ractice in the S#s and O#s> so)e of these
are no+ the senior teachers at Insi-ht )editation centers around
the countr%. (hou-h a fe+ did recei'e ordination and *ractice in
Asia for %ears at a ti)e to date none of the A)erican teachers in
the MahAsi tradition has re)ained <in robes=. (he Chinese
occu*ation of (ibet and the A)erican occu*ation of Ja*an
*ro'ided i)*etus :thou-h in 'er% different +a%s; for ordained
elders trained eLtensi'el% in the res*ecti'e (ibetan and Fen
traditions to li'e and teach abroad. In contrast +hile a fe+
Bur)ese (hai and Sri DaT&an )editation )asters did 'isit the
Bnited States in the later half of the t+entieth centur% 'er% fe+
of the) ha'e re)ained here. In A)erica the first +ellP&no+n
inter*reters of the MahAsi tradition +ere la% *eo*le a nu)ber of
+ho) be-an teachin- in their t+enties and thirties. Jhen these
.$ Sharf .NN1, "1W. (he issue of +hether nirv(a can be accuratel% described as
an <eL*erience= or as the <fruit of )editation= is discussed on *."1N.
109 A STRON? ROOTS
teachin-s first arri'ed in the Bnited States the *eo*le leadin-
retreats had no+here near the )aturit% in ter)s of a-e or
doctrinal stud% that is t%*icall% reKuired of teachers in Asia.
Ver% fe+ A)erican teachers or *ractitioners in the MahAsi
tradition ha'e co))itted *er)anentl% to the celibate )endicant
lifest%le. Eoldstein s*eculates that 4A)ericans are not 'er% -ood
at renunciation.6
.1
Jhate'er the reason this lac& of a co))unit%
of A)erican nuns and )on&s an indi-enous bhi''hu sa>gha is
*erha*s the -reatest difference bet+een IMS and MahAsi centers
in Bur)a. Meditation centers *ro'ide *ractitioners +ith the
conditions of the renunciate lifest%le on a te)*orar% basis but
this hardl% offers the sa)e le'el of su**ort for *ersonal *ractice
as Eoldstein reco-niIes.
.S
As householders +e=re bus% and +e ha'e a lot of res*onsibilities
and the +or& of dhar)a ta&es ti)e. (he 'ie+ that it=s as *erfect a
'ehicle as )onasticis) doesn=t accord +ith +hat the Buddha
tau-ht. He +as 'er% clear in the ori-inal teachin-s that the
household life is 4full of dust.6 But since +e don=t ha'e a
)onastic culture in A)erica the -reat challen-e is ho+ to
achie'e liberation as la%*eo*le3
.O
I +ould add another <-reat challen-e=, establishin-
institutions to su**ort a )onastic culture here. Enablin- *eo*le
+ho are dra+n to this life of Ho%ous si)*licit% to in'est all their
ener-% in +or&infor their o+n and others= liberation is not onl%
a -reat -ift to the renunciates the)sel'es it is absolutel%
necessar% for the teachin-s to )aintain their *urit% and *o+er
o'er the lon- ter). Co))entin- on an earlier draft of Str#ng
+##ts Bhi&&hu Bodhi +rote
.1 Personal co))unication A*ril "##".
.S Most MahAsi tradition )editation centers in the Jest unli&e their Bur)ese
counter*arts ha'e -enerall% found it necessar% to char-e for roo) and
board thou-h there are no+ scholarshi*s established at centers li&e IMS.
(he teachin-s in the MahAsi tradition continue to be -i'en freel% on the
basis of reci*rocal -enerosit% dna.
.O Eoldstein .NN0a, .1.
Con-+'t A 10:
I continue to Kuestion3 +hether a (hera'ada Buddhist linea-e
e'en a strictl% )editati'e linea-e +ill *reser'e its definiti'e
identit% +ithout the 4*rotecti'e en'elo*e6 of a )onastic order.
Da'is *erha*s doesn=t ta&e sufficient co-niIance of the
conseKuences that )i-ht follo+ +hen a *ractice rooted in a
disci*line of radical renunciation beco)es disse)inated a)on-
*eo*le +ho don=t share the sa)e +orld 'ie+ or orientation. (he
ado*tion of a hi-hl% si)*lified lifest%le durin- the course of a
)editation retreat is Kuite different fro) the t%*e of
renunciation that ins*ires *ractitioners +ithin the )onastic
linea-es. 2f course 'er% fe+ +ho ta&e ordination as )on&s or
nuns in traditional Buddhist co))unities ha'e a stron- i)*ulse
to+ards renunciation and +e shouldn=t cherish an% illusions
about this. But this ideal still re)ains dee*l% i)*lanted in the)
as an ulti)ate 'alue e'en +hen the% cannot adeKuatel% fulfill it.
It see)s to )e \ and *erha*s I a) )ista&en about this \ that
+hat is ta&in- *lace in the Jest *articularl% in the B.S. is the
trans*lantation of Buddhist )editation *ractice fro) its ori-inal
su**ortin- )atriL of Buddhist faith and doctrine to a secular and
s&e*tical en'iron)ent in +hich Buddhist )editation is utiliIed
for its )undane thisP+orldl% benefits rather than for its
liberati'e *otential.
.W
(he Venerable Bodhi=s *oint is +ell ta&en. M% eL*erience
+ith nuns and )on&s such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita has con'inced
)e that such renunciation of +orldl% -oals and total co))it)ent
to the life of Dhamma-&inaya -reatl% facilitates a teacher=s abilit%
to offer the *urest &ind of -uidance for *ractitioners and for the
tradition as a +hole. In the PAQ i the Buddha reco-niIes that one
cannot cate-oricall% state the life of the renunciate to be )ore
fruitful than that of a householder because one can fail or
succeed at <-oin- forth= Hust as in business. He does find ho+e'er
that the need to )aintain a li'elihood can often lead *eo*le to
co)*ro)ise *rinci*les such as s*ea&in- the truth forthri-htl%
and that s&illful Kualities are found )ore freKuentl% a)on- those
+ho ha'e ta&en u* the disci*line of a renunciate. Such hi-h le'el
s.la the Buddha sa%s allo+s the renunciate to li'e honestl% and
-enerousl% 4de'elo*in- a )ind that is +ithout hostilit% and
.W Bhi&&hu Bodhi co))entin- on a draft of Str#ng +##ts 7ebruar% "##0.
12; A STRON? ROOTS
+ithout illP+ill.6
.N
(he i)*ortance of a bhi''hu sa>gha is
illustrated b% an instance fro) the histor% of the Buddha=s
teachin-s in Sri DaT&a. Accordin- to the account -i'en in the
Vina%a teLts +hen the elder Mahinda first established the
Buddha-Ssana on the island the Kin- De'AnaC*i%atissa as&ed of
the )on& at +hat *oint the roots of the teachin-s +ould -o dee*
on the island of DaT&a. (he Venerable Mahinda told hi) that
+hen a %outh born on the island of *arents nati'e to the island
enters the bhi'hhu sa>gha on the island learns the &inaya on the
island and teaches it on the island 4then indeed +ill the roots of
the Dis*ensation ha'e descended.6
"#
In order for a stron- A)erican )onastic co))unit% in the
MahAsi tradition to de'elo* I see three basic reKuisites. 7irst of
all +e need +o)en and )en interested in co))ittin- to the
renunciate life> of these there are alread% a nu)ber and )an%
)ore +ould be touched b% the eLa)*le of these *ioneers.
Secondl% +e need )onasteries for the) to li'e in> )aintainin-
hi-hPle'el s.la is ni-h on i)*ossible +ithout the shelter and
su**ort of a co))unit%. 7inall% +e need la% *eo*le +ho are
)o'ed to su**ort the nuns and )on&s b% *ro'idin- food and
other reKuisites and b% assistin- +ith needs such as
trans*ortation and handlin- finances.
If a a stron- la% co))unit% is necessar% to su**ort the
ordained sa>gha li&e+ise a co))unit% of nuns and )on&s is
necessar% to -uide and su**ort the *ractice of la% *eo*le. Here
a-ain balance is the &e%.
(his is the +a% the Buddha set it u* \ the fourfold asse)bl% that
is la% and )onastic fe)ales and )ales. And it is clear to )e that
this relationshi* is *i'otal. Da% Buddhis) +ithout the )onastics
feels rudderless to )e and I can=t i)a-ine that it could endure>
and )onastic Buddhis) +ithout the lait% feels cold and isolated
and surel% +ould not sur'i'e...
".
.N Subha Sutta :M.NN;XII"#SY trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
"# PArAHi&a&a?@aPAXI.#"Y trans. N. A. Ja%a+ic&ra)a :Vin.^Î..#1; N#.
". (arani%a "##0, O.
Con-+'t A 121
Eloria (ara?i%A A)brosia is an Insi-ht Meditation teacher
+ith stron- ties to the Jestern )onastic co))unit% of Achaan
Cha=s (hai linea-e. In s*endin- ti)e +ith (hera'Ada nuns and
)on&s she and I both ha'e been dee*l% i)*ressed b% 4the
*o+er of the for) and the effect of its s&illful use.6 (hus
(ara?i%A feels o*ti)istic about interest in )onasticis) in the
Jest. Her re)ar&s co)e fro) an inter'ie+ in +hich she
described her recent realiIation about the i)*ortance of 'aluin-
la% *ractice as +ell as )onastic *ractice.
7or )an% %ears I thou-ht la% life +as +hat +as left o'er after I
couldn=t )a&e the decision to be a nun3 once I sto**ed
)easurin- )% life a-ainst theirs I could see that I +as actuall%
incredibl% ha**% bein- a la% su**orter3 Since _then` I ha'e
in'esti-ated the Buddha=s teachin-s on la% life )uch )ore
closel% and a) endea'orin- to learn about and li'e the Buddhist
life as a la%*erson )ore full%. (his )a&es )e 'er% ha**%.
""
In )odern Bur)a +here there has been a stron- bhi''hu
sa>gha the MahAsi Sa%ada+ and others encoura-ed a )o'e)ent
to+ards the balanced co))unit% described in the PAQi teLts b%
enablin- la% *eo*le to -et in'ol'ed in intensi'e )indfulness
*ractice. In )odern A)erica +here the la% co))unit% of
*ractitioners is ra*idl% -ro+in- a )o'e)ent to+ards balance
)ust include the de'elo*)ent of a stron- co))unit% of
renunciates.
So far the *rotection of the Vina%a disci*line has not
attracted -reat nu)bers of A)ericans. 2ne )aHor obstacle to the
ordained life \ for half of the *o*ulation at the 'er% least \ is a
*ercei'ed ineKualit% bet+een nuns and )on&s in the (hera'Ada.
In Bur)a )on&s do )aintain a status and authorit% that far
eLceeds that of fe)ale renunciates. In *art this is due to the fact
that in the (hera'Adin linea-e of full% ordained nuns died out so
that +hile Bur)ese )on&s are full% ordained and are bound b%
the full ""O Vina%a rules their fe)ale counter*arts are not.
Nonetheless )an% fe)ale thila-shins in Bur)a see) to be 'er%
"" (arani%a "##0, O.
120 A STRON? ROOTS
scru*ulous and co))itted to the ei-ht or ten *rece*ts the% do
'o+ to obser'e *erha*s )ore co)itted than )an% )on&s are to
the full set of their o+n disci*linar% rules.
"0
Miso-%nistic as*ects of ancient India and )odern Bur)a ha'e
indeed eLacerbated the di'ide bet+een )ale and fe)ale
renunciates. So)e of the conclusions the (hera'Adin tradition
has reached re-ardin- relations of authorit% and res*ect bet+een
)on&s and nuns )a% not be a**ro*riate in this A)erican
conteLt> the% )a% not acco)*lish the *ur*ose for +hich the%
+ere a**arentl% created, )aLi)iIin- the abilit% of the Dha))a
co))unit% to attract and su**ort *ractitioners b% )aintainin-
its res*ectabilit% in the societ% of its da%. If Dhamma-&inaya is
deter)ined b% conteLt and if )iso-%n% has been an as*ect of
Indian and Bur)ese societ% +e should not eL*ect the (hera'Adin
teachin-s to be free of it. B% the sa)e to&en ho+e'er a ne+
conteLt redefines Dhamma-&inaya. (he )aHorit% of the MahAsi
*ractitioners in the Bnited States toda% are +o)en and fe)ale
teachers and scholars are *la%in- a si-nificant and 'ital role in
establishin- this A)erican tradition.
"$
Indeed one of the )ost
fruitful as*ects of this ne+ A)erican Ssana is its realiIation of
this *otential for fe)ale leadershi* +hich has been latent but
lar-el% unrealiIed in the Bur)ese (hera'Ada.
A nu)ber of A)ericans and other Jesterners ha'e eL*ressed
interest in the reestablish)ent of a bhi''hun. sa>gha an order of
full% ordained nuns on a *ar +ith the )on&s. (he Mahasi
Sa%ada+=s teacher the Min-un Jeta+un Sa%ada+ )ade a stron-
"0 So I ha'e obser'ed at least in )% ti)es as a )on& in Bur)a.
"$ 4Most sittin- -rou*s and retreats ha'e )ore +o)en *artici*ants than )en.
S*irit Goc&=s )ailin- list of "$### contains t+ice as )an% +o)en as )en.
At a +ee&l% sittin- -rou* in Palo Alto California t%*icall% about S1 *ercent
of the a**roLi)atel% one hundred *artici*ants are +o)en. A fourPda%
residential retreat in Kansas Cit% in the s*rin- of .NN1 and a se'enteenPda%
residential retreat for eL*erienced *ractitioners held in San Gafael
California in the fall of .NN1 both had ratios of S1 *ercent +o)en to 01
*ercent )en6 accordin- to 7ronsdal .NNW, .OW.
Con-+'t A 122
case for the ordainin- of bhi''hunis for +hich he *aid a stee*
*olitical *rice.
Jo)en +ho +ere *er)itted Blessed 2ne &no+in- and seein-...
and ri-htl%PselfPa+a&ened should be -i'en ordination in the
sa)e +a% no+ b% the order of )on&s... (he linea-e of the nuns=s
order bein- cut off at *resent +e +ill brin- the Bhi&&huni
SAsana to-ether a-ain. Je +ill &no+ the Blessed 2neRs desire...
Such is the direction -i'en to future bhi&&hus re-ardin- this
Kuestion.
"1
State)ents such as this one caused the Min-un Jeta+un
Sa%ada+=s "ilindapa*ha-a))ha'ath to be banned in Bur)a in the
.N1#s. Perha*s )odern North A)erica +ill offer )ore fertile
-round for this elder=s 'ision> *erha*s not. Man% feel a 4dut% as
Buddhist +o)en of the *resent a-e... to )a&e the sasana bri-ht
shinin- and co)*lete.6
"S
(he or-aniIation Sa&%adhita
<Dau-hters of the Buddha= has recentl% reestablished a
(hera'Adin bhi''hun. linea-e> there are no+ so)e "## full%
ordained nuns and a trainin- center in Sri DaT&a.
"O
Nonetheless
the (hera'Adin Vina%a +as for)ulated in 'er% different ti)es. I
+onder +hether the eLtre)el% hi-h le'el of disci*line reKuired
b% the (hera'Adin bhi''huni rules +ill *ro'e li'able for )odern
+o)en es*eciall% Jesterners o'er the lon- ter). (here are for
instance )an% rules that a**l% onl% to nuns such as not
tra'ellin- or s*endin- the ni-ht +ithout another nun *resent
desi-ned to *rotect the bhi''hunis fro) bein- in situations +here
the% )i-ht be ta&en ad'anta-e of seLuall%. If the -oal is full
eKualit% \ ha'in- eLactl% eKui'alent rules and seniorit% I a) not
sure that that is *ossible +ithin the bounds of (hera'Adin
Vina%a. And so I +onder +hether establishin- a bhi''huni sAsana
"1 M% translation of Narada .NNN, .NOP"#0.
"S Dotter)oser .NN. echoin- the Min-un Jet+un Sa%ada+Rs 'ie+s +rites that
k(he sasana is inco)*lete if hi-her ordination into reli-ious orders is not
a'ailable to +o)en since this o**ortunit% +as ori-inall% -ranted b% Dord
Buddha. Buddha hi)self said to Mara that his teachin- is +ellPestablish
onl% if all the four -rou*s of disci*les are co)*lete, bhi&&hus bhi&&hunis
u*asa&as _la% )en` and u*asi&as _la% +o)en`.
"O Juti)a "##".
125 A STRON? ROOTS
+ill e'en sol'e the *ressin- *roble) of )iso-%n% in the
(hera'Ada +hich I do see as a real detri)ent to the s*read of the
BuddhaRs Dha))aPVina%a and the ha**iness of bein-s.
(he Kuestion of a co))unit% of full% ordained nuns )a% be
so)e+hat irrele'ant to fe)ale *ractitioners= status in North
A)erica if the celibate renunciate lifest%le does not -ain )ore
*o*ularit% in this ne+ conteLt. Achaan Cha +ho founded one of
the )ost successful traditions of (hera'Adin )onasticis) in the
Jest re*ortedl% co))ented that he +ould be +illin- to
establish a bhi''hun. sa>gha if onl% there +ere so)e +o)en
+illin- to constitute it.
"W
Jhile there is stron- and 'ocal su**ort
for fe)ale eKualit% a)on- A)erican *ractitioners 'er% fe+ of us
\ )ale or fe)ale \ ha'e co))itted to the renunciate lifest%le.
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu )a&es an interestin- *oint 4I thin& +hat=s
hardest here in the Jest is si)*l% the idea of rules.6
"N
Certainl%
so)e )e)bers of the IMS co))unit% reacted stron-l% a-ainst
the disci*line follo+ed b% 'isitin- Asian )on&s. An IMS staff
)e)ber +ho had *racticed before at the San 7rancisco Fen
Center re)ar&ed in an inter'ie+ al)ost a decade a-o
2ne thin- that ha**ened +hen I ca)e here +as that I ste**ed
into the stone a-e/ I couldn=t believe +hat -oes on in this
tradition. (he )en )on&s are not allo+ed to ride alone in a car
+ith a +o)an so +hen +e -o to arran-e doctors rides for the)
+e ha'e to find a -u%. I said <I=) Hust not doin- it. I don=t belie'e
in it to )e its seList and I don=t thin& that=s +hat the Buddha
)eant and if it is +hat he )eant it=s +ron-/= It co)es fro),
Jo)en seduce )en.
0#
(his inter'ie+ +as *ublished in Sand% Boucher=s boo& on
+o)en in Buddhism, where the author co))ents that *erha*s
"W (he Venerable VaHira8A?i :Ellen Moone%; an A)erican nun +ho *ractices
and studies under Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita related this e'ent to )e> I ha'e not
co)e across it in an% other source.
"N (hanissaro .NNW, S1.
0# Barbara Horn as Kuoted b% Boucher .NWW, 0$O.
Con-+'t A 12#
such 4instincti'e a'ersion echoes the resistance of those earl%
Massachusetts +o)en to )alePinsti-ated reli-ious t%rann%.6
0.
Ha'in- li'ed as a )on& in Bur)a for o'er a %ear and ha'in-
studied Vina%a carefull% +ith crossPcultural i)*lications in )ind
)% o+n understandin- of these *articular rules differs fro)
Boucher=s. 7irst it )ust be understood that the (hera'Adin
tradition as Indian thou-ht in -eneral has ad'ocated te)*orar%
seclusion in order to nurture in so)eone not %et full% a+a&ened
the abilit% to deal +ith certain challen-in- or disturbin-
eL*eriences. (he si-nificant differences bet+een this a**roach
and that of the JudeoPChristian tradition are discussed belo+ in
the cha*ter on 4(ranKuilit%.6
0"
(he accounts of the Vina%a PiZa&a
detail ho+ situations arose in +hich unscru*ulous )on&s har)ed
+o)en and the ordained co))unit%=s re*utation *ro)*tin- the
for)ulation of certain disci*linar% -uidelines. (he ori-inal intent
of these rules is es*eciall% clear +hen one eLa)ines the stories
behind corres*ondin- disci*line *rohibitin- full% ordained
+o)en fro) bein- alone +ith )en a nu)ber of +hich +ere
for)ulated in res*onse to seLual assaults b% bandits and others
+ho +ere not in trainin- under the Buddha. In both cases the
rules arise out of a reco-nition of the un*leasant realities of
hu)an societ%. Gather than insistin- on ideals that could onl% be
*racticable onl% b% *erfected *eo*le in a *erfect co))unit% the
Vina%a la%s out *ractical a**roaches to )ini)iIe the occurrence
of dan-erous situations that )i-ht result in har) to an% *art%=s
*h%sical )ental or social +ellPbein-.
(o )aintain and ins*ire faith in the teachin-s a)bassadors
of the Ssana )ust not onl% a'oid -ettin- in'ol'ed in har)ful
situations the% )ust a'oid e'en the a**earance of co)*ro)isin-
their disci*line. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu the A)erican (hera'Adin
)on& +ho recentl% authored 9he Buddhist "#nasti% 1#de5 9he
atim#''ha 9raining +ules 9ranslated and 78plained )a&es an
0. Boucher .NWW, 0$O.
0" Please see the discussion on *.""O.
121 A STRON? ROOTS
i)*ortant *oint, the teLtual accounts of the rules such as those
a-ainst )on&s bein- alone +ith +o)en in al)ost e'er% case
describe ina**ro*riate beha'ior on the *art of certain )on&s not
the +o)en as the reason for the rule.
(he rules are basicall% a re)inder that the relationshi* bet+een
a teacher and a student of the o**osite seL has a lot of *otential
for bein- abused. And +hen it does -et abused it=s de'astatin-.
It=s not that )on&s are bad or +o)en are bad but this *articular
situation has to be handled 'er% carefull%... So the )on&=s
-uidelines are Hust that, -uidelines that sa% in a certain situation
%ou ha'e to be 'er% circu)s*ect about ho+ %ou act.
00
(hese rules can indeed be Kuite a *rotection for fe)ale
students. Michele McDonald=s eL*erience +ith a (hera'Adin
)on& illustrates the i)*ortance of a teacher=s s&illful conduct
:s.la; in fosterin- trust.
B Pa?@ita encoura-ed )e to intensif% )indfulness be%ond +hat I
thou-ht *ossible... E'en thou-h he +as tou-h +ith )e I reall%
trusted hi) because he had such an aura of sila +hich +as
eLtre)el% i)*ortant to )e +ith a histor% of abuse. I also reall%
trusted hi) because of his technical brilliance. I can be a +arrior
as a %o-i I reall% +ant to be free. So I Hust did +hat he said.
0$
In fact Carla Brennan=s accounts of 4seLual abuse of *o+er6
b% )ale Buddhist teachers +hich Boucher cites in detail
illustrate the i)*ortance of rules co'erin- relationshi*s bet+een
a teacher and a student of the o**osite -ender. Notabl% the
instances discussed in'ol'ed )en +ho +ere not bound b% the
strict (hera'Adin Vina%a rules a-ainst touchin- or bein- alone
+ith +o)en. Brennan +as *articularl% 4disturbed6 b% one
incident at IMS
because +hile there +as -eneral disa**ro'al of +hat had
ha**ened there +as not an understandin- that this incident
related to lar-er issues in the s*iritual or Buddhist co))unit%
concernin- *o+er authorit% and the relationshi*s bet+een
+o)en and )en.
00 (hanissaro .NNW, S1.
0$ McDonald "###.
Con-+'t A 12)
(he (hera'Adin Vina%a is desi-ned to address *recisel% these
&inds of issues of co))unit% and indi'idual ethics. (he teLts -i'e
)an% *ractical )easures that )i-ht be of -reat use in s*iritual
co))unities toda% such as s*ecific directions for ordained
*ractitioners to as& for-i'eness for)all% fro) an%one the% )i-ht
ha'e har)ed and to reKuest others to tell the) of their faults so
the% )i-ht i)*ro'e. Since dedicated s*iritual *ractitioners in the
Buddha=s da% +ere directed to+ards renunciate co))unities the
Vina%a *ro'ided -uidelines for these -rou*s= -o'ernance and
)aintenance as +ell as insurin- that the ordained disci*les of
the Buddha +ould be res*ected and su**orted b% the societ%
around the). (his )uch is a**arent in a stoc& *hrase re*eated
throu-hout the Vina%a PiZa&a,
In that case bhi&&hus I +ill for)ulate a trainin- rule for the
bhi&&hus +ith ten ai)s in )ind, the eLcellence of the
Co))unit% the *eace of the Co))unit% the curbin- of the
sha)eless the co)fort of +ellPbeha'ed bhi&&hus the restraint
of effluents related to the *resent life the *re'ention of effluents
related to the neLt life the arousin- of faith in the faithless the
increase of the faithful the establish)ent of the true Dha))a
and the fosterin- of disci*line.
01
Def$n$t$on An- Conf+s$on
(he IMS co))unit% has recentl% atte)*ted so)ethin- of a
return to the 'alue of disci*linar% -uidelines de'elo*in- a <Code
of Ethics= for Vi*assanA teachers.
0S
Eil 7ronsdale +rites that until
the )idP.NW#s )an% Jestern teachers of insi-ht )editation +ere
far less +illin- to e)*hasiIe ethical -uidelines than their Asian
)asters.
01 E.-. Vin. PArAHi&a IXIII".Y translated b% (hanissaro .NN$, intro.
0S 7ronsdal .NNW, .O1 cites the vipassan teacher=s code of ethics in the
a**endiL of Kornfield .NN0, 0$#P$0.
129 A STRON? ROOTS
Since then and *articularl% in the Bnited States an increasin-
stress has been *laced on ethics and on the traditional Buddhist
*rece*ts for the lait%. (he chan-e +as to a -reat eLtent a
res*onse both to a +ider cultural interest in ethics and to a
si-nificant nu)ber of ethical trans-ressions b% Asian and
Jestern teachers of (ibetan Fen and (hera'Ada Buddhis).
0O
Since al)ost none of the A)erican Vi*assanA teachers are
ordained nuns or )on&s the% are unli&el% )a&e full use of the
Vina%a -uidelines. (he A)erican *ractice co))unit% )ade u*
al)ost entirel% of householders has alread% *roduced ne+
inter*retations of s&illful conduct. (he Buddha=s descri*tions of
s.la for la% *eo*le in the PAQ i teLts differ so)e+hat bet+een
'arious conteLts. Eeor-e Bond describes t+o co))on
for)ulations of s&illful conduct e'ident in the earl% teLts, one a
t%*e of selfPrestraint oriented to+ards *s%cholo-ical *urit% and
full a+a&enin- the other )ore eLternall% focused on disci*line
and based on one=s role in life.
0W
(he (hera'Adin tradition
do)inated b% )on&s has e)*hasiIed *articularl% the eLternal
as*ect, sets of *rece*ts ada*ted fro) those for full% ordained
renunciates. 7or -eneral household life the *rece*ts +ere
abbre'iated to fi'e said to brin- )an% boons in current and
future li'es, abstention fro) &illin- stealin- l%in- seLual
)isconduct and intoLicants that cause heedlessness. In addition
to follo+in- these *rece*ts *eo*le on intensi'e retreat at MahAsi
)editation centers in Bur)a si)ulate certain as*ects of ordained
life b% refrainin- fro) all seLual acti'it% fro) eatin- after noon
0O 7ronsdal .NNW, .O1.
0W Bond .NNS, "$ff su--ests that the bhisam%ari' si''h 4denotes the
-eneral standard of conduct eL*ected of a bhi&&hu li'inin a )onaster%6
e.-. M.SNXI$SNY. Notin- ho+ at A.IV."$1XII"$0Y the Buddha contrasts the
)ore internall% oriented for)ulation of disci*line laid do+n for the
*ur*ose of endin- all sufferin- :see belo+; +ith this bhisam%ari'a si''h,
laid do+n for the *ur*ose of culti'atin- the clarit% of faith Bond asserts
that it is this 4)undane6 bhisam%ari'a for) of s&illful conduct that
de'elo*ed into the no+ standard (hera'Adin trainin- *rece*ts.
Con-+'t A 12:
fro) a)use)ents such as dancin- and sin-in- and fro) bodil%
adorn)ent.
0N
Silent retreats )oreo'er enable *eo*le to *ractice the other
for)ulation of s.la described in the Sutta i)a'a +hich focuses on
the t%*e of <internal= restraint leadin- to 4the co)*lete
destruction of all sufferin-.6
$#
(he *rece*ts a-ainst &illin-
stealin- and seLual )isconduct are the first of this 'ammapatha
for)ulation du*licatin- the )ore standard list of disci*line +ith
the eLce*tion of intoLicants. (he neLt four abstentions are fro)
false harsh di'isi'e and fri'olous s*eech +hich as teachers
often *oint out should not be a *roble) for )editators on silent
retreat. So)e teLts list a final three abstentions, fro)
co'etousness )ale'olence and +ron- 'ie+. <Getreat= fro) the
*leasures and *ains of social life is intended to di)inish these
first t+o and a teacher=s instructions the third but the
de'elo*)ent of insi-ht is e)*lo%ed to finall% u*root the latent
tendencies of cra'in- a'ersion and i-norance. (hese )ore
*s%cholo-ical oriented as*ects of ri-ht s*eech and ri-ht action
ha'e been *resented 'er% si)ilarl% b% Bur)ese and A)erican
teachers in the MahAsi tradition.
0N (his last thou-h see)s to be inter*reted for la% *eo*le to )ean dressin-
si)*l% and *racticall%> no one see)s to )ind if )editators continue to
+ear +atches and He+elr% on retreat as lon- as the% are not ostentatious.
$# In contrast to the eLternall% oriented for)ulations the dibrahama%ariy
si''h is declared at A.IV."$1XII"$0Y to lead to the 4co)*lete destruction of
all du''ha6> Bond 4(+o 7or)ulations6 00ff identifies this as the
'ammapathas, refrainin- fro) the bodil% actions of &illin- stealin- and
seLual )isconduct as +ell as the 'erbal actions of false s*eech :musvd;
slanderous s*eech :pisu(a v%ya; harsh s*eech :pharus v%ya; and
fri'olous s*eech :samphappalp; often su**le)ented b% the addition of
three *urel% *s%cholo-ical abstentions, fro) co'etousness :abhijjhya;
)ale'olence :bypd; and +ron- 'ie+ :mi%%hdi))hi; as at S.ÎV."1XII.SWY
and A.III...1XI"SWY. At M...OXIIIO.ffY this list of ten is sho+n to 4re*resent
the *ractical out+or&in-6 of the Ei-htfold Noble Path, ri-ht s*eech includes
the four 'erbal *rece*ts ri-ht action the three bodil% *rece*ts the
re)ainin- factors of )editati'e *ractice bein- intended to u*root the
uns&illful *s%cholo-ical roots.
15; A STRON? ROOTS
(he )ore eLternall% oriented *resentations of s.la such as the
fi'e *rece*ts ha'e been inter*reted Kuite differentl% in Asia and
in the Bnited States. Perha*s the )ost funda)ental reason for
this is that as la% *ractitioners )ost A)erican teachers do not
ha'e the su**orts and constraints of a )onastic lifest%le. In
Bur)a because la% *eo*le *ro'ide the necessar% su**ort )on&s
can re)ain aloof fro) certain as*ects of life and so it is *ossible
to hold the) to a hi-h le'el of s&illful conduct. At IMS ho+e'er
+hen issues such as a coc&roach infestation arise the teachers
are not innocent of the decision to use *oison.
$.
Perha*s this has
so)ethin- to do +ith the fact that in A)erica the *rece*ts are
-enerall% defined in ter)s of intention rather than in ter)s of
action. Moreo'er s.la is al)ost al+a%s defined eL*licitl% in ter)s
of abstention in Asia for instance the *rece*t <not to ta&e life= or
<not to ta&e +hat is not -i'en=. A)erican teachers )ore often
describe the *ositi'e as*ect of s&illful conduct +hat is to be
culti'ated. Ste'en Ar)stron- for instance -i'es a 'er% fleLible
thou-h inclusi'e rendition of the fi'e *rece*ts, 4a co))it)ent
to not har)in-6 4a co))it)ent to sharin-6 4)a&in- and
&ee*in- clear relationshi*s6 4s*ea&in- carefull%, the *o+er of
intention6 and 4&ee*in- the )ind clear.6
$"
Such *resentations
echo the )ore internall% oriented for)ulations of s.la found in
certain PAQ i discourses +hereas the )ore standard *resentation
in Bur)a de'elo*ed fro) Vina%a rules ori-inall% for bhi''hus as
noted abo'e.
$0
In certain cases there can be confusion about ho+ the
standard Bur)ese for)ulation of the *rece*ts should be a**lied
to an A)erican la%*erson=s life. Causin- an abortion for instance
is considered for (hera'Adin )on&s and nuns to a)ount to
$. Ha)ilton .NN1, ... notes this as an instance of <strea)+inners= brea&in-
*rece*ts.
$" Ar)stron- .NNN, ".SP0#.
$0 Please see note $# on *..0N. Bond .NNS notes that so)e refor)ist Sri DaT&an
Buddhists ha'e re'i'ed the 'ammapathas as their definition of s.la reHectin-
the traditional list for la% *eo*le.
Con-+'t A 151
&illin- a hu)an bein-. (his for)ulation is consistent +ith the
(hera'Adin understandin- of consciousness and rebirth but
+hat does it )ean for A)erican la%+o)en tr%in- to )aintain the
*rece*tsU (o date *ublic discussions +ithin the IMS co))unit%
see) to ha'e )ostl% a'oided this contentious to*ic. (he 7all .NN0
issue of In@uiring "ind a 4Hournal of the Vi*assana co))unit%6
did include an article b% a Fen *riest +ho see)s to ha'e found a
*osition res*ectful both to her tradition and to A)erican
+o)en=s difficult choices.
7or )e the Buddha=s first *rece*t \ not to &ill intentionall% \
cannot be denied )uch less )ini)iIed... I feel co)*elled to ta&e
a stand a-ainst abortion3 At the sa)e ti)e I can readil% and
+illin-l% &ee* so)eone co)*an% +hen abortion is the choice she
has arri'ed at. I a) stron-l% in fa'or of the freedo) of each
indi'idual to choose for herself +hat to do re-ardin- a conflicted
*re-nanc%. I could not and +ould not ad'ocate a return to the
%ears +hen the -o'ern)ent controlled a +o)an=s decision.
$$
Mon&s and nuns )a&e use of *eo*le=s su**ort +ith the
understandin- that as renunciates the% are de'otin- their
ener-% to *ractice so certain as*ects of sensualit% are clearl%
ina**ro*riate for the). (he dail% life of a householder is 'er%
different fro) the ordained life so the *ractice of disci*line
differs bet+een these conteLts in certain +a%s. In a fe+
discourses the Buddha *resents -uidelines such as 4A la%
follo+er should not en-a-e in fi'e t%*es of business. Jhich fi'eU
Business in +ea*ons business in li'in- bein-s business in )eat
business in intoLicants and business in *oison.6
$1
(hese are Kuite
clear readil% a**licable and reasonable to A)erican
*ractitioners fa)iliar +ith ethical *rinci*les of not causin- or
enablin- har).
Da% dhamma teachers ho+e'er are so)e+hat no'el to the
(hera'Adin tradition.
$S
Genunciates +ere su**orted b% the lait%
$$ Gand .NN1, WW.
$1 VaniHHa Sutta :A.V..OO;XIII"#WY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
$S Accordin- to the PAQi there +ere la% teachers at the ti)e of the Buddha :see
note .0 on *.."S; but b% the ti)e the (hera'Ada e)er-ed as a tradition in
150 A STRON? ROOTS
in ancient India as the% are in Bur)a toda% and since al)ost all
dhamma teachers +ere ordained a relationshi* of )utual
-enerosit% dna naturall% de'elo*ed. (his )eant that the
<*riceless teachin-s= could be offered free of char-e to students
+ho in return su**orted the teacher as the% sa+ fit. (his t%*e of
relationshi* is e'idenced in the PAQ i teLts b% the Buddha=s
relationshi* to his la% disci*les. In one discourse he re'eals the
*rinci*le behind this relationshi* 4(he Dha))a should be
tau-ht +ith the thou-ht <I +ill s*ea& not for the *ur*ose of
)aterial re+ard=.6
$O
Euidelines for the financial su**ort of la% teachers ho+e'er
ha'e not been eL*licitl% *reser'ed in the earl% PAQ i teLts nor in
the later co))entaries so the% ha'e been recentl% inno'ated.
Da% )editation teachers under the direction of S. N. Eoen&a do
not acce*t donations fro) students at all and )ust ha'e other
)eans of li'elihood. In contrast the MahAsi tradition has
eLtended the relationshi* of )utual -enerosit% to la% teachers as
+ell allo+in- teachers to acce*t 'oluntar% donations fro)
students. (his has enabled senior *ractitioners to de'ote
the)sel'es to teachin- full ti)e hel*in- )an% )ore students
than the% +ould be able to other+ise. Nonetheless la% teachers
+ith fa)il% res*onsibilities theoreticall% +ould reKuire )uch
)ore su**ort fro) their co))unities of students than +ould
celibate )endicants at least in -eneral. (his is another reason
+h% the de'elo*)ent of a bhi''hu sa>gha of )on&s and nuns is
i)*ortant for the A)erican Vi*assanA co))unit%. As Sa%ada+ B
Pa?@ita re)ar&s referrin- to the sufferin- ablaIe in the +orld
4Da% teachers are li&e the 'olunteer fire bri-ade but bhi''hus are
the *rofessional fire fi-hters.6
$W
In Bur)a not onl% the teachin-s but also roo) and board at
)editation centers are offered entirel% free of char-e. A lar-e and
the fifth centur% C.E. the teachin- of Dha))a see)s to ha'e been lar-el%
restricted to )on&s.
$O BdA%i Sutta :A.V..1N;XIII.W$Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
$W Eraha)e Jhite rela%ed this re)ar& of B Pa?@ita=s to )e.
Con-+'t A 152
stead% flo+ of donations fro) an o'er+hel)in-l% su**orti'e
*o*ulace )a&es this *ossible. In the Bnited States centers li&e
IMS ha'e found it necessar% to char-e fees in order to *ro'ide
food and )aintain the institution thou-h the% ha'e stri'ed to
)ini)iIe these costs. In the earl% %ears staff *ositions at IMS
*aid 'er% s)all sti*ends in effect )a&in- such ser'ice *ossible
onl% for those +ith sa'in-s to tide the) o'er. 2ne for)er head of
)aintenance Jo Palu)bo noted that IMS is a 4+hite )iddleP
class scene so it=s hard for *eo*le to understand an% &ind of
*o'ert%... (he *art that *eo*le don=t loo& at +ith the )onastic
traditions is that so)eone is footin- the bill.6
$N
A)ericans are
not -enerall% fa)iliar +ith the institution of dna> thus on bein-
told that the ta*es of teachers= tal&s +ere offered free of char-e
one caller reKuested the entire librar% of o'er a thousand ta*es.
(he *erson in char-e of course had to eL*lain the necessit% of
)utual -enerosit% for the sur'i'al of the ta*e librar%. Since the
conce*t of dna as articulated in Asia is not *resent in A)erica
one IMS co))unit% )e)ber has su--ested that fundraisin- and
endo+)ent could allo+ retreat centers in the Bnited States to
*ro'ide ser'ices free of char-e in an analo-ous +a%.
1#
Ho+e'er
+e )ust consider John Bullitt=s *oint that dna and fundraisin-
are not the sa)e thin- at all.
Alas in recent %ears the notion of dana see)s to ha'e been coP
o*ted b% )an% Buddhist or-aniIations in the Jest as Hust
another fundraisin- -i))ic& desi-ned to a**eal to our better
nature... (o )% )ind these 'aliant efforts at dru))in- u*
)aterial su**ort for Buddhist causes onl% da)*en the true s*irit
of dana, that +ei-htless heartfelt and s*ontaneous u*+ellin- of
-enerous action that lies at the 'er% root of the BuddhaRs
teachin-s.
1.
In an% case the shift fro) ordained to la% *ractitioners and
fro) )onasteries to retreat centers has en-endered )an% ne+
$N juoted in Boucher .NWW, 0#WPN.
1# Disa Elander *ersonal co))unication.
1. Bullit "##".
155 A STRON? ROOTS
inter*retations of the MahAsi tradition in its A)erican
incarnation.
(he IMS co))unit% -enerall% -i'es the *roscri*tions a-ainst
seLual )isconduct and intoLicants in *articular )uch less sco*e
and force than do Bur)ese renditions. (o a lar-e de-ree these
ne+ inter*retations +ere influenced b% the conteLt of the
cultural re'olution of the .NS#s and O#s of +hich the first
-eneration at IMS +as 'er% )uch a *art. Bnli&e in Bur)a the
cultural )ores of )ost A)erican *ractitioners toda% do not
*rohibit seLual acti'it% before )arria-e for instance. As one
teacher has *ut it 4Buddhists are reKuired to a'oid seLual
)isconduct but it is not clear +hat this )eans in California.6
1"

Perha*s the ti)e is ri*e for a s%ste) of ethical -uidelines around
seLualit% that +ill ha'e 'alue for *eo*le in this ne+ conteLt to
e)er-e. 2n a nu)ber of occasions Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita has
*ointed out to )e the *o'ert% of this &ind of restraint in A)erica
and the har)ful effects this has on *eo*le.
Clearl% there is a *lace and a *ur*ose for -uidelines that
encoura-e *ractitioners not to 4har) others +ith their seLual
ener-%6 as Michele McDonald often renders the third *rece*t.
Indeed the reasonin- i)*licit and eL*licit in the PAQ i discourses=
*resentations of s.la *ro'es Kuite rele'ant to issues faced toda%.
Abandonin- sensual )isconduct he abstains fro) sensual
)isconduct. He does not -et seLuall% in'ol'ed +ith those +ho
are *rotected b% their )others their fathers their brothers
their sisters their relati'es or their Dha))a> those +ith
husbands those +ho entail *unish)ents or e'en those cro+ned
+ith flo+ers b% another )an.
10
Seein- the *ain and sense of betra%al in the e%es of a hu)an
bein- har)ed b% the lustful actions of another is one of the )ost
eLcruciatin- eL*eriences *ossible for those of us +ho tr% to
1" Ha)ilton .NN1, N$.
10 Cunda Ka))ara*utta Sutta :A.^..OS;XV"S$Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
(he eL*lanation +hich follo+s is dra+n fro) the co))entarial
eL*lanation on identical teLt at SAle%%a&a Sutta :M.$.;XI"WSY that is
M9l*a??asa AXII00#Y.
Con-+'t A 15#
)aintain an o*en heart. SeLual acti'it% carries an eLtre)el% hi-h
e)otional and social char-e in )odern A)erican as in ancient
India. Jhether *ositi'el% or ne-ati'el% the +a% +e use our
seLualit% stron-l% i)*acts our o+n +ellPbein- as +ell as that of
the reci*ient of our ad'ances their s*ouses *artners and fa)il%.
(hus it is out of co)*assion that the Buddha offers this brief
-uidance for a'oidin- har). Accordin- to the illu)inatin-
co))entarial eL*lanation of this discourse the first line of
ad'ice is to a'oid seLual relations +ith a *erson \ such as a child
\ bein- raised loo&ed after and *ro'ided +ith food shelter and
clothin- b% their fa)il%. Secondl% +e are +arned a-ainst
'iolatin- another=s co))it)ent not to en-a-e in seLual
relations includin- those of nuns )on&s and )editators on
retreat. Mentioned third is seLual acti'it% <entailin-
*unish)ents= +hich )eans *unishable b% la+ and thus in the
B.S. includes ra*e and relations +ith children under the a-e of
consent as +ell as seLual harass)ent.
1$
Violatin- the trust
bet+een *artners in a co))itted )ono-a)ous relationshi* is
har)ful e'en so )uch as relations +ith a *erson en-a-ed to be
)arried> cro+nin- +ith flo+ers in this discourse=s ori-inal
conteLt a**roLi)ates our Jestern custo) of an en-a-e)ent
rin-. Perha*s the fact that this discourse is directed to a )an is in
reco-nition of the fact that at least in ter)s of seLual )isconduct
for instance ra*e )en are far )ore often the initiators. (he
Buddha throu-hout the PAQ i describes action and reaction as a
*rocess of cause and effect. Accordin-l% +e )i-ht ta&e this
*rece*t as ad'isin- +hoe'er initiates seLual relations to be +are
of the fact that certain seLual acti'it% can cause tre)endous -rief
and sufferin- not least for oneself.
(he Kuestion of ho+ dedicated *ractitioners of satipa)) hna
should relate to *s%choacti'e substances also raises contentious
1$ (here are indeed la+s on the boo&s in certain states re-ardin- seLualit%
that ha'e no Hustification in ter)s of the Buddha=s teachin-s> it is also true
that as lon- as such la+s are in effect 'iolatin- the) can ha'e unha**%
conseKuences.
151 A STRON? ROOTS
*roble)s of inter*retation. (here are t+o basic Kuestions here,
+hich t%*es of substance use aid *ractice if an%> and +hich
t%*es of substance use hinder *ractice if an%.
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita does not co)*ro)ise on the fifth *rece*t.
E'en in s)all a)ounts intoLicatin- substances can )a&e us less
sensiti'e )ore easil% s+a%ed b% -ross )oti'ations of an-er and
-reed. So)e *eo*le defend the use of dru-s and alcohol sa%in-
that these substances are not so bad. 2n the contrar% the% are
'er% dan-erous> the% can lead e'en a -oodPhearted *erson into
for-etfulness... Abstainin- fro) intoLicants is therefore a +a% of
*rotectin- all the *rece*ts.
11
At least a)on- Euro*ean and A)erican *ractitioners there is
so)e disa-ree)ent as to +hich substances and ho+ )uch of
the) are *rohibited b% the *rece*t a-ainst <intoLicants that
cause heedlessness=.
1S
Jhile I do not thin& that an% of the senior
teachers at IMS +ould ad'ocate alcohol as a tool for a+a&enin-
for )ost of the) it +ould be rather h%*ocritical to *roscribe
)oderate social drin&in- as totall% inco)*atible +ith dedicated
*ractice. A-ain the fact that these teachers are la% A)ericans
see)s to ha'e a si-nificant effect on their inter*retations.
A)erican )on&s in other (hera'Adin traditions such as
Bhi&&hus Bodhi and (hanissaro a-ree that total abstention fro)
alcohol is a necessar% *art of s.la as does the Vi*assanA
co))unit% headed b% the Indian la% teacher S.N. Eoen&a. (he
t+o )on&s s*ent )uch of their adult li'es in Asia and Mr.
Eoen&a -re+ u* there so these teachers )a% ha'e been hea'il%
11 Pa?@ita .NN0, .".
1S Cf. Vin.V.S,.XIV..#Y the rule forbiddin- )on&s to drin& fer)ented liKuor
on +hich (hanissaro .NN$, Ch. W Part S that there is 4so)e contro'ers% as
to +hat other substances +ould be included in this factor in line +ith the
Ereat Standards. Since the Canon re*eatedl% criticiIes alcohol on the
-rounds that it destro%s oneRs sense of sha)e +ea&ens oneRs discern)ent
and can *ut one into a stu*or3 it see)s reasonable to eLtend this rule to
other intoLicants narcotics and hallucino-ens as +ell. (hus thin-s li&e
)ariHuana hashish heroin cocaine and DSD +ould fulfill this factor.
Coffee tea tobacco and betel do not ha'e this effect thou-h so there is no
reason to include the) here.6
Con-+'t A 15)
influenced b% Asian ideals of )onasticis). In contrast the la%
teachers of IMS returned fro) their )editation *ractice to an
A)erican social conteLt of friends and fa)il% structured to a
)uch -reater eLtent around Euro*ean ideals. Perha*s their
inter*retations are )ore influenced b% the JudeoPChristian
tradition +hich has not seen intoLicants and s*iritualit% as
)utuall% eLclusi'e *rescribin- +ine for rituals such as
co))union and 'idush for instance.
A**arentl% a nu)ber of Jesterners toda% )a&e
*s%choacti'e substances an acti'e *art of their <s*iritual=
*ractice. In the fall of .NNS 9ri%y%le5 9he Buddhist +eview *ublished
an entire issue on 4Buddhis) 5 Ps%chedelics.6 An o'er+hel)in-
)aHorit% of contributors all of the) nati'ePborn A)ericans
eL*ressed the idea that not onl% had DSD been 4a -reat -ate to the
dhar)a6 for )an% but that it also has a le-iti)ate *lace in
on-oin- *ractice.
1O
E'en teachers +ho ha'e *racticed in the
MahAsi tradition +ere in su**ort, 4I +ould not be sur*rised if at
so)e *oint there co)es to be a useful )arria-e bet+een so)e of
these sacred )aterials and a s%ste)atic trainin- or *ractice6 of
a+a&enin- 4to the dee*est le'els of bod% and )ind and be%ond
that to the nonPdual nature of realit%6 Jac& Kornfield
concluded.
1W
Ga) Dass +as less circu)s*ect,
Buddhis) is a -ood conteLt for the *s%chedelic eL*erience... I
feel sad +hen societ% reHects so)ethin- that can hel* it
1O Sur%a Das .NNS, $0 4Jhen I tried to discuss this sort of thin- +ith )% first
Da)a teacher Da)a (hubten Meshe in Ne*al in .NN. he lau-hed and said
4Jestern bo%=s drea)/6 and closed the discussion3 I thin& it=s interestin-
to note that +hen I -et to-ether +ith )% fello+ Jestern dhar)a teachers
and +e consider ho+ our *ersonal *aths be-an :in this life at least; \ 'er%
fe+ +illin-l% disclose that the% actuall% entered the dhar)a throu-h the
*ortal of dru-s and the +ritin-s of A. HuLle% C. Casteneda Ga) Dass (.
Dear% G. D. Dain- etc. Met I feel Kuite certain that *s%chedelic eL*erience
has been a -reat -ate to the dhar)a for )an% of our -eneration.6
1W 2n the +hole Kornfield .NNS +as not as uncriticall% su**orti'e of dru- use
as the Kuotation fro) *a-e $# )i-ht su--est. He cautions 0N that
*s%chedelics 4can be easil% abused if one is not careful about the set and the
settin-.6
159 A STRON? ROOTS
understand itself and dee*en its 'alues and its +isdo)... It=s
tr%in- to hold on to +hat %ou='e -ot rather than -ro+in-.
1N
(hese +ere not Hust isolated senti)ents fro) a-in- Bab%
Boo)ers, of 9ri%y%le readers res*ondin- to a Kuestionnaire 1Nl
indicated that 4*s%chedelics and Buddhis) do )iL6 and 4the a-e
-rou* that eL*ressed the )ost confidence in a health% )iL +as
under "#6 N#l of these %oun- res*ondents indicatin- that 4the%
+ould consider ta&in- *s%chedelics in a sacred conteLt.6
S#
Michele McDonald +as one of the onl% teachers re*resentin-
the MahAsi tradition in that issue of 9ri%y%le +ho una)bi-uousl%
Hud-ed *s%choacti'e substances to be a hindrance rather than an
aid to a+a&enin-. Jhile causin- 'ar%in- a)ounts of *h%sical and
)ental har) dru-s do ha'e the *o+er to )o'e one into different
states of consciousness. 7reedo) ho+e'er is not about an%
achie'in- an% *articular eL*erience.
In retreat %ou=re -oin- throu-h slee*iness restlessness \ %ou=re
not ai)in- to )aintain a certain state. At least in 'i*assanA
*ractice +hich is +hat I teach it=s not statePoriented. (he idea is
that freedo) isn=t based on an% eL*erience so %ou=re de'elo*in-
an a+areness that isn=t i)*risoned b% bein- attached to certain
eL*eriences.
S.
(hou-h so)e of us teased her about this inter'ie+
co)*arin- it to Nanc% Gea-an=s 4Just Sa% No6 ca)*ai-n
McDonald faithfull% re*resents here the o'er+hel)in-
conclusion of the (hera'Adin tradition. (he PAQi teLts do re*ort
the Buddha describin- +ron- action in )an% conteLts +ithout
1N Ga) Dass et. al. .NN1, .#WPN.
S# (ric%cle .NNS, $$. Cole)an "##., "#. )a&es an interestin- obser'ation that
4ei-ht% *ercent of the )e)bers of the t+o (ibetan -rou*s in )% sa)*le
said the% had used *s%chedelics \ a si-nificantl% hi-her fi-ure than for Fen
or Vi*assana -rou*s36
S. McDonald .NNS, SOPO# also co))ents that she is 4Kuite concerned6 about
the dan-erous use of dru-s b% %oun- *eo*le es*eciall% since 4the conteLt
of s*iritual 'alues and inti)ac% that +as connected to the dru- culture in
our -eneration is lac&in-.6 ConteLt defines ho+ the eL*erience of
intoLication as +ell as the eL*erience of insi-ht are inte-rated and related
to in a hu)an life.
Con-+'t A 15:
referrin- to intoLicants at all but in others he *oints out the
)an% dan-ers that co)e fro) use of intoLicants.
S"
No+here in
fact does the Buddha of the PAQi ad'ocate an% &ind of
*s%choacti'e substance as conduci'e to a+a&enin-. If Scott
HaHice&PDobberstein is ri-ht 4the Vedic so)a cult \ or so)ethin-
'er% si)ilar to it \ sur'i'ed a)on- the tantric Buddhist siddhas
+ho li'ed in India fro) the ei-ht to the tenth centur% C.E.6.
S0
In
an% case such *ractices ha'e not been *art of the (hera'Adin
tradition +hich de)onstrates once a-ain the dan-er of
)isre*resentation inherent in s*ea&in- or thin&inin ter)s of
<the Buddhist tradition=.
(o +hich <Buddhis)= is (errence McKenna referrin-U
I +ould al)ost sa% <Ho+ can %ou be a serious Buddhist if %ou=re
not eL*lorin- *s%chedelicsU= (hen %ou=re sort of an ar)chair
Buddhist a Buddhist fro) theor% a Buddhist fro) *ractice but
it=s sort of a trainin- +heels *ractice. I )ean the real thin- is
ta&e the old boat out and -i'e it a s*in.
S$

Jhat McKenna see)s to be su--estin- \ *erha*s I
)isunderstand his *oint \ is that <Buddhist= *ractice in'ol'es
S" 2nl% three &inds of +ron- action are *resented at A.^..OSXV"S$ffY, &illin-
stealin- and seLual )isconduct follo+ed b% the four 'erbal actions and
three )ental actions of the 'ammapatha for)ulation discussed in note $#
abo'e. Cf. A.V.S M...O S.^DV.W etc. Ho+e'er in the Vi*a&a Sutta
:A.VIII.$#;XIV"$WY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu +e read 4(he drin&in- of
fer)ented 5 distilled liKuors PP +hen indul-ed in de'elo*ed 5 *ursued PP is
so)ethin- that leads to hell leads to rebirth as a co))on ani)al leads to
the real) of the hun-r% shades. (he sli-htest of all the results co)in- fro)
drin&infer)ented 5 distilled liKuors is that +hen one beco)es a hu)an
bein- it leads to )ental deran-e)ent.6 Di&e+ise D.0.XIII.W"Y trans. NArada
(hera 4(here are %oun- householder these siL e'il conseKuences in
indul-inin intoLicants +hich cause infatuation and heedlessness, loss of
+ealth increase of Kuarrels susce*tibilit% to disease earnin- an e'il
re*utation sha)eless eL*osure of bod% +ea&enin- of intellect.6 Are these
effects of dru- and alcohol use e'ident in North A)ericaU
S0 Scott HaHice&PDobberstein a**arentl% found e'idence that NA-ArHuna and
ar%ade'a also a-reed 4Je need to eat the alche)ical )edicine.6 4So)e
Siddhas and Alche)ical Enli-hten)ent, *s%chedelic )ushroo)s in
Buddhist tradition6 C#urnal #3 7thn#pharma%#l#gy :.NN1; cited b% 7ields .NNS.
S$ McKenna .NNS, NO.
1#; A STRON? ROOTS
tr%in- to ha'e as )an% eL*eriences or as )an% eLotic or
challen-in- eL*eriences as *ossible. Such is not the (hera'Adin
*ath of brin-in- )indfulness to +hate'er is arisin- in the *resent
)o)ent +ithout Hud-)ent of or *reference for an% *articular
eL*erience. Jhen concentration is stron- *lent% of intense hi-h
and lo+ eL*eriences do arise> serious *ractitioners of
satipa)) hna find that there is no need to *ush the boat in order to
<-i'e it a s*in=. (he beaut% of the (hera'Ada=s <)iddle *ath= lies in
its si)*licit%, neither -ras*in- after nor *ushin- a+a% an%
eL*erience.
So)e +ould su--est that eL*loration of *s%chedelics for
a+a&enin- is outdated that substances such as DM( and 1PMe2P
DM( sho+ )ore *ro)ise. In the course of a clinical research
*ro-ra) stud%in- DM( Gic& Strass)an found that certain
'olunteers under+ent 4the dee*est and )ost *rofound
eL*erience of their li'es6 +hile on the dru-. Strass)an shared his
findin-s +ith leaders of a Fen co))unit% +ith +hich he had a
lon-Pti)e affiliation and *ublished an article in the .NNS issue of
9ri%y%le on *s%chedelics in +hich he su--ested that
3dedicated *racitioners +ith little success in their )editation
but +ell alon- in )oral and intellectual de'elo*)ent )i-ht
benefit fro) a carefull% ti)ed *re*ared su*er'ised and
follo+edPu* *s%chedelic session to accelerate their *ractice.
S1
(hou-h initall% rece*ti'e Strass)an=s Fen teachers
ulti)atel% +arned hi) that
An atte)*t to induce enli-hten)ent b% che)ical )eans can
ne'er +ill ne'er suceed. Jhat it +ill do is badl% confuse *eo*le
and result in serious conseKuences for %ou.
SS
7eelin- *ersonall% betra%ed Strass)an concluded that
4or-aniIed reli-ion no )atter ho+ )%sticall% inclined _is not`
o*enP)inded and secure enou-h to consider the s*iritual
*otential of clinical research +ith *s%chedelics.6
SO
Is this +h%
S1 Strass)an "##0 Kuotin- his o+n 9ri%y%le article.
SS Personal co))unication Kuoted in Strass)an "##0.
SO Strass)an "##0.
Con-+'t A 1#1
(hera'Adin )asters reHect the idea of substancePinduced
enli-hten)ent or are there )ore le-iti)ate reasonsU In a recent
inter'ie+ Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita +as ada)ant that Buddha=s
teachin-s are onl% effecti'e if *racticed 4in the ori-inal +a%.6
It=s fine to use *ractical scientific eLa)*les to -et %oun- *eo*le
interested in co)in- to *ractice. If ho+e'er one inserts the
)ethods of the *h%sical sciences into the Ssana it +ill -et
diluted. If scientific )ethods +hich *rioritiIe the )aterial are
thro+n in it +ill deca%.
Geall% the )ethod of satipa) )hna is 'er% si)*le bein- )indful
of +hate'er arises is si)*le but +ith this si)*le *ractice one
+ill co)e across trul% a)aIin- thin-s. (here=s no need to insert
an% other )ethods.
Jhat I )ean to sa% is that usin- dru-s or )achines to hel* -ain
insi-ht vipassan-*(a +ill not +or&. 2ne %o-i at this current
retreat said <It +ould be -reat if there +ere a *ill to )a&e insi-ht
arise=. (here is nothin- li&e that that +ill +or&.
SW
Jere *s%choacti'e substances o)itted fro) the *ractice as
described in the PAQi teLts si)*l% because DM( and the li&e +ere
not a'ailable in ancient IndiaU (he (hera'Adin tradition
)aintains that the Buddha in fact did not see an% dru- as an
effecti'e 'ehicle for full liberation fro) sufferin-. Man% Jestern
teachers of )editation did indeed -ain initial ins*iration fro)
'ie+s afforded the) b% eL*erie)ents +ith *s%chedelics> clearl%
these substances can elicit intense \ if brief \ concentration and
*rofoundl% affect ho+ *eo*le thin& about the)sel'es and the
+orld. Nonetheless it is not at all clear that the 'ie+s *ro'ided
b% *s%chedelics corres*ond to clear seein- of the *rocess of
sensation arisin- and *assin-. A+a&enin- accordin- to the
MahAsi tradition is *ossible onl% throu-h this t%*e of direct
insi-ht> transfor)ation of conce*tual content \ e'en 'isions so
*rofound as the dissolution of subHect and obHect into oneness \
cannot achie'e the -oal.
SN
In the PAQ i the Buddha ur-es *eo*le
follo+ a *ractice that is a**licable an%+here an%ti)e that
SW Pa?@ita "##0.
SN Please see the discussion on **.""1ff.
1#0 A STRON? ROOTS
de*ends on nothin- other than the flo+ of sensation. (he
si)*licit% of *ure )indfulness *ractice is a refu-e, Hust tr%in- to
a**l% a+areness to +hate'er eL*eriences arise. Such a *ractice is
as a**licable in )odern A)erica as it +as in ancient India. As the
Buddha defines it in the PAQi the true Dhamma has this
characteristic of a'li'#, it is ti)eless.
A Pra't$'al I*&erat$7e
Bur)ese )on&s often encoura-e s&illful conduct b% declarin-
that a *erson +ho abides b% the *rece*ts is -uaranteed rebirth in
the hu)an or di'ine real)s +hile brea&in- the fi'e *rece*ts
results in rebirth in the real)s of +oe as hun-r% -hosts ani)als
and such.
O#
Certain discourses in the PAQi do indeed )a&e such a
su--estion.
O.
2n further inKuir% ho+e'er these teLts clearl% do
not i)*l% that a *erson has onl% one chance, the serial &iller
AT-uli)Ala re*ortedl% undertoo& the s.la of a )on& and -ained
full a+a&enin- after )eetin- the Buddha. Di&e+ise I ha'e heard
)on&s eL*lain to both Bur)ese and Jestern audiences ho+ to
rePestablish *urit% of conduct ane+ at the be-innin- of a retreat
in order to create the conditions for concentration to de'elo*.
Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a *ointed out to En-lish s*ea&in-
*ractitioners for +ho) I +as inter*retin- that e'er%bod% )a&es
)ista&es fro) ti)e to ti)e so that *art of the *ractice is
realiIin- +here one has -one +ron- and refrainin- fro) doin- it
a-ain.
O"
O# E.-. Pa?@ita .NN0, "$0 Kuoted on *..
O. E.-. Vi*a&a Sutta :A.VIII.$#;XIV"$OY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu 4Stealin-...
Illicit seLual beha'ior... (ellin- falsehoods... Di'isi'e talePbearin-... Harsh
s*eech... 7ri'olous chatterin-... (he drin&in- of fer)ented 5 distilled
liKuors... PP +hen indul-ed in de'elo*ed 5 *ursued PP is so)ethin- that
leads to hell leads to rebirth as a co))on ani)al leads to the real) of the
hun-r% shades.6
O" Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a K%as+a 7orei-n Mo-i Getreat K%as+a Monaster%
Sa-ain- Hills B**er Bur)a Januar% "##".
Con-+'t A 1#2
A)on- Bur)ese MahAsi *ractitioners discre*ancies bet+een
absolute inter*retations of the *rece*ts and actions such as
eradicatin- *ests are rarel% considered. If no )ore free of
h%*ocris% A)ericans nonetheless see) to )a&e )ore of an
effort at a**earin- consistent and at lo-icall% Hustif%in- their
actions. Not sur*risin-l% Bur)ese de)onstrate )uch less
alle-iance to the <rationalit%= defined b% the Euro*ean
Enli-hten)ent> +hen Kuestioned )ost si)*l% shru- off
inconsistencies that +ould be intolerable for )an% A)ericans. In
the Bur)ese education s%ste) at both )onasteries and
-o'ern)ent schools that &ind of rationalit% is -i'en )uch less
i)*ortance than res*ectful )e)oriIation of the teachers=
*ronounce)ents. (hrou-h )an% %ears of eL*erience Ste'en
S)ith has co)e to reco-niIe the -reat benefit that Bur)ese
*ractitioners -ain Hust throu-h recitin- the *rece*ts, the%
culti'ate s&illful intentions to li'e a better life. Bur)ese ta&e
-reat Ho% in recitin- the *rece*ts in PAQ i es*eciall% led b% a )on&
re-ardless of ho+ lon- the% +ill be able to &ee* a 'o+ such as not
to eat after noon. As secondP-eneration i))i-rants fro)
Buddhist cultures beco)e )ore i))ersed in the A)erican
*hiloso*hical conteLt ho+e'er the% tend to lose this attitude.
Paul Nu)rich relates ho+ at a traditional robePofferin- cere)on%
at a (hai te)*le in Chica-o he 4o'erheard a (hai teena-er
co)*lain to her friend durin- a cor*orate chantin- of Pali
stanIas <I don=t e'en &no+ +hat +e=re sa%in-/=6
O0
(o -ain initial acce*tance in the A)erican conteLt then
teachin-s )ust be lo-icall% and e)*iricall% Hustified accordin- to
A)erican standards. Jhereas the Bur)ese tradition e)*hasiIes
rebirth in hea'en or hell real)s de*endin- on one=s conduct
teachers in Barre often s*ea& of a &ind of <*s%cholo-ical rebirth=
into states of an-uish and -uilt or those of Ho% and satisfaction.
Such *resentations resonate +ith *eo*le=s eL*erience re-ardless
of +hether their *hiloso*hical *ers*ecti'e allo+s for eListence
O0 Nu)rich .NNS, .#S.
1#5 A STRON? ROOTS
after the end of a lifeti)e. Moreo'er the standard (hera'Adin
rendition e'identl% re)inds A)ericans of )%tholo-ical
re*resentations of hea'en and of eternal da)nation. Most Asians
do not see) to react ne-ati'el% to such *resentations but )an%
A)ericans do. (he idea of rebirth accordin- to the s&illfulness of
one=s actions )a&e sense to Kuite a fe+ but it does see) to
ins*ire in )an% A)ericans feelin-s of -uilt selfPHud-)ent and
selfPhatred. Since it is clear that al)ost e'er%one is subHect to
*leasant and un*leasant *s%cholo-ical rebirths this
understandin- a**arentl% ins*ires less co)*arison and Hud-)ent
about others= or one=s o+n failin-s.
Perha*s because A)erican students are -enerall% )ore *rone
to -uilt and )ore sensiti'e to )oralistic h%*ocris% than their
counter*arts in Bur)a teachers at IMS are +ant to e)*hasiIe a
*ractical sense of <nonhar)in-= rather than absolute rules of
conduct. (he boo& Insight "editati#n5 9he ra%ti%e #3 Dreed#m is a
collection of Jose*h Eoldstein=s res*onses to *ractitioners=
Kuestions> the fact that it contains onl% one eL*licit reference to
the 4ethical *rece*ts6 is indicati'e of A)erican interests. 4All the
sufferin-6 in'ol'ed in 4)urder ra*e torture star'ation national
hatreds6 Eoldstein sa%s 4has its roots in *eo*le=s )inds in our
o+n )ind.6 Presentin- the fi'e 4trainin- *rece*ts6 tau-ht b% the
Buddha as a )eans to 4abandon this le'el of sufferin-6 as a
4-reat *rotection fro) these &inds of har)ful acts6 he as&s us to
4i)a-ine ho+ different the +orld +ould be if e'er%one follo+ed
Hust *art #ne of these *rece*ts \ not to &ill other hu)an bein-s.6
O$

O$ (he reference to this for)ulation on *a-e ." of Eoldstein .NN0c is the onl%
instance of 4*rece*ts6 listed in the indeL. 4Moralit%6 is )entioned once
briefl% on *a-e .1 as the first *art of the threefold trainin-, 4+e need to
*ractice and refine our abilit% to li'e honestl% and +ith inte-rit%.6 (he
entr% 4nonPhar)in-6 refers to these sa)e *a-es. Jhereas a Bur)ese
teacher )i-ht rel% on the eL*licit ne-ati'e for)ulation of the first *rece*t
the reference to 4)osKuito6 on *a-e .$W offers an i)*licit *ositi'e
rendition of s&illful conduct, 4(he )osKuito buIIes. Can +e hear the sound
&no+ the feelin- and thou-hts that arise in the )ind see the desire to call
in the SJA( tea) and be a+are enou-h to eLercise co)*assionU6
Con-+'t A 1##
Presentations b% teachers at IMS e)*hasiIe the *ractical effects
of s&illful conduct *ri)aril% in one=s <+orld of eL*erience= but
also in the lar-er +orld. 2ne PAQi discourse s*ea&s of s&illful
conduct as a -ift to all bein-s *ointin- out that not causin- har)
is ne'er bla)e+orth%.
(here is the case +here a disci*le of the noble ones abandonin-
the ta&in- of life abstains fro) ta&in- life... abstains fro) ta&in-
+hat is not -i'en... abstains fro) illicit seL... abstains fro)
l%in-... abstains fro) ta&in- intoLicants... In doin- so he -i'es
freedo) fro) dan-er freedo) fro) ani)osit% freedo) fro)
o**ression to li)itless nu)bers of bein-s. In -i'in- freedo)
fro) dan-er freedo) fro) ani)osit% freedo) fro) o**ression
to li)itless nu)bers of bein-s he -ains a share in li)itless
freedo) fro) dan-er freedo) fro) ani)osit% and freedo)
fro) o**ression. (his is _a` -ift _a` -reat -ift \ ori-inal lon-P
standin- traditional ancient unadulterated unadulterated fro)
the be-innin- \ that is not o*en to sus*icion +ill ne'er be o*en
to sus*icion and is unfaulted b% &no+led-eable conte)*lati'es
5 *riests.
O1
A )o'e)ent has -ro+n u* in the A)erican conteLt
eLtendin- certain conce*ts fro) the (hera'Ada and the
MahA%Ana such as s.la to +hat I +ould su--est are in fact ErecoP
Judaic ideals of social action and social transfor)ation> such
inter*retations are discussed in the section belo+ on <En-a-ed=
<Buddhis)=. (eachin-s that *rioritiIe action for societal -ood do
see) co)fortable and <ri-ht= to )an% A)ericans of course. (his
should co)e as no sur*rise if the 'alues of <En-a-ed Buddhis)=
deri'e funda)entall% fro) these Jesterners= o+n intellectual
tradition albeit couched in <Buddhist= ter)s. (he Buddha=s
discourses in the PAQ i teLts in contrast focus on liberation +ithin
an indi'idual=s <+orld of eL*erience=. 7or this reason the t%*e of
s&illful conduct that 4leads to the cessation of sufferin-6 is
defined *ri)aril% in *s%cholo-ical ter)s, 4Intention I tell %ou is
&a))a. Intendin- one does &a))a b% +a% of bod% s*eech 5
O1 Abhisanda Sutta :A.VIII.0N;XIV"$1Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
1#1 A STRON? ROOTS
intellect.6
OS
Di&e+ise uns&illful action is declared 4to be
threefold, as caused b% -reed caused b% hatred and caused b%
delusion.6
OO
(hus one discourse defines s.la in ter)s of +hat is
4(o Be Culti'ated and Not to Be Culti'ated.6
Such bodil%... 'erbal... )ental conduct as causes un+holeso)e
states to increase and +holeso)e states to di)inish in one +ho
culti'ates it should not be culti'ated. But such bodil%... 'erbal...
)ental conduct as causes un+holeso)e states to di)inish and
+holeso)e states to increase in one +ho culti'ates it should be
culti'ated.
OW
If the )ore eLternal )anifestations of s.la differ so)e+hat
across cultural conteLts the *s%cholo-ical reasons for -uidelines
about s&illful conduct a**ear *racticall% identical. (hus e'en if
in certain areas the conclusions that the authors of the
Co))entaries reached in their *articular historical )o)ents do
not <+or&= for )odern A)ericans the her)eneutical *rinci*les
b% +hich the% arri'ed at those conclusions )a% +ell be
a**licable at IMS. In a PAQi discourse reHectin- the Brah)ans=
Hustification of their o+n su*re)ac% the Buddha clarifies ho+
the *ractice of restraint is a**licable to an% of the di'erse
cultural conteLts he +as acKuainted +ith. He notes that there
)a% be a *erson fro) an% caste +ho
refrains fro) ta&in- life fro) ta&in- +hat is not -i'en fro)
co))ittin- seLual )isconduct fro) tellin- lies fro) indul-in-
in slander fro) harsh s*eech or idle chatter is not -ras*in-
)alicious or of +ron- 'ie+s. (hus such thin-s as are )oral and
considered so to be follo+ed and considered so +a%s befittin-
an Ari%an _noble *erson` and considered so bri-ht +ith bri-ht
results and *raised b% the +ise are to be found a)on- the
Khatti%as and li&e+ise a)on- Brah)ins )erchants and
artisans...
ON
OS Nibbedhi&a Sutta :A.VI.S0;XIII$.1Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
OO Ka))anidAna Sutta :A.^..O$;XV"S.Y trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera and
Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
OW Se'itabbAse'itabba Sutta :M...$;XIII$SffY trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
ON A--a88a Sutta :D."O;XIIIW"ffY trans. Maurice Jalshe. Since the Brah)ins
based their clai) to su*re)ac% on their birth fro) Brahms )outh this
Con-+'t A 1#)
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita concurs.
In this +orld there is no -reater adorn)ent than *urit% of
conduct no -reater refu-e and no other basis for the flo+erin-
of insi-ht and +isdo). S[la brin-s a beaut% that is not *lastered
onto the outside but instead co)es fro) the heart and is
reflected in the entire *erson. Suitable for e'er%one re-ardless
of a-e station or circu)stance trul% it is the adorn)ent of all
seasons. So *lease be sure to &ee* %our 'irtue fresh and ali'e.
W#
(he teachers cited here assert reasons for s&illful conduct
that +ould be co))on to *ractitioners in Bur)a and Barre.
Ho+e'er there are si-nificant differences bet+een cultural
sensibilities and therefore in the st%le and +ordin- used in
A)erican teachersR reflections on the *lace of )oralit%. S%l'ia
Boorstien +rites of ho+ )e)ories of *ast uns&illful actions often
co)e u* +ith -reat force as a *ractitioner be-ins to settle into
concentration.
I thin& the heart +aits for a ti)e +hen there=s enou-h s*ace in
the )ind to brin- u* for reflection and *ossible correction the
errors +e ha'e )ade throu-h uns&illful beha'ior. I thin& the
shelfPlife of -uilt and re)orse is 'er% lon-. I can re)e)ber
incorrect thin-s that I did a 'er% lon- ti)e a-o... E'en +hen +e
reco-niIe that +hate'er +e did intentionall% or unintentionall%
+as &ar)icall% deter)ined :+e couldn=t ha'e done other+ise;
e'en +hen that understandin- allo+s us to for-i'e oursel'es +e
still +ish +e hadn=t done it.
W.
Ge)orse for uns&illful actions is not li)ited to A)erican
societ% ho+e'er nor to )odern ti)es. Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita
eL*resses a traditional (hera'Adin *osition on har)ful actions
such as &illin-.
2ne )a% indeed a'oid *unish)ent at the hands of eLternal
authorities but there is no esca*e fro) the selfP*unish)ent _of
discourse assertin- the eKualit% of different castes is na)ed 42n Kno+led-e
of Be-innin-s.6
W# Pa?@ita .NN0, .0.
W. Boorstein .NNNa, "#W. I a) not con'inced ho+e'er that the PAQi reall%
defines the la+ of 'amma to )ean that actions are 4deter)ined6 in the
sense that 4+e couldn=t ha'e done other+ise.6 Please see the discussion on
**. .W1ff.
1#9 A STRON? ROOTS
-uilt and re)orse`. (he honest &no+led-e that %ou ha'e done
+ron- is 'er% *ainful. Mou are al+a%s %our o+n best +itness> %ou
can ne'er hide fro) %ourself. Nor is there esca*e fro) the
)iserable rebirths as an ani)al in hell real)s as a hun-r%
-host. 2nce an act has been co))itted &a))a has the *otential
to bear fruit. If the fruit does not ri*en in this life it +ill follo+
%ou until so)eti)e in the future. (he croo&ed *ath leads to all
these &inds of dan-er.
W"
M% su--estion is that s.la can be s&illfull% elucidated and
*racticed in )an% different conteLts throu-h a return to the
source to the *rinci*les e)*lo%ed b% ancient and )odern
)asters of the Ei-htfold Noble Path. Accordin- to the PAQ i teLts
and Bur)ese tradition as +ell conte)*orar% teachers at IMS
s&illful conduct ser'es as the basis for the de'elo*)ent of all the
faculties that lead to the final -oal of the Buddha=s teachin-s.
(hou-h A)ericans )a% -enerall% be )ore *rone to feelin- -uilt%
about *ast uns&illful actions the% ha'e co))itted +hile
Bur)ese )i-ht be )ore li&el% to feel Ho% about the uns&illful
thin-s the% ha'e refrained fro) the *ractical reason for
disci*lined conduct in these different conteLts is *recisel% the
sa)e as in the historical )o)ent +hen the PAQ i discourses +ere
co)*osed.
Disci*line is for the sa&e of restraint restraint for the sa&e of
freedo) fro) re)orse freedo) fro) re)orse for the sa&e of Ho%
Ho% for the sa&e of ra*ture ra*ture for the sa&e of tranKuilit%
tranKuilit% for the sa&e of *leasure *leasure for the sa&e of
concentration concentration for the sa&e of &no+led-e and
'ision of thin-s as the% are &no+led-e and 'ision of thin-s as
the% are for the sa&e of disenchant)ent disenchant)ent for the
sa&e of dis*assion dis*assion for the sa&e of release release for
the sa&e of &no+led-e and 'ision of release &no+led-e and
'ision of release for the sa&e of total _nibbna` +ithout clin-in-.
W0
W" Pa?@ita .NN0, """P0.
W0 Pari'Ara.ÎI."XV.S$Y trans. (hanissaro .NN$, intro.
V
=earn$ng
<%at $s %ear-
Second +e )ust +ater the seed. (his )eans listenin- to
discourses on the Dha))a and readin- teLts then carefull%
a**l%in- the understandin- +e ha'e -ained. Just as o'er+aterin-
+ill rot a seed our -oal here is onl% clarification. It is definitel%
not to be+ilder oursel'es -ettin- lost in a )aIe of conce*ts. (his
second *rotection is called sutQnuggahita.
.

Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita often describes theoretical understandin-
of the *ractice as a -uide for the Hourne% of )editation. 2'er the
course of the Buddha-Ssana e)*hasis has oscillated bet+een
concentrated *ractice and scri*tural stud% as +e shall see. 7or
the )ost *art e'en *ro*onents of )indfulness )editation such
as the MahAsi Sa%ada+ ha'e felt that a certain a)ount of
theoretical -uidance fro) a teachin- linea-e is necessar% for
successful *ractice. A)erican teachers of )indfulness )editation
-i'e 'arious inter*retations so)e *resentin- the *ractice
strictl% in a (hera'Adin fra)e+or& others referrin- not at all to
the Buddha or to traditional accounts of his teachin-s. Are an%
*articular understandin-s necessar% for effecti'e )indfulness
)editationU If so +hich onesU
. Pa?@ita .NN0, "0. (he caution about 4o'er+aterin-3 -ettin- lost in a )aIe
of conce*ts6 does not a**ear to be fro) the ori-inal Bur)ese.
11; A STRON? ROOTS
(he *ractice cul)inates in an esca*e fro) 'ie+s as is clear in
a fe+ *laces in the PAQ i.
"
In one discourse the +anderer
Vaccha-otta as&s a series of )eta*h%sical Kuestions of the
Buddha +ho re*lies that he does not hold an% of these ideas in
the sense 4onl% this is true an%thin- else is +ron-.6
4Vaccha the s*eculati'e 'ie+ that the +orld is eternal... not
eternal... finite... infinite... (he soul and bod% are the sa)e... (he
soul is one thin- and the bod% another... After death a (athA-ata
eLists... does not eList... both eLists and does not eList... neither
eLists nor does not eList is a thic&et of 'ie+s a +ilderness of
'ie+s a contortion of 'ie+s a 'acillation of 'ie+s a fetter of
'ie+s. It is beset b% sufferin- b% 'eLation b% des*air and b%
fe'er and it does not lead to disenchant)ent to dis*assion to
cessation to *eace to direct &no+led-e to enli-hten)ent to
NibbAna. Seein- this dan-er I do not ta&e u* an% of these
s*eculati'e 'ie+s.6
4(hen does Master Eota)a hold an% s*eculati'e 'ie+ at allU6
4Vaccha <s*eculati'e 'ie+= is so)ethin- the (athA-ata has *ut
a+a%. 7or the (athA-ata Vaccha has seen this, <Such is )aterial
for) such its ori-in such its disa**earance> such is feelin-...
*erce*tion... for)ations... consciousness such its ori-in such its
disa**earance. (herefore I sa% +ith the destruction fadin-
a+a% cessation -i'in- u* and relinKuishin- of all concei'in-s
all eLco-itations all IP)a&in- )ineP)a&in- and the underl%in-
tendenc% to conceit the (athA-ata is liberated throu-h not
clin-in-.6
0
" E.-. DiZZhi Sutta :A.^.N0;XV.WWY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu +here
Anatha*i?@i&a tells so)e +anderers 4Venerable sirs +hate'er has been
brou-ht into bein- is fabricated +illed de*endentl% ori-inated that is
inconstant. Jhate'er is inconstant is stress. Jhate'er is stress is not )e is
not +hat I a) is not )% self. Ha'in- seen this +ell +ith ri-ht discern)ent
as it actuall% is *resent I also discern the hi-her esca*e fro) it as it actuall%
is *resent.6
0 A--i'accha-otta Sutta :M.O";XI$W1Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi +ho note in the endnotes ."OO that 4in the Pali a +ord *la% is
in'ol'ed bet+een di))higata 4s*eculati'e 'ie+6 +hich the (athA-ata has
*ut a+a% and di))ha +hat has been 4seen6 b% the (athA-ata +ith direct
'ision na)el% the rise and fall of the fi'e a--re-ates.6
=earn$ng A 111
In )editation *ractice the 'er% *rocess -uided b% the
teachin-s )ust cul)inate in their abandon)ent. Ste'en S)ith
relates an illustrati'e instance fro) dee* retreat. Ha'in-
de'elo*ed stron-l% concentrated )indfulness he +as instructed
b% Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita to let -o of the +hole *ractice to do
nothin-. Ste'en describes ho+ he +ould -o into each successi'e
inter'ie+ as&in- +hether he should return to *articular *ractices
he had been instructed in before but B Pa?@ita +ould Hust re*l%
a-ain and a-ain 4Don=t do an%thin-.6
$
In one +ellP&no+n
discourse the Buddha refers to the foll% of a )an +ho carries his
raft +ith hi) after reachin- the far shore. 4Just so bhi&&hus the
Dha))a I ha'e tau-ht is li&e a raft for the *ur*ose of crossin-
o'er not for the *ur*ose of holdin- on to... Mou should abandon
throu-h understandin- e'en the teachin-s ho+ )uch )ore so
thin-s contrar% to the teachin-s.6
1
<Gi-ht= and <+ron-= <-ood= and <bad= <should= and <should not=
are funn% +ords. An absolute definition of <-ood= reKuires so)e
first *rinci*le or creator bein- to la% it do+n. In the PAQ i the
Buddha describes realit% not as controlled b% an o)ni*otent
bein- but rather as a be-inin-less *rocess of cause and effect,
47ro) the arisin- of this co)es the arisin- of that3 7ro) the
cessation of this co)es the cessation of that.6
S
In this
*hiloso*hical conteLt +ords such as <-ood= <should=
<+holeso)e= or <s&illful= onl% reall% ha'e )eanin- in the sense of
bein- <effecti'e to achie'e so)e -oal=. (he Buddha of the PAQ i
teLts is 'er% clear about the -oal of his teachin-s> he defines as
'usala <s&illful= those thin-s that lead a+a% fro) sufferin-.
O
<Gi-ht= 'ie+ in the ter)s of the PAQ i is a 'ie+ that leads to the
end of 'ie+s \ the end of sufferin-. Man% (hera'Adin teLts are
de'oted to describin- certain understandin-s that that allo+ one
$ Personal co))unication No'e)ber "##".
1 M.""XI.01Y author=s trans. but concurrin- +ith )an% of the -losses b%
Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu Bodhi. Cf. note O on *.0W.
S Bha%a :Vera; Sutta :A.^.N";XV.W"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
O E.-. SAQha Sutta :A.III.SS;XI.NSY.
110 A STRON? ROOTS
to *ractice the other se'en factors of the Ei-htfold Noble Path in
a balanced and correct +a%. (heoretical &no+led-e is a)on- the
4reKuisite conditions6 for +isdo) to de'elo* in a *ractitioner
accordin- to the 4Pa88A Sutta.6
2ne has heard a -reat deal retained +hat has been heard stored
u* +hat has been heard. (he teachin-s -ood in the be-innin-
-ood in the )iddle -ood in the end that \ +ith their +ordin-
and +ith their ai) \ *roclai) the s*iritual life entirel% co)*lete
5 *ure, that sort of teachin-s one has heard a -reat deal of
retained discussed accu)ulated eLa)ined +ith one=s )ind 5
*enetrated +ell +ith one=s 'ie+s. (his is the fifth cause the fifth
condition that leads to the acKuirin- of the +isdo) basic to the
s*iritual life that is as %et unKuired and to the increase
abundance culti'ation 5 co)*letion of that +hich has alread%
been acKuired.
W
T%eor. An- Pra't$'e
Man% Bur)ese ta&e descri*tions of ri-ht 'ie+ rather
absolutel% *articularl% the conclusions of (hera'Adin
co))entators such as Buddha-hosa. (a&in- lan-ua-e to be
absolute so)e *luc& certain ideas out of one <lan-ua-eP-a)e=
and )is-uidedl% ar-ue their )erits based on another set of
lo-ical rules. (he dan-er in'ol'ed for instance in Bur)ese
s*ea&ers )isinter*retin- and denouncin- 7reud=s conce*t of
<e-o= or A)ericans )isunderstandin- and reHectin- the
W Pa88A Sutta :A.VIII."; author=s trans. I *refer Bhi&&hu cA?a*o?i&a=s
si)*ler and )ore co))onl% reco-niIed -loss of 'aly( <-ood=. Ho+e'er
since sa- adds a )eanin- of <*ossessed of= or <+ith= rather than <ri-ht=
:saddhamma is fro) sadRsant :-ood true; b dhamma; cA?a*o?i&a=s sli-htl%
)ore absolutist renderin- of sttha sabya*jana see)s un+arranted,
4Such teachin-s as are -ood in the be-innin- -ood in the )iddle and -ood
in the end +ith the ri-ht )eanin- and *hrasin-...6 :M% e)*hasis;. Gh%s
Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4sa
0
6 S11> s.v. 4saddha))a6 SO1> s.v. 4sAttha6 O#0. (hus
)% translation closel% a-rees in )an% *laces +ith that b% (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu.
=earn$ng A 112
(hera'Adin idea of <rebirth= illustrates *recisel% +h% Steiner
ad'ocates a careful return to the source. Certainl% )an%
traditions ha'e abstracted certain as*ects of the Buddha=s
teachin-s holdin- the) in Hust the sense reHected ti)e and a-ain
in the discouses, 42nl% this is truth all else is foolishness.6
N

Es*eciall% in relati'el% static and ho)o-enous social conteLts
the PAQi teLts ha'e often been inter*reted to dictate a sin-le
correct 'ie+.
Jhile absolutis) cro*s u* e'er%+here on the +hole
*ractitioners at IMS ha'e been less +illin- to ta&e the teachin-s
in this +a%. (he di'erse and d%na)ic social conteLt of the B.S.
brin-s A)ericans into contact +ith other intelli-ent *eo*le +ho
hold star&l% different 'ie+*oints )a&in- absolute clai)s about
conce*tual inter*retations of realit% )ore *roble)atic. (a&in-
*articular Bur)ese (ibetan or Ja*anese traditions of <Buddhis)=
to be )erel% so )an% s&illful )eans A)ericans ha'e not
hesitated to introduce alternati'e *resentations. So)e teachers
ha'e relied hea'il% on Jestern traditions such as the healin-
*rofessions for their 'ocabular% and fra)e+or&. Jon KabatPFinn
for one has *ioneered the a**lication of satipa)) hna in a 'er%
secular conteLt the A)erican hos*ital.
Mindfulness is basicall% Hust a *articular +a% of *a%in- attention.
It is a +a% of loo&in- dee*l% into oneself in the s*irit of selfP
inKuir% and selfPunderstandin-. 7or this reason it can be learned
and *racticed as +e do in the stress clinic +ithout a**ealin- to
2riental culture or Buddhist authorit% to enrich or authenticate
it.
.#
N Ara?a'ibhan-a Sutta :M..0N;XIII"01Y author=s trans.
.# KabatPFinn .NN#, ."P.0 continues 4Mindfulness stands on its o+n as a
*o+erful 'ehicle for selfPunderstandin- and healin-. In fact one of its )aHor
stren-ths is that it is not de*endent on an% belief s%ste) or ideolo-% so
that its benefits are therefore accessible for an%one to test for hi)self or
herself. Met it is no accident that )indfulness co)es out of Buddhis)
+hich has as its o'erridin- concerns the relief of sufferin- and the
dis*ellin- of illusions.6 M% anal%sis throu-hout see&s to elucidate to +hat
de-ree satipa))hna reall% is <uni'ersal=.
115 A STRON? ROOTS
Instructions for the establish)ent of )indfulness are
re)ar&abl% si)ilar at the Bni'ersit% Massachusetts Medical
Center and at the MahAsi center in Gan-oon. Moreo'er b%
reco-niIin- its *otential for *h%sical healin- KabatPFinn has
)ade )ore 'isible a 'irtue of the *ractice e)*hasiIed b%
Bur)ese )on&s as +ell as b% the Buddha in the PAQ i. Indeed
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita can be so)e+hat eLtre)e in *rescribin-
)editation for dan-erous diseases. He often cites cases of
*atients 4declared incurable b% doctors6 that ha'e )editated
under his -uidance and achie'ed s*ontaneous re-ression of
cancer tuberculosis and hi-h blood *ressure.
..
As Andre+
2lendI&i notes
if the classical Buddhist tradition +ould consider the a**lications
of )indfulness )editation to conte)*orar% healin- *rotocols as
so)ethin- short of the final -oal of liberation it +ould
*resu)abl% be Kuite consistent +ith and uncritical of the notion
that the )edicine of Dha))a is ca*able of relie'in- sufferin-
+here'er it is found.
."
(he Clinic then has eLtended the *otential of the Buddha=s
teachin-s b% offerin- so)e of their benefits to *eo*le +ho )i-ht
ha'e had no other introduction.
Do such secular renditions co)*lete the other half of
Steiner=s reci*rocit% )a&in- the 4autono)ous 'irtues of the
ori-inal )ore *recisel% 'isible6U If )indfulness )editation=s
4essence is uni'ersal6 as KabatPFinn *uts it the *ractice
e'identl% can be di'orced fro) traditional understandin-s. (he
PAQ i teLts ho+e'er li&e )ost )odern (hera'Adins are Kuite
ada)ant that satipa))hna brin-s full relief fro) sufferin- onl% as
*art of the Ei-htfold Noble Path, ri-ht 'ie+ ri-ht ai) ri-ht
s*eech ri-ht action and ri-ht li'elihood as +ell as ri-ht effort
.. Pa?@ita .NN0, 11PS> .SSP.O#. 4All of these *eo*le had to -o throu-h
tre)endous *ain. But the% eLercised enor)ous *erse'erance and
coura-eous effort and the% healed the)sel'es. More i)*ortant )an% also
ca)e to understand far )ore dee*l% the truth about realit% b% obser'in-
*ain +ith tenacious coura-e and then brea&in- throu-h to insi-ht6 1S.
." 2lendI&i "###, 0"1.
=earn$ng A 11#
ri-ht )indfulness and ri-ht concentration. (o the eLtent that
*artici*ants in stress reduction *ro-ra)s en-a-e all of these Path
factors the% )a% indeed be *racticin- the sa)e 4+a% of loo&in-
dee*l% into oneself in the s*irit of selfPinKuir% and selfP
understandin-6 that the Buddha did. ELclusi'el% secular
a**lications of )indfulness )a% be 'er% beneficial but the% are
different fro) the *ractice tau-ht b% the Buddha in the PAQi and
do not lead to the sa)e -oal.
Since the A)erican )edical establish)ent has traditionall%
eLcluded itself fro) *rescribin- <reli-ious= or <ethical= conduct for
*atients ho+e'er the Stress Geduction Clinic +ould li&el% be
o'erste**in- its bounds +ere it to e)*hasiIe the dan-ers of
uns&illful action in the (hera'Adin sense. Aside fro) so)e
re)ar&s on substance addiction KabatPFinn=s *o*ular boo& Dull
1atastr#phe <iving )a&es no )ention of s&illful conduct as a basis
for successful )indfulness )editation. (he PAQ i teLts on the
other hand describe ri-ht s*eech ri-ht action and ri-ht
li'elihood as reKuisite in order to -ain the benefits of the
*ractice as the section on 4Conduct6 has detailed.
Another cons*icuous difference bet+een the MahAsi
Sa%ada+=s *resentation and )ore secular ones a**ears in the
areas of ri-ht 'ie+ and ri-ht ai). In *articular Bur)ese )on&s
consistentl% and eL*licitl% teach the *ractice for the *ur*ose of
full liberation fro) sufferin-> the% -i'e instructions for
culti'atin- one=s <+orld of eL*erience= throu-h to its unPbindin-
nir-v(a. KabatPFinn e)*hasiIes the i)*ortance of attitude and
intention but -i'es a )uch broader definition of ri-ht resol'e.
I used to thin& that )editation *ractice +as so *o+erful in itself
and so healin- that as lon- as %ou did it all %ou +ould see -ro+th
and chan-e. But ti)e has tau-ht )e that so)e &ind of *ersonal
'ision is also necessar%.... (his i)a-e or ideal +ill hel* carr% %ou
throu-h the ine'itable *eriods of lo+ )oti'ation and -i'e
continuit% to %our *ractice... 7or so)e that 'ision )i-ht be one
111 A STRON? ROOTS
of 'ibranc% and health for others it )i-ht be one of relaLation or
&indness or *eacefulness or har)on% or +isdo).
.0
Sharf=s anal%sis +hile o'erstated in re-ard to the MahAsi
)o'e)ent in Bur)a does see) true of certain A)erican
*resentations.
(he rationaliIation of )editation cou*led +ith Jestern 'alues
of the )iddle class *atrons of urban )editation centers led
naturall% to a dePe)*hasis on the traditional soteriolo-ical -oal \
brin-in- an end to rebirth. Instead +e find an increasin-
e)*hasis on the +orldl% benefits of )editation, vipassan +as
said to increase *h%sical and *s%cholo-ical health to alle'iate
stress to hel* one deal )ore effecti'el% +ith fa)il% and business
relationshi*s and so on.
.$

.0 KabatPFinn .NN#, $S.
.$ Sharf .NN1, "1WPN *refaces this co))ent 4Meditation had traditionall%
co)*rised the reenact)ent of the Buddha=s s*iritual eLertions throu-h the
ritual recitation of )editation litur-ies. (he vipassan re'i'al cou*led +ith
the 4Protestant6 ideolo-% of the (hera'Ada refor)s had the effect of
rationaliIin- )editation> )editation +as no+ concei'ed not as the ritual
instantiation of Buddhahood nor as a )eans to accu)ulate )erit but
rather as a 4)ental disci*line6 desi-ned to en-ender a *articular
transfor)ati'e eL*erience.6 If Sharf is referrin- to the )odern (hera'Ada
+hen he describes +hat <)editation has traditionall% co)*rised= his
ar-u)ent )a% ha'e so)e )erit. (he <tradition= at the ti)e the PAQi teLts
+ere co)*osed on the other hand Kuite eL*licitl% ad'ocated concentrated
)indfulness *ractice as I ar-ue in the cha*ter on 4Insi-ht.6 (he MahAsi
Sa%ada+ continued this earl% tradition ad'ocatin- satipa))hna *ractice as a
)eans of e)ulatin- the Buddha=s o+n )ethod of -ainin- full a+a&enin-.
Sharf concludes b% assertin- that seein- +orldl% benefits in )editation
4re*resents the final colla*se of the traditional distinction bet+een
)undane and su*ra)undane -oals \ the distinction that ser'ed to
le-iti)iIe the institution of the la%Psu**orted sa>gha.6 (his last assertion is
*articularl% Kuestionable since la% *ractice of dna and s.la +as
consistentl% *resented as a )eans to full a+a&enin-. Eo)brich and
2be%erse&ere Buddhism 9rans3#rmed "0O )a&e a si)ilar ar-u)ent thou-h
4(he untraditional nature of such dail% *ractice b% the lait% cannot be
o'ere)*hasiIed. Jhether the% )editate dail% or not the clients of
)editation centers are *o**inin and out of their ordinar% la% life +ith its
+orldl% concerns and it is ine'itable that the% soon co)e to re-ard
)editation as so)ethin- besides *ro-ress to+ards sal'ation, it can also
hel* the) i)*ro'e their li'es. 7or the first ti)e )editation is thus seen as
instrumental a )eans to success in ordinar% life.6
=earn$ng A 11)
Concentration +hether throu-h absor*tion such as in
lo'in-&indness or throu-h continuous )indfulness can indeed
te)*oraril% relie'e stress and sufferin-. At certain sta-es of
)indfulness *ractice )oreo'er fear and insecurit% can be
drasticall% reduced -i'in- *ractitioners ne+found ease in
*ersonal relationshi*s. In the *ractice tau-ht b% the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ ho+e'er one faces *eriods of o'er+hel)in- terror as
+ell as +a'es of Ho% acute boredo) as +ell as intense
sti)ulation> sufferin- can be cured onl% b% de'elo*in- s&illful
conduct concentration and +isdo) +ith the entire ran-e of
eL*erience. (he ins*iration and *ersistence necessar% for
successful *ractice in Barre as +ell as in Bur)a deri'es fro) a
clear sense of *ur*ose as Jose*h Eoldstein *oints out.
(oda% in the Jest the idea of ha'in- -oals in s*iritual *ractice
has dra+n so)e fire.. Althou-h this has been a correcti'e )o'e
for a)bitious e-o stri'in- and the co)*arin- Hud-in- )ind it
has also lost so)ethin- of i))ense 'alue... It is *recisel% our
'ision of the su))it that ins*ires our Hourne% in the first *lace.
(o lose the 'ision the sense of *ossibilit% is to narro+ our 'ie+
and li)it our endea'or.
.1
(his a**roach follo+s PAQ i discourses such as the
4MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta6 in +hich the Buddha details the
*ractice of establishin- )indfulness. (he co))entar% notes that
he chose to -i'e this 4dee* teachin-6 to the 'illa-ers of
Ka))Asadha))a in the Kuru countr% because the% +ere
eLce*tionall% +ell endo+ed +ith *h%sical and e)otional health
as +ell as s&illful conduct. In the discourse the Buddha describes
the establish)ent of )indfulness in )an% different as*ects of
eL*erience but concludes b% e)*hasiIin- that this *ath is
4e'yan#6 <oneP-oin-=, a sin-le +a% not )an% different ones> an
inner *ath of solitude that +e each ha'e to tra'el b% oursel'es>
an un*arallelled route -oin- alone to its *articular destination.
.S

.1 Eoldstein "##", 0N.
.S DA.""XIIIO$.ffY.
119 A STRON? ROOTS
Solitar% is this *ath bhi&&hus for the *urification of bein-s for
-oin- be%ond sorro+ and -rief for the *assin- of *ain and
distress for arri'in- at the +a% for the realiIation of NibbAna3
.O
(his &ind of full stress eli)ination is the -oal of satipa)) hna
accordin- to the (hera'Adin tradition.
Bur)ese )editation )asters +ith +ho) I ha'e discussed this
issue -enerall% feel that it is i)*ortant that teachers ha'e a
correct theoretical understandin- of the sta-es and d%na)ics of
*ractice so that students are +ell -uided and encoura-ed not to
sto* short of the -oal. Nonetheless eLtensi'e theoretical stud% b%
*ractitioners is not considered necessar% for success.
.W
Sharf
notes that )odern Vi*assanA teachers ha'e e)*hasiIed *ersonal
eL*erience to the eLclusion of scri*tural stud%. (here is indeed
Kuite a consensus bet+een A)erican and Bur)ese teachers about
the fact that little theoretical &no+led-e is reKuired of a
*ractitioner. (he MahAsi Sa%ada+ set the tone for this tradition,
(he %o-i +ho *ractices under the -uidance of a learned teacher
need not bother about hi-her Buddhist *hiloso*h% for he can
follo+ the teacher=s instructions if he &no+s onl% that life is a
)ental and *h%sical *rocess characteriIed b% i)*er)anence
sufferin- and insubstantialit%.
.N
(his basic understandin- can be *resented in ter)s of the
transitor% nature of a lifeti)e the sufferin- of death and the lac&
.O MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta :D."";XII0.1Y author=s trans. Maurice Jalshe=s
translation 4there is this one +a%...6 ca*tures so)e of the a)bi-uit% of
<e'yan#= but )o'es the ori-inal e)*hasis on <one +a%= o'er to+ards <this=.
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita has described to )e on )an% occasions ho+ he found
out the hard +a% that A)ericans do not li&e the idea of there bein- onl%
one +a% to an%thin-. 2n recie'in- a boo& of translations b% the A)erican
)on& (hanissaro Bhi&&hu one ti)e Sa%ada+ turned directl% to the
MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta and findin- the -loss 4direct *ath6 re)ar&ed +ith
a -rin 4A)ericans don= t li&e <onl% +a%=.6
.W (he Sh+e (aun- B Sa%ada+ +ho as a %oun- no'ice cut off one of his
fin-ers out of de'otion to the Buddha told )e that it didn=t reall% )atter if
*eo*le studied the PAQi at all since he &ne+ of )an% successful *ractitioners
+ho +ere illiterate. 4But6 he said 4it is *ossible to )iss the -oal. (hat can
ha**en.6
.N MahAsi .NW", "$W.
=earn$ng A 11:
of an% *er)anent as*ect of *ersonal identit% for instance so as
to be Kuite ob'ious e'en at an abstract le'el. Such initiator%
ins*irational &inds of ri-ht 'ie+ de*end on conce*tual thou-ht
but the *ractice cul)inates +ith direct &no+in- of the
characteristics of eListence *ointed to b% the teLtual descri*tions
of i)*er)anence :ani%%a; sufferin- :du''ha; and nonself
:anatt;. Jhile tal&s and instruction can *ro'ide ins*iration and
balance the -eneral understandin- in the MahAsi tradition is that
*ractitioners need not stud% an% elaborate theoretical
fra)e+or&. Jhat )ust be &no+n )ust be &no+n directl%.
Man% Bur)ese nuns and )on&s )i-ht differ +ith certain
A)erican teachers ho+e'er o'er +hat theoretical )aterial the
instructors the)sel'es need to stud% in order to -uide
*ractitioners. 7e+ A)erican teachers actuall% ha'e )ore than a
cursor% understandin- of the *s%choP*h%sical Abhidha))a
anal%sis that the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +as assu)inin the re)ar&
abo'e that the teacher +ould use as a basis fro) +hich to -uide
students. Jhen students encounter difficulties outside of a
*articular A)erican teacher=s o+n eL*erience ideas fro) )an%
different and dis*arate traditions )a% be called in. (hou-h
there are eLce*tions on both sides *resentations in Barre in
-eneral ha'e been )uch )ore eclectic if onl% out of necessit%
since A)erican audiences do not share the (hera'Adin
'ocabular%. Jhereas al)ost all the *ublished tal&s b% the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ are based on a s*ecific discourse fro) the PAQi for
instance teachers at IMS often *ic& a subHect such as <+or&in-
+ith an-er= or the <hindrances to *ractice= and then liberall%
+ea'e to-ether ideas fro) *s%cholo-ists *oets and reli-ious
fi-ures of )an% different traditions as +ell as their o+n
eL*erience.
"#
(he MahAsi tradition in the Jest has 4tended to
"# In *art this to*ical a**roach )a% be inherited fro) B Pa?@ita +ho often
selects a *articular as*ect of *ractice addressed in the teLts and then uses
'arious PAQi discourses and co))entaries to address his )ain *oint.
Nonetheless +hile B Pa?@ita does relate his o+n eL*erience in his tal&s he
al)ost ne'er dra+s si-nificantl% fro) intellectual traditions other than the
1); A STRON? ROOTS
beco)e )ore diffuse6 than other Vi*assanA traditions such as
that of B Ba Khin.
".
(he late Venerable MahAsi Sa%ada+ at +or&
stac&s of PAQi teLts b% his side
In this eclectic en'iron)ent linea-e see)s to be -i'en )uch
less i)*ortance than in the Bur)ese (hera'Ada the (ibetan
VaHra%Ana or the Ja*anese Fen schools +hich ha'e all
e)*hasiIed the i)*ortance of trans)ission fro) teacher to
student be-innin- +ith the Buddha. (hou-h the *ractice bein-
tau-ht b% the senior teachers at IMS is basicall% that *ro*a-ated
(hera'Ada.
". Batchelor .NN$, 0$$P1".
=earn$ng A 1)1
b% the MahAsi Sa%ada+ and des*ite the fact that an%one teachin-
in this tradition is at )ost three or four -enerations re)o'ed
fro) hi) I ha'e found that )an% *ractitioners and e'en staff in
Barre do not &no+ the MahAsi Sa%ada+=s na)e. In contrast
al)ost e'er%one +ho co)es to IMS is fa)iliar +ith the na)e and
face of the Dalai Da)a. (his is due in *art to the Dalai Da)a=s
*o*ularit% in the )ass )edia but the articles and inter'ie+s
featured in the IMS co))unit% )a-aIine o'er the *ast siL %ears
a**arentl% )entioned this (ibetan teacher )ore often than the%
brou-ht attention to the Bur)ese )on& +ho )ade the
)indfulness *ractice tau-ht at IMS accessible to the +orld.
""
(he A)erican Vi*assanA teachers see) not to ac&no+led-e
other sources of ideas and *ractices either. 2f the )an% <Dhar)a
boo&s= bein- offered for sale toda% 'er% fe+ allo+ the reader to
chec& the source b% -i'inco)*lete citations for PAQ i teLts or
other s*iritual teachin-s. Instead the 'er% loose *ara*hrases
freKuentl% offered are attributed to <the Buddha= or <Buddhis)=>
for so)e of these one +ould be hard *ressed to find an% direct
correlation in the teLts or traditions the% are *resu)abl% dra+n
fro). In ter)s of actual content and fra)e+or& then )an%
A)erican *resentations ha'e )uch )ore to do +ith
understandin-s fro) the authors= o+n *ractice and *hiloso*hical
bac&-round than +ith the teachin-s of the Buddha or an%
*articular tradition descended fro) hi). A)erican culture
stron-l% 'alues heroic indi'idualis) a doPitP%ourself attitude
often tendin- to+ards arro-ance. Perha*s this is +h% +e
A)ericans freKuentl% o'erloo& or dis)iss the 'alue of +isdo)
*assed do+n fro) elders or ancient traditions. As a source of
"" M% di-ital collation of +ord freKuencies fro) the Insight )a-aIine :7all
.NNS \ S*rin- "##"; re'ealed that +hile there +ere $W$ occurrences of the
ter) <eL*erience= the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +as ac&no+led-ed onl% ei-ht ti)es>
the Dalai Da)a -arnered nine )entions and Si-)und 7reud se'en.
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=s tal&s freKuentl% feature -rateful ac&no+led-e)ents of
his teacher> at B Pa?@ita=s )editation centers ne+ arri'als listen to an
ori-inal recordin- of )editation instructions b% the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +ho
is referred to in *ublic s*eeches as <2ur Benefactor=.
1)0 A STRON? ROOTS
-uidance this A)erican )o'e)ent has co)e do+n decidedl% on
the side of *ersonal eL*erience -enerall% to the eLclusion of the
PAQ i literature +here the MahAsi Sa%ada+ and his senior
students tried to find a balance bet+een the t+o. 2ne of Sa%ada+
B Pa?@ita=s fa'orite )aLi)s is characteristicall% to the *oint,
4theor% that does not lac& *ractice> *ractice that does not lac&
theor%.6
"0
Jhile A)erican Vi*assanA -rou*s are based and centered on
)indfulness *ractice the Bur)ese (hera'Ada has lon- been
do)inated b% PAQi scholarshi* for the sa&e of intellectual re*ute
si)ilar in so)e +a%s to )odern acade)ia. In fact the debate
o'er the relati'e )erits of theoretical stud% and concentrated
*ractice of the Buddha=s teachin-s is a 'er% ancient one as
e'idenced b% one senti)ent fro) the Dhammapada.
If he recites )an% teachin-s but
\ heedless )an \
doesnRt do +hat the% sa%
li&e a co+herd countin- the cattle of
others
he has no share in the conte)*lati'e life.
If he recites neLt to nothin-
but follo+s the Dha))a
in line +ith the Dha))a>
abandonin- *assion
'ersion delusion>
alert
his )ind +ellPreleased
not clin-in-
either here or hereafter,
he has his share in the conte)*lati'e life.
"$
Since at least the first centur% C.E. as noted abo'e the
(hera'Ada has e)*hasiIed scholarshi* o'er )editation
*ractice.
"1
I ha'e su--ested that radical )o'e)ents to+ards
"0 4_~ ~.~ G~ _~ ~.~ G~6
"$ Dh*.I,.NP"#XDh*.0Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
"1 Accordin- to 'arious chronicles certain )on&s o'er the *ast )illenniu)
did *ractice and *ro*a-ate )indfulness *ractice> Shin Arahan for eLa)*le
=earn$ng A 1)2
culti'ation of <direct &no+in-= tend to -ain stren-th in historical
)o)ents of ra*id cultural chan-e such as that of the Buddha and
that of the MahAsi Sa%ada+. Es*eciall% in rural areas the culture
of the Bur)ans +hich do)inates )odern <M%an)ar= has
re)ained Kuite ho)o-enous and static e'en +ith the )assi'e
cultural i)*in-e)ent of British i)*erialis)> the nation still
ran&s a)on- the )ost isolated in the +orld. It should not be
sur*risin- then that )ore ri-idl% institutionaliIed ele)ents of
the (hera'Ada re)ain stron- and that )odern *ro*onents of
satipa)) hna ha'e )et +ith considerable resistance fro) )ore
conser'ati'e Kuarters. In res*onse the MahAsi Sa%ada+ *oints
out that the 'er% teLts studied b% (hera'Adin scholars list ri-ht
effort ri-ht )indfulness and ri-ht concentration as the final
factors of the *ractice.
In these da%s there ha'e cro**ed u* )isstate)ents runnin-
counter to +hat Buddha actuall% tau-ht. Kno+led-e it is said is
acco)*lish)ent> and there is no need for an%bod% to *ractice
dhamma once &no+led-e has been attained. Such a state)ent
'irtuall% a)ounts to the reHection of the *ractice of the dhamma
to the eLclusion of the Noble Ei-htfold Path.
"S
Meditation *ractice has in fact beco)e Kuite *o*ular in the
)odern intellectual en'iron)ent because of interest in the
<eL*erience of insi-ht=. (he MahAsi Sa%ada+ did *ut a -reat deal
of e)*hasis on this as*ect but his )o'e)ent ca)e in res*onse
to a Bur)ese (hera'Adin establish)ent in'ested al)ost
eLclusi'el% in scholarshi* of the PAQi teLts. Just the o**osite is
true of )ost nati'ePborn A)erican <Buddhists= +ith their
distrust of authorit% and e)*hasis on indi'idual selfPdisco'er%. I
+onder if a return to the source in this ne+ conteLt )i-ht not
re*ortedl% tau-ht satipa))hna to &in- Ana+ratha of Pa-an Bur)a.
"S MahAsi .NW#, .#P... Di&e+ise Collins .NN#b, .0 4there is a difference
bet+een the +a% the denial of self is a**ro*riated b% the )on& earnestl%
en-a-ed in )editati'e reflection :+hich characteriIes the )ost *ractical
for) of treadin- the Buddhist Path; and the +a% it +as a**ro*riated and
elaborated b% the Buddhist scholastic concerned +ith *reser'in- and
clarif%in- the conce*tual content of Buddhist theor% but not necessaril%
+ith himsel3 usin- it to attain nirv(a.6 E)*hasis in ori-inal.
1)5 A STRON? ROOTS
brin- those interested in endin- sufferin- to+ards a balance
bet+een )editation and stud% of the PAQi teLts si)ilar to the one
the MahAsi Sa%ada+ *ioneered fro) the o**osite direction.
Worl-/V$e<s
In one discussion +ith the K%unPMaPN-e Sa%ada+ a senior
teachin- disci*le of Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=s I re*orted that I +as
es*eciall% interested in hel*in- the A)erican Ssana de'elo*
stren-th in the area of Dha))a stud%. (he Sa%ada+ offered )e a
bit of +ise ad'ice, 4Just sho+ ho+ di))hi are a burden.6 Jhat did
he )eanU So)e difficulties co)*licate the translation of di))hi
here. (he ter) is deri'ed fro) a root )eanin- <si-ht=> it is used in
the PAQi in the )eta*horical sense of a <+a% of seein-= a
<*ers*ecti'e=> the En-lish +ord <'ie+= is the )ost co))on
translation. In this sense *erha*s the Sa%ada+ +as tellin- )e to
hel* A)ericans see ho+ holdin- on to and defendin- an%
*articular 'ie+ is stressful and a-itatin-.
In the PAQ i and in Bur)ese ho+e'er the +ord di))hi is a
co))on shorthand for mi%%hadi))hi +ron- 'ie+ the &ind of
)isconce*tions and )isunderstandin-s that -et us hurt. Durin-
certain *oints in intensi'e )indfulness *ractice the eL*eriences
of seein- hearin- touchin- thin&in- and so on are seen as
'ibratin- and flic&erin- eLtre)el% ra*idl% not sta%in- still for an
instant. 2n that le'el *leasant and *ainful eL*eriences all see)
to be rushin- *ast -one as soon as the% are &no+n futile to hold
on to. Je see )ore and )ore clearl% ho+ foolish and stressful it
is to in'est our ho*es for ha**iness in an% eL*erience. Seein-
sensation rushin- *ast li&e that can be rather nauseatin- at
certain *oints but abandonin- the search for *leasure is a
tre)endous relief a sin-ular Ho%.
2n the (hera'Adin *ath theoretical understandin- and
*ractical a**lication infor) and dee*en one another. (he 'alue
=earn$ng A 1)#
*laced on realiIin- the cessation of eL*erience nibbna rests on
an understandin- that the 'er% *rocess of eListence in'ol'es
stress an-uish sufferin-, du''ha. (his idea has so)eti)es been
seen as *essi)istic +hen contrasted +ith the ErecoPJudaic
tradition. Ge-ardless of +hether Eod said it +as <-ood= thou-h I
sus*ect that ancient Hebre+s as +ell as ancient Indians ha'e
found sufferin- in so)e as*ects of death illness se*aration fro)
lo'ed ones and so on. Jhen S%l'ia Boorstein +rites of her
-rand)other=s -uidance on sufferin- one can hear Middish
accented echoes of the <the -ood boo&=.
...she +as *hiloso*hical about )% )oods. Sadness didn=t +orr%
her. 2n those occasions +hen I said 4But I=) not ha**%/6 she
+ould sa% 4Jhere is it +ritten that %ou are su**osed to ha**%
all the ti)eU6
I don=t re)e)ber this co))ent as a rebu&e. I thin& of it no+ as
)% introduction to the first of the 7our Noble (ruths of the
Buddha. Dife is difficult because thin-s chan-e. Chan-e )eans
loss and disa**oint)ent. Bodies and relationshi*s are fro) ti)e
to ti)e *ainful. I +as reassured b% )% -rand)other=s res*onse. I
didn=t feel I +as )a&in- a )ista&e b% feelin- sad and she didn=t
feel obli-ed to fiL )e.
"O
2nce birth occurs death is una'oidable. Pleasure and *ain are
*art of the sa)e *ac&a-e. Diberation fro) sufferin- accordin- to
the (hera'Ada is achie'ed not b% )aintainin- constant *leasure
but rather throu-h brin-in- an acce*tin- en-a-e)ent \
)indfulness \ to the +hole ran-e of life=s Ho%s and sorro+s Hust as
the% are. If du''ha is e'ident in the i)*er)anence of life of
health and of relationshi*s the Buddha=s discourses in the PAQ i
)erel% eLtend this *rinci*le to the ra*idl% chan-in- nature of all
eL*erience.
(he )ore +e realiIe the o**ressi'e nature of an% eL*erience
\ throu-h careful and continuous obser'ation \ the less +e find
oursel'es tr%in- to arran-e e'er%thin- so that it +ill be *leasant.
"O Boorstein .NNNb, NOPW. Note the funda)entall% lo-ocentric \ and )ore
s*ecificall% scri*tural \ a**roach of the ErecoPJudaic tradition here, <+here
is it +ritten3U=.
1)1 A STRON? ROOTS
Je be-in to relaL. As the a-itation and frustration that co)e
fro) tr%in- to sKueeIe ha**iness out of eL*erience be-ins to ebb
sli-htl% there can be an enor)ous flood of ener-% as if a -reat
+ei-ht has been lifted. I thin& that is +hat the Sa%ada+ )eant
+hen he said that 4di))hi are a burden6, )isunderstandin-s such
as our basic belief that eL*erience has so)ethin- substantial to it
\ that +e can reall% control it and that it can reall% brin- us
ha**iness \ lead us into )assi'e a)ounts of sufferin-.
2ne understands +ron- 'ie+ as +ron- 'ie+ and ri-ht 'ie+ as
ri-ht 'ie+, this is one=s ri-ht 'ie+3 2ne )a&es an effort to
abandon +ron- 'ie+ and to enter u*on ri-ht 'ie+, this is one=s
ri-ht effort. Mindfull% one abandons +ron- 'ie+ )indfull% one
enters u*on and abides in ri-ht 'ie+, this is one=s ri-ht
)indfulness. (hus these three states run and circle around ri-ht
'ie+ that is ri-ht 'ie+ ri-ht effort and ri-ht )indfulness.
"W
(he s&illfulness of one=s understandin-s deter)ines +hether
one *ro-resses to+ards or a+a% fro) the liberation fro) 'ie+s
accordin- to the PAQ i. (his is +h% the discourses sho+ the Buddha
encoura-in- a beneficial &ind of understandin-, sammQdi))hi
'ie+s that are <Hust ri-ht= for achie'in- the cessation of
sufferin-.
"N
And +hat bhi&&hus is ri-ht 'ie+U Gi-ht 'ie+ I sa% is t+ofold,
there is ri-ht 'ie+ is affected b% the taints *arta&in- of )erit
ri*enin- in the acKuisitions _of further eListence`> and there is
ri-ht 'ie+ that is noble taintless su*ra)undane a factor of the
*ath3
0#
"W MahAcattAr[sa&a Sutta :M...O;XIIIO.ffY trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and
Bhi&&hu Bodhi. M% inter*retation of K%unPManPN-e Sa%ada+=s *oint is
su**orted b% the co))entar% :MA...O;XIV.0.Y 4this is the ri-ht 'ie+ of
insi-ht +hich understands +ron- 'ie+ as an obHect b% *enetratin- its
characteristics of i)*er)anence etc. and +hich understands ri-ht 'ie+ b%
eLercisin- the function of co)*rehension and clearin- a+a% confusion6 as
*ara*hrased b% Bodhi in the endnotes :*.0"O;.
"N Please see the discussion on *...W.
0# MahAcattAr[sa&a Sutta :M...O;XIIIO"Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and
Bhi&&hu Bodhi. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu renders sava as 4fer)entations6
+here cA?a)oli -i'es 4taints6 a )ore standard translation but one +hich
)i-ht )iss connotations of the ori-inal such as <intoLicants= and <dischar-e
=earn$ng A 1))
(he t%*e of +isdo) that is su*ra)undane l#'uttara :literall%
<abo'e the +orld=; co)es onl% +hen one has full% acco)*lished
insi-ht into the nature of +orldl% eL*erience. (he realiIation of
nibbna -oes be%ond e'er%thin- in sasra includin- the
teachin-s the)sel'es. Nonetheless abandonin- 'ie+s entirel% is
not eas%, )ost of us need -uidance to ease our +a% out. I ha'e
found teachin-s fro) the Buddha \ as )ediated throu-h )%
teachers and throu-h teLts \ indis*ensable in de'elo*in- the
facult% of +isdo). In order to underta&e the *ractice lon-
enou-h to taste its fruit I needed at least the +illin-ness to
acce*t that a**l%in- continuous a+areness to )% sense
eL*erience )i-ht be beneficial. Such is the 'alue of )undane
ri-ht 'ie+.
(he (hera'Ada includes under this t%*e of ri-ht 'ie+ the
understandin- that +holeso)e and un+holeso)e actions ha'e
corres*ondin- results that this strea) of cause and effect
continues across lifeti)es and that there are those +ho ha'e
directl% realiIed these truths for the)sel'es.
0.
So)e of these
ideas )a% be readil% acce*table to *eo*le raised +ith a )odern
Jestern +orld'ie+. 2ther as*ects of this teachin- +ill a**ear at
first to contradict the Jestern Scientific tradition. If +e +ish to
be trul% critical thin&ers thou-h +e )ust be *re*ared to
Kuestion the assu)*tions of our o+n tradition as +ell as others.
7orei-n +orldP'ie+s )a% ha'e the )ost to offer us *recisel% in
the *laces that the% )ost challen-e us.
fro) a sore=. See Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4Asa'a6 ..$P1. 2n the other hand
cA?a)oli=s 4su*ra)undane6 better ca*tures the co)*osition and *erha*s
the connotations of l#'uttar +hich literall% )eans <abo'e the +orld=.
0. M...OXIIIO"Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu Bodhi 4And +hat
bhi&&hus is ri-ht 'ie+ that is affected b% the taints *arta&in- of )erit
ri*enin- in the acKuisitionsU <(here is +hat is -i'en and +hat is offered and
+hat is sacrificed> there is fruit and result of -ood and bad actions> there is
this +orld and the other +orld> there is )other and father> there are bein-s
+ho are reborn s*ontaneousl%> there are in the +orld -ood and 'irtuous
recluses and brah)ins +ho ha'e realised for the)sel'es b% direct
&no+led-e and declare this +orld and the other +orld.=6 Cf. DA."XI.S1Y.
1)9 A STRON? ROOTS
E'er% +a% of thin&in- starts fro) so)e set of 'alues
deter)inin- +hat to eLa)ine and ho+ to -o about it. (he
)odern disci*lines of Biolo-% Che)istr% and Ph%sics are no
eLce*tion, the% *rioritiIe *h%sical as*ects of realit% and a
rational +a% of anal%Iin- these. (he tenets of Jestern Science
are Hustified +ithin their o+n s%ste) but not necessaril% outside
of it, if +e use instru)ents and )ethods that detect onl% *h%sical
as*ects of realit% for instance the results cannot dis*ro'e or
*ro'e or other+ise sa% )uch about the eListence of )ental
*heno)ena. (here are other a**roaches to understandin- realit%
that )a&e sense +ithin their o+n res*ecti'e 'aluePfra)e+or&s
+ithout ne-atin- the effecti'eness of the Jestern Scientific
a**roach at fulfillin- its o+n -oals. Before +e dis)iss the
Buddha=s teachin-s on ri-ht 'ie+ as inco)*atible +ith )odern
thou-ht +e +ould do +ell to co)*are the assu)*tions i)*licit
in the Jestern +orld'ie+ +hich \ althou-h increasin-l%
do)inant a)on- hu)an societies all o'er *lanet Earth \ is
nonetheless )ainl% descended fro) the ideas of the ancient
Hebre+s and Eree&s.
Jestern Science and the (hera'Ada co)*le)ent one another
in )an% areas. (he )ost funda)ent difference bet+een these
t+o a**roaches lies in their choice of data to focus on. Most
biolo-ists +ould find little to obHect to in the PAQ i teLts=
descri*tion of sense eL*erience as an e)er-ent *ro*ert% of
contact bet+een sense obHect and a sense base, seein-
consciousness for instance is said to result fro) the )eetin- of
'isual sti)uli +ith the e%e. Met the Buddha=s e)*hasis on direct
sense eL*erience is radical toda% as it +as in his o+n ti)e and
*lace. In the PAQ i the Buddha focuses on the cessation of
sufferin- in the <+orld= l#'a.
0"
Ho+e'er he )eans so)ethin-
rather different fro) the Hebre+ idea of o'erco)in- e'il in
societ% or the &indred )odern ideal of *eace on Earth. ananda
the Buddha=s de'oted attendant inter*rets <+orld= in the
0" E.-. Gohitassa Sutta :S.II."S;XIS"Y.
=earn$ng A 1):
Buddha=s discourse to )ean l#'asa**. 4our eL*erience of the
+orld6 as Nathan KatI renders the PAQ i ter) 4in the sense that
one need not -rant an% +orld a*art fro) our eL*erience.6
00

Garel% are this teachin-=s i)*lications full% understood.
Jhat is the AllU Si)*l% the e%e 5 for)s ear 5 sounds nose 5
aro)as ton-ue 5 fla'ors bod% 5 tactile sensations intellect 5
ideas. (his _bhi''ave` is called the All. An%one +ho +ould sa%
<Ge*udiatin- this All I +ill describe another= if Kuestioned on
+hat eLactl% )i-ht be the -rounds for his state)ent +ould be
unable to eL*lain and further)ore +ould be *ut to -rief. Jh%U
Because it lies be%ond ran-e.
0$
(hree Instances of the All
01
(his 4Discourse on the All6 challen-es us to reco-niIe that
our sense eL*erience is a ste* re)o'ed fro) the outer +orld
because there is no sensation of <I= or <%ou= <a**le= or <(hera'Ada=.
2ne can see a red sha*e hear the sound of the +ord <a**le= or
ha'e a thou-ht about a certain t%*e of fruit> one can taste
s+eetness on the ton-ue too. In the real) of sense eL*erience
ho+e'er the a**le is no+here to be found. Such a conce*tual
entit% is actuall% an abstraction fro) 'arious instances of seein-
hearin- s)ellin- tastin- touchin- and thin&in-. 2ur belief in
the realit% of a +orld of *eo*le and *h%sical obHects deri'es fro)
00 KatI .NWN, .$OPW refers to the Buddha=s clai) at S.II."SXIS"Yand ananda=s
renderin- at S.^^^V...SXIVN1Y. See also Bhi&&hu Bodhi=s inter*retation of
l#'asa**. in the notes to his translation of the Sa6yutta /i'ya *0N0P$.
0$ Sabba Sutta :S.^^^V."0;XIV.1Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
01 7or the basic )odel on +hich this and follo+india-ra)s elaborate I a)
indebted to Andre+ 2lendI&i Buddist Ps%cholo-% Course Dece)ber "##.
Barre Center for Buddhist Studies.
19; A STRON? ROOTS
the a**arent coherence of sense eL*erience, it )a&es sense that
there reall% are a**les because +e find si)ilar *atterns of seein-
and tastin- and so on occurrin- to-ether a-ain and a-ain. (he
realit% of tastin- itself does not need an% such deduction. So)e
ha'e )ade the analo-% here to the +a% the characters and *lot of
a )o'ie differ fro) the *h%sical *rocess of li-ht hittin- a theater
screen.
0S
Each ha'e a realit% to be sure but the% are Kualitati'el%
different.
Conce*ts such as <a**le= or
<(hera'Ada= refer to no *articular sense
eL*erience. (he referent of <a**le= )a%
'er% +ell eList but it cannot be directl%
&no+n> it 4lies be%ond ran-e.6
0O
(hus
<a**le= has realit% in our +orld of
eL*erience onl% as a :)ostl% i)*licit;
a-ree)ent a)on- *eo*le to associate
certain other sense eL*eriences +ith the thou-ht <a**le= and the
sound of the +ord. (his t%*e of realit% of a**les and of *eo*le is
<con'entional= :sammuti;. (astin- on the other hand belon-s to
<ulti)ate= realit% :paramatth; 4+hich si)*l% )eans obHects that
can be eL*erienced directl% +ithout the )editation of conce*ts6
as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita defines it.
0W
(his is the understandin- of
<t+o truths= for)ulated eL*licitl% b% the (hera'Adin
co))entators but i)*licit throu-hout the Buddha=s discourses
in the PAQi.
0N
0S E.-. Eoldstein .NN0c, ....
0O Sabba Sutta :S.^^^V."0; trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
0W Pa?@ita .NN0, .#1.
0N Jarder "###, .$SPO concludes in his co)*rehensi'e co)*arison of 'arious
teLtual traditions that 4the 9ripi)a'a itself in the earliest for) +hich +e can
no+ restore it eL*licitl% reco-niIes that there are t+o le'els of state)ent.6
He cites D.00XIII""OY +hich describes four t%*es of <&no+led-e=, 4dhamme
*(a... refers to &no+led-e of thin-s or e'ents that are directl%
eL*erienced... Second is anvaye *(a or inducti'e &no+led-e. (his latter is
based on and not inde*endent of &no+led-e b% eL*erience6 accordin- to
Kalu*ahana .NON, OW. 7ollo+in- Kalu*ahana I +ould -rou* the other t+o
listed at D.00 pariye *(a :&no+led-e of others; and sammutiy *(a
=earn$ng A 191
7ro) the *ers*ecti'e of the 4Discourse on the All6 ordainin-
as a nun or )on& in order to focus on )editation is hardl% a
retreat fro) the +orld> on the contrar% such renunication +ould
enable -reater attention to the +orld that is )ost real, the
*rocess of sensation. As the Buddha of the PAQ i teLts +ould ha'e
it <All= +e can directl% &no+ the onl% *lace +e can directl% cure
sufferin- is our o+n <+orld of eL*erience=. A)on- traditions of
:&no+led-e that is con'entional -enerall% consented to or used; under the
cate-or% of indirect &no+led-e. Jarder tentati'el% cate-oriIes all eLce*t
sammutiy *(a as direct.
In an% case as Jarder *oints out the Buddha throu-hout the teLts s*ea&s of
bein-s li'in- and d%in- and bein- reborn as +ell as 4a seKuence of
conditions +ith no *er)anent entit% a)on- the) of desire eListin-
throu-h a condition but no one +ho <desires=. It is this latter t%*e of
state)ent +hich is directl% connected to his eL*osition of the <truths= and
+hich )oreo'er he hi)self re-arded as a )atter <difficult to see=. Bnless +e
attribute to hi) or to the co)*ilers of the 9ripi)a'a an incredible
ine*titude entirel% at 'ariance +ith the subtlet% and *recision of )ost of
the discourses ascribed to hi) +e )ust follo+ this inter*retation
accordin- to t+o le'els of state)ent36 (hus at A.II."1XIS#Y trans.
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu 4Mon&s these t+o slander the (atha-ata. Jhich t+oU
He +ho eL*lains a discourse +hose )eanin- needs to be inferred
_neyyattha` as one +hose )eanin- has alread% been full% dra+n out
_n.tattha`. And he +ho eL*lains a discourse +hose )eanin- has alread% been
full% dra+n out as one +hose )eanin- needs to be inferred.6
7ro) this understandin- of <t+o truths= the classical (hera'Adin
co))entators such as Buddha-hosa de'elo*ed the idea of paramattha
<ulti)ate realit%= )ade of ele)ents each +ith an essential nature :sabhva;.
NA-ArHuna=s critiKue +as li&el% ai)ed at such absolutist inter*retations.
E'en +ithin the (hera'Ada )odern )on&s such as cA?ananda .NNO, $1
ha'e cited teLts such as the PoZZha*Ada Sutta :D.N;XI"#"Y +here the
Buddha s*ea&s of conce*ts as 4)erel% +orldl% con'entions in co))on use
+hich he )ade use of +ithout clin-in- to the).6 cA?ananda 4+onders
+hether this si)*le thou-h *rofound attitude of the Buddha to+ards
conce*ts has been *ro*erl% handed do+n in tradition.6 As he +rites on the
*re'ious *a-e 42ne )i-ht distin-uish bet+een the relati'el% true and the
relati'el% false in theor% bet+een the *recise and the 'a-ue in
ter)inolo-% bet+een the scholastic and the +a%+ard in *hraseolo-% but
one has to re)e)ber that as conce*ts the% are all one. Nor should on
seriousl% re-ard so)e conce*ts as absolute and in'iolable cate-ories in
*reference to others and *ac& the) in +aterPti-ht cartons labeled
<paramattha=.6 cA?anda=s is a co-ent and crucial return to the
190 A STRON? ROOTS
thou-ht in India the +orld'ie+ *resented in the PAQi resonates
)uch )ore closel% +ith the -reat BronIe A-e ci'iliIation that
thri'ed in the Indus 'alle% fro) around 0### B.C.E. than +ith the
ar%an reli-ious s%ste)s that later ca)e to do)inate.
2ne fa)ous seal fro) the Indus ci'iliIation bears an i)a-e of
an ascetic in crossPle--ed )editation *osture. 7or this and other
reasons the renunciate )o'e)ent around 1## B.C.E. of +hich
the Buddha +as a *art is often seen as dra+in- ins*iration fro)
this earl% *eriod of Indian thou-ht. (he IndoPEuro*ean ar%an
culture +hich follo+ed 4+as )ore )undane in its outloo& as is
e'ident fro) so)e h%)ns eLtollin- the s#maPdrin&in- funPlo'in-
-ods.6 Indeed certain teLts chronicle the ar%ansR a+e at the
4na&ed lon-Phaired ascetics6 of the Indus culture the% re*laced.
$#
Althou-h the ascetic tradition of the nonPAr%ans +as in ti)e
rele-ated to the bac&-round as a result of the do)inance of the
)ore )undane Ar%an tradition it could not be co)*letel% +i*ed
out. After re)ainin- dor)ant for a +hile it see)s to ha'e reP
e)er-ed +ith fresh 'i-or and 'italit%. (he histor% of Indian
*hiloso*h% )a% be described as the stor% of the stru--le for
su*re)ac% bet+een these t+o traditions.
$.
No)adic ar%an herds)en enter the archeolo-ical record of
north India around .O## B.C.E. (he IndoPEuro*ean societ% of the
ar%ans +as focused on the content of eL*erience, &no+led-e and
action in the outer +orld of *eo*le and *h%sical obHects. B% the
thirteenth centur% a line of ar%an &in-s )ana-ed to consolidate
*o+er o'er the di'erse indi-enous cultural -rou*s of northern
India establishin- the Paura'a E)*ire +hich +ould reach its
a*eL around the ninth centur% B.C.E. Jhile the *olitical leaders
of this e)*ire +ere of ar%an eLtraction and the ancient ar%an
understandin- of the PAQi. B% the sa)e to&en ho+e'er +e can reco-niIe
the direct realit% of the referent of <hearin-= +ithout clin-in- to s*ecific
lin-uistic eL*ressions of it. (he radical challen-e and the *hiloso*hical
coherence of the teachin-s -i'en b% the Buddha in these discourses de*end
on the )essa-e of the 4Sabba Sutta6, that the *rocess of sensation is all +e
can directl% &no+ that con'entional entities lie <be%ond ran-e=.
$# Kalu*ahana .NOS, 0P$ cites the :eO.-s!'ta of the Sgveda.
$. Kalu*ahana .NOS, 0P$.
=earn$ng A 192
h%)ns of the &eds continued to be used 4there +as a -radual
s%nthesis of the Ar%an and the )ore ori-inall% Indian
traditions.6
$"
(his cultural )eltin- *ot +as one reason that there
+as such a di'ersit% of co)*etin- s*iritual *hiloso*hical and
reli-ious teachin-s in north India of the last )illenniu) B.C.E.
(he Buddha=s teachin-s +ere one *roduct of these ti)es.
$0
A lar-e renunciate )o'e)ent )ade u* of )an% different
teachers and s)all -rou*s of follo+ers de'elo*ed in India around
1## B.C.E. (hou-h their *hiloso*hies +ere 'er% di'erse so)e
ideals +ere co))on a)on- the), in *articular renunciation of
seLual and econo)ic acti'it% in order to *ractice for the sa&e of
liberation fro) the c%cle of rebirth. (hese 'alues bore )uch less
si)ilarit% to the ar%an tradition than to earlier indi-enous Indian
societies +hich +ere )ore closel% tied to the earth and natural
rh%th)s. (his outloo& led to a c%clical understandin- of life and
death accordin- to one Italian scholar Julius E'ola.
$$
Jarder sees the *rePar%an *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& +ith its
orientation to+ards natural c%cles ree)er-in- at the ti)e of the
$" Jarder "###, .OP"..
$0 As the ar%an )onarchies eL*anded south the% encountered s)all bands of
hunterP-atherers and tribes -o'erned b% councils of aristocrats in a t%*e of
de)ocrac%. It +as into one of these later tribes the Sa&%a that Siddhattha
Eota)a is said to ha'e been born. If so the future Buddha +ould not
necessaril% ha'e had eLtensi'e eL*osure to the Vedic ideals of nei-hborin-
IndoPar%an ci'iliIations until later in life. Sch)idt .NN1, ..W *oints out
that 4the 'shatriyas _+arrior class` and the re*ublics +ere in )an% +a%s the
ones +ho lost the )ost durin- the transition fro) less co)*leL linea-eP
based -o'ern)ents and societies to )ore co)*leL statePbased s%ste)s. Not
sur*risin-l% *erha*s the founder of Jainis) Maha'ira :c. 1$#P$SN BCE;
and the Buddha :c. 1S0P$W0 BCE; +ere both &shatri%as and both founded
their res*ecti'e s%ste)s of thou-ht not in )onarchies but in re*ublics
+here Braha)anical su*re)ac% had not ta&en hold.6 I a) indebted to
Ker)it Blac&+oods for the initial su--estion that led to this in'esti-ation.
$$ E'ola .NNS, "S. E'ola contrasts the 'ie+s of the earl% Indian societies +ith
the ar%an *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& here in order to buttress his clai) that
Buddha=s teachin-s )i-ht not ori-inall% ha'e included the doctrine of
reincarnation. Ho+e'er this reasonin- is based on E'ola=s assu)*tion that
the Buddha +as o*eratin- in a basicall% IndoPEuro*ean *hiloso*hical
conteLt. Gecent studies su--est that this is not a 'alid assu)*tion.
195 A STRON? ROOTS
renunciate )o'e)ent in Indian teLts such as the pura(as the
histories. He *oints in *articular to the doctrine of reincarnation
4+hich is barel% )entioned in the latest *art of the &eda but
*racticall% ta&en for -ranted in the nonPVedic Brah)anical
tradition.6 Jestern traditional and )odern ideas of a sin-le
lifeti)e :follo+ed b% eternal life or b% annihilation; )irror the
ori-inall% Hebre+ idea of histor% ha'in- a definite be-innin-
:Rthe JordR or Rthe bi- ban-R; and end :Rthe &in-do) of EodR or
R*eace on earthR;. Di&e+ise Jarder associates the Indian
understandin- of continuit% across lifeti)es +ith the 'ast scale of
ti)e e)*lo%ed in the pura(as +hich detail )an% e'olutions and
de'olutions of the uni'erse. So)e *rinci*les of this *rePar%an
+orldP'ie+ see) to be e)er-in- fro) recent disco'eries of
Jestern Science as +ell.
Ver% i)*ortant it +ould see) for all reli-ious and *hiloso*hical
ideas in India is the 'astness of the ti)e scale assu)ed +hich in
fact a-rees +ell +ith that established for the uni'erse b% )odern
astrono)% and contrasts )ost stron-l% +ith the traditions of
Jestern reli-ions3 (he Indian ideas of ti)e +ere in fact Kuite
earl% related to astrono)ical obser'ations3
$1
(he 'arious renunciate co))unities includin- that of the
Buddha did a**arentl% use and ada*t )an% ar%an +ords and
ideas to describe the 'ie+s and *ractices the% ad'ocated.
Nonetheless in the PAQi discourses the Buddha consistentl%
reHects the idea of a *er)anent hellish or hea'enl% destination
after death e'en for those full% a+a&ened.
$S
(he Buddha=s
*resentation adds the *ros*ect of liberation to the round of
sasra but is nonetheless de*endent on and consistent +ith the
<naturalistic= idea of rebirth. (hus it see)s li&el% that the
Buddha=s teachin-s fra)ed so)e IndoPEuro*ean ar%an
ter)inolo-% and conce*tions of s*iritual *ractice in a +orldP'ie+
that reco-niIed the c%cle of life as continuous rather than
$1 Jarder "###, ""P0.
$S (he Kuestion of +hat ha**ens to a full% a+a&ened bein- on death is one of
those +hich the Buddha sa%s 4doesn=t a**l%6 e.-. at M.O".
=earn$ng A 19#
insertin- the idea of rebirth into an IndoPEuro*ean fra)e+or&.
(his historical e'idence su**orts the o'er+hel)in- i)*ression
-i'en b% the PAQi teLts that the Buddha sa+ reincarnation as a
funda)ental characteristic of eListence.
(he PAQ i discourses and the Abhidha))a literature offer a
*ers*ecti'e on eListence Kuite different fro) an% in the ErecoP
Judaic tradition. (he (hera'Adin anal%sis of eL*erience *ro'es
)ore eL*lanator% and less *roble)atic in certain +a%s than
those offered to date b% Jestern *hiloso*h% and *s%cholo-%.
Nonetheless +hen *articular ideas such as <rebirth= are re)o'ed
fro) their nati'e *hiloso*hical conteLt the% )a&e little sense in
ter)s of )odern scientific )aterialis). (he *roble) here is
neither the PAQi teLts= conce*t of rebirth nor the biolo-ical
understandin- of death. Gather both )a&e e)inent sense -i'en
the assu)*tions and e)*hases of their res*ecti'e traditions. M%
su--estion is that e'en a )ini)al understandin- of the
(hera'Adin +orld'ie+ +ill render )an% as*ects of the Buddha=s
teachin-s such as continuit% of cause and effect o'er lifeti)es
Kuite sensible and e'en attracti'e to )odern A)ericans.
A't$on An- Rea't$on
7unda)ental to the teachin-s of the Buddha in the PAQi is the
idea that 'olitional actions ha'e results that s&illful or uns&illful
actions ha'e both i))ediate and lon-Pter) conseKuences. (he
PAQ i teLt "ilindapa*ha relates a discussion bet+een the Eree& &in-
Menander and the Venerable NA-asena centered on 'amma and
rebirth. NA-asena *resents the understandin- of de*endent coP
arisin- as a )iddle +a% +hich transcends t+o *roble)atic 'ie+s,
the essentialist doctrine that there is an eternal unchan-in- self
and the nihilist doctrine that there is no continuit% so that there
could be no conseKuences for uns&illful actions. (he *otential
created b% a )o)ent of s&illful or uns&illful action is *lanted li&e
191 A STRON? ROOTS
a seed in the )indPbod% *rocess and *assed alon- until the
necessar% conditions are *resent for it to -i'e fruit. (he
*articular results ha**% or unha**% de*end on the t%*e of seed
*lanted.
4But is it *ossible Venerable Sir to sho+ <that &a))a is stored
here and here=U6...
4Consider a a certain tree=s as %et unborn fruit -reat &in-> is it
*ossible to sho+ <that fruit is stored here and here=U6
4No indeed... Cle'er %ou are Venerable NA-asena.6
$O
I ha'e also found the analo-% of *ool balls useful to
understand ho+ the force of 'amma )i-ht be *assed alon- a
strea) of consciousness. If a cue ball is -i'en a certain s*in +hen
it hits the nu)ber three ball sa% e'en thou-h nothin-
substantial *asses bet+een the) the s*in is *assed alon-. Jhen
the three hits the fourteen the *otential ener-% of that s*in is
*assed alon- a-ain and on do+n the line until the s*in ener-% is
realiIed in a ball 'eerin- to one side or the other. Si)ilarl% there
is no *lace that a record of actions is stored bet+een )o)ents of
consciousness. Gather the *otential ener-% created b% an action
is *assed alon- fro) )o)ent to )o)ent until the conditions are
*resent for that ener-% to be realiIed in the for) of a s*ecific
result. :amma is a -ood deal )ore co)*leL than s*in on *ool
balls of course> in one discourse the Buddha +arns that tr%in- to
understand the *recise +or&in-s of all our actions and reactions
+ould dri'e a *erson )ad.
$W
(hou-h the (hera'Adin tradition has often ascribed s*ecific
results to s*ecific actions in *ast li'es certain PAQi discourses
+ould +arn a-ainst ta&in- such correlations absolutel%. In one
*assa-e the Buddha -rants that so)e *ractitioners )a% de'elo*
enou-h concentration of )ind to see +here bein-s are reborn
but he reHects the 'arious absolutist 'ie+s that *eo*le for) based
on their o+n li)ited *erce*tion of action and its effects.
$N
(he
$O Miln.V.WXO"Y author=s trans.
$W Acinte%%a Sutta :A.IV.OO;XIIW#Y.
$N MahaPKa))a'ibhaT-a Sutta :M..0S;XIII".0Y.
=earn$ng A 19)
causal *rocess of action and reaction is not *urel% linear. As
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu describes it de*endent coParisin- in'ol'es
)ulti*le feedbac& loo*s.
(hus e'er% e'ent ta&es *lace in a conteLt deter)ined b% the
co)bined effects of *ast e'ents co)in- fro) a +ide ran-e in
ti)e to-ether +ith the effects of *resent acts. (hese effects can
intensif% one another can coeList +ith little interaction or can
cancel one another out. (hus e'en thou-h it is *ossible to
*redict that a certain t%*e of act +ill tend to -i'e a certain t%*e
of result \ for eLa)*le actin- on an-er +ill lead to *ain \ there is
no +a% to *redict +hen or +here that result +ill )a&e itself
felt.
1#
(he *articular *ro*erties associated +ith a )o)ent of
sensation +ould increase the *otential for certain de'elo*)ents
to occur in the sa)e +a% that *articular -enetic *otentialities are
1# (hanissaro .NNS, Introduction. (hanissaro *oints to the 4the flo+ of -i'e
and ta&e a)on- the factors of the *rocess6 illustrated at _S.ÎI.SNXII..WY`
+ith the i)a-e of la&es o'erflo+in- and s*illin- into the sea the sea risin-
and ulti)atel% affectin- the la&e. 4A )ore )odern *attern that )i-ht be
used to illustrate de*endent coParisin- is the <stran-e attractor=, an
intricate inter+o'en *attern that chaos theor% uses to describe co)*leL
fluid s%ste)s containin- at least three feedbac& loo*s6 Part III H iii.
An understandin- of de*endent coParisin- as the interaction of linear and
s%nchronic *rinci*les )a&es disentan-le)ent fro) this *rocess lo-icall%
*ossible. If e'ents +ere unaffected b% their *resent conteLt and one si)*l%
conditioned the neLt e'ent in ti)e the outco)e +ould be entirel%
deter)ined b% the ori-inal conditions> there +ould be no use in *ractice
and learnin-. If there +ere no causal continuit% bet+een *ast and future
and an e'ent +ere influenced onl% b% *resent conditions the *rocess
+ould be totall% arbitrar%> no action could ha'e an% effect on future results.
Mental and *h%sical *rocesses set in )otion b% *re'ious +holeso)e and
un+holeso)e actions *otentiall% effect an% *resent situation but the
abilit% of *articular seeds to ri*en in the *resent is deter)ined b% the
*resence or absence of certain conditions such as delusion. It is in the
allo+ance for the in*ut of effort and insi-ht in the *resent that (hanissaro
sees 4so)e roo) for free +ill6 :Intro.;. 4In cases +here the lin& bet+een 8
and y is necessar% but not sufficient then in ter)s of thisVthat
conditionalit% the 8 factor is in*ut fro) the *ast \ e'en if onl% a s*litP
second *ast \ +hereas i-norance is the in*ut fro) the *resent needed to
-i'e rise to y. (hus the strate-% of the *ractice )ust be to use a**ro*riate
attention to eli)inate i-norance in the *resence of 86 Part III H iii.
199 A STRON? ROOTS
*assed alon- bet+een -eneration after -eneration of trees and
fruit. Sa% +e feel a )osKuito bite and an-er arises. 2ften +e do
not e'en notice the fact that there is an-er> +e Hust react out of
a'ersion. S+at. Bn+holeso)e actions can onl% arise +hen this
factor of delusion is *resent. In order to sur'i'e *eo*le )ust
constantl% +ei-h the costs and benefits of 'arious actions> the
)ore full% +e understand the conseKuences of a *articular
decision the )ore s&illfull% +e can na'i-ate a+a% fro) sufferin-.
E'er% ti)e +e intentionall% ta&e life that stren-thens &illin- as a
habit a &neePHer& reaction that +ill occur +hen +e are sur*rised
or +hen +e are not *a%in- attention. (his is ho+ habits of )ind
are *assed alon- the strea) of consciousness. Jhen +e &ill out of
a'ersion this i))ediatel% distances us fro) the Kualities of
co)*assion and eKuani)it% that allo+ the heart to o*en. Habits
that are culti'ated throu-h re*etition co)e to define our
*ersonalit% and deter)ine our de-ree of *eace of )ind.
Jholeso)e Kualities can also be culti'ated. Brin-in-
)indfulness to bear on an-er can transfor) the situation for
instance. 2ne )i-ht beco)e interested in the intricate
fluctuatin- teLture of the *h%sical *ain fro) the )osKuito bite.
Alternati'el% the attention )i-ht ta&e the fleetin- nature of
an-er itself as the obHect. Either +a% +isdo) and eKuani)it% are
culti'ated in the *resent and stren-thened so that the% +ill arise
)ore readil% in the future. A )o)ent of )indfulness *lants )an%
beneficial seeds in one=s strea) of consciousness.
(he first &ind of ri-ht 'ie+ is 'ammassa'at sammQdi))hi ri-ht
'ie+ of &a))a as one=s *ro*ert%... Ka))a is our onl% reliable
*ossession in this +orld. Je )ust understand that +hate'er
-ood and e'il +e do +ill follo+ us throu-h saisAra -i'in- rise to
corres*ondin- -ood or e'il conseKuences...
Seein- life in this +a% -i'es us the *o+er to choose the
conditions under +hich +e +ant to li'e... Since +e li&e all
bein-s +ant ha**iness this understandin- of &a))a +ill
-enerate in us a stron- +ish to de'elo* )ore and )ore
=earn$ng A 19:
+holeso)e habits. Je +ill also +ant to a'oid actin- in +a%s that
+ill brin- us future )iser%.
1.
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita stresses that our +holeso)e and
un+holeso)e actions ha'e lon-Pter) as +ell as i))ediate
conseKuences. Eenerous +or&s that are done to+ards the end of
our life for instance ha'e Hust as )uch *otential to brin-
ha**iness as those carried out in our childhood because the
results of our actions follo+ us *ast death.
2ne dear friend and fello+ A)erican *ractitioner told )e
that he could not acce*t the idea that an% soul or selfPessence of
<Alan= +ould be reborn in a ne+ bod%. I *ointed out that his +as
not a reHection of reincarnation as *resented b% the (hera'Ada
but rather a dee* understandin- of nonself. (he Buddha=s
discourses in the PAQi consistentl% reHect the idea of an% as*ect of
bein- that lasts e'en bet+een successi'e )o)ents of eL*erience.
(he% nonetheless allo+ for causal connections alon- a strea)
consciousness +ithin as +ell as bet+een lifeti)es.
E'en a)on- Jesterners +ho ha'e dedicated the)sel'es to
the *ractice of satipa)) hna or the stud% of the PAQi teLts there is
a stron- :and usuall% unconscious; bias to+ards eL*lainin-
realit% *ri)aril% in *h%sical ter)s. Jithout an understandin- of
)ental as*ects of realit% as si-nificant causal a-ents the idea of
an% connection bet+een instances of life not related b% -enes or
*h%sical en'iron)ent is indeed *roble)atic. Man% )odern
*eo*le e'en *ro)inent teachers of <Buddhis)= such as Ste*hen
Batchelor do not see
ho+ one can *ossibl% sKuare rebirth +ith +hat +e currentl%
understand about the e'olution of the hu)an or-anis) and the
nature of the brain3 Not so )uch because I can dis*ro'e it but
because it -oes a-ainst +hat I understand of the natural sciences.
But3 the current scientific *aradi-) could shift in +a%s +e
cannot foresee. 2ne has to &ee* an o*en )ind.
1"
1. Pa?@ita .NN0, "$0.
1" Batchelor "##", 1O continues 4(here see)s to be no roo) for a
dise)bodied -hostl% consciousness that inhabits the bod%Pbrain and then
+hen the bod%Pbrain dies *ersists as an i))aterial entit% that -oes on to
1:; A STRON? ROOTS
Je do not ha'e to +ait for the current scientific *aradi-) to
shift unless Jestern Science has so)e )ono*ol% on truth. (he
disci*lines of Ph%sics Che)istr% and Biolo-% are li)ited b% their
a**roach and their instru)ents to eLa)inin- *h%sical as*ects of
eListence. (he (hera'Ada offers an a**roach to understandin-
the inter*la% of )ental and *h%sical factors that has *ro'en
lo-icall% Hustifiable and effecti'e at aidin- )indfulness
*ractitioners for thousands of %ears. In *hiloso*h% as in
*hoto-ra*h% different *roHects call for different )ethods. Blac&
and +hite fil) is brilliant at ca*turin- the *la% of shado+s and
for )an% other uses but it is not an effecti'e tool for ca*turin-
the si-nals at a sto*li-ht because it does not re-ister a crucial
'ariable. Di&e+ise the eL*eri)ental results and eL*lanator%
theories of )odern Science are tre)endousl% *o+erful +hen
a**lied to *h%sical as*ects of realit% but atte)*ts to *ro'ide
co)*lete accounts of conscious eL*erience are outside of their
do)ain.
Gecall that fro) the *ers*ecti'e of the Buddha=s teachin-s in
the PAQ i the <All= is co)*osed entirel% of phassa contact bet+een
sense base and sense obHect. Je can onl% directl% &no+
*heno)ena +ithin this <+orld of eL*erience= so fro) the
(hera'Adin *ers*ecti'e +e cannot &no+ +hether there reall%
eLists a <brain= or a <bod%= a*art fro) )o)ents of intellectual
consciousness of seein- :the i)a-e of a brain; and so on. (he
discourses of the PAQi describe an indi'idual=s +orld of
eL*erience as co)*osed of 'arious )ental and *h%sical factors
nma and r!pa. (hese t+o are not the se*arate inde*endent
+orlds that Genm Descartes en'isioned.
3the Buddha s*o&e of the hu)an *erson as a *s%cho*h%sical
*ersonalit% :nmar!pa;. Met the *s%chic and the *h%sical +ere
ne'er discussed in isolation nor +ere the% 'ie+ed as selfP
subsistent entities. 7or hi) there +as neither a <)aterialPstuff=
another birth. I si)*l% cannot bu% that 'ie+.6 (he Buddha did not belie'e
in the entit% of a self either Hust a strea) of eL*erience.
=earn$ng A 1:1
nor a <)entalPstuff= because both are results of reducti'e
anal%ses that -o be%ond eL*erience.
10
(he *h%sical and )ental as*ects of hu)an eL*erience are
continuall% arisin- to-ether inti)atel% de*endent on one
another. (his is +h% Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita often recounts the )an%
health benefits of )indfulness e'en *resentin- satipa))hna as a
cure for cancer in certain cases. In its a**roach to such diseases
the )odern )edical establish)ent see)s to be )o'in- to+ards
the (hera'Adin understandin- of the )ind and bod% as interP
de*endent as*ects of an or-anic +hole.
Part of the reason that )odern )edicine has been slo+ to
a**reciate the inti)ate ties bet+een )ental states and *h%sical
health is that Jestern Science in -eneral has focused on one half
of Descartes= 'ie+ of realit% na)el% *h%sical )atter. So)e
)odern *eo*le ha'e disre-arded the si-nificance of )ental
*heno)ena because the% lie be%ond the ran-e of *h%sical
instru)ents and of the su**osedl% obHecti'e third *erson
*ers*ecti'e. Je can ta&e a )ore balanced a**roach b%
reco-niIin- the eL*lanator% *o+er of the *h%sical sciences
+ithin their do)ain and also allo+infor the 'alidit% of other
+a%s of &no+in- +ithin the *articular do)ains the% focus on.
(echnolo-ical ad'ances )a% e'entuall% enable *h%sical
instru)ents to read the content of thou-hts b% anal%Iin-
*atterns of neurons firin- off electric i)*ulses. Nonetheless the
Kuestion re)ains, +hat is the )ost direct stand*oint fro) +hich
to understand sufferin- and the end of sufferin-U 2ne )i-ht be
able to infer the hue of a flo+er fro) a che)ical anal%sis of
*i-)ent )olecules in the *etal but Hust o*enin- one=s e%es -i'es
a )uch fuller and )ore direct understandin- of the color.
Di&e+ise I +ould su--est the clearest and )ost healin- +a% to
understand the c%cle of sufferin- is fro) the *ers*ecti'e of
10 Kalu*ahana .NOS, O0 refers to D..1XIIS"Y +here the Buddha s*ea&s of both
*h%sicalit% and )entalit% )utuall% de*endent for)s of contact :phassa;.
Ph%sicalit% is described as contact +ith resistance :pa)ighasamphassa;
)entalit% as contact +ith conce*ts :adhiva%anasamphassa;.
1:0 A STRON? ROOTS
sensation +hich is the do)ain of the (hera'Adin anal%sis and of
satipa)) hna.
Jhen concentration and )indfulness are stron- the arisin-
and *assin- of each successi'e sensation beco)e a**arent. In a
sense rebirth ha**ens e'er% instant. (he instant of death +ould
be si)ilar to an% other in that 'arious *s%choP*h%sical
*heno)ena +ould arise to-ether and create certain conditions
that influence ho+ the strea) of consciousness +ould flo+ on.
Man% *eo*le +ho ha'e under-one nearPdeath eL*eriences
describe the *henon)enon of ha'in- one=s life <flash before one=s
e%es=. Accordin- to the (hera'Adin anal%sis so)ethin- alon-
these lines ha**ens at the )o)ent of death. Gecallin- one=s
actions \ one=s 'amma \ in the last )o)ents of life there is a
certain de-ree of Ho% or of re-ret. (he e)otional reaction to this
<i)a-e of one=s actions= :'amma-nimitta; *la%s a lar-e role in
deter)inin- +hat t%*e of eL*erience arises in follo+in-
)o)ents fro) hellish to subli)e. Particular *h%sical sensations
that arise in the first )o)ent of consciousness or in succeedin-
)o)ents of a -i'en lifeti)e )i-ht later be inter*reted as a
<bod%= but -i'en the *s%cholo-ical de'elo*)ent of the e)br%o
he or she *robabl% +ould not ha'e such a conce*t at this *oint.
(his is Hust to sa% that rebirth is lo-icall% *ossible fro) a
ri-orousl% *heno)enolo-ical *ers*ecti'e.
Neither the (hera'Adin anal%sis nor obser'ations fro)
)indfulness )editation can *ro'ide sufficient e'idence to *ro'e
that the *rocess of cause and result in a strea) of consciousness
does continue *ast the death of a *articular bod%. Pro'in- that is
=earn$ng A 1:2
not the -oal of the PAQi an%+a%. Diberation fro) sufferin- is the
-oal. If the Buddha thou-ht that -reed hatred and delusion
+ould cease entirel% +hen a *erson=s bod% dies he +ould ha'e
encoura-ed *eo*le to ta&e the Kuic&est route there. I)*licit in
e'er% PAQi discourse teachin- -enerosit% )oral conduct or
)ental de'elo*)ent is the understandin- that such +holeso)e
actions brin- about )ore freedo) fro) sufferin- than +ould
si)*l% co))ittin- suicide. I sus*ect that )ost A)ericans
instinctuall% understand this to be true e'en if the% ha'e not
full% +or&ed out the lo-ical i)*lications.
Accordin- to Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita the *ri)ar% i)*ortance of
the rebirth doctrine is its *o+er to encoura-e s&illful action and
discoura-e uns&illful action. He stresses that the results of
'olitional action in a strea) of consciousness continue to
*roduce results *ast the *oint of death> as lon- as delusion is not
dis*elled the c%cle +ill continue. (he )aHorit% of A)ericans do
ha'e a *ractical understandin- of this *rinci*le> thou-h the% )a%
reHect ideas of hea'en hell or rebirth )ost tr% not to har)
others or the)sel'es e'en on their deathbeds +hen there +ould
be no social re*ercussions for the) *ersonall%.
(hou-h )an% of the senior A)erican )editation teachers do
find the idea of continuit% bet+een lifeti)es to be Kuite sensible
the% nonetheless atte)*t to render the teachin-s accessible to
*eo*le +ho )i-ht not. In -eneral the% direct attention to+ards
the &ind of *s%cholo-ical rebirth that is e'ident )o)ent to
)o)ent +ithin a -i'en lifeti)e.
1$
A curious con'ention has
arisen in res*onse to the s&e*tical A)erican conteLt. Addressin-
the effects of s&illful actions in the *resent lifeti)e and in future
ones for instance )an% A)erican teachers use disclai)ers such
1$ Ad'ocatin- a traditional reflection on 4the *reciousness of our hu)an
birth6 for instance Eoldstein "##", "1 +rites 4Jhether or not +e belie'e
in *ast or future li'es or in the eListence of other real)s +e can still
*ractice this reflection that turns our )ind to+ards the Dhar)a +hen +e
consider the circu)stances of our *resent life situation. At this )o)ent +e
)i-ht ha'e sufficient leisure resources and interest to eL*lore a *ath of
a+a&enin- but all these conditions are chan-eable and uncertain.6
1:5 A STRON? ROOTS
as <If %ou belie'e in rebirth s&illful actions +ill ha'e +holeso)e
conseKuences in future li'es...= 7ro) the stand*oint of de*endent
coParisin- of course +hether a *articular *erson belie'es in
rebirth or not their c%cle of action and reaction continues as
lon- as attach)ent a'ersion and delusion are still arisin-.
Ste*hen Batchelor ta&es another a**roach.
It )a% see) that there are t+o o*tions, either to belie'e in
rebirth or not. But there is a third alternati'e, to ac&no+led-e in
all honest% I d# n#t 'n#w... Dhar)a *ractice reKuires the coura-e
to confront +hat it )eans to be hu)an. All the *ictures +e
entertain of hea'en and hell or c%cles of rebirth ser'e to re*lace
the un&no+n +ith an i)a-e of +hat is alread% &no+n. (o clin- to
the idea of rebirth can deaden Kuestionin-.
11
(he *ractice does reKuire this &ind of coura-e to brin- the
<be-inner=s )ind= to e'er% )o)ent. Nonetheless *ractitioners do
fra)e their efforts +ith the understandin- that their lifeti)e has
so)e continuit% that *resent actions +ill bear fruit in the s*ace
of da%s or %ears. 7e+ +ould initiate and *erse'ere throu-h
difficult% other+ise. A return to the (hera'Adin 4understandin-
of understandin-6 the anal%sis of de*endent coParisin- )i-ht
allo+ A)ericans to fra)e their *ractice in the lar-er conteLt of
)an% lifeti)es as the Buddha *resents it in the PAQi.
(he *rinci*les and -oals of the Ei-htfold Noble Path )i-ht be
rendered sensible +ith the )ini)u) understandin- of a sin-le
lifeti)e as a *s%choP*h%sical *rocess of cause and effect.
Nonetheless a considered acce*tance of the continuous round of
eListence allo+s for a dee*er and less a)bi-uous connection +ith
the traditional teachin-s of Bur)ese )editation )asters and the
PAQ i teLts. If +e dis)iss such +isdo) +e are left +ith a
fra)e+or& that does not necessaril% lead us all the +a% to the
final -oal of the Buddha=s teachin-s. Bhi&&hu Bodhi offers a
co-ent +arnin-.
3to do+n*la% the doctrine of rebirth and eL*lain the entire
i)*ort of the Dha))a as the a)elioration of )ental sufferin-
11 Batchelor .NNO, 0W.
=earn$ng A 1:#
throu-h enhanced selfPa+areness is to de*ri'e the Dha))a of
those +ider *ers*ecti'es fro) +hich it deri'es its full breadth
and *rofundit%. B% doin- so one seriousl% ris&s reducin- it in the
end to little )ore than a so*histicated ancient s%ste) of
hu)anistic *s%chothera*%.
1S
(he understandin- of )ulti*le lifeti)es can be Kuite a
health% conteLt for *ractice. Michele McDonald *oints out that
A)erican )editators often tr% to force their *ractice for+ard
+here Bur)ese are )ore li&el% to ha'e a relaLed attitude since
the% understand that their *ath to nibbna has been *ro-ressin-
o'er )an% lifeti)es and +ill *ro-ress o'er as )an% as it ta&es.
(his is the t%*e of understandin- that is balanced as +ell as
lo-icall% Hustifiable, sammdi))hi <ri-ht 'ie+=.
Jhen a *ractitioner is facin- *articular obstacles certain
discourses fro) the PAQ i can address the current situation +ith
direct and *rofound -uidance. In a recent inter'ie+ one
Vi*assanA teacher at S*irit Goc& in California related ho+ in the
earl% %ears of his *ratice he found the suttas 4not Hust dr% but
+orse, irrele'ant.6 As Eu% Ar)stron-=s *ractice dee*ened
ho+e'er
I found the suttas s*o&e to )% eL*erience )ore and )ore
directl%. But the% are not *articularl% about e)otional healin-
and that=s +hat I +as *racticin- for in the earl% %ears. As )%
e)otions s)oothed out a little and so)e stabilit% ca)e in I
found that )% interest in )editation shifted so)e+hat a+a%
fro) focusin- on the content of )% eL*erience to bein- )ore
interested in the pr#%ess, ho+ thin-s +ere co)in- and -oin- ho+
the% +ere bein- &no+n and ho+ &no+in- chan-ed de*endin-
on the balances in the )ind of +holeso)e and un+holeso)e
factors. 2nce that shift be-an then the suttas reall% started to
o*en u* for )e.
1O
E'en +ithout )a&in- an% historical clai)s about the author
of these discourses +e can ac&no+led-e +here the teLts= de*th
and coherence sur*asses the -enius of an% li'in- indi'idual. John
1S Bodhi .NWO.
1O Ar)stron- "##0, 0.
1:1 A STRON? ROOTS
Maraldo su--ests that 4*ractice can be seen as a her)eneutical
*rinci*le that discloses the )eanin- of certain teLts at the sa)e
ti)e that the teLts tell one ho+ to *ractice.6
1W
If so +hat is lost
+hen )odern *ractitioners are not enabled and encoura-ed to
di- dee*l% into the source of the Dhamma-&inaya *ractice the
Buddha=s discourses in the PAQ iU
Endo+ed +ith siL Kualities bhi&&hus one listenin- to the +orth%
teachin-s is ca*able of enterin- the +a% the ri-htness of s&illful
Kualities. Jhich siLU
Jhen the Doctrine 5 Disci*line declared b% the 2neP(husPEone
_the Buddha` is bein- tau-ht one listens intentl% -i'es ear sets
one=s )ind on understandin- sets aside +hat is not beneficial
-rabs hold of +hat is beneficial and is filled +ith satisfaction
fro) bein- in accordance.
1N
1W Ar)stron- "##0, "Off.
1N Suss9sati Sutta :A.VI.WW;XIII$0OY author=s trans. (hou-h I ha'e follo+ed
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu closel% here there +ere a cou*le of -losses that I felt
necessar% to adHust. 7irst and fore)ost (hanissaro=s 4is endo+ed +ith the
*atience to confor) +ith the teachin-6 +ould be an entirel% le-iti)ate
translation of anul#mi'ya 'hantiy samanngat# h#ti if the *hrase +ere
ta&en out of conteLt. 2ne )i-ht obHect to the addition of <+ith the
teachin-s= but the En-lish <confor)= is clearer +ith an obHect and
(hanissaro is follo+in- the co))entar% faithfull% here. Ho+e'er in the
first half of the discourse :+hich I ha'e not Kuoted in the teLt; the Buddha
)a&es the sa)e *oint in the ne-ati'e. If +e loo& bac& to the corres*ondin-
*hrase in that first half +e find ananul#mi'ya... samanngat# h#ti, the
ne-ati'e is on anul#ma. In order to be consistent +ith (hanissaro=s
renderin- later in the discourse +e +ould ha'e to translate <is endo+ed
+ith the *atience not to confor)= +hich does not )a&e a -reat deal of
sense. No doubt this is +h% (hanissaro s+itched the ne-ati'e o'er to the
samanngat# translatin- 4is not endo+ed +ith the *atience to confor).6
(his difficult% )a&es su--ests to )e so)e inadeKuac% of both translations
here *ositi'e and ne-ati'e. Ei'en its deri'ation fro) 'hamati and its
definition at Dhs..0$. 'hanti is a sli**er% +ord to translate slidin- off into
a nu)ber of )eanin-s that are )ore clearl% differentiated in En-lish fro)
Rbein- acce*tin- of R :'hamanat; and <bein- *atient +ith= MadhivsanatP to
<bein- satisfied +ith= and on all the +a% to <bein- *leased +ith= :attamanat;.
Perha*s the Buddha is differentiatin- here bet+een *eo*le +ho -ain
satisfaction fro) bein- contrar% and those +ho -ain satisfaction fro)
s*ea&in- and actin- in accord +ith others in -eneral and +ith the Buddha=s
teachin-s in *articular :the co))entar% su--ests the latter;. Alternati'el%
'hanti )i-ht indicate an acce*tance of confor)it% or contrariness in
=earn$ng A 1:)
oneself. E'en so )% translation 4is filled +ith satisfaction fro) bein- in
accordance6 should still not be too far off> it certainl% )a&es renderin- the
ne-ati'e half in accordance +ith the s%ntaL of the ori-inal PAQ i a -ood deal
easier, 4is filled +ith satisfaction fro) bein- contrar%.6 2n the other hand
*erha*s I a) Hust bein- o'erl% literal here and ta&in- satisfaction in bein-
contrar%.
M% second adHust)ent has *erha*s less i)*act on the o'erall )eanin-
con'e%ed. Nonetheless sussasati is +hat is referred to as a desiderati'e that
is to sa% it is a doubled for) of the 'erb su(ti eL*ressin- the desire or
intention to hear. (he AT-utarra subPco))entar% XIII."WY )a&es this clear
b% -i'in- the definition 4s#tu'm# h#ti6 <has the desire to hear=> I ha'e
-i'en <listens intentl%=. (he first half of the +ord sussasati has onl%
coincidental rese)blance to the *refiL su- <+ell= or <eLceedin-l%=. (hus
(hanissaro=s -loss <listens +ell= see)s *otentiall% )isleadin- to scholars
e'en if the final result is not drasticall% different.
VI
D$s'+ss$on
t%e role of a tea'%er
(he third *rotection is... s'a%%hQnuggahita discussion +ith a
teacher and it is li&ened to the )an% *rocesses in'ol'ed in
culti'atin- a *lant. Plants need different thin-s at different
ti)es. Soil )a% need to be loosed around the roots but not too
)uch or the roots +ill lose their -ri* on the soil. Dea'es )ust be
tri))ed a-ain +ith care. 2'ershado+in- *lants )ust be cut
do+n. In Hust this +a% +hen +e discuss our *ractice +ith a
teacher the teacher +ill -i'e different instructions de*endin- on
+hat is needed to &ee* us on the ri-ht *ath.
.

(he last line of Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=s eL*lanation illustrates
+h% *ersonal interaction is so 'ital to successful *ractice,
different -uidance is needed at different ti)es. In the PAQi
Siddhattha Eota)a is said to ha'e a+a&ened on his o+n +ithout
eLternal -uidance> he had trained for countless lifeti)es
de'elo*in- the Kualities that enabled this acco)*lish)ent. 7or
those of us less *erfected a )editation )aster can )a&e the
difference bet+een *ro-ressin- to+ards liberation or not. As the
Buddha eL*lains in the 4Na'a Sutta6
an attainerPofP&no+led-e learned
selfPde'elo*ed un+a'erin-
can -et other *eo*le to co)*rehend PP
. Pa?@ita .NN0, "0. (he last t+o lines are so)e+hat loose renditions of ideas
that do a**ear in the ori-inal Bur)ese tal&s.
0;; A STRON? ROOTS
if the%Rre +illin- to listen
read% to learn.
"
In the throes of distress or eLhilaration in the face of totall%
no'el eL*erience it is often 'er% difficult for *ractitioners to
&no+ +hat course to ta&e. Jhen doubt about one=s *ractice
beco)es stron- for instance an% decision or resol'e )ade +ill
be secondP-uessed and so)eti)es thirdP and fourthP-uessed
thus renderin- the *ractitioner totall% indecisi'e and unable to
concentrate or to *ro-ress. Jhile doubt can also arise about a
teacher=s ad'ice *ractitioners can be hel*ed out of )an% stic&%
situations b% so)eone in +ho) the% ha'e de'elo*ed stron- trust.
(his is the role of a 'aly(amitta.
In Buddhist literature the +ord 'alyanamitta is usuall% translated
as a -ood honest or s*iritual friend. But 'alyanamitta )eans
)ore than Hust that. (he +ords 4sacred friendshi*6 co)e closest
to describin- the de*th of connection and co))it)ent the *ure
and unconditional relationshi* that can eList bet+een a student
and a s*iritual teacher as +ell as bet+een friends.
0
Ste'en S)ith=s co))ents deri'e fro) *ersonal eL*erience.
He cites a beautiful Bur)ese eL*ression for the &ind of friendshi*
bet+een t+o *eo*le that ha**ens because of -ood deeds done
to-ether or for one another in *ast li'es. <Te se' s#un de=
:._~~.~; literall% )eans <+ater dro*s \ co)e to-ether=, t+o
life strea)s flo+in- on+ards )eetin- a-ain. It con'e%s the
stren-th of a bond that has endured and )atured o'er lifeti)es.
Indeed this is the &ind of reconnection I ha'e felt +ith Ste'en as
he felt +ith his o+n 'aly(amitta.
Meetin- )% teacher Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita +as %eIed sounde _ye se'
s#un de` an i))ediate reco-nition a reunion and a radical lo'e
at first si-ht. I had tra'eled to Bur)a +ith a dear friend to ordain
as a )on& at the )onaster% of the -reat Mahasi Sa%ada+. M%
)ission +as *rinci*all% Dhar)a *ractice and stud% and the rich
disci*line of +earin- the robes of )on&. I +as not loo&infor a
teacher in Bur)a rather a *rofound linea-e of teachin-s. I found
" NA'A Sutta :Sn.II.W; trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
0 S)ith .NNN, OW.
D$s'+ss$on A 0;1
such teachin-s I found an aboundin- s*iritual ho)e and
uneL*ectedl% I found a teacher. Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita +as the
senior )editation )aster at the ti)e I too& robes. (he )o)ent
our e%es )et in his )odest )onastic cotta-e I realiIed that I had
found a teacher. It +as not eLactl% li&e findin- hi). (here +as
Hust this *o+erful connection, %eIed sounde.
His initial -aIe +as at once *rofoundl% reassurin- and dee*l%
unsettlin-. (he Sa%ada+ see)ed to see into the 'er% core of )%
bein-. Di-ht and shado+ 'ulnerabilit% and sha)e +ere all laid
bare \ and acce*ted. (he *o+er of his s*iritual friendshi* +as
i))ediate. I felt seen eL*osed %et unconditionall% acce*ted.
$
Not e'er% connection is so dee*. A *articularl% *rotected
trustin- &ind of relationshi* can de'elo* bet+een a )editation
)aster and a student. Such a friendshi* allo+s the teacher the
o**ortunit% to )entor and -uide a *ractitioner throu-h the )ost
difficult eL*eriences.
A relationshi* si)ilar to that bet+een a )editation teacher
and student \ and often o'erla**in- +ith it \ +as
institutionaliIed in the earl% sa>gha. Ne+l% ordained )on&s are
reKuired under (hera'Ada Vina%a to s*end their first fi'e %ears
under the -uidance of an eL*erienced bhi&&hu. (he )ore ti)e I
s*end in robes the )ore -rateful I a) for this *rotection. (he
BuddhaRs foresi-ht here ensures that as ne+ )on&s +e ha'e a
-uide to hel* us )a&e a)ends for infractions of the co)*leL
disci*linar% code that +e ha'e a +ise friend to *oint out P +ith
+hate'er force necessar% P the *laces +e ha'e %et to confor)
+ith the teachin-s. In his eL*lication of the )onastic disci*line
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu *oints out the 'ital i)*ortance of nissaya.
(his a**renticeshi* has for)ed the hu)an conteLt in +hich the
*ractice of the BuddhaRs teachin-s has been *assed do+n for the
*ast "S## %ears. (o o'erloo& it is to )iss one of the basic
*ara)eters of the life of the Dha))a and Vina%a.
1
(he teLts of disci*line list res*onsibilities that such teachers
ha'e for their students +hich include teachin- the Dhamma and
$ S)ith .NNN, W$P1.
1 (hanissaro .NN$, Ch. " 4Nissa%a.6
0;0 A STRON? ROOTS
&inaya loo&in- after the *u*ils= +elfare and re*resentin- the
students to the lar-er co))unit%. (he teLts also list the duties of
a *u*il +hich include not onl% hel*in- +ith +ashin- and
cleanin- stud%in- dili-entl% and bein- res*ectful to+ards the
teacher but also a nu)ber that +e )i-ht not eL*ect of a student.
If the teacher be-ins to feel dissatisfaction +ith the ordained life
or anLiet% about ha'in- trans-ressed a rule for instance the
*u*il should tr% to alla% that trouble or find so)eone else +ho
can. Di&e+ise in case the teacher is bein- censored or disci*lined
b% the co))unit% the student is to re*resent the teacher=s
interests to the co))unit%. E'en the role of teachin- Dhamma is
reci*rocal, if a teacher be-ins to hold +ron- 'ie+s the *u*il
should tr% to brin- the teacher bac& in line +ith the Buddha=s
teachin-s or find so)eone else +ho can. (he relationshi* of
'aly(amitta -oes both +a%s.
S
Practitioners can also de'elo* relationshi*s +ith their
co)rades that are less intense but si)ilarl% conduci'e to
balancin- and correctin- *ractice. (he 'ital role *la%ed b% social
conteLt is clear in one discussion+here the Buddha corrects the
'enerable ananda sa%in-
(his is the entire hol% life ananda that is -ood friendshi* -ood
co)*anionshi* -ood co)radeshi*. Jhen a bhi&&hu has a -ood
friend a -ood co)*anion a -ood co)rade it is to be eL*ected
that he +ill de'elo* and culti'ate the Noble Ei-htfold Path.
O
Man. Tea'%ers
And +hat is -ood friendshi*U Here B%a--ha*aHHa in +hate'er
'illa-e or to+n a fa)il% )an d+ells he associates +ith
householders or their sons +hether %oun- or old +ho are of
)ature 'irtue acco)*lished in faith 'irtue -enerosit% and
+isdo)> he con'erses +ith the) and en-a-es in discussions +ith
S MahA'a--a :I."1.S;XI$$ffY> :0"..;XI1WffY trans. (hanissaro .NN$, Ch. ".
O B*a@@ha Sutta :S.^DV.";XV"Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
D$s'+ss$on A 0;2
the). He e)ulates the) in re-ard to their acco)*lish)ent in
faith 'irtue -enerosit% and +isdo). (his is -ood friendshi*.
W
Jhile )an% *ractitioners in the Buddha=s da% -ained su**ort
b% enterin- the ordained sa>gha for la% *ractitioners as +ell
co))unit% +as and is 'ital for successful *ractice. 7ollo+in-
the s*irit e'idenced b% PAQ i discourses such as the one cited
abo'e A)erican teachers often *oint out ho+ -rou* sittin-s or
discussion a)on- *eo*le en-a-ed in the *ractice of a+a&enin-
can nurture the factors of a+a&enin- in each indi'idual.
(he ter) sa>gha literall% )eans <co)*risin-=, an asse)bl%> a
co))unit%. It is used in the PAQ i teLts in three different senses,
:.; the ordained co))unit% the bhi''hu sa>gha> :"; those +ho
ha'e achie'ed so)e sta-e of a+a&enin- the ariya sa>gha> and :0;
the co))unit% of those +ho heed the teachin-s the sva'a
sa>gha. A)on- nati'ePborn A)ericans the ter) is used toda%
al)ost eLclusi'el% in the third sense to refer to the entire
co))unit% of li&eP)inded *ractitioners.
N
In -eneral MahAsi
*ractitioners in A)erica ha'e not for)ed fiLed -rou*s. (hou-h
retreat centers do *ro'ide so)e co))unit% it is a transitor%
one> )ost of the *o*ulation chan-es +ith each retreat and e'en
the staff -enerall% sta% onl% for a fe+ %ears. A nu)ber of
*ractitioners ha'e settled around IMS in central and +estern
Massachusetts> nonetheless their business and social
relationshi*s tend to brin- the) into contact +ith )ore *eo*le
outside than inside the *ractice co))unit%.
In the Buddha=s ti)e as in so)e (hera'Adin traditions in
A)erica toda% )onasteries *ro'ided a )ore stable co))unit%.
Difelon- renunciates in these settin-s associate )ostl% +ith their
fello+ renunciates and +ith la% de'otees +ho freKuent the
)onaster%. Nonetheless a nu)ber of se*arate co))unities
a**arentl% eListed at the ti)e of the Buddha +hich )on&s and
W D[-haHA?u Sutta :A.VIII.1$;XIV"W"Y trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi.
N Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4saT-ha6 SSO -i'es eLa)*les fro) the PAQi of all
three of these usa-es.
0;5 A STRON? ROOTS
nuns )o'ed bet+een. Moreo'er *eriods of )onths or lon-er
+ere s*ent in seclusion in the forest on )editation retreats. (he
i)*ortance of )aintainin- relationshi*s +ith fello+
*ractitioners of the Ei-htfold Noble Path a**ears si)ilar in )an%
different conteLts as e'idenced b% the )an% si)ilarities bet+een
accounts fro) the PAQi teLts and recent *ublications.
4Je ta&e refu-e in the SaT-ha throu-h +ise friendshi*6
+rites one A)erican teacher.
.#
Nara%an Diebenson Erad%Rs
rendition echoes the BuddhaRs +ords to ananda on the Rentire
hol% lifeR in a distinctl% )odern 'oice. She describes t+o *ri)ar%
)eans b% +hich a R-ood friendR can hel* one *ractice the
Ei-htfold Noble Path, b% -i'in- ad'ice and b% settin- an eLa)*le.
(o ha'e +ise friends can hel* &ee* the *ractice ali'e +hen our
)oti'ation and confidence are falterin-. Je can read and stud%
and *ractice but at ti)es +e find oursel'es lost. At ti)es the
teachin-s )a% not see) Kuite real or Kuite enou-h... Jhen +e
see that others ha'e chan-ed and ha'e -ro+n into dee*enin-
le'els of freedo) throu-h *ractice +e see that this *ath of
liberation is also a'ailable to us.
..
In addition to actin- as an ins*iration a R-ood friendR -i'es
ad'ice. Diebenson Erad%Rs descri*tion of -entle truthPtellin- is
indeed beautiful to a Jestern ear. Nonetheless as her +ords
)a&e clear if our ad'isors sh% a+a% fro) *ointin- out the hard
truths deludin- oursel'es is eas%. (his is *recisel% +h% the Rfierce
co)*assionR eLercised b% certain Asian )asters can be so
'aluable. (eachers at IMS tend not to )anifest this ferocit% +ith
nearl% as )uch force.
It is a true treasure in this life of atte)*tin- to a+a&en to find
friends +ho +ill tell us the truth +hen +e as&. It is 'er% eas% to
find *eo*le +ho +ill tal& behind our bac&s but to recei'e the
truth fro) friends in a &ind +a% is a +onderful -ift. Je can ta&e
refu-e in their discern)ent. Je can chec& out our assu)*tions
and conclusions. Discernin- friends can hel* us eLa)ine +a%s
that +e habituall% cause sufferin- for oursel'es and others... It is
.# Erad% .NNN, .NN.
.. Erad% .NNN, .NNP"##.
D$s'+ss$on A 0;#
hard to +al& on this *ath of a+areness +ithout friends -entl%
*ointin- out our blind s*ot.
."
(his t%*e of relationshi* can de'elo* +ith a nu)ber of
inti)ate friends but a relationshi* +ith a )editation )aster is
eL*ressl% for this *ur*ose. (he teacher offers -uidance to balance
and correct one=s *ractice -entl% or forcefull% *ointin- out
eL*erience the student )i-ht be )issin- or clin-in- to. No
)atter ho+ -ood ad'ice thou-h the *urit% of a teachers=
intention is crucial for the -uidance to be effecti'e. At one *oint
in the PAQi +e find a certain )on& P &no+n in other connections
for his less than *ure intentions P teachin- the Dha))a to a lar-e
audience of la% *eo*le. Hearin- that this )on& is teachin- the
Buddha re)ar&s
ItRs not eas% to teach the Dha))a to others ananda. (he
Dha))a should be tau-ht to others onl% +hen fi'e Kualities are
established +ithin the *erson teachin-. Jhich fi'eU
(he Dha))a should be tau-ht +ith the thou-ht RI +ill s*ea&
ste*Pb%Pste*.R
eL*lainin- the seKuence _of cause 5 effect`.R
(he Dha))a should be tau-ht +ith the thou-ht RI +ill s*ea& out
of co)*assion.R
(he Dha))a should be tau-ht +ith the thou-ht RI +ill s*ea& not
for the *ur*ose of )aterial re+ard.R
+ithout dis*ara-in- )%self or others.R
ItRs not eas% to teach the Dha))a to others ananda. (he
Dha))a should be tau-ht to others onl% +hen these fi'e
Kualities are established +ithin the *erson teachin-.
.0
Eood+ill and s&ill in teachin- enables trust to de'elo*. Peo*le
do not e'en be-in the *ractice unless the% ha'e so)e faith in its
efficac%> con'iction that others ha'e achie'ed success +ith the
*ractice is no s)all *art of this. (he )ore full% *ractitioners are
able to trust and heed a s&illed )editation )aster the )ore
." Erad% .NNN, "##P..
.0 Bda%i Sutta :A.V..1N;XIII.W$Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
0;1 A STRON? ROOTS
direct and s)ooth their Hourne% +ill be. Indeed faith is the first
of 4fi'e )ental factors that )ust reach a state of do)inance in
the )ind for A+a&enin- to ta&e *lace.6
.$
(hese are the
<controllin- faculties=, faith ener-% )indfulness concentration
and +isdo). (hese fi'e factors are *ro-ressi'e, confidence in the
*ractice arouses ener-% to be )indful> continuous concentrated
)indfulness allo+s +isdo) to de'elo*. Nonetheless four of these
factors )ust be de'elo*ed *ro*ortionall% +ith each other in
order to be effecti'e> the neLt t+o sections discuss ho+ a
*ractitioner balances faith and +isdo) ener-% and
concentration +ith the hel* of a teacher. Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita is
fond of *ointin- out there can ne'er be too )uch )indfulness
sati.
...there are t+o *airs of faculties in each of +hich both faculties
should +ellPcounterPbalance each other na)el%, faith and
+isdo) on one hand and ener-% and concentration on the other.
ELcessi'e faith +ith deficient +isdo) leads to blind faith +hile
eLcessi'e +isdo) +ith deficient faith leads to _s&e*tical doubt`.
In the sa)e +a% -reat ener-% +ith +ea& concentration leads to
restlessness +hile stron- concentration +ith deficient ener-%
leads to indolence. 7or both faculties in each of t+o *airs a
balanced de-ree of intensit% is desirable. As re-ards )indfulness
it should be allo+ed to de'elo* to the hi-hest de-ree of stren-th
in accordance +ith the local _Bur)ese` sa%in-,
Sati is never in e8%ess, but is always in de3i%ien%y.
.1
Fa$t% An- W$s-o*
In order e'en to *a% attention to the teachin-s one )ust
trust that there is so)e 'alue to be found there. (he 'ulnerabilit%
here is si)ilar in )an% +a%s to the 4initiati'e trust6 Steiner
.$ (hanissaro .NNS, Part II E.
.1 Pa?@ita .NN1, "NO. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu -i'es a co)*rehensi'e account of
the indriya in =ings t# -wa'ening.
D$s'+ss$on A 0;)
describes as the first *art of the <her)eneutic )otion=.
.S
(he
+ords <trust= <faith= <confidence= and <con'iction= each con'e% an
as*ect of +hat is referred to in the PAQi as saddh. In the
be-innin- sta-es of the *ractice as in translation *ersistent
effort )ust be )ade before an% re+ard is seen. Jith the
de'elo*)ent of insi-ht and *ro-ressi'e release fro) sufferin-
one naturall% de'elo*s con'iction in the *ractice.
Just as there are t+o t%*es of saddh initiati'e trust and
confir)ed faith the PAQ i pa** refers to both reasoned
intellectual understandin- of the Buddha=s teachin-s and the
intuiti'e discern)ent or +isdo) that results fro) *ractice.
Jhen intensi'e )indfulness *ractice builds u* a certain a)ount
of )o)entu) faith and +isdo) naturall% co)e into balance>
before that *oint ho+e'er the student and the teacher )ust
)a&e an effort to *re'ent one or the other fro) beco)in-
eLcessi'e. In -eneral Bur)ese and A)erican *ractitioners sho+
different tendencies in this area. Man% Bur)ese *ut so )uch
faith in the )on&s and the PAQ i teLts that the% feel no i)*etus to
in'esti-ate for the)sel'es the truth of the Buddha=s clai)s about
sufferin- and the *ossibilit% of freedo) fro) it. In this sense
faith to the *oint of blindness can o**ose initiati'e trust.
.O
.S Steiner .NNW, 0."P0.0.
.O Please see S*iro .NW" for eLa)*les of this *heno)enon in Bur)ese societ%.
0;9 A STRON? ROOTS
(he MahAsi Sa%ada+ tau-ht in a ti)e of ra*id social chan-e>
*re'iousl% Kuite isolated and secure Bur)a and the Bur)ese
(hera'Ada +ere eL*osed to En-lish culture and thou-ht on a
)assi'e scale durin- the colonial *eriod. Bur)ese educated in
the Protestant An-lo s%ste) be-an to Kuestion the traditional
do-)atis) Hust as critical stud% of the (hera'Adin teLts +as
de'elo*inin the Jest. (he <Protestant Buddhis)= that arose
around the turn of the last centur% hea'il% e)*hasiIed as*ects of
the teachin-s that reHect traditional *resentations of truth in
fa'or of firstPhand reli-ious eL*erience. 2ne *articular *assa-e
fro) the 4KAlA)a Sutta6 is often cited as the Buddha=s 4Charter
of 7ree InKuir%.6
.W
Co)e KAlA)as. Do not -o b% oral tradition b% linea-e of
teachin- b% hearsa% b% a collection of scri*tures b% lo-ical
reasonin- b% inferential reasonin- b% reflection on reasons b%
the acce*tance of a 'ie+ after *onderin- it b% the see)in-
co)*etence of a s*ea&er or because %ou thin& <(he ascetic is our
teacher.= But +hen %ou &no+ for %oursel'es <(hese thin-s are
un+holeso)e these thin-s are bla)able> these thin-s are
censured b% the +ise> these thin-s if underta&en and *ractised
lead to har) and sufferin-= then %ou should abandon the).
.N
So)a (hera co))ents that this discourse 4is Hustl% fa)ous
for its encoura-e)ent of free inKuir%> the s*irit of the sutta
si-nifies a teachin- that is eLe)*t fro) fanaticis) bi-otr%
do-)atis) and intolerance.6
"#
Bhi&&hu Bodhi te)*ers this
assertion b% *ointin- out that the discourse i)*licitl% affir)s the
'alue of s&illful teachin-s such as the one the Buddha is -i'in-.
2n the basis of a sin-le *assa-e Kuoted out of conteLt the
Buddha has been )ade out to be a *ra-)atic e)*iricist +ho
dis)isses all doctrine and faith and +hose Dha))a is si)*l% a
freethin&erRs &it to truth +hich in'ites each one to acce*t and
reHect +hate'er he li&es.
".
.W So)a .NW..
.N Kesa)utti Sutta :KAlA)a Sutta; :A.III.S1;XI.WNY trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera
and Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
"# So)a .NW..
D$s'+ss$on A 0;:
In an% case the 4KAlA)a Sutta6 and si)ilarl% e)*iricall%
oriented teLts ha'e been freKuentl% cited b% Asians and
Jesterners ali&e. Presentations that reHected eLternal authorit%
in fa'or of firstPhand truth a**ealed es*eciall% to %oun-
Jesterners durin- the social re'olution of the .NS#s and O#s> this
ideal ins*ired )ore than a fe+ MahAsi *ractitioners.
""
(he section
abo'e on 4(heor% and Practice6 noted that the MahAsi )o'e)ent
de'elo*ed as so)ethin- of a reaction to an establish)ent that
encoura-ed blind faith in (hera'Adin institutions rather than
*ersonal in'esti-ation.
"0
(he MahAsi Sa%ada+ hi)self often
characteriIed insi-ht in Bur)ese literall% as <)et b% oneself= or
<firstPhand= *hrases translated into En-lish as 4e)*irical
&no+led-e6 and the li&e.
"$
Gobert Sharf *ortra%s )odern
Vi*assanA *ractitioners as reHectin- (hera'Adin tradition al)ost
entirel%. E'en a cursor% sur'e% of the MahAsi Sa%ada+=s
discourses ho+e'er re'eals a )ore balanced a**roach
inculcatin- trust in the teachin-s in order to facilitate the insi-ht
that co)es of *ersonal *ractice. (he MahAsi Sa%ada+ offered
stron- -uidance on ho+ to co)e b% the 4*ersonal eL*erience6 he
ad'ocated. Citin- the PAQi he asserted that 4to cleanse oneself of
i)*urities there is but one +a%, the +a% of Sati*aZZhana in
+hich one conte)*lates +hat is -oin- on in one=s )ind and
". Bodhi .NWW. Accordin- to the discourse the Kala)as +ere confused because
the% had been told so )an% different thin-s b% 'arious s*iritual authorities>
the Buddha=s )ethod in leadin- the 'illa-ers= to his conclusions about
s&illful action assu)es their )oral -ood sense> finall% the Kala)as affir)
the 'alue of the Buddha=s teachin- eLclai)in- 4Det the Blessed 2ne acce*t
us as la% follo+ers +ho ha'e -one for refu-e fro) toda% until life=s end.6s
"" Eoldstein "##", WW relates ho+ his Hourne% too& hi) to Bodha EA%a +here
he )et an Indian teacher in the MahAsi tradition. (his teacher MunindraPHi
4said so)ethin- that sealed )% decision to sta% and *ractice for as lon- as I
could. 4If %ou +ant to understand %our )ind sit do+n and obser'e it.6 It
+as this clear co))onsense undo-)atic a**roach that so ins*ired )e.
(here +as nothin- to Hoin no rituals to obser'e no beliefs to follo+. (he
)%steries of the )ind +ould re'eal the)sel'es si)*l% throu-h the *o+er
of )% o+n -ro+in- a+areness.6
"0 Please see the discussion on *..O".
"$ E.-. MahAsi .NWS, .0.
01; A STRON? ROOTS
bod%.6
"1
So)e *ractitioners dis*la% a stron- tendenc% to tr% to reason
their +a% into insi-ht to challen-e and confir) the teachin-s on
lo-ical -rounds. Modern A)ericans are socialiIed +ith a &ind of
s&e*ticis) and lo-ical anal%sis that is )uch less e)*hasiIed in
the Bur)ese education s%ste). Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita obser'es
e'identl% fro) eL*erience that Jesterners 4are ade*t at as&in-
co)*licated Kuestions. (his ca*acit% is -ood> it +ill lead to the
de'elo*)ent of +isdo).6
"S
At its eLtre)e ho+e'er an insistence
on intellectual satisfaction can directl% o**ose +isdo). (his is as
true in the Bur)ese conteLt as in A)erica. (he MahAsi Sa%ada+
notes that
So)e *eo*le +ho ha'e ne'er )editated )a% ha'e so)e doubt
and no +onder for onl% seein- is belie'in- and their s&e*ticis) is
due to their lac& of eL*erience. I )%self +as a s&e*tic at one ti)e.
I did not li&e the Satipa) )hna )ethod as it )a&es no )ention of
nma-r!pa ani%%a anatt and so forth. But the Sa%ada+ +ho
tau-ht the )ethod +as a learned )on& and so I decided to -i'e it
a trial. At first I )ade little *ro-ress because I still had a lin-erin-
doubt about the )ethod +hich in )% 'ie+ had nothin- to do
+ith ulti)ate realit%... It +as onl% later on +hen I had follo+ed
the )ethod seriousl% that its si-nificance da+ned on )e.
"O

Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita characteriIes the hindrance of vi%i'i%%h
the o**osite of faith as 4the eLhaustion of )ind +hich co)es
about throu-h conHecture.6 Jhen *ractitioners cannot )uster
the 4continuous attention +hich fosters intuiti'e 'i*assanA
insi-ht6 the%
can onl% inter*ret eL*eriences based on a 'er% i))ature de*th
of &no+led-e )iLed u* +ith fantas%. (his is an eL*losi'e
)iLture. Since the )ind is unable to *enetrate into the truth
a-itation arises and then *er*leLit% indecisi'eness +hich is
another as*ect of 'ici&icchA. ELcessi'e reasonin- is eLhaustin-.
"W

"1 MahAsi .NN#, "..
"S Pa?@ita .NN0, .#W.
"O MahAsi .NWS, ..P.".
"W Pa?@ita .NN0, O".
D$s'+ss$on A 011
Jhen this force -ro+s stron- 4e'er% concei'able as*ect of
*ractice beco)es dubious6 one=s o+n abilities one=s teachers
and the )ethod itself. In one PAQ i discourse the Buddha confesses
that e'en he cannot hel* a Brah)an endlessl% Kuestionin- the
teachin-s.
"N
Neither trust nor critical thin&in- is inherentl% a *roble)> in
fact the% are both necessar%> onl% if this *air -ets out of balance
+ill one or the other hinder the de'elo*)ent of insi-ht. (here
are t+o faces to the Buddha=s teachin-s as Bhi&&hu Bodhi *uts it
the e)*iricist face turned to the +orld tellin- us to in'esti-ate
and 'erif% thin-s for oursel'es and the reli-ious face turned to
the Be%ond ad'isin- us to dis*el our doubts and *lace trust in
the (eacher and his (eachin-.
0#
(o resol'e this a**arent contradiction Bhi&&hu Bodhi
differentiates the -oal of the teachin-s fro) the s&illful )eans
used to achie'e it. Jisdo) is an essential co)*onent of the
4strate-%6 laid out in the BuddhaRs teachin-s and there are )an%
resonances +ith scientific inKuir% in this area. 7aith is another
co)*onent essential to carr% *ractitioners of satipa))hna :as
+ell as *ractitioners of the scientific )ethod; throu-h the
ine'itable challen-es. (he final -oal of the BuddhaRs teachin-s
ho+e'er is not 4factual infor)ation about the +orld6 but rather
full liberation fro) the c%cle of sufferin-. (hus the Dha))a
4addresses us at the bedroc& of our bein- and there it a+a&ens
the faith de'otion and co))it)ent a**ro*riate +hen the final
-oal of our eListence is at sta&e.6
0.
(he PAQi teLts actuall% affir)
the effecti'eness of both dee* de'otion and of critical inKuir% as
Bhi&&hu Bodhi *oints out.
7or those +ho a**roach the Dha))a in Kuest of intellectual or
e)otional -ratification ine'itabl% it +ill sho+ t+o faces and one
+ill al+a%s re)ain a *uIIle. But if +e are *re*ared to a**roach
the Dha))a on its o+n ter)s as the +a% to release fro)
sufferin- there +ill not be t+o faces at all. Instead +e +ill see
"N B Pa?@ita often refers to this *assa-e but I ha'e %et locate to it.
0# Bodhi .NW1.
0. Bodhi .NW1.
010 A STRON? ROOTS
+hat +as there fro) the start, the sin-le face of Dha))a +hich
li&e an% other face *resents t+o co)*le)entar% sides.
0"
In the histor% of the BuddhaPSAsana there ha'e been )an%
instances of *eo*le reHectin- one or the other of its faces. (his is
e'ident not onl% in dr% (hera'Adin scholasticis) but also in
A)erican s*iritual eclecticis). Jestern scholars of Buddhis)
ha'e eLhibited si)ilar tendencies to+ards i)balance so)e
ro)anticiIin- )editation as the source of all *ractices and rituals
that are called <Buddhist= others li&e Sharf reHectin- the <direct
&no+in-= of vipassan as a definin- characteristic of the Ei-htfold
Noble Path.
00
Hu)an bein-s fro) Bur)a to Barre eL*erience 'er% si)ilar
challen-es in the *ractice. Jhile Bur)ese )i-ht be )ore
-enerall% dis*osed to faith in the Buddha=s teachin-s +hereas
)an% A)ericans )i-ht be stron-er in the area of critical
in'esti-ation these -eneraliIations are b% no )eans true in e'er%
case. Ste'en S)ith has seen 4si-nificant nu)bers of Jestern
students +hose faith +as aroused easil% if not i))ediatel%,
Certainl% the earl% Asian see&ers but also successi'e +a'es of
neLt -eneration y#gis es*eciall% the ones +ho attune to classical
teachin-s -o to Bur)a6 or ha'e a natural a*titude for the
*ractice 4not the )aHorit% -ranted but not )iniscule nu)bers
either.6
0$
B Pa?@ita and other teachers re*ort that a)on- both
Bur)ese and A)ericans +o)en tend to de'elo* trust in the
teachin-s )ore readil% and thus )a&e faster *ro-ress in insi-ht.
SelfPconfidence faith in one=s o+n abilit% to succeed in the
*ractice is Kuite a co))on deficienc% I ha'e found in
discussions in Bur)a and Barre. As Ste'en S)ith *uts it 4+e
0" Bodhi .NW1.
00 Sharf .NN1, "0SP$# critiKues the +or& of Paul Eriffiths and Da)bert
Sch)ithausen as eLa)*les of a tendenc% to relate s*ecific *hiloso*hical
doctrines to )editati'e eL*erience instead of intellectual inno'ation.
0$ Ste'en S)ith in his co))ents on a draft of Str#ng +##ts March "##0.
D$s'+ss$on A 012
could all use )ore of that.6
01
Ph%sical and cultural en'iron)ent
*la%s a &e% role in ins*iration but +hich for)s are s&illful can
'ar% Kuite drasticall% bet+een cultural conteLts. (he -iant
Buddha statues and flashin- halos of colored DED li-hts that
a**arentl% ins*ire )an% Bur)ese +ould see) rather
ostentatious to A)ericans +ho *refer si)*le co)fortable
acco))odations and Kuiet surroundin-s that -i'e the) a feelin-
of bein- in nature. Hu)an a)bassadors of the Buddha-Ssana *la%
a critical role in deter)inin- ho+ *eo*le 'ie+ the teachin-s.
Bntil it is confir)ed b% *ersonal eL*erience initiati'e trust is
easil% bro&en. In a for)ula re*eated throu-hout the &inaya
i)a'a the Buddha Hustifies disci*linar% rules for )on&s b%
*ointin- out ho+ )isbeha'ior 4neither ins*ires faith in the
faithless nor increases the faithful. Gather it ins*ires lac& of faith
in the faithless and +a'erin- in so)e of the faithful.6
0S
7or )ost *ractitioners the su**ort of co))unit% is
*rereKuisite. M% o+n initial interest in the *ractice arose out of
connections +ith )% *arents= friends +ho teach )editation> )%
curiosit% co)*elled )e to attend three annual retreats for %oun-
adults. (he de*th of connection and lo'e that de'elo*ed a)on-
*artici*ants at those relaLed retreats hel*ed ins*ire )e to
*erse'ere throu-h *ainful *eriods of )ore intensi'e retreat until
I could clearl% taste the Ho% and ur-enc% of the *ractice )%self.
Perha*s )ore i)*ortant I ha'e de'elo*ed inti)ate friendshi*s
+ith a nu)ber of *eo*le +ho *rofess the benefits of the *ractice
includin- the freedo) of a+a&enin-. Bein- sure that the% +ould
not )islead )e I ha'e not stru--led +ith doubt about the
*ossibilit% of a+a&enin- as far as I can re)e)ber. In one
*assa-e the Buddha eL*lains that the confidence necessar% to
*erse'ere in the *ractice co)es not fro) lo-ical *roof of its
benefits but fro) trust in friends= testi)on%.
0O
Confidence in the
efficac% of the *ractice in the s&ill of one=s teacher and in one=s
01 Personal co))unication Januar% "##..
0S E.-. PArAHi&a I XVin.III".Y trans. (hanissaro .NN$, intro.
0O Please see the eLcer*t fro) the Pubba&ottha&a Sutta on *."S0.
015 A STRON? ROOTS
abilit% to succeed clears distractin- doubts and confusions and
sti)ulates the coura-eous effort necessar% for )editation. In the
*ro-ression of the Ei-htfold Noble Path con'iction is also a
*roduct of effecti'e *ractice Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita eL*lains.
Seein- clearl% bri-ht and unconfused the )ind be-ins to fill
+ith a ne+ &ind of faith &no+n as 'erified faith. Verified faith is
neither blind nor unfounded. It co)es directl% fro) *ersonal
eL*erience of realit%. 2ne )i-ht co)*are it +ith the faith that
raindro*s +ill -et us +et. (he scri*tures for)all% characteriIe
this &ind of faith as a decision based on *ersonal eL*erience.
(hus +e see a 'er% close association bet+een faith and +isdo).
0W
(hou-h insi-ht auto)aticall% *roduces con'iction the
re'erse is not true, the -ro+th of +isdo) fro) the seed of faith
reKuires deter)ined culti'ation. Jhile a certain a)ount of
&no+led-e about the *ractice can *ro'ide orientation and
-uidance onl% throu-h sustained attention to sensation as it is
ha**enin- can one dis*el the &ind of un&no+in- that sustains
the c%cle of sufferin-. (rust in a teacher and in the teachin-s
allo+s the )ind to settle. Jhen the attention is undistracted and
tranKuil the *rocess of sensation can be seen clearl%. (hus +e
de'elo* the stren-th of our o+n +isdo) based on the foundation
of faith.
(he Kualities necessar% for so)eone to succeed in the
*ractice are nurtured and encoura-ed +hen other *eo*le
de)onstrate these 'irtues in their o+n li'es> this is the benefit of
ha'in- <-ood friends= and a )editation teacher in *articular. 2ne
i)*ortant role that )entors *la% in the earl% sta-es of one=s
*ractice is to hel* balance the critical inKuir% necessar% to alla%
doubts +ith a steadfast and ins*ired co))it)ent to a+a&enin-.
0W Pa?@ita .NN0, OO.
D$s'+ss$on A 01#
Energ. An- Con'entrat$on
Durin- intensi'e )indfulness *ractice a teacher *a%s
*articular attention to balancin- the ener-etic dri'e of a**l%in-
)indfulness +ith the cal) steadiness to see clearl%. (he first of
these Kualities is ter)ed viriya in the PAQi fro) a root )eanin-
<hero=. A)erican teachers translations= of viriya as 4coura-eous
ener-%6 and the li&e ha'e connotations that are sli-htl% different
fro) those of the ter) 4effort6 +hich B Pa?@ita fa'ors as an
En-lish renderin-. Such differences bet+een +ord -losses are
indicati'e of lar-er issues> *articularl% characteristic of B
Pa?@ita=s *resentation is an e)*hasis on strenuous effort for
attain)ent of at least the first le'el of a+a&enin- <entr%= into the
<strea)= of the Ei-htfold Noble Path.
0N
In contrast A)erican
teachers find that their students -enerall% benefit )ore fro)
-uidance that encoura-es a &ind of ener-etic enthusias) that is
not -oalPoriented. (he -reat si)ilarities in *ur*ose and the -reat
differences in *resentation bet+een Bur)ese and A)erican
teachers are es*eciall% e'ident at the annual K%as+a Monaster%
7orei-n Mo-i Getreat in the Sa-ain- Hills of B**er Bur)a. 2n one
da% in Januar% "##" Ste'en S)ith s*o&e briefl% durin- the
)ornin- instruction *eriod of de'elo*in- a &ind of <relaLed
effort= not stri'in- or -ettin- tense. Not ha'in- heard Ste'en=s
re)ar&s Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a that 'er% afternoon be-an a four
*art *resentation on the i)*ortance of strenuous *ersistent
effort in the *ractice. (hou-h *articular stren-ths and
+ea&nesses )a% differ dra)aticall% fro) one culture to the neLt
fro) one *erson to the neLt and fro) one )o)ent to the neLt
*resentations in Bur)a and Barre are nonetheless dealin- +ith
hu)an bein-s +ho function Kuite si)ilarl%.
(he balance bet+een effort and concentration +or&s li&e this, if
one is o'erenthusiastic and +or&s too hard the )ind beco)es
a-itated and cannot focus *ro*erl% on the obHect of obser'ation.
0N S#tapatti in the PAQi.
011 A STRON? ROOTS
Sli**in- off it +anders about causin- )uch frustration. (oo
)uch concentration ho+e'er can lead to laIiness and
dro+siness. Jhen the )ind is still and it see)s eas% to re)ain
focused in the obHect one )i-ht be-in to relaL and settle bac&.
Soon one doIes off.
$#
Ener-% and ins*iration to underta&e the *ractice deri'es
initiall% fro) discussion and learnin- about the teachin-s> this
&ind of intellectual understandin- is )uch e)*hasiIed in
A)erican societ%. Moreo'er the Protestant +or& ethic has had
no s)all influence on )odern A)ericans and ours )i-ht be
described as an eLtre)el% -oalPoriented societ%. If so it should
not co)e as a sur*rise that often A)ericans brin- a stron- +ill to
succeed and a stron- \ so)eti)es eLtre)e \ t%*e of effort to the
*ractice.
Ener-% is 'ital for successful *ractice but eLcessi'e stri'in-
can a-itate the )ind and lead to doubt and indecision. (he
follo+in- cha*ter discusses ho+ concentrated )indfulness can
-ain the stren-th to *rotect a-ainst un+holeso)e e)otions. Je
)i-ht s*eculate that such a focused t%*e of attention +ould co)e
easier to )an% Bur)ese *ractitioners than to )ost \ thou-h
certainl% not all \ of their A)erican counter*arts -i'en our
res*ecti'e stren-ths. (he i)*ressions I ha'e for)ed o'er a
decade of in'ol'e)ent +ith A)erican and Bur)ese )editation
centers indeed su**ort this h%*othesis.
7ro) B Pa?@ita=s *ers*ecti'e )ost Jesterners are li'inin
the <hea'en real)s= and do not e'en realiIe the &ind of )anual
labor and *h%sical sufferin- that )ost hu)an bein-s ha'e to
bear. De*endent on )achines e'en to do their laundr% not )an%
Jesterners reall% +ant to *ut out the effort necessar% to
)aintain continuous )indfulness B Pa?@ita concludes. Michele
McDonald sees a funda)ental difference bet+een the cerebral
co*in- strate-ies that A)ericans de'elo* to deal +ith
infor)ation o'erload and e)otional anLiet% and the hu)ble
lon-Psufferin- deter)ined attitude that Bur)ese +o)en
$# Pa?@ita .NN0, .#WPN.
D$s'+ss$on A 01)
es*eciall% learn in order to deal +ith the constant *h%sical
sufferin- of )anual labor untreated disease *o'ert% and
hun-er.
$.
Indeed the Ho% in life and -enerosit% of heart that the
Bur)ese *eo*le dis*la% \ des*ite eLtre)e *h%sical hardshi*s and
a *olitical cli)ate of +ides*read fear \ is testi)on% to the *o+er
that the Buddha=s teachin-s can eLert on societies that su**ort
and *reser'e the).
2ne senior A)erican teacher su--ests another reason
Jesterners )i-ht ha'e difficult% de'elo*in- an acce*tin-
en-a-e)ent +ith sense eL*eriences as the% arise, obsessi'e selfP
Hud-)ent. Jhen 'arious hindrances such as cra'in- or a'ersion
arise Carol Jilson told )editators at one retreat it is
not so)ethin- that %ou *ersonall% are doin- +ron- because
%ou=re reall% a bad )editator. And3 that=s so)ethin- that I thin&
)i-ht be )ore *eculiarl% Jestern that +e3 add to it. Je
*ersonaliIe so )uch3 2n to* of eL*eriencin- sense desire or illP
+ill +e then sa% 4It=s )% fault for eL*eriencin- sense desire and
illP+ill because I should ha'e been able to note the *leasant si-ht
i))ediatel% and I didn=t.6 So instead of then bein- able to notice
42h desire6 +e -o off into a +hole +orld3 for the neLt fifteen
)inutes of ho+ useless I a) as a )editator3 7or-et sense desire
no+ %ou should be noticin- ra-e.
But that=s eLtra. _It is i)*ortant` to notice +hen +e are doin- a
*ersonaliIation.
$"
(o the de-ree a *ractitioner can sustain an acce*tin-
a+areness of *ainful and neutral eL*eriences as +ell as
*leasurable ones insi-ht de'elo*s. Accordin- to the (hera'Adin
understandin- this ste* is crucial in deter)inin- +hether the
c%cle of sufferin- continues or not. Jhen the *rocess of sense
eL*erience arisin- +ith a *leasant un*leasant or neitherP
*leasantPnorPun*leasant feelin- tone is not seen clearl% reacti'e
cra'infor so)ethin- )ore or so)ethin- less results in 4this
$. Personal co))unication 2ctober "##".
$" Carol Jilson inter*retin- so)e re)ar&s on the hindrances )ade b%
Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a for Jestern )editators at the K%as+a 7orei-n Mo-i
Getreat Januar% "##". Brac&eted insertions +ith s*ea&er=s *er)ission.
019 A STRON? ROOTS
entire )ass of sufferin- and stress6> +hen the *rocess is clearl%
seen the c%cle is bro&en.
$0
(his is one *articularl% radical \ and
therefore liberatin- \ as*ect of the teachin-s -i'en b% the
Buddha in the PAQ i, the Ei-htfold Noble Path is not Hust about
-oin- u* and u* not Hust to be *racticed +hen it feels -ood.
Gather the *ath *roceeds throu-h the +hole ran-e of sorro+ and
Ho%> the Dhamma-&inaya is for the +hole round.
Conte)*orar% *resentations cater in 'er% different de-rees
to the sensual or intellectual -ratification de)anded b% )odern
<consu)ers= of )editation teachin-. Jalsh su--ests that )an%
*o*ular accounts of )editation in the Jest -i'e short shrift to
the un*leasant as*ects of intensi'e *ractice tendin- to
e)*hasiIe the attracti'e results of tranKuilit% and *eace.
$$
(his
bias is not li)ited to the Jest or to the )odern +orld in fact.
Man% Bur)ese are fiLated on effects of concentration de'elo*ed
b% others or de'elo*ed in their o+n *ractice. Moreo'er the
Buddha throu-hout the PAQi teLts *oints to the dan-ers as +ell as
the benefits of such e'en the )ost subli)e states, the% are
fleetin- and unsatisfactor% unde*endable and under no oneRs
control. (hus the Buddha eLhorts us to -i'e u* attach)ent to
an% state at all to be satisfied +ith nothin- less than full
liberation fro) sufferin-. In a recent inter'ie+ Jac& Kornfield
s*ea&s to the i)*ortance of this radical )essa-e in the Bnited
States. Jould that +e all )a% li'e u* to his +ords.
As the teachin- has beco)e )ore )ainstrea) it has beco)e
)ore co)fortable. Practitioners ha'e beco)e )ore affluent and
if %ou co)bine that +ith -reater e)*hasis on co)*assion and
less ascetic +arrior *ractice there is a dan-er that the de*th of
co))it)ent that=s necessar% for this re'olutionar%
transfor)ation +ill -et lost3 Co)*lacenc% is al+a%s countered
b% inte-rit% +hich is an uns+er'in- lo'e of the truth and a
+illin-ness to li'e it. If the tea%hers don=t for-et this le-ac% fro)
the Buddha then that *lace in their students that 4&no+s the
$0 B*AdAna Sutta :S.ÎI.1";XIIW$Y trans. (hanissaro .NNN, Ch. III.
$$ Jalsh .NW., OS.
D$s'+ss$on A 01:
truth6 +ill rea+a&en too. (he% +ill reco-niIe that liberation is
our birthri-ht our o+n true nature.
$1
Kornfield=s re)ar&s underscore the 'alue that I ha'e found in
the a--ressi'e teachin- st%le e)*lo%ed b% Bur)ese )editation
)asters such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita. (hou-h he too& s*ecial care
of )e durin- )% ti)e as a )on& at certain *oints B Pa?@ita=s
re)ar&s stun- )% *ride and left )e in des*air. 2'er ti)e I ha'e
co)e to realiIe that Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita lo'ed )e in the *urest
+a% and continues to. He tried as )uch as *ossible )a&e )e
co)fortable in Bur)a to build a relationshi* of trust bet+een us
to foster )% intellectual stren-ths. Met he +as not afraid to force
)e to face )% dee*est fears. Ho+ )an% *eo*le in this +orld can
offer -uidance that is so utterl% untainted b% the desire to -et
*raise fro) their students to a'oid students= criticis)U
Sa%ada+ is con'inced that hu)an bein-s can achie'e true
ha**iness onl% b% brin-in- )indfulness to e'er% as*ect of
eL*erience fro) the -reatest Ho%s to the )ost terrible states of
an-uish. Nothin- can be ne-lected for the *arts of our
*ersonalities that +e )ost resist bein- *resent +ith are the
central &nots that bind us to the c%cle of sufferin-. B Pa?@ita is
+illin- to use an% e)otional le'era-e at his dis*osal to -et his
students to brin- the li-ht of )indfulness to the dar&est corners
of our hearts.
Indeed the role of a teacher is to facilitate this *rocess
*roddin- the student to de'elo* ener-% +here it is lac&in- +hen
necessar% ins*irin- the confidence that allo+s concentration to
-ro+. In the MahAsi tradition *eo*le on intensi'e retreat ha'e
re-ular inter'ie+s +ith a teacher. 2ri-inall% these consisted of a
'er% short chec&Pin on a dail% basis. (he relationshi* bet+een
Bur)ese teachers and their students in an inter'ie+ is Kuite
for)al and the teacher is often rather strict. 2ne )on& told )e
that the dail% inter'ie+s +ere intended to )aintain *ractitioners=
effort> students +ould be loath to co)e to the inter'ie+ +ith
$1 Kornfield "###, 0NP$#. Italics in ori-inal.
00; A STRON? ROOTS
nothin- to re*ort and the% +ould onl% ha'e obser'ations to
re*ort if the% had *aid concentrated attention to the obHects of
)indfulness. Bur)ese teachers such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita
de)and a Kuic& su))ar% of direct eL*eriences then -i'e a *ith%
instruction eL*ectin- no further discussion. B Pa?@ita directs his
students to be-in b% re*ortin- the sensations obser'ed at the
abdo)en durin- the rise and fall of a breath and then to re*ort
on a fe+ other clear sensations. He +ants to &no+ 4+hat
occurred ho+ %ou noted it6 and 4+hat ha**ened6 nothin-
)ore.
$S
B% structurin- the inter'ie+ in this +a% B Pa?@ita tries
to encoura-e *recise a+areness of the *rocess of sensation and
to discoura-e discursi'e inter*retations about the eL*erience.
Jestern students ha'e *resented ne+ *roble)s for Bur)ese
)editation )asters, for one the *rocess of inter*retation into
En-lish at least doubles the a)ount of ti)e necessar% for each
inter'ie+> secondl% A)ericans are socialiIed +ith a 'er%
different conce*tion of a studentPteacher relationshi*. A)erican
students tend to +ant to en-a-e in a dialo-ue about the
teachin-s about their inter*retations of ho+ their *ractice is
-oin- and so on. Jhen B Pa?@ita first ca)e to teach at IMS he
scheduled inter'ie+s e'er% three )inutes as +as custo)ar% in
Bur)a> it soon beca)e a**arent that this a)ount of ti)e +ould
not be sufficient to satisf% A)erican students. Jhile B Pa?@ita
has not chan-ed his de)ands for bre'it% and *recision the
A)erican teachers do tend to en-a-e in )ore of a dialo-ue +ith
students rather than as&infor a re*ort on s*ecific occurrences
in the *ractice. Since *ractitioners are often -i'en fifteen
)inutes or lon-er inter'ie+s in A)erica tend to be scheduled
once e'er% t+o or three da%s. Jhile the inter'ie+ st%le differs
bet+een Bur)a and Barre in either case the teacher tries to
offer -uidance a**ro*riate to the difficulties the student is facin-
or +ill li&el% soon face based on the sta-e of concentration and
insi-ht eLhibited.
$S E.-. Pa?@ita .NN0, "1.
D$s'+ss$on A 001
(he teacher rarel% affir)s an% *articular achie'e)ent but
rather offers +hate'er -uidance is a**ro*riate for *ro-ressin-
for+ard. B Pa?@ita often -i'es the a**earance of bein- e'en less
i)*ressed +hen he thin&s a student )a% be feelin- *roud of an
eL*erience of concentration or insi-ht. (his &ind of balancin-
influence can hel* *ractitioners steer clear of )an% obstacles as
Jose*h Eoldstein illustrates.
A -ood teacher &no+s +hen a student is stuc& either in sufferin-
or in a conditioned &ind of ha**iness. E)*lo%in- a 'ariet% of
s&illful )eans the teacher uses e'er%thin- as fuel for the fire of
a+a&enin-. At ti)es +e need encoura-e)ent and lo'in- su**ort
at other ti)es *erha*s a fierce +a&ePu* call. I ha'e a**reciated
this s&ill so )uch in _Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita` )% Bur)ese
)editation teacher. No )atter +hat -lorious eL*erience I ha'e
re*orted to hi) he has see)ed to re)ain uni)*ressed.
Althou-h at ti)es I ha'e felt disa**ointed he has -i'en )e the
-ift of not settlin- for an%thin- less than liberation.
$O
B Pa?@ita can be Kuite forceful as +ell as Kuite -entle
de*endin- on +hat he thin&s a student needs. As Michele
McDonald *uts it 4he doesn=t care +hat %ou thin& of hi) he Hust
+ants %ou to -et free.6 Jillia) Ha)ilton )a&es a si)ilar *oint
about B Pa?@ita.
(here are a nu)ber of thin-s he +ill do es*eciall% in *ri'ate
inter'ie+s that are calculated to irritate *eo*le if the% are not
bein- )indful. He once confided to students of his +ho +ere
teachers that he freKuentl% *retends to totall% i-nore a student
durin- their inter'ie+ b% readin- a boo& or doin- so)ethin-
else. He said that this +as a *retense and he is reall% +atchin-
the) 'er% carefull%. So)eti)es he is Kuite sarcastic or brutal in
his co))ents about re*orts on *ractice that *eo*le -i'e hi). At
his .NW$ IMS retreat "1l of the class of teachers and ad'anced
$O Eoldstein .NN0c, "". (he for)ulation 4B Pa?@ita Sa%ada+6 is -ra))aticall%
incorrect in Bur)ese as in En-lish for the sa)e reason that <John Kenned%
President= +ould be. So)e ha'e no doubt been confused b% references to
*articular Sa%ada+s= titles -ra))aticall% a&in to <the Bnited States
President= such as <the MahAsi Sa%ada+= +hose )onaster% +as called
<MahAsi= but +hose *ersonal ordained na)e +as <B Sobhana= or to <the
Pa?@itArA)a Sa%ada+= na)el% <Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=.
000 A STRON? ROOTS
students dro**ed out of the threeP)onthPcourse because his
teachin- +as too difficult for the).
$W
Jhile the 'arious inter*reters he has used o'er the %ears )a%
ha'e si-nificantl% affected B Pa?@ita=s i)*ression on certain
A)erican students )uch of it is due to Sa%ada+=s o+n
*ersonalit% and socialiIation. He +ill not hesitate to use an%
e)otional le'era-e at his dis*osal to *ush *eo*le to a**l%
)indfulness ener-eticall% and *ersistentl%. 2nce +hen I
re*orted that *articular incessant )ind states +ere
o'er+hel)in- )e Sa%ada+ told )e curtl% that of course that
+ould be true if I did not &no+ ho+ to be )indful then -ot u*
and +al&ed out of the roo) shuttin- the door +ith a resoundin-
thud. 7or those co))itted enou-h to the *ractice to sacrifice all
of their ener-% and all of their arro-ance such *ressure can be
Kuite effecti'e. B Pa?@ita is not *articularl% concerned if so)e
*eo*le can not handle his forceful st%le> he often re)ar&s that
the Buddha-Dhamma is )eant for a select fe+ not for the laI% or
the heedless.
$N
It +ould see) that this a**roach is not ne+> in one
discussion +ith a horsePtrainer na)ed Kesi the Buddha li&ens his
o+n *rofession to Kesi=s. (he Buddha trains 4a ta)able *erson6
so)eti)es +ith )ildness but also +ith harshness +hen
necessar% and if neither of these +or& he dis)isses the
student.
1#
$W Ha)ilton .NN1, .#N.
$N C.f. A.VIII.0#XIV"0"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu 4(his Dha))a is for one
+ho is )odest not for one +ho is selfPa--randiIin-. (his Dha))a is for
one +ho is content not for one +ho is discontent. (his Dha))a is for one
+ho is reclusi'e not for one +ho is entan-led. (his Dha))a is for one
+hose *ersistence is aroused not for one +ho is laI%. (his Dha))a is for
one +hose )indfulness is established not for one +hose )indfulness is
confused. (his Dha))a is for one +hose )ind is centered not for one
+hose )ind is uncentered. (his Dha))a is for one endo+ed +ith
discern)ent not for one +hose discern)ent is +ea&. (his Dha))a is for
one +ho enHo%s nonPco)*lication +ho deli-hts in nonPco)*lication not
for one +ho enHo%s 5 deli-hts in co)*lication.6
1# Kesi Sutta :A.IV....;XII.."Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
D$s'+ss$on A 002
Such a st%le is not for e'er%one thou-h and )an% Bur)ese
)on&s \ as +ell as Bur)ese nuns and A)erican la% teachers \ use
a )ore -entle st%le of teachin-. Jhate'er the teachin- )ethod
its ai) should be an eKui*oise bet+een faith and +isdo) ener-%
and concentration accordin- to the PAQi teLts. (he Buddha
de)onstrates this i)*ortant role of a teacher and a s&illful
)ethod of teachin- in his discourse to the )on& So?a. Jhen the
Buddha co)es u*on hi) So?a has a**arentl% been stri'in- to
the *oint of inHurin- his bod% doin- solitar% +al&in- )editation
until the soles of his feet +ere s*lit and bleedin-. (he Buddha
-i'es the analo-% of a strin-ed instru)ent
4No+ +hat do %ou thin& So?a. Before +hen %ou +ere a houseP
d+eller +ere %ou s&illed at *la%in- the 'inaU6
4Mes lord.6
4And +hat do %ou thin&, +hen the strin-s of %our 'ina +ere too
taut +as %our 'ina in tune 5 *la%ableU6
4No lord.6
4And +hat do %ou thin&, +hen the strin-s of %our 'ina +ere too
loose +as %our 'ina in tune 5 *la%ableU6
4No lord.6
4And +hat do %ou thin&, +hen the strin-s of %our 'ina +ere
neither too taut nor too loose but tuned to be ri-ht on *itch +as
%our 'ina in tune 5 *la%ableU6
4Mes lord.6
1.
Ha'in- dra+n a beatiful analo-% the Buddha -entl% brin-s his
student bac& to the issue at hand, tr%in- too hard. 4In the sa)e
+a% So?a o'erParoused ener-% leads to restlessness> o'erl% slac&
ener-% leads to lethar-%. So here settlin- on a cal) ener-% hit
on a balance of the faculties So?a and fro) there ta&e u* %our
focus.6
1"
(he stren-ths of faith and +isdo) of ener-% and
1. So?a Sutta :A.VI.11;XIII0O1Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
1" So?a Sutta :A.VI.11;XIII0O1Y author=s trans. (hou-h I could not do better
than to Kuote (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s renderin- of the first *art of this
discourse his translation of this last line see)s to confuse <cal)= in the
co)*ound v.riya-samatha +ith samata> (hanissaro -i'es <ri-ht *itch= in
the first *hrase and <*itch= in the second. (he rest of )% differences fro)
005 A STRON? ROOTS
concentration can 'ar% -reatl% bet+een different *ractitioners
and e'en o'er the course of an indi'idual=s *ractice. (he
necessit% of balance bet+een these t+o *airs ho+e'er is
co))on to all hu)an bein-s doin- the *ractice. 7osterin- this
&ind of eKui*oise see)s to ha'e been the *ri)ar% role of <-ood
friends= in the Dhamma-&inaya fro) the ti)e the PAQ i discourses
+ere co)*osed throu-h to toda%.
(his balancin- of faculties is an as*ect of )editation that
teachers )ust understand Kuite thorou-hl% in order to -uide
their students. (he )ost basic +a% of )aintainin- balance and of
reestablishin- it +hen it is lost is to stren-then the re)ainin-
controllin- facult% )indfulness.
10
his translation are )ore )atters of taste.
10 Pa?@ita .NN0, .#N.
VII
Tran>+$l$t.
t%e 'lar$t. of 'on'entrat$on
(he fourth *rotection is samathQnuggahita the *rotection of
concentration +hich &ee*s off the cater*illars and +eeds of
un+holeso)e states of )ind. As +e *ractice +e )a&e a stron-
effort to be a+are of +hate'er is actuall% arisin- at the siL sense
doors \ e%e ear nose ton-ue bod% and )ind \ in the *resent
)o)ent. Jhen the )ind is shar*l% focused and ener-etic in this
+a% -reed hatred and delusion ha'e no o**ortunit% to cree* in.
(hus concentration can be co)*ared to +eedin- the area
around the *lant or to a**l%in- a 'er% +holeso)e and natural
t%*e of *esticide.
.

(he ter) samatha translated here as concentration refers to
the settlin- and unification of attention. In the eLcer*t abo'e B
Pa?@ita describes a *articular &ind of concentration that +hich
arises fro) the continuous establish)ent of )indfulness in
+hich the attention is focused on +hate'er as*ect of sense
eL*erience *redo)inates at a -i'en )o)ent in ti)e. Since these
obHects of )indfulness are continuall% chan-in- and shiftin-
absor*tion in one obHect cannot be de'elo*ed. (he third section
of this cha*ter discusses ho+ 4Euardin- the Senses6 +ith
. Pa?@ita .NN0, "0. In the ori-inal Sa%ada+ Hust )entions -eneral
<a**ro*riate )ethods of &ee*in- bu-s off= and <a**ro*riate )ethods of
re)o'in- the)= but 4a 'er% +holeso)e and natural t%*e of *esticide6
+ould fulfill this *rescri*tion +ell.
001 A STRON? ROOTS
)indfulness facilitates insi-ht into the *s%choP*h%sical *rocess
as it is occurrin-.
A different t%*e of concentration is de'elo*ed b% focusin- on
a sin-le conce*t. 2ne can be-in this &ind of *ractice b% focusin-
on an ideal of a Kualit% such as lo'in-&indness or eKuani)it%.
Alternati'el% the *ractitioner can focus on a colored dis& or a
li-ht internaliIin- an i)a-e of it. All of these conce*tual entities
\ as o**osed to direct sense eL*erience \ can a**ear Kuite static
o'er ti)e so the attention can beco)e eLtre)el% oneP*ointed.
"ett )editation for instance be-ins b% focusin- on an idea of
lo'in- oneself or other dear li'in- bein-s usin- this conce*t to
acti'ate the bene'olent )ental Kualit% of lo'in-&indness. Hi-h
le'els of absor*tion jhna can be de'elo*ed +ith such *ractices.
Concentration on a conce*tual obHect ho+e'er is an enter*rise
Kuite different fro) the concentration on sense eL*erience
de'elo*ed in satipa))hna and the t+o can lead to 'er% different
ends.
"
Nonetheless both t%*es of concentration function to *rotect
a+areness fro) attach)ent a'ersion delusion and other
un+holeso)e Kualities. Neither t%*e of concentration can arise
+hen one is a-itated b% the de)ands of intellectual anal%sis or
discussion. (hus both de*end on a certain a)ount of seclusion
fro) business and social res*onsibilities and on a tranKuil and
Kuiet en'iron)ent.
" Ei)ello .NOW, .WW su--ests that concentration )a% be included under the
cate-or% of )%sticis) but that insi-ht )a% not. Jhile his distinction
bet+een insi-ht and concentration is useful Ei)ello=s inter*retation of
vipassan as 4)editati'el% intensified reflection u*on the basic cate-ories of
Buddhist doctrine6 is contradicted b% a nu)ber of PAQi teLts and )odern
teachers cited in the cha*ter on 4Insi-ht.6 Please see the discussion of
Ei)ello=s +or& be-innin- on *."1$.
Tran>+$l$t. A 00)
En7$ron*ental Prote't$on
In the PAQ i the Buddha *resents a *ath of a+a&enin- that
differs fro) ErecoPJudaic teachin-s in a nu)ber of res*ects.
Hebre+ *riests and Eree& *hiloso*hers en-a-ed in econo)ic and
seLual acti'it%. In contrast Indian s*iritual see&ers at the ti)e of
the Buddha +ere directed to a celibate ho)eless )endicant
lifest%le. (he PAQ i teLts re*eatedl% encoura-e -oin- forth fro)
the <householder=s life=. Such a renunciation is no esca*e fro) the
<+orld= as the PAQi teLts define it, the continuu) of sensation.
I declare 2 friend that b% -oin- it is not *ossible to &no+ see or
reach the end of the +orld +here one is not born does not a-e
does not die does not *ass a+a% and is not reborn... But I do not
sa% that one can )a&e an end to sufferin- +ithout ha'in-
reached the end of the +orld. And I further *roclai) friend that
it is in this fatho)Plon- bod% +ith its *erce*tions and thou-hts
that there is the +orld the ori-in of the +orld the cessation of
the +orld and the *ath leadin- to the cessation of the +orld.
0
ProHectin- the Jestern dichoto)% bet+een secular and
sacred onto ancient Indian societ% so)e ha'e *ercei'ed Buddhist
traditions as reHectin- or den%in- the <+orld=.
$
Modern A)erican
*ractitioners ho+e'er ha'e )ade )uch of *ractice in the social
+orld. Jac& Kornfield for instance describes the 4Path of
Parentin- Path of A+a&enin-.6
1
Such an e)*hasis on de'elo*in-
insi-ht in the household life and the -eneral reluctance to <lea'e
the +orld= of seLual and econo)ic acti'it% )a% +ell be deri'ed in
*art fro) ErecoPJudaic ideals of s*iritualit%.
2n the other hand in a certain sense the con'entions of
)odern life )a% -i'e us too )uch isolation alread%. In Bur)ese
0 Gohitassa Sutta :A.IV.$1;XII$OY trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi. (his instance is so)e+hat eLce*tional :thou-h re*eated at S.II."S; in
that the 7our Noble (ruths are stated in res*ect to the +orld l#'a rather
than in res*ect to sufferin- du''ha as is )ore freKuentl% found.
$ MaL Jeber=s +as *erha*s the se)inal instance of this 'er% co))on
*erce*tion a)on- )odern acade)ics.
1 Kornfield .NNN.
009 A STRON? ROOTS
'illa-e life children -o to the fields on their )others bac&s li'e
+ith their -rand*arents and are raised b% a ti-htl%P&nit 'illa-e
co))unit%. In contrast children in industrialiIed societies s*end
a -reat deal of ti)e bein- cared for b% *roL%, in child care in
front of the (V often distant fro) their eLtended fa)il%. I do not
+ish to senti)entaliIe *rePindustrial 'illa-e life there is )uch
inHustice and sufferin- in that s%ste) as +ell. Nonetheless in
ter)s of Kualities such as selfPacce*tance -enerosit% and trust
it is )% distinct i)*ression that )ost Bur)ese co)e to the
*ractice far better endo+ed. Sa%da+ B Pa?@ita has coined a na)e
for the co)*leL of s%)*to)s he sees often in Jestern
)editators, Rthe )issin-Plo'e diseaseR. (he -reat Italian scholar of
Buddhis) Julius E'ola su--ests that a s*iritual see&er a)idst the
i)*ersonal rush of )odern life
)a% feel hi)self )ore alone and detached and no)ad than he
+ould ha'e done in the ti)e of the Buddha in conditions of
*h%sical isolation and of actual +anderin-. (he -reatest
difficult% in this res*ect lies in -i'in- this sense of internal
isolation +hich toda% )a% occur to )an% al)ost s*ontaneousl%
a *ositi'e full si)*le and trans*arent character +ith
eli)ination of all traces of aridit% )elanchol% discord or
anLiet%. Solitude should not be a burden... but rather a natural
si)*le and free dis*osition.
S
(he Buddha=s strate-% for a+a&enin- is not one of a'oidin-
sufferin-> on the contrar% 4the onl% +a% out is throu-h.6
O

Ho+e'er the PAQ i discourses describe those +ho ha'e not
achie'ed full a+a&enin- as intoLicated and diseased b%
un+holeso)e Kualities such as attach)ent a'ersion and
delusion. (here is *lent% of sufferin- to +or& +ithin an indi'idual
<+orld of eL*erience= no )atter ho+ secluded fro) societ%. Just
as so)eone +ith a serious disease of the i))une s%ste) +ould
te)*oraril% a'oid infectious situations as +ell as strenuous
acti'it% until the defile)ents are eLtin-uished healin- is
S E'ola .NNS, .#0.
O Michele McDonald often relates this -e) of +isdo) fro) a con'ersation
+ith Gobert Ait&en and Ste'en S)ith.
Tran>+$l$t. A 00:
facilitated b% seclusion fro) situations that )i-ht *ro'o&e -reed
lust *ride Healous% illP+ill and so on. 2ne Dhammapada 'erse
thus defines a renunciate sama(a as one 4li'inin cal)ness6
sama%ariy.
W
Indeed clear a+areness of sufferin- reKuires
concentration and concentration onl% de'elo*s +hen the
attention d+ells on the obHect of )editation +ithout bein-
distracted.
(he MahAsi Sa%ada+ ad'ocated a s%ste) of intensi'e retreat
that te)*oraril% isolates the *ractitioner fro) certain as*ects of
societ%. Ha'in- one=s food and basic reKuire)ents ta&en care of
li)itin- s*eech to short discussions +ith the )editation teacher
and de'otin- all one=s ener-% to )indfulness *ractice can -reatl%
facilitate the de'elo*)ent of concentration durin- *eriods of
retreat.
2ne si-nificant difference bet+een retreats in A)erica and in
Bur)a is the de-ree of se*aration bet+een )en and +o)en. As
far as I &no+ +ithin the MahAsi tradition celibac% is al+a%s
*resented as a necessar% *rece*t durin- retreat> the eLcite)ent
and e)otional a-itation in'ol'ed in seLual relationshi*s is si)*l%
inco)*atible +ith the de'elo*)ent of stron- concentration.
Male and fe)ale *ractitioners therefore slee* se*aratel% on
retreat. In Bur)a there are often se*arate )editation halls and
so)eti)es different eatin- areas for )en and +o)en. B Pa?@ita
*resents this as a necessar% *recaution in order to a'oid
*ro'o&in- lust +hich +ould hinder his students= *ractice. (here
are certain as*ects of the *h%sical arran-e)ents in Bur)a that
)i-ht -i'e so)e *eo*le reason to *ercei'e )iso-%nistic
tendencies thou-h, at the cit% center of Pa?@itArA)a the u**er
stor% of the )editation hall is for )en the lo+er for +o)en>
li&e+ise in the dinin- hall )on&s and la% )en sit u* front closer
to the Buddha i)a-e +hile nuns and la% +o)en sit at the bac& of
the dinin- hall.
W Dh*.0WWXDh*.1SY cited :and translatedU; b% Bond .NNS, "$.
02; A STRON? ROOTS
Jhen Bur)ese )on&s teach in A)erica the )editation halls
are often di'ided into t+o hal'es +o)en on the left side for
instance )en on the other. Jhen the teachers are A)erican
*ractitioners of the MahAsi s%ste) ho+e'er usuall% there are no
such di'isions and *ractitioners of both seLes sit inters*ersed
+ith each other.
N
(hese decisions )a% be infor)ed b% the
attitude that there can be no <se*arate but eKual= sides of the
)editation hall or *erha*s b% the reco-nition that as lon- as
*eo*le +ith 'ar%in- seLual orientations are sittin- to-ether
tr%in- to seclude e'er%one fro) the obHects of their seLual desire
is futile. Ei'en the (hera'Adin tradition=s a**roach of te)*orar%
seclusion fro) situations that *ro'o&e hindrances to *ractice
ho+e'er if heteroseLual i)*ulses *redo)inate in a *articular
-rou* a lar-e de-ree of se*aration bet+een the seLes )a% )a&e
a -ood deal of sense durin- a retreat. A**arentl% seLual
attraction +as a stron- force in the Buddha=s societ% as it is
toda%.
No other for) do I &no+ _bhi&&hus` that so *ersists in obsessin-
the )ind of a )an as the for) of a +o)an...
No other sound... scent... taste... touch do I &no+ _bhi&&hus` that
so *ersists in obsessin- the )ind of a )an as the touch of a
+o)an. (he touch of a +o)an *ersists in obsessin- the )ind of a
)an.
No other for) do I &no+ _bhi&&hus` that so *ersists in obsessin-
the )ind of a +o)an as the for) of a )an...
No other sound... scent... taste... touch do I &no+ _bhi&&hus` that
so *ersists in obsessin- the )ind of a +o)an as the touch of a
)an. (he touch of a )an *ersists in obsessin- the )ind of a
+o)an.
.#
If A)ericans are so)e+hat less strict in ter)s of seclusion
fro) contact +ith the o**osite seL Bur)ese *ractitioners see)
to be less beholden to restrictions on chattin-. In the MahAsi
N (he annual three )onth retreat at IMS +here )en and +o)en sit on
se*arate sides of the hall is an eLce*tion to this rule.
.# Pari%adana Sutta :A.I..P.#;XI.ffY trans. cA?a*o?i&a (hera and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi.
Tran>+$l$t. A 021
S%ste) *ractitioners usuall% attend one dail% tal& b% the
)editation teacher and brief but re-ular inter'ie+s. Aside fro)
these instances and ur-ent co))unications +ith retreat staff
*ractitioners are encoura-ed to )aintain the <noble silence=
referred to in the PAQ i.
It is fittin- for %ou clans)en +ho ha'e -one forth out of faith
fro) the ho)e life into ho)elessness to sit to-ether to discuss
the Dha))a. Jhen %ou -ather to-ether bhi&&hus %ou should
do either of t+o thin-s, hold discussions on the Dha))a or
)aintain noble silence.
..
Jhile so)e ha'e ta&en this <noble silence= to refer eLclusi'el%
to the Kuietin- of intellectual acti'it% at the second sta-e of
absor*tion the MahAsi Sa%ada+ follo+s the co))entar% b%
includin- less intense &inds of attention to the obHect of
)editation.
."
In this sense noble silence )eans refrainin- fro)
reasonin- and discussion +hether b% )ulti*le *eo*le or a
solitar% thin&er in fa'or of direct a+areness of sensations as the%
arise. I ha'e obser'ed that +hen out of si-ht of the )editation
)aster Bur)ese *ractitioners on retreat tend to tal& +ith each
other a -ood deal )ore than A)ericans do. 2n other hand fro)
)ost re*orts it see)s that A)ericans on retreat tend tal& to
the)sel'es a -ood deal )ore than their Bur)ese counter*arts
do. Indeed Go-er Jalsh describes a nu)ber of Asian )editation
)asters includin- the MahAsi Sa%ada+ ta&in- note of the +a%
Jestern *ractitioners s*end a -reat deal of ti)e on the cushion
doin- selfP*s%choanal%sis.
Ps%chothera*% focuses *ri)aril% on chan-in- )ental contents at
the s%)bolic le'el for eLa)*le b% chan-in- i)a-es thou-hts
fantasies or e)otions... (he Eastern teachers thou-ht that +hile
this )i-ht so)eti)es be useful for a si-nificant nu)ber of
.. Ari%a*ari%esanA Sutta :M."S;XI.S.Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu
Bodhi.
." As Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and Bhi&&hu Bodhi *ara*hrase the MAXII.SNY in the
endnote on *a-e .".S of their "ajjh.ma /i'ya translation the 4the second
HhAna and one=s basic )editation subHect are both called 4noble silence6
:ariy# tu(h.bhv#;. (hose +ho cannot attain the second HhAna are ad'ised to
)aintain noble silence b% attendin- to their basic )editation subHect.6
020 A STRON? ROOTS
Jestern *ractitioners this focus *ro'ed to be a li)itin- factor
*re'entin- an a+areness of )ore subtle )ental )echanis)s.
.0
Settl$ng T%e Intelle't
Jithin 'arious traditions descended fro) the Buddha as
+ithin )odern Buddhist Studies there ha'e been )an% debates
about the nature of vipassan and *rereKuisites for such insi-ht to
arise. Gichard Eo)brich *resents e'idence that 4Enli-hten)ent
+ithout )editation +as *robabl% ne'er en'isa-ed b% the Buddha
or in the earliest teLts.6
.$
Eo)brich uses teLtual e'idence to
recreate the histor% of ho+ so)e -rou*s of )on&s b% narro+l%
inter*retin- certain *assa-es ca)e to the conclusion that
a+a&enin- could be *ursued b% *urel% intellectual anal%sis
+ithout concentrated )editation *ractice. (his )o'e)ent a+a%
fro) )editation had a**arentl% be-un b% the ti)e of the Aso&an
)issions .1# %ears after the Buddha=s death but Eo)brich
reasons that such a )aHor doctrinal re'ersal could not ha'e
occurred +hile the first -eneration of disci*les +as ali'e.
.1
Dater (hera'Adins s%ste)atiIed and elaborated on the
anal%ses of eL*erience *resented in the PAQi discourses
*roducin- an eLtensi'e literature on Abhidha))a. (he
do)inance of the scholastic tradition in the Bur)ese (hera'Ada
.0 Jalsh .NW., OS.
.$ Eo)brich .NNS, .0.P".
.1 Northern India beca)e unified *oliticall% under the Mori%an e)*erors in
the centuries after the Buddha=s death +hich li&el% resulted in a )uch
)ore unifor) societ% than before. It +as durin- Hust this ti)e that
Eo)brich .NNS esti)ates the 'ie+ of intellectual enli-hten)ent to ha'e
-ained *o*ularit%. Such e'idence su**orts our h%*othesis that *eo*le
beco)e )ore interested in the suret% of )editati'e eL*erience and direct
&no+led-e +hen di'erse +orldP'ie+s are interactin- in a d%na)ic social
conteLt and that as a societ% beco)es )ore isolated and ho)o-eneous
e)*hasis often shifts to institutionaliIed intellectual stud% and anal%sis of
the Buddha teachin-s.
Tran>+$l$t. A 022
has been discussed abo'e in the section on 4(heor% and
Practice6> certain scholars ca)e to re-ard reasoned &no+led-e
and conte)*lation of such for)ulations as liberatin- insi-ht
itself. Notin- that this is a contro'ersial issue (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu *oints to a nu)ber of PAQi teLts su--estin- that
a+a&enin- is to be -ained fro) the first or hi-her sta-es of
absor*tion in +hich internal 'erbaliIation and discursi'e
thou-ht are *ro-ressi'el% Kuieted.
.S
2ne discourse *uts it in no
uncertain ter)s.
Kno+led-e of the endin- of the effluents as it is actuall% *resent
occurs to one +ho is concentrated I tell %ou and not to one +ho
is not concentrated. So concentration is the *ath _bhi&&hus`.
NonPconcentration is no *ath at all.
.O
In another discourse ananda describes four different *aths to
full a+a&enin- each includin- the factor of concentration.
(here is the case +here a )on& has de'elo*ed insi-ht *receded
b% tranKuillit%. As he de'elo*s insi-ht *receded b% tranKuillit%
the *ath is born. He follo+s that *ath de'elo*s it *ursues it. As
he follo+s the *ath de'elo*in- it 5 *ursuin- it \ his fetters are
abandoned his obsessions destro%ed.
(hen there is the case +here a )on& has de'elo*ed tranKuillit%
*receded b% insi-ht3
(hen there is the case +here a )on& has de'elo*ed tranKuillit%
in tande) +ith insi-ht3
(hen there is the case +here a )on&Rs )ind has its restlessness
concernin- the Dha))a _Co)), the corru*tions of insi-ht` +ell
under control. (here co)es a ti)e +hen his )ind -ro+s stead%
in+ardl% settles do+n and beco)es unified 5 concentrated. In
hi) the *ath is born. He follo+s that *ath de'elo*s it *ursues it.
As he follo+s the *ath de'elo*in- it 5 *ursuin- it \ his fetters
are abandoned his obsessions destro%ed.
.W
Accordin- to the subco))entar% the first of these
descri*tions refers to one +ho e)*lo%s tranKuilit% as the 'ehicle
.S (hanissaro .NNS, Part III 7 cites A.I^.0SXIV$""ffY and A.Î..OXV0$"Y.
.O S[hanAda Sutta :A.VI.S$;XIII$"#Y trans. (hanissaro .NNS, Part III 7.
.W Mu-anaddha Sutta :A.IV..O#;XII.1OY. (he brac&eted insertion of the
co))entarial eL*lanation is b% the translator (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
025 A STRON? ROOTS
of *ractice the second to 4one +ho )a&es insi-ht the 'ehicle6
vipassan-yni'a.
.N
(his is the )ethod -enerall% *rescribed in the
MahAsi tradition. Concentration is not absent fro) this )ethod>
as insi-ht *ro-resses the a+areness beco)es increasin-l%
focused on +hate'er sense eL*erience ha**ens to be arisin- in
the )o)ent. In fact the MahAsi Sa%ada+ hi-hl% reco))ended
that those +ho ha'e the abilit% de'elo* dee* tranKuilit%
absor*tions as in the first t%*e of *ractice insi-ht *receded b%
tranKuilit%> )an% find this le'el of focus i)*ossible due to )ental
a-itation e'en +ith a static conce*tual obHect.
Jhen Hhanic concentration is achie'ed that concentration can
be used as an ideal basis for Vi*assanA )editation. Alternati'el%
if Hhanic sta-e is not attainable access concentration )a% be
tried for and this concentration +hen attained )a% be used for
Vi*assanA )editation. If e'en access concentration is not
attainable one has to +or& for the )o)entar% concentration of
the Vi*assanA )editation. 2nce it is attained the Vi*assanA
insi-hts +ill beco)e de'elo*ed in their o+n seKuence till the
Noble Path is acco)*lished.
"#
Senior MahAsi instructors such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita ha'e
-uided *ractitioners acco)*lished in insi-ht to e)*lo%
tranKuilit% in 'arious +a%s either de'elo*in- it and then turnin-
to vipassan as in ananda=s first *ath or enterin- into jhni%
absor*tions and then eLitin- to *ercei'e chan-in- eL*erience
+hich is described as the third *ath.
(he )ost +idel% *rescribed concentration *ractice in the
MahAsi tradition is that of culti'atin- lo'in-&indness mett-
bhvan. Verses of lo'in-&indness are chanted dail% b% Bur)ese
*ractitioners at MahAsi )editation centers> these chants are
-enerall% in Bur)ese ho+e'er and intensi'e mett )editation is
usuall% *rescribed onl% for Kuite ad'anced *ractitioners. (his
)a% be +h% the %oun- Jestern *ractitioners +ho +ent to Asia in
the .NO#s and W#s +ere not eL*osed to )uch mett *ractice and
.N Bhi&&hu Bodhi Kuotes the AT-uttaraZi&A on *a-e "N$ in note SO to his
translation of A.IV..O#.
"# MahAsi .NWN, W..
Tran>+$l$t. A 02#
+h% mett *ractice +as not +idel% tau-ht in the earl% %ears at
A)erican Vi*assanA centers. Both chantin- and intensi'e
)editation on mett ha'e beco)e Kuite *o*ular in the last
decade ho+e'er. Eil 7ronsdal s*eculates that 4the A)erican
nearPobsession +ith ha**iness and lo'e has influenced the
A)erican teachers to *ut s*ecial e)*hasis on lo'in-P&indness.6
".

Nonetheless he does note ho+ in addition to its use in
de'elo*in- concentration mett *ractice can hel* alla% a'ersi'e
)ental states in those +ith 4a stron- tendenc% to selfPcriticis) or
selfP de*reciation6 thus allo+in- )ore ease in de'elo*in-
)indfulness. Indeed Michele McDonald su--ests that it is <the
A)erican nearPobsession= +ith selfPHud-)ent rather than an
obsession +ith ha**iness that )ost influences her to teach
mett. In an% case the Kualit% of lo'in-&indness is an inte-ral
as*ect of true )indfulness. 4It softens the a+areness so that +e
can be +ith thin-s as the% are.6
""
(he di'erse techniKues for de'elo*in- the sta-es of
absor*tion jhna ran-e fro) the recitation of *hrases to starin-
at colored dis&s to concentration on e)otions such as lo'in-P
&indness. (hese *o+erful *ractices de'elo* )ental health and
stabilit%. (he resultin- absor*tion at its )ost rarified le'els is
said to be the basis for occult *o+ers as +ell.
Practices of dee* absor*tion are *resent in traditions fro)
)an% different hu)an societies and +ere e)*lo%ed b% )an%
Indian teachers includin- the Buddha. Man% *hiloso*hical ideas
of Brah)a or Eod in ancient India deri'ed fro) )editators
eL*eriencin- a state of bliss or e'en )ore subli)e states and
then ta&in- this to be a *er)anent source fro) +hich bein-s
e)er-e and to +hich the% return. (he Buddha=s teachin-s in the
PAQ i discourses +ere radical +hen the% +ere co)*osed as the%
are no+ because the% characteriIe an% as*ect of eL*erience as a
te)*orar% 'isitor ra*idl% arisin- and *assin-. Jhether for a fe+
". 7ronsdal .NNW, .O$.
"" Personal co))unication 2ctober "##".
021 A STRON? ROOTS
)o)ents or for a lifeti)e tranKuilit% can *rotect the )ind fro)
un+holeso)e states of )ind onl% te)*oraril%. Accordin- to the
PAQ i teLts such concentration cannot u*root latent un+holeso)e
tendencies +ithout direct a+areness of *s%choP*h%sical
*heno)ena arisin- and *assin- that is the establish)ent of
)indfulness.
?+ar-$ng T%e Senses
(he continuit% of )indfulness de'elo*ed in the *ractice of
satipa)) hna is a *articular t%*e of concentration. Jhen there is
no a+areness of *s%choP*h%sical *heno)ena as the% arise and
*ass a+a% this is a )o)ent of delusion of not seein- clearl% of
avijj. As )indfulness beco)es established on the other hand
there occur )ore and )ore )o)ents of seein- clearl%. In other
+ords increasin- the concentration of )indfulness allo+s
insi-ht to dee*en and *ro-ress.
Since all the factors of consciousness arise de*endentl% +ith
the )eetin- of a sense obHect and a sense or-an accordin- to the
(hera'Adin understandin- vijj *asses a+a% +ith these factors in
e'er% )o)ent. Jhen there clear a+areness is *resent thou-h it
has the re)ar&able effect of *re'entin- \ or rather of not
tri--erin- \ the +hole *rocess of e)otional and intellectual
*roliferation about a *articular sense eL*erience. (his
a**arentl% is +hat the Buddha )eant b% *erfect seclusion. His
re)ar&s co)e in res*onse the re*ort of a )on& called <Elder=.
4Venerable Sir I enter the 'illa-e for al)s alone I return alone I
sit alone in *ri'ate I underta&e +al&in- )editation alone. It is in
such a +a% that I a) a lone d+eller and s*ea& in *raise of
d+ellin- alone.6
4(hat is a +a% of d+ellin- alone Elder I do not den% this. But as
to ho+ d+ellin- alone is fulfilled in detail listen that and attend
closel% I +ill s*ea&.6
Tran>+$l$t. A 02)
4Mes Venerable Sir.6
4And ho+ Elder is d+ellin- alone fulfilled in detailU Here Elder
+hat lies in the *ast has been abandoned +hat lies in the future
has been relinKuished and desire and lust for *resent for)s of
indi'idual eListence has been thorou-hl% re)o'ed. It is in such
as +a% Elder that d+ellin- alone is fulfilled in detail.6
"0
Satipa)) hna ai)s at this 'er% -oal. Mindfulness *ractice has
been refined and de'elo*ed in 'arious teachin- linea-es but a
basic for)ulation is -i'en in the 4MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta6
+here the Buddha describes ho+ a *ractitioner 4discerns6 that
he is breathin- dee*l% breathin- shallo+l% sittin- or +al&in- as
these are occurrin-.
7urther)ore +hen -oin- for+ard 5 returnin- he )a&es hi)self
full% alert> +hen loo&in- to+ard 5 loo&in- a+a%... +hen bendin-
5 eLtendin- his li)bs... +hen carr%in- his outer cloa& his u**er
robe 5 his bo+l... +hen eatin- drin&in- che+in- 5 sa'orin-...
+hen urinatin- 5 defecatin-... +hen +al&in- standin- sittin-
fallin- aslee* +a&in- u* tal&in- 5 re)ainin- silent he )a&es
hi)self full% alert.
"$
(hese co)*rehensi'e for)ulas are re*eated for *ainful
*leasant and neutral eL*erience and for )ental states such as
*assion a'ersion co))it)ent and concentration. Practitioners
are ad'ised to discern 4Such is for) such its ori-ination such its
disa**earance. Such is feelin-... Such is *erce*tion... Such are
fabrications... Such is consciousness such its ori-ination such its
disa**earance6 and so on for a lon- list of *s%choP*h%sical
*heno)ena includin- the factors in'ol'ed in the *rocess of
a+a&enin- itself. (he Buddha concludes b% a**reciatin- the
sin-ular nature of this *recious establish)ent of )indfulness.
4Solitar% is this *ath bhi&&hus for the *urification of bein-s for
-oin- be%ond sorro+ and -rief for the *assin- of *ain and
distress for arri'in- at the +a% for the realiIation of
NibbAna...6
"1
"0 (herAna)a Sutta :S.^Î..#;XII"W0Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
"$ MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta :D."";XII"N"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
"1 MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta :D."";XII0.1Y author=s trans.
029 A STRON? ROOTS
(he ter)s e)*lo%ed in the 4MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta6 )i-ht
be used to ar-ue that insi-ht consists of an intellectual
understandin- or reasoned deconstruction of eL*erience or
these ter)s )i-ht si)*l% be an inter*retation and articulation of
clearl% seen sensate eL*erience. In an% case this discourse
ad'ocates bein- full% a+are of the obHects of )indfulness and
discernin- their arisin- and their cessation.
All of the )odern Bur)ese and A)erican teachers of
)indfulness )editation I ha'e co)e into contact +ith
unani)ousl% a-ree that <clear seein-= does not include
intellectual anal%sis of eL*erience. In this the% follo+ the
Buddha=s ad'ice to BAhi%a of the Bar&Pcloth.
BAhi%a %ou should train %ourself thus, In reference to the seen
there +ill be onl% the seen. In reference to the heard onl% the
heard. In reference to the sensed onl% the sensed. In reference to
the co-niIed onl% the co-niIed. (hat is ho+ _%ou` should train
%ourself. Jhen for %ou there +ill be onl% the seen in reference to
the seen onl% the heard in reference to the heard onl% the
sensed in reference to the sensed onl% the co-niIed in reference
to the co-niIed then BAhi%a there is no %ou in ter)s of that.
Jhen there is no %ou in ter)s of that there is no %ou there.
Jhen there is no %ou there %ou are neither here nor %onder nor
bet+een the t+o. (his Hust this is the end of stress.
"S
Such an a**roach is e'ident in B Pa?@ita=s descri*tion of the
second factor of a+a&enin- in'esti-ation +hich he li&ens to a
flashli-ht illu)inatin- 4+hat is *resent6 in a dar&ened roo).
In )editation in'esti-ation is not carried out b% )eans of the
thin&in- *rocess. It is intuiti'e a sort of discernin- insi-ht that...
sho+s us the characteristics of paramattha dhamma or ulti)ate
realities +hich si)*l% )eans obHects that can be eL*erienced
directl% +ithout the )ediation of conce*ts.
"O
Si)ilarl% A)erican teachers often instruct *ractitioners to
brin- <bare a+areness= to eL*erience at the siL sense doors. 4Je
are culti'atin- a *reP'erbal nonPHud-)ental a+areness6 as
"S BAhi%a Sutta :Bd.I..#;XBd.WY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
"O Pa?@ita .NN0, .#$P1.
Tran>+$l$t. A 02:
Ste'en S)ith li&es to *ut it. Such attention ho+e'er does not
co)e readil% to )ost no'ice *ractitioners. (herefore certain
strate-ies are used to de'elo* this Kualit% of )ind to )a&e it
)anifest in )ore and )ore )o)ents of eL*erience. (he MahAsi
tradition e)*hasiIes instructions in the 4MahAsati*aZZhAna
Sutta6 such as 4+hen +al&in- the )on& discerns that he is
+al&in-... ho+e'er his bod% is dis*osed that is ho+ he discerns
it.6
"W
In order to de'elo* concentration be-inners are ad'ised to
use <soft )ental notin-= to direct the a+areness to+ards *resent
eL*erience. Practitioners usuall% be-in b% concentratin- on the
sensations of the breath at the abdo)en notin- <risin-= and
<fallin-= +hile carefull% in'esti-atin- all the sensations in'ol'ed
in the *rocess. As the MahAsi Sa%ada+ )a&es clear in his basic
instructions the e)*hasis is on brin-in- a+areness to the
sensations Hust as the% are ha**enin- rather than tr%in- to alter
the breath to )a&e it shorter or lon-er dee*er or shallo+er.
"N

"W MahAsati*aZZhAna Sutta :D."";XII"N"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
"N MahAsi .NOW, SPO 4Jith e'er% act of breathin- the abdo)en rises and falls
+hich )o'e)ent is al+a%s e'ident. (his is the )aterial Kualit% &no+n as
vy#dhtu :the ele)ent of )otion;. 2ne should be-in b% notin- this
)o'e)ent +hich )a% be done b% the )ind intentl% obser'in- the
abdo)en. Mou +ill find the abdo)en risin- +hen %ou breathe in and fallin-
+hen %ou breathe out. (he risin- should be noted )entall% as <risin-= and
the fallin- as <fallin-=. If the )o'e)ent is not e'ident b% Hust notin- it
)entall% &ee* touchin- the abdo)en +ith the *al) of %our hand. Do not
alter the )anner of %our breathin-. Neither slo+ it do+n nor )a&e it
faster. Do not breathe too 'i-orousl% either. Mou +ill tire if %ou chan-e the
)anner of %our breathin-. Breather steadil% as usual and note the risin-
and fallin- of the abdo)en as the% occur. Note it )entall% not 'erball%.6
MahAsi .NOW +rites of the 'arious sensations often encountered as
)indfulness and concentration -ain )o)entu). He tal&s of the subtle
chills and thrills *er'adin- Ho% and +a'es of terror that acco)*an%
hei-htened sensiti'it%. (he -oal thou-h is clear throu-hout, to *ro-ress
throu-h the sta-es of insi-ht and concentration to reach the Path and
7ruition &no+led-e and attain /ibbna.
Eo)brich and 2be%ese&ere .NWW, $1$ co)e to a curious conclusion about the
MahAsi techniKue ho+e'er. (he% note that Sri DaT&an 4)on&s at
VaHirArA)a a fa)ous Colo)bo )onaster% +ho had the)sel'es studied
vipassan )editation in Bur)a attac&ed6 the MahAsi )ethod. Eo)brich
and 2be%ese&ere cite Kassa*a (hera 7ore+ord to - 1#lle%ti#n #3 -rti%les #n
05; A STRON? ROOTS
Di&e+ise in +al&in- )editation one notes <liftin- )o'in-
*lacin-= or in -eneral acti'ities such as eatin- <liftin- touchin-
tastin- s+allo+in-= and so on.
Dabelin- techniKue hel*s us to *ercei'e clearl% the actual
Kualities of our eL*erience +ithout -ettin- i))ersed in the
content. It de'elo*s )ental *o+er and focus. In )editation +e
see& a dee* clear *recise a+areness of the )ind and bod%. (his
direct a+areness sho+s us the truth about our li'es the actual
nature of )ental and *h%sical *rocesses.
0#
Notin- is used to focus the attention on eL*erience as it is
occurrin- not to anal%Ie it conce*tuall%. Di&e+ise there is no
need to i)*ose theoretical conce*ts such as <i)*er)anence=
<sufferin-= or <nonself= on eL*erience loo&infor these
characteristics can in fact hinder the de'elo*)ent of insi-ht
accordin- to B Pa?@ita. 2n the other hand the )ore there is full
attention to +hate'er eL*erience is occurrin- in the *resent the
)ore clearl% one can see these *heno)ena arisin- and *assin- of
their o+n accord offerin- no lastin- ha**iness. At hi-her le'els
of concentration in fact intellectual acti'it% is attenuated and
+ith it the notin- techniKue. At such ti)es notin- no lon-er
ser'es its *ur*ose of de'elo*in- concentration an%+a%.
Accordin- to B Pa?@ita the conce*tual labelin- dro*s a+a% all
to-ether at a *articular sta-e of insi-ht +hen the dissolution of
"editati#n :Colo)bo, Henr% Prelis .N1O; +ho 4Kuoted the MahAs[ Sa%Ada+
hi)self to sho+ that the dee* breathin- he reco))ended could lead to
stran-e *h%sical sensations s+a%in- tre)blin- and e'en loss of
consciousness6 :)% e)*hasis;. (hus Eo)brich and 2be%ese&ere=s
conclusion that the MahAsi techniKue 4if follo+ed to the letter could ta&e
_*ractitioners` into trance states 'er% li&e *ossession6 is clearl% a result of
a )isunderstandin- of the )ethod. Perha*s this is due to Kassa*a (hera
but in an% case Eo)brich at least sullies an other+ise eLcellent career of
scholarshi* b% failin- to chec& for hi)self the basic satipa))hna
instructions of the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +hich clearl% ad'ocate not breathin-
abnor)all% dee*l% and )oreo'er are desi-ned s*ecificall% to a'oid
enterin- dee* states of concentration in +hich one cannot be a+are of
arisin- and *assin- *heno)ena but rather direct the *ractitioner to
)aintain the lo+ le'el of <access concentration= conduci'e to insi-ht.
0# Pa?@ita .NN0, .S.
Tran>+$l$t. A 051
each successi'e sensation is )ost a**arent> this ba>ga *(a
thou-h 4has nothin- to do +ith thin&ers.6
0.
I ha'e seen both
Bur)ese and A)erican teachers ad'ise students to dro* the
notin- +hen it is reall% interferin- +ith direct a+areness but
e'en ad'anced *ractitioners find the labelin- techniKue useful at
the be-innin- of retreat and other ti)es +hen concentration is
not stron-. (hou-h notin- does ta&e eLtra effort and )an%
*ractitioners resist it for that reason it can be 'er% beneficial.
2ne teacher Carol Jilson told *ractitioners at the K%as+a
Getreat in "##" that to her cha-rin notin- +as reall% hel*in- her
to connect +ith the breath.
In a nu)ber of res*ects the inno'ations b% )odern Vi*assanA
teachers re*roduce e)*hases found in the PAQi teLts and
therefore *resu)abl% at so)e earl% *oint in the histor% of the
BuddhaPSAsana. At least for the last .1## %ears or so the
(hera'Ada has *ut -reat e)*hasis on scholastic &no+led-e and
on absor*tion *ractices. (he last centur% has seen the ra*id
-ro+th of *ractices that use concentrated )indfulness to de'elo*
insi-ht an a**roach that the PAQ i teLts assert is necessar% for
a+a&enin-.
(+o Kualities share in clear seein-. Jhich t+oU (ranKuillit% U
insi-ht.
Jhat benefit does de'elo*ed tranKuilit% brin-U (he )ind
beco)es de'elo*ed. Jhat benefit does a de'elo*ed )ind brin-U
Jhat is abandoned is lust.
Jhat benefit does de'elo*ed insi-ht brin-U Jisdo) beco)es
de'elo*ed. Jhat benefit does de'elo*ed +isdo) brin-U Jhat is
abandoned is notPseein-Pclearl%.
0"
0. 4.~.., ~ .6 B Pa?@ita Hse Main Eon 7orest Center Getreat
Dece)ber "### consecuti'e inter*retation b% B K%a+ K%a+.
0" ViHHaPbha-i%a Sutta :A.II.0#;XIS.Y author=s trans.
IV
Ins$g%t
see$ng '%aos as '%aot$'
Ha'in- discussed s&illful conduct learnin- discussion and
concentration Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita eLtends the Co))entar%=s
*lant analo-% to the final su**ort of ri-ht 'ie+.
If these first four *rotections are *resent insi-hts ha'e the
o**ortunit% to blosso). Ho+e'er %o-is tend to beco)e attached
to earl% insi-hts and unusual eL*eriences related to stron-
concentration. Bnfortunatel% this +ill hinder their *ractice fro)
ri*enin- into the dee*er le'els of 'i*assanA. Here the fifth
*rotection vipassanQnuggahita co)es into *la%. (his is
)editation +hich continues forcefull% at a hi-h le'el not
sto**in- to da+dle in the enHo%)ent of *eace of )ind nor other
*leasures of concentration. Cra'infor these *leasures is called
ni'anti tanh. It is subtle li&e cob+ebs a*hids )ilde+ tin%
s*iders \ stic&% little thin-s that can e'entuall% cho&e off a
*lant=s -ro+th.
.

(he earl% PAQi teLts the (hera'Adin co))entators and
)odern )editation )asters are unani)ous to the best of )%
&no+led-e in definin- vipassan to )ean <&no+led-e of thin-s as
the% are=, yathbh!ta*(a.
"
In one *assa-e the Buddha as&s a
. Pa?@ita .NN0, "0P$.
" (he corres*ondin- Bur)ese eL*ression 4 ~ ~ 6 e)*lo%s the 'erb
<= :pyit; +hich can be used in the sense of <to arise= <to beco)e= or <to
ha**en= as +ell as <to be=. In the conteLt of discourse on )indfulness
)editation vipassan or <insi-ht= is used to refer to seein- <&no+in- thin-s
055 A STRON? ROOTS
-rou* of his students +hether 4&no+in- and seein- in this +a%6
the% )i-ht not tell others that the% +ere Hust teachin- thin-s in
this +a% out of res*ect for their teacher. (he bhi''hus sa% that
the% +ould not. Neither +ould the% clai) others= *rocla)ations
as their source nor +ould the% no+ loo& for another teacher nor
+ould the% return to the 'arious recluses= and *riests= rites and
rituals ta&in- these to be the essence.
<Do %ou s*ea& onl% of +hat %ou ha'e &no+n seen and
understood for %oursel'esU=
<Mes 'enerable sir.=
<Eood bhi&&hus. So %ou ha'e been -uided b% )e +ith this
Dha))a +hich is 'isible here and no+ i))ediatel% effecti'e
in'itin- ins*ection on+ard leanin- to be eL*erienced b% the
+ise for the)sel'es.
0
(hus the e)*hasis on *ersonal eL*erience is *resent not Hust
in Euro*eanPinfluenced )odern renditions but also as an
inte-ral the)e of the PAQ i discourses co)*osed in ancient India.
Hust as the% ha'e beco)e= both in the sense of truthfulness con'e%ed b%
<thin-s Hust as the% are= and in the sense of *resent ti)e a+areness
con'e%ed b% <thin-s Hust as the% arise=.
Kalu*ahana .NN", 1" contends that 4(he *ast *artici*le bh!ta <beco)e= turned
out to be the )ost a**ro*riate ter) to eL*ress the radical e)*iricis) of
the Buddha +hich a'oided the essentialist enter*rise of searchin- for
ulti)ate obHecti'it%3 6 (he Buddha of the PAQi does indeed set aside the
*roHect of for)ulatin- or disco'erin- absolutel% true state)ents about
realit% as not rele'ant or useful for his *roHect of endin- sufferin-. At
M.0WXI"S1Y his disci*les <&no+in- and seein- in this +a%= are sho+n to set
aside Kuestions about +hat the% +ere in the *ast +hat the% +ill be in the
future and e'en about +hether the% are or not in the *resent. Nonetheless
as the Buddha characteriIes it in this sa)e discourse his dhamma is \ in
theor% and in *ractice \ a'li'# lit. <ti)eless= or i))ediate. (hus )odern
&ipassan teachers= use of the eL*ression <thin-s as the% are= is not
contradicted b% Kalu*ahana=s inter*retation as beco)es clearer on 1. 4the
*ast *artici*le bh!ta )eanin- <beco)e= +hen used as a s%non%) for <true=
brin-s out clearl% the antiPessentialist i)*lication of the Buddha=s
conce*tion of truth3 EL*erience +hether sensor% or eLtraordinar% does
not *ro'ide us +ith <read%P)ade= truths3 Jhat is true is +hat has <co)e to
be= and +hat is false is +hat <has not co)e to be= :abh!ta;.6
0 MahAta?hAsa&ha%a Sutta :M.0W;XI"S1Y trans. Bhi&&hu cA?a)oli and
Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
Ins$g%t A 05#
(hou-h as*ects of insi-ht e)*hasiIed b% traditional
)editation )asters such as B Pa?@ita )i-ht differ sli-htl% fro)
certain A)erican *resentations the funda)ental descri*tion of
vipassan is re)ar&abl% constant bet+een Bur)a and Barre. (he
MahAsi Sa%ada+ -a'e a se)inal account.
2ur )ethod of )editation does not *resu**ose a thorou-h
&no+led-e of nma-r!pa ani%%a or other Buddhist conce*ts. 7or
our )ain obHect is to attain insi-htP&no+led-e +hich is accessible
onl% to e)*irical a**roach. (hrou-h eL*erience the %o-i
obser'es the distinction bet+een )ind and )atter and he
realiIes the i)*er)anence of e'er% thin-. EL*erience )a% be
follo+ed b% eL*lanation on the *art of the teacher but not the
other +a% round. 7or real &no+led-e has nothin- to do +ith
*reconcei'ed notions but is based on *ersonal eL*erience.
$
$ MahAsi .NWS, .0. Jhile the MahAsi Sa%ada+ +as Kuite an erudite scholar of
the PAQi teLts neither he nor his inter*reters nor )ost )odern teachers of
)indfulness )editation ha'e studied Jestern Philoso*h% eLtensi'el%. 7or
this reason )an% )odern accounts in En-lish of )indfulness *ractice and
insi-ht eL*erience use 'ocabular% that )a% *ro'e *roble)atic -i'en their
usa-e in )odern Philoso*h%. (he idea of <reli-ious eL*erience= for instance
has been the subHect of a thorou-h deconstruction b% Proudfoot .NW1. (his
author ac&no+led-es that 4)%stics Hud-e their eL*eriences to be
re'elator% *roducti'e of insi-ht into the true nature of realit% and not
artifacts or *roHections of their o+n subHecti'e )ental states6 but su--ests
that Jestern *hiloso*hers of reli-ion )i-ht co)e u* +ith better
eL*lanations. Indeed Eoldstein .NN0c, 10 describes insi-ht as 4clearl%
directl% seein- and eL*eriencin- ho+ thin-s reall% are6 co)*arin- this to
the +a% 4%ou &no+ that daffodils are %ello+ because %ou ha'e seen the).6
Proudfoot could su**ort his clai) .W" that 4the noetic Kualit% of sense
*erce*tion and of )%stical eL*erience assu)es a Hud-)ent about the
*ro*er eL*lanation of that eL*erience6b% *ointin- to )eta*hors such as
EoldsteinRs daffodils since accordin- to both *ostP)odernist thou-ht and
the (hera'Adin understandin- the conce*tual cate-or% <%ello+= could not
be an inherent characteristic of an% sense eL*erience.
Man% teachers refer to the <eL*erience of insi-ht=. In doin- so the% see) to be
usin- a definition of eL*erience as sense a+areness and of insi-ht as clear
seein- of this *rocess. (he En-lish +ord <eL*erience= can be used in t+o
rather different +a%s as Proudfoot *oints out ""N thou-h the one is li&el%
a )eta*horic eLtension of the other. 4It can be used to refer to ho+
so)ethin- see)s or a**ears to a *erson +ithout re-ard to the accurac% of
that see)in- or a**earin-... It can also be e)*lo%ed as an achie'e)ent
+ord li&e see or per%eive +here the Hud-)ent that so)eone has *ercei'ed
051 A STRON? ROOTS
2ne cannot function as a hu)an bein- +ithout the eKui*)ent
of culture +ith onl% sensate <&no+in-= as Clifford EeertI *oints
out. Both he and the Buddha see) to ha'e reco-niIed hu)an
conce*tions and 'ie+s di))hi as atte)*ts to eL*lain eL*erience
and thereb% relie'e the anLiet% caused b% the i)*in-e)ent of a
funda)entall% chaotic and ineL*licable realit%. EeertI does not
e)*lo% the (hera'Adin idea of sense consciousness and clear
seein- thou-h so he )i-ht not ad)it the *ossibilit% offered b%
the Buddha, an esca*e fro) 'ie+s. In an% case the t+o could
a-ree at least that al)ost al+a%s al)ost e'er%one clin-s
des*eratel% to one 4eL*lanator% a**aratus6 or another terrified
of the 4tu)ult of e'ents +hich lac& not Hust inter*retations but
interpretability6 that +hich EeertI calls 4chaos.6
1
(o use an
analo-% fro) the PAQi )ost of us *refer the dust in our e%es to
seein- thin-s as the% are ineL*licabl% ineL*ressibl% *ainful.
S

so)ethin- assu)es the belief that the obHect is there to be *ercei'ed and
has entered into the cause of the *erce*tual eL*erience in an a**ro*riate
+a%.6
Presu)abl% s*ea&infor acade)ic scholars of reli-ion Proudfoot asserts ""NP
"0# that 4Geli-ious eL*erience li&e an% eL*erience )ust be s*ecified fro)
the subHect=s *oint of 'ie+. Jere +e to define reli-ious eL*erience b%
e)*lo%in- the second sense of the ter) and includin- an assu)*tion of the
inde*endent eListence of the obHect in the conditions for identif%in- an
eL*erience as reli-ious +e +ould ha'e to den% that Sarah Ed+ards has an
eL*erience of Jesus or that Ste*hen Bradle% had an eL*erience of the Hol%
S*irit unless +e +ere *re*ared to acce*t the theolo-ical doctrines those
eL*eriences *resu**ose.6
Since the cate-or% of <reli-ious= assu)es a distinction bet+een sacred and
secular it )a% not reall% be a**licable to )indfulness *ractice +hich
focuses on an% *art of a <+orld of eL*erience=. Nonetheless +e are left +ith
the *roble) of +hether )odern acade)ics can res*onsibl% define vipassan
in a +a% that assu)es the eListence of its obHects inde*endent of an%
intellectual inter*retation. Proudfoot=s obHections )a% be relie'ed
so)e+hat if +e recall that the obHects of insi-ht are not <Eod= nor e'en
<i)*er)anence= but rather the *rocesses of seein- hearin- tastin-
s)ellin- touchin- or thin&in-. I sub)it that e'en the <scientific stud% of
reli-ion= )a% res*onsibl% assu)e \ indeed )ust assu)e for all *ractical
*ur*oses \ that sense *rocesses are e'ident as *art of bein- hu)an.
1 4Geli-ion as a Cultural S%ste)6 in EeertI "###, .##.
S A%acana Sutta :S.VI..;XI.0WY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
Ins$g%t A 05)
Satipa)) hna the establish)ent of )indfulness is e)*lo%ed to
-raduall% dis*el delusion re'ealin- this eListential chaos )ore
and )ore full%. So terrif%in- is this realit% that insi-ht can onl%
be inte-rated into a hu)an life -raduall% sta-e b% sta-e.
And Hust as the -reat ocean has a seKuential dee*enin- a
seKuential slo*e a seKuential inclinin- +ithout a sudden dro*
off ri-ht _at first` in the sa)e +a% in this Doctrine and Disci*line
there is a seKuential trainin- a seKuential +or&in- a seKuential
*ro-ression +ithout a sudden *enetration to full understandin-
ri-ht _at first`.
O
Per'e&t$ons Of Progress
In the 4Discourse Settin- the Jheel of Dha))a in Motion6
the Buddha describes ho+ durin- his a+a&enin- 4to )e arose the
'ision the &no+led-e the +isdo) the clear si-ht the
illu)ination in re-ard to thin-s unheard before <this is the noble
truth of sufferin-=.6
W
(here had been no tradition to instruct
Siddhattha Eota)a in the noble truths, of sufferin- the cause of
sufferin- the cessation of sufferin- and the *ath to the cessation
of sufferin-. (hus the *ro-ressi'e sta-es of insi-ht are not
de*endent on an% teachin- but rather can occur in an% sentient
bein-=s strea) of consciousness +hen the )ental factors of
O Bd.V.1.XBd.10Y author=s trans. Althou-h (hanissaro=s -loss <-radual=
ca*tures one i)*ortant as*ect of anupubbena I ha'e used the <successi'e= in
order to brin- out another as*ect *ointed out b% the
co))entar%XBdA0#0Y, the necessit% of first *urif%in- one=s conduct in
order to allo+ concentration to de'elo* culti'atin- concentration to
*rotect the tender shoots of +isdo). (he brac&eted insertions
*ara*hrased fro) the co))entar% hel* this a**arentl% idio)atic *hrase
)a&e )ore sense in translation.
W Dha))aca&&a*a'attana Sutta :S.DVI...;XV$""Y author=s trans. (hou-h I
ha'e used so)e u* +ith sli-htl% different -losses and structure in the first
*art of this sentence I ha'e follo+ed Bhi&&hu Bodhi=s translation 4in
re-ard to thin-s unheard before6 for pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu> it
ca*tures a certain softPs*o&en tone that (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s 4+ith re-ard
to thin-s ne'er heard before6 see)s to o'ershoot.
059 A STRON? ROOTS
)indfulness in'esti-ation coura-eous effort ra*ture
tranKuilit% concentration and eKuani)it% are stron- enou-h.
N
An% sense eL*erience can be insi-htful to +hate'er de-ree it
occurs +ith clear seein- vijj. (he reKuisite condition for
a+a&enin- is si)*l% this clear seein- +hich can occur as a factor
of an% of the siL &inds of sense consciousness. No *articular sense
eL*erience is reKuired for insi-ht. In *ractice nonetheless
concentrated )indfulness does brin- about certain *s%choP
*h%sical states> accordin- to *ractitioners= re*orts certain
de-rees of clear a+areness see) to coincide +ith certain
e)otions. B Pa?@ita=s descri*tion of the four insi-ht absor*tions
-i'es one 'er% broad *icture of ho+ concentration and insi-ht
*ro-ress.
In the first 'i*assanA HhAna one can eL*erience the ha**iness of
seclusion. (he hindrances are &e*t a+a% and so the )ind is
re)ote and secluded fro) the).
In the second HhAna one eL*eriences the ha**iness of
concentration... in the for) of ra*ture and co)fort. As co)fort is
abandoned the ha**iness of the third HhAna is si)*l% &no+n as
the ha**iness of eKuani)it%.
7inall% in the fourth HhAna +e eL*erience the *urit% of
)indfulness due to eKuani)it%.
(he fourth t%*e is the best ha**iness of course. Di&e the first
three ho+e'er it still occurs in the real) of conditioned
*heno)ena. 2nl% if the %o-i transcends this real) can he or she
eL*erience the ulti)ate ha**iness the ha**iness of real *eace.
(his is called santisu'ha in Pali. It occurs +hen the obHects of
)editation and all other )ental and *h%sical *heno)ena as +ell
as the notin- )ind itself co)e to a co)*lete sto*.
.#
N (hese se'en <7actors of A+a&enin-= are bound to no *articular conce*tual
content but si)*l% RcolorR eL*erience in certain +a%s as do the o**osin-
hindrances of cra'in- a'ersion sloth and tor*or restlessness and doubt.
(he *resence of an% one )a% tri--er *articular &inds of conce*tual
thou-ht of course. Please see the discussion on *."1".
.# Pa?@ita .NN0, "#$P1 is deri'ed fro) a co)*arison )ade b% the Mahasi
Sa%ada+ bet+een the )ental factors that *redo)inate at certain sta-es of
absor*tion *ractice and of )indfulness *ractice.
Ins$g%t A 05:
B% collatin- and s%ste)atiIin- descri*tions fro) the PAQ i
teLts earl% (hera'Adin co))entators de'elo*ed lists of insi-ht
sta-es throu-h +hich *ractitioners *ro-ress. (hese for)ulations
are set out and elucidated in certain +or&s b% the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ and his senior students such as B Pa?@ita.
As %o-is *ractice 'i*assanA )editation under the instruction of a
Kualified teacher the% beco)e able to *ercei'e different truths
about realit% not accessible to ordinar% consciousness. (hese
)editation insi-hts tend to occur in a s*ecific order re-ardless of
*ersonalit% t%*e or le'el of intelli-ence successi'el% dee*enin-
alon- +ith the concentration and *urit% of )ind that result fro)
*ro*er )editation *ractice.
..
In the MahAsi s%ste) in Bur)a +hen a teacher finds
e'idence in *ractitioners= re*orts su--estin- that the% ha'e
)astered and transcended the le'els of insi-ht absor*tion the
students listen to a ta*ed descri*tion of the sta-es of insi-ht.
Jhen she +as eL*osed to the classical (hera'Adin anal%sis of the
<Pro-ress of Insi-ht= Michele McDonald li&e )an% other
*ractitioners found it 4the best descri*tion of +hat I had
eL*erienced.6
."
Sharf cites the account of an illiterate far)er in
southern Bur)a in the earl% t+entieth centur% +ho dili-entl%
a**lied so)e brief )editation instructions he had recei'ed. He
a**arentl% )ade ra*id *ro-ress, +hen scrutiniIed b% PAQi
scholars his re*orts of ho+ his eL*erience had unfolded echoed
the descri*tions of *ro-ress throu-h full a+a&enin- found in the
PAQ i discourses thou-h he had ne'er had an% direct access to
these teLts.
.0
Man% A)erican students see) to fiLate on achie'in-
*ro-ress and thus de'elo* an unbalanced &ind of stri'in- +hich
actuall% *recludes the dee*enin- of insi-ht. Delusion is itself a
defense )echanis) and there e'identl% are stron- natural
feedbac& )echanis)s that hinder clear seein- +hen the faculties
.. Pa?@ita .NN0, "SN.
." Personal co))unication.
.0 Sharf .NN1, "OS cites this stor% of the Sunlun Sa%ada+ but I do +onder ho+
this is )eant to su**ort Sharf=s thesis.
0#; A STRON? ROOTS
of faith and +isdo) ener-% and concentration are out of balance.
Jithout the su**ort of each of the fi'e faculties includin-
)indfulness one +ould not be able to inte-rate an eL*erience of
eListential chaos> +hen an% of these factors is +ea& or absent an
eL*erience of dee* insi-ht +ould result in insanit% not liberation
fro) sufferin-. (his is one *ro'en dan-er in the use of DSD and
other *s%chedelics to forcefull% cut throu-h la%ers of *rotecti'e
delusion. Je should be than&ful that insi-ht *ro-resses onl%
+hen faith and +isdo) ener-% and concentration de'elo* in
tande). In the 4Br-ent Discourse6 the Buddha +arns a-ainst
i)*atience for results.
(here is the case +here a far)in- householder Kuic&l% -ets his
field +ellP*lo+ed 5 +ellPharro+ed. Ha'in- Kuic&l% -otten his
field +ellP*lo+ed 5 +ellPharro+ed he Kuic&l% *lants the seed.
Ha'in- Kuic&l% *lanted the seed he Kuic&l% lets in the +ater 5
then lets it out. (hese are the three ur-ent duties of a far)in-
householder. No+ that far)in- householder does not ha'e the
*o+er or )i-ht _to sa%,` RMa% )% cro*s s*rin- u* toda% )a% the
-rains a**ear to)orro+ and )a% the% ri*en the neLt da%.R But
+hen the ti)e has co)e the far)in- householderRs cro*s s*rin-
u* the -rains a**ear and the% ri*en.
In the sa)e +a% there are these three ur-ent duties of a
_bhi&&hu`. Jhich threeU (he underta&in- of hei-htened 'irtue
the underta&in- of hei-htened )ind the underta&in- of
hei-htened discern)ent. (hese are the three ur-ent duties of a
)on&. No+ that _bhi&&hu` does not ha'e the *o+er or )i-ht _to
sa%,` RMa% )% )ind be released fro) fer)entations throu-h lac&
of clin-in-... toda% or to)orro+ or the neLt da%.R But +hen the
ti)e has co)e his )ind is released fro) fer)entations throu-h
lac& of clin-in-...
.$
(o a'oid tri--erin- unhealth% stri'in- and to foster the
necessar% balance teachers use so)e *resentations in the
A)erican conteLt that differ fro) the linear account of *ro-ress
.$ Acca%i&a Sutta :A.III.N.;. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu -losses upadna as
<clin-in-Vsustenance= +hich is lin-uisticall% accurate and also an
interestin- *hiloso*hical issue in the PAQi. Ho+e'er in the interest of
)a&in- the translation )ore accessible I ha'e o)itted the second half of
this construction.
Ins$g%t A 0#1
usuall% e)*lo%ed in Bur)a. Ste'en S)ith e)*hasiIes that the
*ractice *ro-resses in c%cles and that *ractitioners should not be
disa**ointed +hen the% find *re'ious concentration or insi-ht
no lon-er *resent. (o encoura-e insi-ht rather than
eL*ectations and Hud-)ents about insi-ht no'ice *ractitioners in
the MahAsi tradition are not usuall% -i'en )ore than a cursor%
outline of the sta-es of insi-ht. (he descri*tion of the *ro-ress of
insi-ht a**ended to B Pa?@ita=s boo& In 9his &ery <i3e
is *ro'ided +ith a cautionar% note, if %ou are *racticin-
)editation don=t thin& about *ro-ress/ It is Kuite i)*ossible for
e'en the )ost eL*erienced )editator to e'aluate his or her o+n
*ractice> and onl% after eLtensi'e *ersonal eL*erience and
trainin- can a teacher be-in to reco-niIe the s*ecific subtle
si-ns of this *ro-ression in the 'erbal re*orts of another
)editator.
.1
A *ractitioner need not \ indeed cannot \ *ercei'e insi-ht as
such i))ediatel% +hen it is occurrin-. Indeed thin&in- that one
is eL*eriencin- insi-ht can *reclude the eL*erience of insi-ht.
Jhen \ for a )o)ent \ the illusion of continuit% has been
bro&en *heno)ena are re'ealed to be ra*idl% o**ressi'el%
uncontrollabl% arisin- and *assin- a+a%. (his -enuine clarit%
ho+e'er can be then beco)e subHect of a *roliferatin- thou-ht
*rocess in the 'er% neLt )o)ent. Because dee* insi-ht is itself so
*o+erful and co)*ellin- +e 'er% it offers a ne+ o**ortunit% for
the )indRs old tric&s, ta&in- the +isdo) as R)ineR identif%in-
oneself as +ise buildin- a +hole stor% about ho+ I a)
*ro-ressin- and +hat a +onderful thin- I a) doin- +ith )% life...
Jhen unnoticed such reflections can 4the)sel'es beco)e a
hindrance to dee*enin- insi-ht.6
.S
&ipassan is not intellectual
anal%sis.
An% )o)ent of consciousness includes a host of )ental
factors accordin- to the (hera'Adin anal%sis> the *articular
)a&eu* is deter)ined b% *ast and *resent conditions. 7or the
.1 Pa?@ita .NN0, "SN.
.S Eoldstein .NN0c, 10.
0#0 A STRON? ROOTS
*ur*ose of a+a&enin- the *resence or absence of health% )ental
factors )a&es all the difference. (he &e%stone of these liberatin-
forces is vijj clear seein- on the le'el of sensation.
.O
Jhen its
o**osite avijj is *resent instead a c%cle of sufferin- results. If
the e)*he)eral unsatisf%in- nature of a *leasant sense
eL*erience is not seen clearl% cra'infor )ore of it results.
Jhen a sense eL*erience +ith a ne-ati'e char-e is not seen
clearl% cra'infor the eL*erience to end results and sasra
rolls on. -vijj has t+o as*ects, not seein- +hat is actuall%
ha**enin- and seein- +hat is not actuall% ha**enin-.
.W
Jhen
one is lost in a thou-ht about so)ethin- the thou-ht *rocess
itself is not seen> at such ti)es distorted 'ie+s of *heno)ena can
occur. Jhen a terrif%in- or *leasin- thou-ht about the future
arises +e often )ista&e the content of our thou-ht for realit%, +e
are afraid of or co'etous of so)ethin- that is not e'en ha**enin-
in the *resent. Such is avijj not seein- clearl%.
(he o**osin- Kualit% of vijj is a clear a+areness of <thin-s as
the% are=. Clear <seein-= does not i)*l% so)eone or so)ethin-
that is seein-> 4in the ulti)ate sense6 the Venerable NA-asena
tells the Eree& &in- Menander 4there eLists no <one +ho attains
+isdo)=.6
.N
Due to contact bet+een sense base and sense obHect
sense consciousness arises. (he clear a+areness of vijj is one of
.O Such clear seein- de'elo*s pa** +isdo).
.W Ada*ted fro) Pa?@ita .NN0, "W. 4Not seein- +hat is true that is uni'ersal
i)*er)anence unsatisfactoriness and absence of inherent essence or self>
and seein- +hat is not true na)el% that obHects and eL*eriences *ossess
*er)anence ha**iness and inherent selfPessence.6
.N Miln.V.SXMiln.O.Y authorRs trans.
Ins$g%t A 0#2
)an% )ental factors that occur in a strea) of consciousness
-i'en certain *ast and *resent conditions.
Mental factors such as cra'in- or delusion lo'in-&indness or
clear seein- do not de*end on an% *articular conce*ts. (hin&ers
fro) the ErecoPJudaic tradition )i-ht find it difficult to
understand ho+ there could be co)*assion or lo'e for instance
+hen notions of <self= and <other= ha'e been dis*elled. 7ro) the
(hera'Adin *ers*ecti'e ho+e'er there is no contradiction,
unconditional lo'e is a Kualit% that can arise as *art of an%
)o)ent of sense consciousness. (he )ost *ure and intense
)o)ents of such lo'e are not directed at an% conce*tual entit%.
Jose*h Eoldstein -i'es an illustrati'e descri*tion of the Ben-ali
lad% Di*a Ma Barua. Eoldstein +rites of a
s*ecial Kualit% of her bein- that touched e'er%one +ho )et her.
It +as a Kualit% of the Kuietest *eace full% suffused +ith lo'e.
(his stillness and lo'e +ere different fro) an%thin- I had
encountered before. (he% +ere not an e-o *ersona and the%
didn=t +ant or need an%thin- in return. Si)*l% in the absence of
self lo'e and *eace +ere +hat re)ained.
"#
(he clear seein- of vijj is not a conce*tual &no+led-e that
)i-ht articulate ideas such as *er)anence or i)*er)anence.
Such inter*retations can onl% occur as the content of a thou-ht
occurrin- at the )indPdoor. In that case a )o)ent of intellectual
consciousness arises de*endent on the intellect and a thou-ht
+hich )a% or )a% not be acco)*anied b% clear seein- of the
thou-ht *rocess itself.
"# Eoldstein "##0, N.
0#5 A STRON? ROOTS
&ijj then is si)*l% clear a+areness of an% sensation as it
arises as it is *resent as it ceases. (he idea that there are nonP
conce*tual +a%s of &no+in- has been stron-l% asserted not onl%
in Indian thou-ht but also b% certain *hiloso*hers in the
Jestern tradition. Jillia) Ja)es differentiates bet+een
<&no+led-e about= and <&no+led-e of acKuaintance= the later
corres*ondin- Kuite closel% to the (hera'Adin idea of &no+in-
that directl% confronts its obHect abhi** +ithout a conce*tual
co)*onent. No less an authorit% than D. J. Kalu*ahana has
*ointed to the )an% si)ilarities bet+een Ja)es= <radical
e)*iricis)= and that of the Buddha in the PAQ i.
".
If +e do allo+ for sense consciousness as described in the
PAQ i a nu)ber of recent *ostP)odernist clai)s about <Buddhis)=
a**ear rather confused. Sharf refers a**ro'in-l% to Gobert
Ei)ello=s +or& for instance.
...the disci*line of )editation is desi-ned to induce Hust those
)%stical eL*eriences +hich +ill +hen *ro*erl% anal%sed best
eLe)*lif% basic Buddhist doctrines. (hus rather than s*ea& of
Buddhist doctrines as inter*retations of Buddhist )%stical
eL*eriences one )i-ht better s*ea& of Buddhist )%stical
eL*eriences as deliberatel% contri'ed eLe)*lifications of
Buddhist doctrine.
""
Ei)ello -oes e'en further in a later article first ar-uin- that
)%sticis) is culturall% contin-ent.
(he )%sticis) of an% *articular )%stic is reall% the +hole
*attern of his life. (he rare and +onderful <*ea&s= of eL*erience
are a *art of that *attern but onl% a *art and their real 'alue lies
onl% in their relations to the other *arts to his thou-ht his
)oral 'alues his conduct to+ards others his character and
". Kalu*ahana .NON. (hou-h Kalu*ahana=s later readin-s of the PAQi teLts on
this issue such as Kalu*ahana .NN" see) to reflect the influence of the
*ostP)odernist )o'e)ent this earl% article )a&es a stron- and co-ent
case OW for 4&no+led-e of thin-s or e'ents that are directl% eL*erienced.6
Please see note 0N on *..W#.
"" Ei)ello .NOW, .N0.
Ins$g%t A 0##
*ersonalit% etc. (he )odern stud% of )%sticis) has I belie'e
tended to o'erloo& those relations.
"0
2nl% irres*onsible and inco)*lete inter*retations of
)indfulness )editation ne-lect the role that teachin-s and
co))unit% *la% in -uidance and ins*iration as Ei)ello su--ests.
Indeed +ith a fe+ i)*ortant Kualifications one )i-ht fruitfull%
a**l% Ei)ello=s descri*tion to *ractice in Bur)a or Barre.
"$
(he
Ei-htfold Noble Path indeed )ust co)*rise the 4+hole *attern6
of a *erson=s life includin- ri-ht 'ie+ ri-ht resol'e ri-ht s*eech
ri-ht action ri-ht li'elihood as +ell as ri-ht effort ri-ht
)indfulness and ri-ht concentration. Most as*ects of the
*ractice are indeed culturall% contin-ent but Ei)ello=s
conclusion does not necessaril% follo+,
...+e )a% sa% that acce*tance of the de*endenc% of )%sticis)
u*on its conteLts to-ether +ith the entailed acce*tance of the
funda)ental differences a)on- 'arieties of )%sticis) lends
su**ort to a 'ie+ re*u-nant to )an% enthusiasts 'iI. that
)%stical eL*erience is si)*l% the *s%choso)atic enhance)ent of
reli-ious beliefs and 'alues or of beliefs and 'alues of other &inds
+hich are held <reli-iousl%=. But such a 'ie+ of )%stical
eL*erience should be disturbin- onl% to those +ho set little store
b% reli-ious beliefs and 'alues.
"1
In order to arri'e at an authentic inter*retation of
satipa)) hna *ractice I ha'e su--ested throu-hout *ractitioners
and acade)ics )ust return to the *rinci*les of the PAQ i teLts. I set
no little store b% the 4beliefs and 'alues6 the Buddha *resents in
the discourses> on the contrar% the *recedin- cha*ters on
4Conduct6 4Dearnin-6 and 4Discussion6 detail ho+ conce*tual
"0 Ei)ello .NW0, W1.
"$ If +e a-ree that insi-ht is 4*art of the *attern6 the PAQi teLts are Kuite clear
that the -reatest 'alue of insi-ht is its abilit% to brin- an end to the *ainful
c%cle of eListence. Ei'en that one +onders +hat eLactl% Ei)ello )eans b%
assertin- that these eL*eriences= 4real 'alue lies onl% in their relation6 to
hu)an conduct thou-ht 'alues etc. If he is si)*l% assu)in- that no
eL*erience can ha'e <real 'alue= eLce*t in relation to hu)an societ% then
the ar-u)ent is rather circular.
"1 Ei)ello .NW0, W1.
0#1 A STRON? ROOTS
*resentations of the Ei-htfold Noble Path b% teachers such as the
MahAsi Sa%ada+ function to ins*ire and -uide those of us +ho
other+ise +ould not be able to acco)*lish a+a&enin-. Ho+e'er
these 'er% sa)e (hera'Adin doctrines )a&e clear +h% the
eL*erience of insi-ht is not 4si)*l% the *s%choso)atic
enhance)ent of reli-ious beliefs and 'alues.6 Certain )ental
factors can be ins*ired b% 'arious thou-hts accordin- to the
(hera'Adin anal%sis> onl% in this +a% can the teachin-s ins*ire
Kualities that )i-ht be identified as <faith= <ener-%=
<)indfulness= or <concentration=. Di&e the clear seein- of vijj
ho+e'er these factors do not de*end on an% *articular teachin-s
or ideas. (his is not to den% that insi-ht is de*endent on conteLt,
an% as*ect of consciousness arises de*endent on *ast and *resent
interactions bet+een sense or-ans and sense obHects but insi-ht
is not deter)ined b% the content of an% sense obHect, 'isual
tan-ible intellectual or other+ise. (he necessar% conteLt for
vijj then is si)*l% conscious bein- not an% *articular set of
conce*ts. In this +a% can +e )a&e sense of the idea that
Siddhattha Eota)a beca)e a+a&ened a buddha +ithout an%
<Buddhist doctrine= at his dis*osal. Accordin- to the PAQ i teLts
o'er the course of ti)e there ha'e been )an% bein-s +ho
a+a&ened +ithout an% instruction both those +ho tau-ht others
to follo+ their *ractices and those +ho did not.
"S
"S (hese are differentiated in the PAQi as sammsambuddh and pa%%e'abuddh
res*ecti'el% both distinct fro) the sva' disci*les +ho -ain a+a&enin-
after *uttin- into *ractice the instructions of a sammsambuddha. So)e
Jestern scholars no doubt hea'il% influenced b% the Hebre+s= linear
conce*tion of histor% ha'e dis)issed the idea of )an% buddhas as a later
inno'ation forei-n to the *rinci*les of the earl% PAQi teLts. 2n the contrar%
accordin- to the ancient Indic understandin- e)bedded throu-hout the
PAQi the *rocess of histor% -oes round and round and round a-ain. (he idea
that an% t%*e of *heno)enon could be li)ited to a sin-le occurrence is a
teleolo-ical conceit +hich is +h% there is no messiah in the PAQi.
Ins$g%t A 0#)
Un-ef$n$ng T%e Un'on-$t$one-
<(his is the noble truth of sufferin-=...
<(his noble truth of sufferin- is to be full% understood=...
<(his noble truth of sufferin- has been full% understood=.
"O
E'en enHo%)ent e'en eKuani)it% e'en consciousness itself
is a subtle for) of a-itation. Pro-ressin- throu-h the sta-es of
insi-ht )eans realiIin- this first noble truth of sufferin- on )ore
and )ore subtle le'els. In one *assa-e the Buddha -i'es the
analo-% of a )assi'e fire sustained b% *eriodic in*uts of 4dried
-rass dried co+ dun- and dried ti)ber6 and burnin-
*er*etuall%.
E'en so _bhi&&hus` in one +ho &ee*s focusin- on the allure of
those *heno)ena that offer sustenance :lit, Rfla))able
*heno)enaR; cra'inde'elo*s> +ith cra'in- as condition
sustenance> +ith sustenance as condition beco)in-> +ith
beco)in- as condition birth> +ith birth as condition a-in-
illness 5 death sorro+ la)entation *ain distress 5 des*air all
co)e into *la%. (hus is the ori-in of this entire )ass of sufferin-
5 stress.
"W
Sufferin- arises onl% if cra'in- is *resent> such is the second
noble truth. (his cause of sufferin- 4is to be abandoned.6 E'en a
fire of 4ten... t+ent%... thirt% or fort% cartloads of ti)ber6 +ould
e'entuall% -o out if it +ere not fed 4its ori-inal sustenance bein-
consu)ed and no other bein- offered.6 Di&e+ise for one +ho
&ee*s seein- the dra+bac&s of arisin- eL*erience, for) feelin-
*erce*tion )ental states andconsciousness cra'in- sto*s.
"N
7ro) the sto**in- of cra'in- sustenance sto*s. 7ro) the
sto**in- of sustenance beco)in-... birth... a-in- illness and
death sorro+ la)entation *ain distress and des*air all sto*.
(hus is the sto**in- of this entire )ass of sufferin- and stress.
0#
"O Dha))aca&&a*a'attana Sutta :S.DVI...;XV$""Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
"W S.ÎI.1"XIIW$Y trans. (hanissaro .NNN, Part II Ch. 0.
"N S.ÎI.1"XIIW1Y trans. (hanissaro .NNN, Part II Ch. 0.
0# S.ÎI.1"XIIW1Y trans. (hanissaro .NNN, Part II Ch. 0.
0#9 A STRON? ROOTS
(his cessation of sufferin- the third noble truth is to be
4realiIed.6
0.
Descri*tions and definitions of this -oal differ not
onl% bet+een the (hera'Ada and the MahA%Ana but also +ithin
the (hera'Ada bet+een the (hai forest )asters and the Bur)ese
scholastic tradition for instance. (he PAQ i teLts the)sel'es offer
a nu)ber of different descri*tions of full a+a&enin- and also
su--est that nothin- +ould be adeKuate to con'e% the final
*ur*ose of the teachin-s. In the 4Discourse on the Goots6 the
Buddha re)ar&s that one +ould onl% concei'e thin-s about the
-oal because 4he has not co)*rehended it I tell %ou.6
0"
Des*ite
this direct +arnin- o'er the course of the Buddha-Ssana )ore
than a fe+ ha'e i)*uted ontolo-ical si-nificance to descri*tions
of the destination as (hanissaro Bhi&&hu *oints out.
(here has lon- been \ and still is \ a co))on tendenc% to create
a 4Buddhist6 )eta*h%sics in +hich the eL*erience of e)*tiness
the Bnconditioned the Dhar)aPbod% BuddhaPnature ri-*a etc.
is said to function as the -round of bein- fro) +hich the 4All6 \
the entiret% of our sensor% 5 )ental eL*erience \ is said to
s*rin- and to +hich +e return +hen +e )editate. So)e *eo*le
thin& that these theories are the in'entions of scholars +ithout
an% direct )editati'e eL*erience but actuall% the% ha'e )ost
often ori-inated a)on- )editators +ho label :or in the +ords of
the _Mula*ari%a%a Sutta` 4*ercei'e6; a *articular )editati'e
eL*erience as the ulti)ate -oal identif% +ith it in a subtle +a%
:as +hen +e are told that 4+e are the &no+in-6; and then 'ie+
that le'el of eL*erience as the -round of bein- out of +hich all
other eL*erience co)es.
00
In one *assa-e the Brah)an B*asi'a as&s the Buddha to
describe the end of the *ath 4as this *heno)enon has been
&no+n b% %ou.6 (he ans+er is instructi'e.
2ne +ho has reached the end has no criterion
b% +hich an%one +ould sa% that \
for hi) it doesnRt eList.
0. Dha))aca&&a*a'attana Sutta :S.DVI...;XV$""Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
0" Mula*ari%a%a Sutta :M..;XI$Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
00 (hanissaro "##., Introduction.
Ins$g%t A 0#:
Jhen all *heno)ena are done a+a% +ith
All )eans of s*ea&in- are done a+a% +ith as +ell.
0$
(he first state)ent indicates that the realiIation of the -oal
cannot be described either fro) the outside or fro) the inside
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu su--ests.
01
(hat is the end of the *ractice
offers no criteria b% +hich an%one could deter)ine it to ha'e
been &no+n. 7urther)ore 4there +ould not e'en be an% )eans
of &no+in- +hether or not there +as a *erson ha'in- the
eL*erience. (here +ould si)*l% be the eL*erience in and of
itself.6
0S
If at <the end= to be reached <all *heno)ena are done
a+a% +ith= thou-h *erha*s +e should sa% that there +ould
si)*l% be the absence of eL*erience.
In the subtle difference bet+een (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s
descri*tion of an <eL*erience= +hich no one is &no+n to ha'e and
)% o+n readin- of this sutta as describin- the absence of
eL*erience lies one si-nificant difference bet+een our res*ecti'e
traditions. An% realit% a*art fro) the siL senses 4lies be%ond
ran-e6 as the Sabba Sutta *uts it and an% assertion of another
realit% +ould be indefensible. Modern Bur)ese )editation
)asters in -eneral ha'e follo+ed teLts such as the 4Discourse on
De*endent 2ri-ination6 in describin- the -oal as the
4re)ainderless fadin- 5 cessation of... i-norance3 'olitional
for)ations3 consciousness3 na)ePandPfor)3 birth a-in-PandP
death sorro+ la)entation *ain dis*leasure and des*air.6
0O
In
his discourse On the /ature #3 /ibbna the MahAsi Sa%ada+
)aintains that the -oal 4can be seen in+ardl% as the cessation of
all *heno)ena.6
0W
(he *ro-ress of insi-ht clears the +a% for the
noble *ath and fruition insi-hts +hich ta&e this total cessation as
their obHect. (his is ho+ *ractitioners co)e to &no+ for
the)sel'es the unsur*assed ha**iness of *eace. Nonetheless b%
0$ B*as['aP)A?a'aP*ucchA :Sn.V.S;XSn."#OY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
01 (hanissaro .NNN, Part II Ch. ..
0S (hanissaro .NNN, Part II Ch. ..
0O PaZiccasa)u**Ada Sutta :S.ÎI..;XII"Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
0W MahAsi .NN", .#..
01; A STRON? ROOTS
this definition nibbna itself could not include an as*ect of
a+areness nor could it si)*l% be a different +a% of relatin- to
hu)an eL*erience as certain MahA%Ana teachin-s define the
-oal. So)e in the (hai forest tradition on the other hand
describe a t%*e of lu)inous <unfabricated= consciousness that
re)ains +hen fabrications ha'e ceased. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu
)a&es the crucial *oint.
(he standard descri*tion of nibbana after death is 4All that is
sensed not bein- relished +ill -ro+ cold ri-ht here.6 3A-ain as
4all6 is defined as the sense )edia this raises the Kuestion as to
+hether consciousness +ithout feature is not co'ered b% this
4all.6 Ho+e'er AN IV..O$ +arns that an% s*eculation as to
+hether an%thin- does or doesnRt re)ain after the re)ainderless
sto**in- of the siL sense )edia is to 4co)*licate nonP
co)*lication6 +hich -ets in the +a% of attainin- the nonP
co)*licated. (hus this is a Kuestion that is best *ut aside.
0N
(he last line of the Buddha=s ans+er to B*asi'a is an eL*licit
clai) to ineffabilit%, 4Jhen all *heno)ena are done a+a% +ithV
All )eans of s*ea&in- are done a+a% +ith as +ell.6 As such no
ter)inolo-% could trul% a**l% to the -oal. Ins*irin- descri*tions
such as 4the fore)ost ease6 and 4the *lace of *eace6 are found in
the PAQ i.
$#
Di&e+ise ancient and )odern discourse on the *ractice
refers to <eL*erience= <realiIation= and <attain)ent= of
<a+a&enin-= <the deathless= or <the unconditioned= a)on- other
e*ithets. (he 'er% eListence of such a thin- in relation to a full%
a+a&ened bein- is denied ho+e'er in *assa-es such as the 'erse
ans+erin- B*asi'a Kuoted abo'e. (his eni-)atic stance su--ests
that an% descri*tions are intended as heuristic de'ices to orient
those still on their +a% rather than as definiti'e criteria for the
destination.
$.
In fact states one *assa-e 4there=s no destination
0N In this note to his translation of D... (hanissaro Bhi&&hu cites MN .$# and
Iti $$ for the state)ent 4All that is sensed not bein- relished...6
$# MA-a?@i%a Sutta :M.O1;XI1#WY parama su'ha trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu>
Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4santi*ada6 SOS referrin- to A.IV."SXII.WY.
$. (hanissaro .NNN, Part I. Cf. Proudfoot .NW1, W 4Confusion arises3 +hen
lan-ua-e that is )eant to function e'ocati'el% is also *resented as anal%sis
or as a theoretical account of reli-ious eL*erience.6
Ins$g%t A 011
to describe for those +ho are ri-htl% released \ ha'in- crossed
o'er the flood of sensualit%=s bond \ for those +ho ha'e attained
un+a'erin- bliss.6
$"
If this onl% a**lies to those co)*letel%
liberated fro) the c%cle of sufferin- thou-h for the rest of us
there is a destination to +or& to+ards.
2ne )eans the Buddha a**arentl% did use to con'e% his
disco'er% +as the )eta*hor of <nibbna=. (he *ri)ar% )eanin- of
the ter) nibbna and its Sans&rit co-nate nirv(a is the
eLtin-uishin- of a fire. At the ti)e of the Buddha Indian thou-ht
*ostulated a for) of sustenance updna +hich fire +as thou-ht
to be de*endent on and entra**ed b%. (he fifth centur% C.E.
co))entator Buddha-hosa *ro*osed a deri'ation for the ter)
nibbna fro) 4nir6 a ne-ati'e *article and 4v(a6 bindin-.
(hanissaro Bhi&&hu concurs and su--ests that the translation
4Bnbindin-6 )ost accuratel% con'e%s the )eta*horical sense
ori-inall% intended b% nibbna.
$0
In one *assa-e the nun Dha))adinna *raised b% the Buddha
as 4a +o)an of -reat discern)ent6 ans+ers a series of Kuestions
about the *ro-ression of the *ractice. Near the end of the series
she re*orts that 4release lies on the other side of clear &no+in-.6
But +hen her student as&s 4Jhat lies on the other side of
Bnbindin-U6 she re*lies
Mou='e -one too far friend Visa&ha. Mou can=t &ee* holdin- on u*
to the li)it of Kuestions. 7or the hol% life *lun-es into
Bnbindin- cul)inates in Bnbindin- has Bnbindin- as its final
end.
$$
$" Dabba Sutta :Bd.VIII..#;XBd.N0Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. Geco-niIin-
that 4t+o antithetic readin-s are al+a%s *ossible :at least at the
con'entional le'el;6 7aure .NN$, 0.1 as&s of the debate bet+een the
sudden and -radual schools of Fen 4+hether the *ractice actuall% results
fro) a tension bet+een the t+o *oles of discourse or +hether the *ractice
itself *roduces6 this tension bet+een o**osin- 'ie+s. In the discourses of
the Sutta i)a'a a si)ilar dialectic functions both to re*resent the
inconcei'able lin-uisticall% and to ins*ire the de'elo*)ent of clear seein-
+hich transcends conce*tions.
$0 (hanissaro .NNN, Part I.
010 A STRON? ROOTS
(hrou-h +atchin- the arisin- and *assin- of each )o)ent of
eL*erience )ore and )ore *recisel% a *ractitioner finall% co)es
to realiIe its total cessation. (his a+a&enin- can ha**en throu-h
seein- the cessation of an% eL*erience +hatsoe'er. A teacher can
'erif% that the course of insi-ht absor*tions has been co)*leted
and )a% ha'e a stron- sus*icion that a *ractitioner has realiIed
nibbna if certain afterPeffects are e'ident. Ei'en the dis*arit%
bet+een descri*tions of realiIation offered b% the MahAsi
Sa%ada+ the (hai 7orest )asters and others so)e )odern
teachers ha'e been unsure of +hich definition to use +hen
ascertainin- the state of their students= *ractice. (his should onl%
be a *roble) ho+e'er if +e are not +illin- to consistentl%
o*erate fro) one *articular school=s coherent set of inter*reti'e
*rinci*les res*ectin- rather than )ini)iIin- the di'ersit% of
teachin-s a'ailable and the results the% brin-. In an% case
accordin- the PAQi onl% a sammsambuddha such as such as the
Sa&%a)uni can 'erif% another *erson=s attain)ent. 7or all
*ractical *ur*oses at this *oint in histor% then no eLternal
obser'er can be sure. (his is +h% *ractitioners in the MahAsi
s%ste) in Bur)a listen to a ta*e +ith descri*tions of the
eL*eriences encountered alon- *ro-ress of insi-ht and then
decide for the)sel'es. Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita si)*l% as&s 4are %ou
satisfied +ith %our *racticeU6
$1
It is *ossible for *ractitioners to
be )ista&en of course either underP or o'erPesti)atin- their
o+n attain)ents. (he *roof of an% *articular realiIation is
+hether the res*ecti'e uns&illful Kualities of )ind do or do not
$$ CulaPVedalla Sutta :M.$$;XI0#$Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. Dha))adina=s
student in this case +e learn else+here is her for)er husband Visa&ha
hi)self Kuite hi-hl% attained. Dha))adina encoura-es hi) to chec& her
ans+er +ith the Buddha +ho )a&es clear his total a-ree)ent.
4Dha))adinna the nun is +ise Visa&ha a +o)an of -reat discern)ent. If
%ou had as&ed )e those thin-s I +ould ha'e ans+ered %ou in the sa)e +a%
she did. (hat is the )eanin- of those thin-s. (hat is ho+ %ou should
re)e)ber it.6
$1 Michele McDonald su--ests that the Kualities of a <saint= onl% reall% beco)e
stron-l% a**arent in *eo*le +ho ha'e reached the third sta-e of
a+a&enin- angmi. Personal co))unication 2ctober "##".
Ins$g%t A 012
continue arisin-> that is the confir)ation is ho+ a+a&enin- is
)anifested in a hu)an life.
$S
(his is reflected in A)erican
*resentations of vipassan *ractice +hich do not refer nearl% as
freKuentl% as the tal&s -i'en b% Bur)ese )on&s to discrete
realiIations of the Bnconditioned or the Bnbindin-. Gather
teachers at IMS see) to *ut )uch )ore e)*hasis on <liberation=
or <freedo)= fro) sufferin-.
$O
If for all *ractical *ur*oses realiIation cannot be 'erified
fro) outside a +orld of eL*erience acade)ic researchers need
not s*eculate about it. (he criteria b% +hich one can be sure of
the -oal the testi)on% of trusted friends is not -enerall%
acce*ted as solid e'idence for the <scientific= stud% of reli-ion.
Intellectual reasonin- is neither the onl% nor necessaril% the
)ost 'aluable +a% of &no+in- ho+e'er. 7or a *ractitioner of the
Ei-htfold Noble Path initiati'e trust in the *ractice and its -oal
co)e fro) ha'in- <-ood friends=.
(hose +ho ha'e not &no+n seen *enetrated realiIed or
attained it b% )eans of discern)ent +ould ha'e to ta&e it on
con'iction in others that the facult% of con'iction... *ersistence...
)indfulness... concentration... discern)ent +hen de'elo*ed and
*ursued *lun-es into the Deathless has the Deathless as its -oal
and consu))ation> +hereas those +ho ha'e &no+n seen
*enetrated realiIed and attained it b% )eans of discern)ent
+ould ha'e no doubt or uncertaint% that the facult% of
con'iction... *ersistence... )indfulness... concentration...
discern)ent +hen de'elo*ed and *ursued *lun-es into the
Deathless has the Deathless as its -oal and consu))ation.
$W
If acade)ics cannot conclude that there is a *articular
eL*eriential referent of nibbna neither can the% res*onsibl%
assert that there is not. Sharf *oints to a nu)ber of dis*utes
bet+een 'arious traditions about the *ractice and its -oal
concludin- on this basis that
$S Cf. M..#1.
$O Prebish .NNN, .1OPW notes this usa-e.
$W Pubba&ottha&a Sutta :S.^DVIII.$$;XV"".Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
015 A STRON? ROOTS
in the case of conte)*orar% vipassan and Fen historical
ethno-ra*hic and *hiloso*hical anal%sis belies the notion that
the rhetoric of eL*erience functions ostensi'el% to refer to
discrete identifiable and re*licable 4states of consciousness.6
$N

2ne PAQi discourse see)s to ha'e antici*ated Sharf=s
challen-e offerin- a rebuttal to his related contention that since
different *eo*le -i'e different descri*tions there is no discrete
referent of the ter) nibbna. Moreo'er b% its 'er% eListence this
teLt belies Sharf=s su--estion that the )odern Vi*assanA
)o'e)ent=s e)*hasis on direct eL*erience of such realiIations
has no substantial basis in the earl% BuddhaPSAsana. (he
discourse in Kuestion uses the analo-% of a *articular s*ecies of
Indian tree literall% na)ed <+hat is itU= because of its drastic
chan-es bet+een the seasons.
A certain )on& +ent to another )on& and on arri'al said to
hi) 4(o +hat eLtent )% friend is a )on&=s 'ision said to be
+ellP*urifiedU6
4Jhen a )on& discerns as it actuall% is the ori-ination 5
*assin- a+a% of the siL )edia of sensor% contact )% friend it is
to that eLtent that his 'ision is said to be +ellP*urified.6
(he first )on& dissatisfied +ith the other )on&Rs ans+er to his
Kuestion +ent to still another )on& and on arri'al said to hi)
4(o +hat eLtent )% friend is a )on&=s 'ision said to be +ellP
*urifiedU6
4Jhen a )on& discerns as it actuall% is the ori-ination 5
*assin- a+a% of the fi'e clin-in-Pa--re-ates...6
4...the ori-ination 5 *assin- a+a% of the four -reat ele)ents
_earth +ater +ind 5 fire`...6
4...that +hate'er is subHect to ori-ination is all subHect to
cessation )% friend it is to that eLtent that his 'ision is said to
be +ellP*urified.6
(he first )on& dissatisfied +ith this )on&=s ans+er to his
Kuestion then +ent to the Blessed 2ne and on arri'al ha'in-
bo+ed do+n to hi) sat to one side. As he +as sittin- there he
_re*orted to the Blessed 2ne his con'ersations +ith the other
)on&s. (he Blessed 2ne then said,`
$N Sharf .NN1, "00.
Ins$g%t A 01#
4Mon& it=s as if there +ere a )an +ho had ne'er seen a riddle
tree. He +ould -o to another )an +ho had seen one and on
arri'al +ould sa% to hi) <Jhat )% -ood )an is a riddle tree
li&eU=
(he other +ould sa% <A riddle tree is blac& )% -ood )an li&e a
burnt stu)*.= 7or at the ti)e he sa+ it that=s +hat the riddle
tree +as li&e.
(hen the first )an dissatisfied +ith the other )an=s ans+er
+ent to still another )an +ho had seen a riddle tree and on
arri'al said to hi) <Jhat )% -ood )an is a riddle tree li&eU=
(he other +ould sa% <A riddle tree is red )% -ood )an li&e a
lu)* of )eat.=...
<A riddle tree is stri**ed of its bar& )% -ood )an and has burst
*ods li&e an acacia tree.=...
<A riddle tree has thic& folia-e )% -ood )an and -i'es a dense
shade li&e a ban%an.= 7or at the ti)e he sa+ it that=s +hat the
riddle tree +as li&e.
In the sa)e +a% )on& ho+e'er those intelli-ent )en of
inte-rit% +ere focused +hen their 'ision beca)e +ell *urified is
the +a% in +hich the% ans+ered.6
1#
Accordin- to this discourse at least nibbna is discrete>
different *eo*le directl% &no+ the sa)e realiIation thou-h their
*ersonal histories deter)ine their conce*tual inter*retations of
it. (hou-h the *rocess of sense eL*erience is totall% unbound in
the eternal *resent the *recedin- *ractice of dis*ellin- delusion
and the subseKuent reinte-ration into one=s +orld of eL*erience
are 'er% )uch hu)an enter*rises. (hus the fourth and final
noble truth is of 4the +a% of *ractice leadin- to the cessation6 of
sufferin- +hich 4is to be de'elo*ed.6
1.
Ha'in- directl% &no+n
1# Kiisu&a Sutta :S.^^^V."$1;XIV.N.ffY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. See also
Bhi&&hu Bodhi=s notes on *a-e .$"O of his Sa6yutta /i'ya translation
4:isu'a literall% )eans <+hat=s itU= (he na)e )a% ha'e ori-inated fro) an
ancient Indian fol& riddle.6
1. Dha))aca&&a*a'attana Sutta :S.DVI...;XV$""Y. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s
translation of pa)ipada in this 'erse as 4+a% of *ractice6 see)s to ca*ture
)ore connotations of the ori-inal PAQi than the )ore standard 4+a%6
+hich Bhi&&hu Bodhi uses.
011 A STRON? ROOTS
and realiIed the -oal for the)sel'es in the *resent *ractitioners
continue enterin- and d+ellin- in it.
1"
6Engage-8 63+--%$s*8
Ho+ is insi-ht )anifested in a hu)an life toda%U Jhat )i-ht
one +ho has realiIed the i)*ort of the Buddha=s teachin-s in the
PAQ i offer to hel* ease the afflictions of the )odern +orldU
(he )ost 'aluable contribution that the BuddhaRs teachin- can
)a&e to hel*in- us resol'e the -reat dile))as facin- us toda% is
t+ofold, first its unco)*ro)isin-l% realistic anal%sis of the
*s%cholo-ical s*rin-s of hu)an sufferin- and second the
ethicall% ennoblin- disci*line it *ro*oses as the solution.
10
Bhi&&hu Bodhi offers t+o as*ects of +isdo) as bal)s for
sufferin-. (hese t+o are none other than the )eans and the
results of vipassan, the de'elo*)ent of s&illful conduct
concentration of )ind and transfor)ati'e understandin- re'eals
and dis*els the reacti'e )echanis)s that lead us to cause
oursel'es and others sufferin- o'er and o'er.
(he (hera'Ada=s focus on curin- sufferin- in an indi'idual
<+orld of eL*erience= is radical in the Jestern conteLt. (he
ErecoPJudaic tradition has *ut -reat e)*hasis on action that
i)*ro'es societ% +hereas Indian thou-ht has concentrated on
indi'idual de'elo*)ent. (eLts such as the salms #3 S#l#m#n
describe ho+ the messiah 4shall defeat the -reat *o+ers of the
+orld liberate his *eo*le fro) forei-n rule and establish a
uni'ersal &in-do) in +hich the *eo*le +ill li'e in *eace and
ha**iness.6
1$
Perha*s this t%*e of ideal has dri'en )odern efforts
to *ortra% the Buddha as a social refor)er.
11

1" Iti..#0XIti..#1Y.
10 Bodhi .NNS.
1$ Gin--ren .NWO, $O# referrin- to Solo)on .OP.W.
11 Jhile it is true that the renunciate co))unit% the Buddha founded did not
discri)inate on the basis of class for instance he does not a**ear to ha'e
Ins$g%t A 01)
Ei'en our ErecoPJudaic herita-e it should co)e as no
sur*rise that in A)erica as Jose*h Eoldstein re)ar&s
+e often *ractice the dhar)a in ser'ice of hu)an 'alues...
Perha*s because )an% *eo*le ha'en=t )et teachers +ho ha'e
co)*letel% realiIed the truth teachers +ho )i-ht ins*ire the)
to so)ethin- -reater )ore transcendental.
1S
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita has ins*ired )an% to *ractice Dhamma-
&inaya as a )eans to a <hi-h standard of li'in-= but he uses this
eL*ression )eta*horicall% to refer to the *urit% of *eo*le=s
actions s*eech and thou-ht.
1O
Accordin- to the PAQ i teLts as
+ell the Ei-htfold Noble Path is to be en-a-ed +ith the <+orld= of
an indi'idual=s eL*erience. Gecall that fro) the (hera'Adin
*ers*ecti'e the *rocess of sensation can be directl% &no+n but
an eLternal +orld cannot.
(hou-hts can lin& and -rou* )e)ories of *ast sense
eL*erience but an% *articular thou-ht arises and *asses in a
)o)ent. (hus accordin- to the PAQ i teLts <I= and <%ou= <social
inHustice= and the <+orld= <s*iritualit%= and <liberation= are ideas
+hich ha**en in a )o)ent then *ass co)*letel% a+a%. In the
4Discourse on the All6 Kuoted abo'e the Buddha *oints out that
&no+led-e of an% thin- a*art fro) sense eL*erience could onl%
be inferred ne'er direct.
1W
(his is +h% the direct &no+led-e of
realit% that brin-s liberation fro) sufferin- cannot be achie'ed
b% attention to the +orld of *ersonalities and or-anis)s and
trees and such.
)ade a concerted effort to chan-e this *ractice in the lar-er societ%
accordin- to Cha&ra'arti .NWO, N$ff.
1S Eoldstein .NN0a, .O.
1O 4~, . ..~ 6 E.-. in Pa?@ita .NN$, 0O 4If %ou +ant a hi-h standard
of life *ractise the Buddha=s (eachin-s. If %ou +ant a hi-h standard of life
as a *erson cultured in s*eech and action *ractise Moralit%. If %ou +ant a
hi-h standard of life as a *erson cultured in )ind *ractise Concentration
:)editation;. If %ou +ant a hi-h standard of life as a *erson de'elo*ed in
)ind and ad'anced in insi-ht &no+led-e *ractise :&ipassan; Insi-ht
:)editation;.6
1W Please see *..ON.
019 A STRON? ROOTS
Various ErecoPJudaic thin&ers 'ie+in- a sin-le hu)an bein-
as Hust one s)all *art of a )uch lar-er +orld ha'e seen
traditions that *rioritiIe )ental *urification as disen-a-ed if not
selfish. 7ro) the (hera'Adin *ers*ecti'e the cause of sufferin- is
)ental and so is the cure> hu)an bein-s can i)*ro'e their +orld
onl% b% eradicatin- their o+n -reed illP+ill and delusion and b%
encoura-in- others to do so. Bel%in- Jestern characteriIations
of the (hera'Ada as selfish one discourse criticiIes those +ho
*ractice for their o+n benefit but not that of others *raisin- one
+ho *ractices to benefit both.
1N
As another discussion +ith a
student )a&es clear thou-h the Buddha 'alues a 'er% *articular
+a% of benefitin- others, encoura-in- and enablin- others=
*ractice of the Ei-htfold Noble Path.
4And to +hat eLtent 'enerable sir is one a la% follo+er +ho
*ractices both for his o+n benefit 5 the benefit of othersU6
4Ji'a&a +hen a la% follo+er hi)self is consu))ate in con'iction
and encoura-es others in the consu))ation of con'iction> +hen
he hi)self is consu))ate in 'irtue and encoura-es others in the
consu))ation of 'irtue> +hen he hi)self is consu))ate in
-enerosit% and encoura-es others in the consu))ation of
-enerosit%> +hen he hi)self desires to see the )on&s and
encoura-es others to see the )on&s> +hen he hi)self +ants to
hear the true Dha))a and encoura-es others to hear the true
Dha))a> +hen he hi)self habituall% re)e)bers the Dha))a he
has heard and encoura-es others to re)e)ber the Dha))a the%
ha'e heard> +hen he hi)self eL*lores the )eanin- of the
Dha))a he has heard and encoura-es others to eL*lore the
)eanin- of the Dha))a the% ha'e heard> +hen he hi)self
&no+in- both the Dha))a 5 its )eanin- *ractices the Dha))a
in line +ith the Dha))a and encoura-es others to *ractice the
Dha))a in line +ith the Dha))a, then to that eLtent he is a la%
1N Dha))a88u Sutta :A.VII.S$;XIV..SY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu 42f t+o
*eo*le +ho *ractice the Dha))a in line +ith the Dha))a ha'in- a sense
of Dha))a ha'in- a sense of )eanin- \ one +ho *ractices for both his
o+n benefit and that of others and one +ho *ractices for his o+n benefit
but not that of others \ the one +ho *ractices for his o+n benefit but not
that of others is to be criticiIed for that reason the one +ho *ractices for
both his o+n benefit and that of others is for that reason to be *raised.6
Ins$g%t A 01:
follo+er +ho *ractices both for his o+n benefit and for the
benefit of others.6
S#
(he reasonin- behind this definition of benefitin- others
follo+s directl% fro) the basic *rinci*les of the PAQ i. Ho+e'er
<Buddhist= 'ocabular% is so)eti)es e)*lo%ed in a fra)e+or& of
'alues that belon- )uch )ore to the JudeoPChristian tradition. In
recent %ears for instance there has been )o'e)ent to+ards an
ecu)enical <Buddhis)= that defines itself as <En-a-ed= +ith social
and en'iron)ental issues. So)e ha'e Hustified this focus b%
referrin- to doctrines fro) the teLts such as <s&illful conduct= and
<interPde*endence=. Ei'en their nati'e *hiloso*hical fra)e+or&s
thou-h the connections bet+een so)e of the teLtual doctrines
cited and the social acti'is) ad'ocated are Kuite tenuous. Alan
S*onber- -i'es an incisi'e critiKue of recent atte)*ts b% authors
such as Joanna Mac% to a**l% the <Buddhist= idea of
interrelatedness to ecolo-ical co))unities +hile dis)issin- the
i)*ortance of de'elo*in- s&illful conduct concentration and
+isdo).
Jestern ecolo-% has -i'en us an adeKuate )odel for
understandin- the ethical i)*lications of ho+ all thin-s are
interrelated. It is nice that Buddhis) confir)s that insi-ht but
+e -ain little fro) Buddhis) if that is all +e see in the tradition.
And +e -ain e'en less if +e feel that si)*l% affir)in- this 'ie+ of
interrelatedness +ill of itself be sufficient to brin- about the
necessar% chan-es in our ethical *ractice. (hus the real 'alue of
Buddhis) for us toda% lies not so )uch in its clear articulation of
interrelatedness as in its other crucial di)ension in its
conce*tion of the ethical life as a *ath of *ractice cou*led +ith
*ractical techniKues for actuall% culti'atin- co)*assionate
acti'it%.
S.
S# Ji'a&a Sutta :A.VIII."S;XIV""SY trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu. Jarder "###,
.10 finds this sa)e *rinci*le at +or& in the Buddha=s choice to s*end )uch
of his ti)e in or near *o*ulated areas 4(here is a -eneral underl%in-
assu)*tion that be%ond the i))ediate ai) of indi'idual *eace of )ind or
)ore *robabl% in essential connection +ith it lies the obHecti'e of the
ha**iness of the +hole hu)an societ% and the still hi-her obHecti'e of the
ha**iness of all li'in- bein-s.6 M% e)*hasis.
S. S*onber- .NNO, 0O0P$.
0); A STRON? ROOTS
(he PAQi *ro'ides )an% -ood reasons for de'elo*in- Hust and
sustainable relationshi*s +ith other bein-s but the en-a-e)ent
is +ith the *ractitioner=s o+n strea) of consciousness. (hou-h
s&illfull% )oti'ated actions are )uch )ore li&el% to ha'e *ositi'e
results in societ% often the% do ha'e so)e unintended and
unha**% conseKuences. Co)*assionate action is s&illful because
it culti'ates the *ractitioner=s co)*assion> the *urit% is in the
intention rather than in the result.
S"
2rchestratin- e'en a
)o)ent of total har)on% Hust bet+een the hu)an bein-s on
Earth +ould be i)*ossibl% co)*licated> nibbna is <nonP
co)*lication=, in the absence of delusion the +hole c%cle of
sufferin- si)*l% does not arise.
S0
Such liberation is *ossible but
onl% +ithin that <+orld= that can be directl% &no+n, *resent
sensation.
(he Buddha-Dhamma is radical. (he fact that these teachin-s
of a+a&enin- challen-e co))onl% acce*ted 'ie+s \ in
conte)*orar% Jestern societ% as in ancient India \ is *recisel%
the reason that the% are so transfor)ati'e. So)e of the *rinci*les
of the (hera'Adin tradition that are least co)fortable for
A)ericans earl% in their *ractice those teachin-s that do not fit
into our o+n fra)e+or&s of Science or Ps%cholo-% or s*iritualit%
)a% ha'e the )ost to offer. Indeed S*onber- ad'ocates
faithfulness to the source for )uch the sa)e reasons that I ha'e
throu-hout Str#ng +##ts.
(here are thus t+o reasons +h% reaffir)in- the 'ertical
di)ension of Buddhis) _i.e. *ro-ressi'e de'elo*)ent of
)oralit% concentration and +isdo)` is so i)*ortant, first
because it is central to the inte-rit% of the tradition> and second
because it is *recisel% that *art of the tradition that has
so)ethin- useful to add to conte)*orar% en'iron)ental
ethics...
S$
S" I a) indebted here to a discussion +ith Michele McDonald 2ctober "##".
S0 <appapa*%#= as at A.IV..O$XII.S.Y. Please see also M..W.
S$ S*onber- .NNO, 0O".
Ins$g%t A 0)1
A tradition is defined b% the a**roach ta&en and the -oal
ai)ed at not the +ords used. Selectin- conce*ts and *ractices
fro) the PAQ i based on the 'alues and )ethods of the Euro*ean
Enli-hten)ent or orientin- *ractitioners of satipa)) hna to+ards
ErecoPJudaic ideals of s*iritualit% )i-ht lead *eo*le to+ards the
res*ecti'e -oals of those Jestern traditions. It could not *roduce
a successful tradition of a+a&enin- an authentic Buddha-Ssana.
(he teachin-s of the PAQ i teLts are )ost effecti'e at achie'in-
their o+n stated -oal and do it best +ithin in their o+n
*hiloso*hical fra)e+or&. 7ro) this *ers*ecti'e usin- the <s*irit
and the letter= of the teachin-s to -uide oneself and others
throu-h the de*ths of insi-ht \ and be%ond \ is the )ost
beneficiall% <En-a-ed= <Buddhis)=.
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le
Jhere ha'e +e been and +here do +e -o fro) hereU Ho+
can +e define the source for teachin- and *ractice of
satipa)) hnaU Is an%one interested in a rooted a**roach to
DhammaU
In eLa)inin- 4Dee* (rans)ission6 I offered so)e anal%tical
tools for understandin- the connection bet+een the MahAsi
SAsana Mei&tha in Bur)a and the Insi-ht Meditation Societ% in
Barre Massachusetts. (he PAQi teLts= anal%sis of de*endent coP
arisin- su--ests a +a% to understand both ho+ different hu)an
cultures define the <Dhamma-&inaya= and ho+ this <Doctrine and
Disci*line= sha*es a *erson. I ha'e e)*lo%ed the +or& of Eeor-e
Steiner as +ell as the Buddha=s discourses to outline ho+
)eanin- is inter*reted fro) one indi'idual to another or fro)
one culture to another. Man% )an% indi'idual decisions about
ho+ to -et the )eanin- of the teachin-s across accu)ulate o'er
ti)e and co)e to define the ter)s and the character of a
*articular tradition of a+a&enin- a Buddha-Ssana. (his is +h% I
ha'e su--ested that an%one tr%in- to understand the satipa)) hna
*ractice laid out in the PAQ i as a scholar *ractitioner or teacher
can benefit fro) stud%in- the inter*reti'e *rinci*les offered in
the discourses.
0)5 A STRON? ROOTS
Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita -a'e )e so)e +ise -uidance +hen I told
hi) about this *roHect in crossPcultural understandin- of the
*ractice. 4Just sho+ the saddhamma6 he said the teachin-s that
are true across hu)an conteLts. I ha'e tried to use the
co)*arison bet+een *ractice in Bur)a and in Barre to hi-hli-ht
so)e *rinci*les than *ro'e a**licable in both cultures, :.; A
nu)ber of teachers ancient and )odern +ere cited in the
cha*ter on 4S&illful Conduct6 relatin- ho+ the% found )oral
restraint necessar% for the <freedo) fro) re)orse= that allo+s
the )ind to settle and beco)e *urified. :"; Certain
understandin-s are )ore conduci'e than others to the <hi-her
esca*e fro) 'ie+s= accordin- to the Buddha=s discourses in the
PAQ i> the eL*loration in 4Dearnin-6 su--ested the 'alue of
balancin- theoretical stud% and *ractical a**lication of the
teachin-s. :0; Balance bet+een the faculties of +isdo) and faith
as +ell as bet+een ener-% and concentration is crucial for
*ractice in both Bur)a and Barre> the role of a )editation
teacher is to nuture this eKui*oise. :$; Effecti'e establish)ent of
)indfulness de*ends on both the *rotection and tranKuilit% of
concentrated attention :samatha; and the radical challen-e *osed
b% clear seein- of <thin-s as the% are= :vipassan;. :1; (he PAQi
teLts ad'ocate direct &no+in- of sensation to see its true
characteristics as detailed in the final cha*ter on 4Insi-ht6 %et
allo+ for the fact that such direct &no+in- is inter*reted into
lan-ua-e and culture in )an% dis*arate +a%s. Perha*s one
*rinci*le e)er-es o'erall, of balancin- bet+een eLtre)es of
follo+in- a )iddle +a%, majjhima pa)ipad.
A =$7$ng V$s$on
(he *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& of the PAQi lo-icall% ties
to-ether the )an% as*ects of the Doctrine and the Disci*line into
a coherent and *ra-)atic s%ste). Geturnin- to its *rinci*les
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 0)#
-i'es )indfulness *ractitioners a li'in- connection to our
s*iritual herita-e and connects us to the +orld of life around us.
(hose +ho e)*lo% the understandin-s ad'ocated in the
discourses -ain a *o+erful ins*iration and balancin- force for
*ractice.
Since there is no ulti)ate authorit% to deter)ine +hat is
<-ood= fro) the *ers*ecti'e of the PAQi teLts no *articular *ath is
<better= than an% other> the% Hust lead in different directions. (he
Buddha=s -uidance in the discourses is intended for a sin-le
*ur*ose, the cessation of sufferin-. He lea'es the solution of
other *roble)s u* to other teachin-s. (he *rinci*les of the PAQi
tie to-ether to for) a *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& that can -uide
*eo*le in an% ti)e or culture and %et -uide us a+a% fro)
absolutis) and intolerance. If +e are trul% +illin- to understand
different traditions on their o+n ter)s if +e allo+ the) to
define their o+n res*ecti'e -oals there is no reason for
Buddhists to be intolerant of other reli-ions.
...nonPBuddhist s%ste)s +ill not be able to lead their adherents
to the final -oal of the Buddha=s Dha))a but the% ne'er
*ro*osed to do that in the first *lace. 7or Buddhis) acce*tance
of the idea of the be-innin-less round of rebirths i)*lies that it
+ould be utterl% unrealistic to eL*ect )ore than a s)all nu)ber
of *eo*le to be dra+n to+ards a s*iritual *ath ai)ed at co)*lete
liberation.
.

Bhi&&hu Bodhi thus illustrates one 'er% *ra-)atic 'alue of
the (hera'Adin understandin- of li'in- and d%in- as a continuous
c%cle.
Much of the 'alue of the (hera'Ada=s *hiloso*hical
fra)e+or& lies in its broad *ers*ecti'e, understandin- a hu)an
life as a *recious o**ortunit% in the infinite c%cle of li'in- and
d%in- a)on- the 'ast nu)bers of sufferin- bein-s. If +e follo+
the (hera'Adin eL*lanation of consciousness to its lo-ical
conclusions it can o*en u* for us the real) of the PAQi. (his a
+orld filled +ith nuns and )on&s *racticin- ardent )editation to
. Bodhi .NN0.
0)1 A STRON? ROOTS
end the c%cle of sufferin- but also a uni'erse ali'e +ith tree
s*irits celestial bein-s and -hosts each +ith their o+n histor%
of s&illful and uns&illful action so)e +ith their o+n co))it)ent
to liberation and hindrances to *ractice.
Man% A)ericans +ould dis)iss such a *ers*ecti'e out of
hand. (his is a -reat loss. 7or one the )odern Jestern
*ers*ecti'e has )ade inani)ate \ &illed at least in our )inds \
)uch of the uni'erse that our ancestors sa+ as ali'e. (he dan-er
of such an eLclusi'el% secular 'ie+*oint is increasin-l% a**arent
in the +a% hu)an bein-s are literall% &illin- our *lanetar%
co))unit%. Je can reclai) a holistic understandin- of life \ for
*ra-)atic reasons of reducin- sufferin- alone \ b% returnin- to
the *ers*ecti'e offered in the PAQ i.
(he intensi'e )indfulness *ractice tau-ht at IMS has been
fra)ed in this holistic conteLt for thousands of %ears. (he relief
on the co'er of Str#ng +##ts has *hiloso*hical as +ell as historical
si-nificance for the tradition of the MahAsi Sa%ada+. In the
car'ed i)a-e +e find not onl% four hu)an +orshi*ers but also
t+o devas :at to*; s*irit bein-s *a%in- their res*ects to the
Buddha=s a+a&enin-. (he i)a-e is fro) the southern *illar of the
Eastern Eate+a% at the Sa8c[ Stu*a in northPcentral India. 2n the
bac& of this -ate+a% are i)a-es of 'arious ani)als and -ods all
-athered for the *ur*ose of sho+in- their -ratitude and res*ect
for the A+a&ened 2ne. 2ther *anels de*ict historical scenes of
the Buddha=s life and of Kin- Aso&a=s ho)a-e to the Dhamma.
"

(he inscri*tion abo'e the i)a-e )ar&s the *illar as the donation
of one NA-a*i%a Accha'Ada a *ro)inent citiIen of nearb%
Kurara.
0
(his *ractice of ac&no+led-in- donors continued toda%
" 7er-usson .NO., .#N.
0 I read 4:#rarasa /gapiyasa -%%havdase)h.sa dMPna-thabh#.K Aso&an
Brah)i scri*t differs fro) )odern PAQi scri*ts in the use of a sin-le
consonant instead of for instance a double RsR to )ar& the -eneti'e case of
the na)e or in the sin-le RZhR in se))hi. (hus 4the *illar -ift of RBelo'ed of
the De'asR Rthe ClearPs*ea&erR CitiIenVMerchant of Korara :dKurara;.
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 0))
in Bur)a offers an o**ortunit% for -ratitude for <&no+in- +hat
+as done= \ e'en after thousands of %ears.
In the scenes de*icted on the
Sa8c[ *illars there is no i)a-e of
the Sa&%a)uni hi)self. 2ne <thus
-one= a 9athgata is described in
the 4BAhuna Sutta6 as d+ellin-
4freed dissociated and released
fro) for)... feelin-... *erce*tion...
*rocesses... consciousness... birth...
a-in-... death... stress...
defile)ent.6
$
After the Buddha=s
death and parinibbna as
traditions of 'eneration de'elo*ed around hi) and his teachin-s
artists faced the challen-e of concei'in- 'isuall% one freed fro)
for) and all other conditioned *heno)ena. (o sol'e the *roble)
of re*resentin- the inconcei'able the earl% follo+ers of the
Buddha=s teachin-s turned to )eta*hor. Bntil the rise of the
MahA%Ana )o'e)ent:s; in the first centuries of the Co))on Era
Indian artists re*resented the Buddha al)ost eLclusi'el% throu-h
the use of s%)bols rather than i)a-es of a hu)an bod%.
1
(he
co))ence)ent of the Buddha=s teachin- career +ith the
4Dha))aca&&a*a'attana Sutta6 the <Discourse Settin- the
Jheel of Dha))a in Motion= ca)e to be identified +ith the
i)a-e of a +heel. An elaborate burial )ound the st!pa :PAQi
th!pa; +as used to re*resent the Buddha=s final unbindin- the
parinibbna. (he t%*e of fi- tree at +hose foot Siddhattha Eota)a
sat do+n to *ractice for full a+a&enin- aOvattha :*A*al tree Di%us
religi#sa; +as ado*ted as a s%)bol for 'ictor% o'er the forces of
delusion. (he Sa8c[ *illar i)a-e on the co'er of Str#ng +##ts
centers on a 'ibrant eLa)*le of this sa)e s*ecies still referred to
as the b#dhi tree <the tree of a+a&enin-=.
$ VAhana :BAhuna; Sutta :A.^.W.;XV.1"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
1 Sec&el .NS$, .1".
0)9 A STRON? ROOTS
(he )eta*hor is a*t. In )an% instances so)e Kuoted abo'e
the discourses of the PAQi use the i)a-e of a tree to s%)boliIe
-ro+th and acco)*lish)ent in the *ractice.
S
Bhi&&hu Bodhi
e)*lo%s this sa)e )eta*hor in /#urishing the +##ts to describe
ho+ the seed of faith )ust de'elo* stron- roots of s&illful
conduct and a solid and stable trun& of concentration to sustain
the branches of +isdo) 4+hich %ield the flo+ers of
enli-hten)ent and the fruits of deli'erance.6
(he 'i-our of the s*iritual life li&e the 'i-our of a tree de*ends
u*on health% roots. Just as a tree +ith +ea& and shallo+ roots
cannot flourish but +ill -ro+ u* stunted +ithered and barren so
a s*iritual life de'oid of stron- roots +ill also ha'e a stunted
-ro+th inca*able of bearin- fruit. (o atte)*t to scale the hi-her
sta-es of the *ath it is essential at the outset to nourish the
*ro*er roots of the *ath> other+ise the result +ill be frustration
disillusion)ent and *erha*s e'en dan-er. (he roots of the *ath
are the constituents of s.la, the factors of )oral 'irtue. (hese are
S Coo& .NWW, "" +rites that 4(he (ree +ith its s*readin- subterranean roots
narro+ trun& and s*readin- folia-e is a *erfect i)a-e for the actual
*rocess of enli-hten)ent, for the raisin- channelin- and concentration of
the latent ener-ies reKuired for s*iritual transfor)ation.6 (rees are indeed
used in this )eta*horical sense in the PAQi. Just as 4a )assi'e tree +hose
branches carr% fruits and lea'es +ith trun&s and roots and an abundance
of fruits6 is a 4ha'en for birds fro) all around6 states the SaddhA Sutta so
too 4the *erson consu))ate in 'irtue and con'iction hu)ble sensiti'e
-entle deli-htful and )ild6 is a 4ha'en for )an% *eo*le, )on&s nuns
)ale la% follo+ers and fe)ale la% follo+ers6 A.V.0W trans. (hanissaro
Bhi&&hu. Sn.II.. trans. (hanissaro contains another analo-%, 4li&e a forest
-ro'e +ith flo+erin- to*s in the first )onth of the heat of the su))er so
is the fore)ost Dha))a _the Buddha` tau-ht for the hi-hest benefit
leadin- to Bnbindin-.6
(he ter) used in the PAQi teLts to refer to the *ractice of )editation or )ental
culture bhvan is deri'ed fro) a root )eanin- of increase culti'ation
*roduction and de'elo*)ent. At Sn.I.$ trans. (hanissaro the Buddha -i'es
a )eta*hor for the *ractice of )ental culture accessible to the far)er Kas[
BhArad'AHa. 4Con'iction is )% seed6 eL*lains the A+a&ened 2ne 4austerit%
)% rain discern)ent )% %o&e and *lo+ conscience )% *ole )ind )%
%o&ePtie )indfulness )% *lo+share and -oad 3*ersistence )% beast of
burden.6 4I )a&e truth a +eedin-Phoo& and co)*osure )% un%o&in-.6
(his culti'ation 4has as its fruit the deathless. Ha'in- *lo+ed this *lo+in-
one is un%o&ed fro) all sufferin- and stress.6
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 0):
the basis for )editation the -round for all +isdo) and hi-her
achie'e)ent.
O
(he roots of Dhamma-&inaya trans)ission bet+een *eo*le or
bet+een cultures are the co)*onents of the Ssana, theoretical
stud% *ractical a**lication and *ersonal realiIation of the
teachin-s for a+a&enin-. (he *rinci*les i)*licit and eL*licit in
the traditional sources are the -enetic code for dee*
trans)ission the -round for +ise -uidance and hi-her
achie'e)ent. Here as +ell stron- roots result in s+eet fruit.
Sa8c[ Stu*a Madh%a Pradesh India
:Established .
st
P"
nd
centur% BCE;.
E)*eror Aso&a built the Sa8c[ Stu*a in the third centur%
B.C.E. on a hill near Vedisa in central India. (he )issionaries +ho
brou-ht the Ssana south to the island of DaT&a Aso&a=s son
Mahinda (hera and his dau-hter SaT-ha)ittA (her[ are said to
ha'e been born in Vedisa ordained to-ether and both reached
fulfill)ent in the *ractice of satipa)) hna, full a+a&enin-.
W
At the
O Bodhi .NN#.
W Please see the discussion on *.$W.
09; A STRON? ROOTS
ti)e this area +as a stron-hold of the earl% conser'ati'e
tradition that -a'e rise to the (hera'Ada and the teachin-s +ere
to thri'e there for o'er a thousand %ears. (he first )ission to
DaT&a set out fro) the Sa8c[ Stu*a and the (hera'Ada tradition
of )indfulness thus *assed directl% throu-h this s*ot on its +a%
east to the land of the Bur)ans. (here the tradition +as &e*t
ali'e for at least another thousand %ears fro) the *eriod of Kin-
Ana+ratha until )odern ti)es. Ho+ lon- +ill it last in North
A)ericaU
T%e Tree Of A<a4en$ng In 6T%e =an- Of T%e Free8
(he cu)ulati'e tradition of )indfulness *ractice that the
MahAsi Sa%ada+ trans)itted this linea-e of the Satipa))hna
Ssana has be-un to ta&e root in the soil of the Bnited States.
Jhen the seeds of confidence +ere so+n in the .NS#s and O#s
nothin- )uch substantial )o'ed fro) Bur)a to Barre, no -reat
)i-rations of *eo*le no )assi'e i)*ortation of teLts or i)a-es
or robes. Gather )uch as the -enes encoded in a seed interact
+ith en'iron)ental conditions usin- the ener-% of the sun to
transfor) soil and +ater into an entirel% ne+ tree so too
(hera'Adin *rinci*les of understandin- ha'e e)*lo%ed the li-ht
of Dhamma to transfor) A)erican *ractitioners and A)erican
societ%. (his *articular tree of a+a&enin- is %oun- and
'ulnerable but also 'ibrant. Senior A)erican *ractitioners ha'e
brou-ht forth lea'es of +isdo) in the for) of nu)erous boo&s
articles and 'arious *ro-ra)s in schools hos*itals and
cor*orations. As this ne+ )anifestation of the Ssana de'elo*s
its roots eLtend further and further into the nati'e literature
econo)% and *olitics see&in- fertile *oc&ets in the societ%.
ELtendin- the *otential of the Buddha=s teachin-s in the PAQ i
benefits )an% *eo*le for the tree of a+a&enin- is a nitro-enP
fiLer to boot. As )ore and )ore indi'iduals culti'ate *urit% of
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 091
conduct serenit% of )ind and dee* understandin- the o'erall
health of the societ% and its co)*leL +eb of interPcultural
interactions are enhanced. (hese de'elo*)ents in turn create
the conditions for further -ro+th both at ho)e and abroad.
A)erican inter*reters of )indfulness )editation ha'e
eLcelled at findin- ne+ a**lications and ne+ *otential fulfillin-
one as*ect of the authentic co)*letion ad'ocated b% Steiner. 2n
the +hole ho+e'er +e ha'e %et to reall% fulfill Steiner=s second
*rescri*tion to )a&e 4the autono)ous 'irtues of the ori-inal
)ore *recisel% 'isible6 to direct inKuir% *ast the inter*reters=
o+n ca*abilities into the de*ths of the tradition.
N
Such a
)o'e)ent +ould brin- out the holistic a**roach of the PAQi
e)*hasiIin- the first fi'e factors of the Ei-htfold Noble Path \
ri-ht 'ie+ ri-ht resol'e ri-ht s*eech ri-ht action and ri-ht
li'elihood \ as +ell as the last three, ri-ht effort ri-ht
)indfulness and ri-ht concentration. Jestern renditions ha'e so
focused on )editation that other 'ital as*ects of the teachin-
ha'e been ne-lected and the full benefit of the tradition has not
been realiIed. Eil 7ronsdal=s co))ents are re'ealin-.
As the nu)ber of *eo*le *artici*atin- in the )indfulness
*ractices of Insi-ht Meditation has increased a looseP&nit la%
Buddhist )o'e)ent uniKuel% Jestern that is so)eti)es &no+n
as the 4vipassan )o'e)ent6 has e'ol'ed. Jith )ini)al
re)ainin- connection to (hera'Ada Buddhis) the )o'e)ent
s*ea&s of 4vipassan students and teachers6 vipassan centers
and co))unities6 and e'en a national 4vipassan Hournal.6 As a
result )an% )ore A)ericans of Euro*ean descent refer to
the)sel'es as vipassan students than as students of (hera'Ada
Buddhis).
.#
Gootin- the teachin-s of )indfulness in conte)*orar%
A)erican 'alues )a% result in )ore *eo*le -ettin- started but in
order to be full% effecti'e the teachin-s )ust also be fir)l%
rooted in the or-aniIin- *rinci*les of the PAQi the source of the
li'in- (hera'Adin tradition. 4(his is such an i)*ortant *oint6
N Steiner .NNW, 0.W.
.# 7ronsdal .NNW, .S$.
090 A STRON? ROOTS
co))ents Gebecca Bradsha+ a *artici*ant in the recentl%
established teacherPtrainin- *ro-ra) at IMS.
2ne thin- I find *ositi'e is that in our teacher trainin- the% are
+antin- us to -et thorou-hl% -rounded in the (hera'ada
tradition and in the teLts in order to *re'ent a *oor translation
of the *ractice :ob'iousl% our *ersonal *ractice is Kuite
i)*ortant too/;.
..
(o )% )ind )odern renderin-s of ancient teachin-s that do
not con'e% the *o+er of the nati'e fra)e+or& inter*retations
that do not eLhibit and encoura-e a connection +ith their
herita-e are disres*ectful not onl% to the traditions in'ol'ed but
also to the audience *resent and future to those +ho )i-ht ha'e
been able to sur*ass the inter*reter in absorbin- the ori-inal
*rofundit% +ho )i-ht ha'e been able to send roots dee*er into
the source.
(o be rooted in a tradition +e )ust ha'e so)e +or&in-
definition of our source. If the )eanin- of a teLt is defined b% the
hu)an conteLt the Kuestion is not +hether 'arious teachin-s
use the sa)e 'ocabular% to refer to the -oal:s;. Dan-ua-e does
not reach the real) of direct &no+in- so <freedo)= could refer to
a sli-htl% different thin- in the conteLt of the VaHra%Ana than in
the (hera'Ada Hust as it is -i'en a 'er% different )eanin- in the
A)erican national anthe) 4And does that starPs*an-led banner
%et +a'eV 2=er the land of the freeV And the ho)e of the bra'e.6
(he crucial subHect for debate is the de-ree of coherence
bet+een the inter*reti'e *rinci*les of different traditions. (he
decision to include Ps%choanal%sis or Satipa)) hna as *art of the
trans)ission of DIo-chen for instance +ould reKuire a careful
eLa)ination of the de-ree of co)*atibilit% bet+een the
her)eneutic fra)e+or&s in +hich each of these *ractices
currentl% o*erate. 2ne discourse fro) the PAQ i offers a *rinci*le
to hel* *ractitioners toda% deter)ine +hich *ractices and
teachin-s ancient or )odern are 'iable as *art of a (hera'Adin
tradition, those +hich <stand +ith the Suttas= and <tall% +ith the
.. Gebecca Bradsha+ *ersonal co))unication 2ctober "##".
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 092
Vina%a=.
."
I read this to )ean that an% *articular inter*retation
)ust stand not Hust +ith one or t+o teLts but rather )ust accord
+ith the *rinci*les e'ident throu-hout the PAQi in the boo&s of
Disci*line and in discourse after discourse after discourse.
Discussions usin- this a**roach +ould eLa)ine *ro*osed
ada*tations fro) a coherent set inter*reti'e *rinci*les a
*articular definition of a -oal and the best )eans to achie'e it.
(he% +ould focus on the i)*lications of ne+ de'elo*)ents for
the internal coherence of a *articular trans)ission its
consistenc% +ith the cu)ulati'e tradition and the effecti'eness
of these ne+ ele)ents at achie'in- the -oals defined b% the
established teLts. Indeed this is the )ost fruitful direction I see
for further debate.
Bnderstandin- that the )eanin- of a s%)bol is de*endent on
its conteLt allo+s us to -enuinel% res*ect di'ersit%. (he Buddha
of the Dotus Sutra sa%s 'er% different thin-s than the Buddha of
the PAQi Ni&A%a teLts. If +e insist that these refer to the sa)e
*erson +e )a&e the Buddha as an indi'idual and Buddhis) as a
tradition a**ear rather confused and selfPcontradictor%. Gather
than debatin- un*ro'able historical clai)s about +hat <the
Buddha= actuall% said +e can reco-niIe that +hat +e ha'e toda%
are teLts and li'in- traditions. If t+o or )ore conte)*orar%
teachin-s o*erate on substantiall% different inter*reti'e
*rinci*les it see)s )uch )ore res*ectful to thin& of the) as
." 4(here is the case +here a bhi&&hu sa%s this, <In the Blessed 2ne=s *resence
ha'e I heard this in the Blessed 2ne=s *resence ha'e I recei'ed this, (his is
the Dha))a this is the Vina%a this is the (eacher=s instruction.= His
state)ent is neither to be a**ro'ed nor scorned. Jithout a**ro'al or
scorn ta&e careful note of his +ords and )a&e the) stand a-ainst the
Suttas and tall% the) a-ainst the Vina%a. If on )a&in- the) stand a-ainst
the Suttas and tall%in- the) a-ainst the Vina%a %ou find that the% donRt
stand +ith the Suttas or tall% +ith the Vina%a %ou )a% conclude, <(his is
not the +ord of the Blessed 2ne> this bhi&&hu has )isunderstood it= PP and
%ou should reHect it. But if... the% stand +ith the Suttas and tall% +ith the
Vina%a %ou )a% conclude, <(his is the +ord of the Blessed 2ne> this
bhi&&hu has understood it ri-htl%=6 MahA*arinibbAna Sutta :D..S; trans.
(hanissaro .NN$, intro.
095 A STRON? ROOTS
se*arate entities each +ith their o+n -oals and )ethods to
achie'e the).
(o be 'ital and fertile conte)*orar% understandin-s )ust be
rooted in the coherent fra)e+or& offered b% a *articular li'in-
tradition. 7or it is the instructions contained in a seed that enable
it to de'elo* into a sa*lin- and then a tree> it is due to these sa)e
strin-s of a)ino acids that 'arious nutrients beco)e or-aniIed
into lea'es and flo+ers> it is the tree=s -enetic inheritance that
ensures its fruit contain the fertile seeds of a ne+ -eneration.
Strong Roots S<eet Fr+$t
A )aHestic -ro'e of b#dhi trees stands at AnurAdha*ura north
central on the teardro* of Sri DaT&a. It is a bit of a cli)b u* to the
hillto* +here the trees cluster *rotected b% stucco +alls and
'enerated b% *il-ri)s. (he trees +hose shade I enHo%ed on a hot
afternoon in the fall of .NNN are said to be descended fro) the
cuttin- brou-ht fro) northern India b% the full% a+a&ened nun
SaT-ha)ittA (her[ dau-hter of Aso&a.
.0
Much li&e trans*lantin-
a cuttin- the teachin-s +ere i)*orted to Sri DaT&a alon- +ith
)an% Indian cultural for)s. 2n the island these teachin-s could
dra+ on fa)iliar social sensibilities a si)ilar *hiloso*hical
fra)e+or& and a closel% related lan-ua-e. (he institution of
ordained co))unities that -re+ and de'elo*ed in Sri DaT&a +as
e'entuall% eL*orted to Southeast Asia and be%ond. (he
institutions of the (hera'Ada ha'e -ro+n stron- and ha'e -ro+n
old on the island and +ith the) those )aHestic s%)bols the trees
of a+a&enin-.
(he trans)ission of the Buddha-Ssana to the Jest rese)bles
the so+in- of a seed )ore than the trans*lantation of a cuttin-,
'er% little of the Asian cultural conteLt is included in the *ac&a-e.
Bur)ese and A)ericans share )an% biolo-ical and lin-uistic
.0 Malase&era .NO$, 'ol. II s.v. 4SaT-ha)ittA (her[6 NN#.
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 09#
structures but our inter*reti'e fra)e+or&s ha'e also been
sha*ed b% 'er% different cultural and *ersonal histories. (he
teachin- of <the Doctrine and Disci*line= is defined b% such
hu)an conteLts I ha'e ar-ued> different *eo*le understand the
*ractice 'er% differentl%. If so s*ecific )eanin-s are not inherent
in the *articular 'ocabular% and ideas trans)itted fro) Bur)a to
Barre> the sa)e teLts can be and ha'e been inter*reted 'er%
differentl% in 'arious *hiloso*hical conteLts. In order to
effecti'el% co))unicate the intention and -enius of the
(hera'Adin teachin-s then to be res*onsi'e to the audience and
res*onsible to the source ne+ inter*retations )ust *resent ideas
in their traditional inter*reti'e fra)e+or&.
(he Bodhi tree at Anuradha*ura Sri DaT&a
7ro) a *hoto-ra*h b% Ja)es Gicalton late .W##s.
Are A)ericans toda% reall% interested in the (hera'Adin
tradition thou-h +ould the% find a return to the source
'aluableU Andre+ 2lendI&i has found in recent %ears that )an%
Vi*assanA *racitioners are beco)in- increasin-l% interested in
stud% of the PAQ i teLts as their *ractice dee*ens o'er the course
of decades. (ara?i%A has obser'ed 4-ro+in- interest6 in
091 A STRON? ROOTS
traditions such as bo+in- chantin- and offerin- al)s food to
nuns and )on&s.
.$
Hundreds of Jestern students *ractice each
%ear at centers in Bur)a such as Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita=s and
Sa%ada+ B Da&&ha?a=s +here Vi*assana Ha+ai=i has s*onsored
<fusion= retreats in recent %ears. Man% *ractitioners sho+ -reat
a**reciation for the o**ortunit% to -ain access to the MahAsi
tradition in its nati'e conteLt> each %ear +e ha'e a +ait list for
the K%as+a retreat.
Meditation teachers such as Michele McDonald are findin-
that contrar% to )an% eL*ectations the )ore the teachin-s are
*resented in their traditional fra)e+or& the )ore *o+erful and
attracti'e the% are for )odern A)ericans.
.1
(his see)s to be
es*eciall% true of the ne+est -eneration of *ractitioners. A
nu)ber of teena-ers +ho) I )et durin- the "##" Moun- Adults
course at IMS +ere alread% 'er% +ell 'ersed in theor% and
*ractice> so)e of their Kuestions +ere +onderfull% incisi'e
*ushin- the boundaries of )% o+n thou-hts on a**l%in- the
(hera'Adin *rinci*les to )odern life. At that sa)e retreat I also
offered the traditional PAQ i recitation of the fi'e *rece*ts for
an%one +ho +ished to follo+ alon-. (o )% sur*rise nearl%
e'er%one in the hall Hoined in as +e 'oiced PAQ i for)ulas that
ha'e been used for thousands of %ears b% *ractitioners )a&in-
the co))it)ent not to en-a-e in &illin- stealin- seLual
)isconduct l%in- or use of intoLicants. I then eL*lained the
traditional +a% that (hera'Adins dedicate their *ractice to the
attain)ent of the -reatest ha**iness +hich is *eace. I stressed
that these %oun- *eo*le should feel no obli-ation to Hoin in that
the% should *artici*ate onl% if it felt ri-ht for the). (o )% -reat
deli-ht the +hole hall ran- +ith beautiful %oun- 'oices recitin- a
line I *ara*hrased as <Ma% this *ractice of s&illful conduct create
.$ (arani%a "##0, O.
.1 Personal co))unication Jul% "##".
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 09)
the conditions for the realiIation of the Bnconditioned=, 4Ida6 me
sila6 nibbnassa pa%%ay# h#tu.6
.S
(he liberation teachin-s of )indfulness )editation are
-ainin- *o*ularit% in the Bnited States but as a holistic tradition
of stud% and *ractice this Ssana is still %oun- and 'ulnerable. I
ha'e discussed ho+ the (hera'Adin tradition has been influenced
b% ancient Indian conce*tions of eListence as +ell as b% )odern
Jestern ideas about <Buddhis)=> such instances de)onstrate ho+
*ractitioners= and scholars= understandin-s of a tradition sha*e
and define it. If so those of us +ho inter*ret <the Doctrine and
Disci*line= for oursel'es or for others ha'e an i)*ortant
res*onsibilit%. As careta&ers of the Ssana at this crucial *oint in
histor% +e need to be hu)ble. Je )ust ta&e care not to assu)e
that +e can en-ineer a better tree not to dis)iss the (hera'Adin
*rinci*les nor to dis)iss ne+ )utations that are consistent and
coherent +ith the tradition. In North A)erica +e are hea'il%
influenced b% indi'idualistic 'alues. It is es*eciall% i)*ortant
here to balance *ersonal eL*erience +ith an understandin- of
our o+n *ractice as *art of a lar-er *rocess, a tree of a+a&enin-
that s*ans the continent and +ill )ature o'er centuries carr%in-
a -enetic herita-e accu)ulated and tested o'er thousands of
%ears of e'olution.
42ne suffers if d+ellin- +ithout re'erence or deference6 the
Buddha obser'es in the 4EAra'a Sutta.6
.O
In a recent inter'ie+
Ste'en eL*ressed his dee* than&s to Sa%ada+ B Pa?@ita for
t+ent% %ears of -uidance and )entorshi*> Sa%ada+ directed this
.S </ibnassa pa%%ay#= translates literall% as <cause of NibbAna= +hich +ould
see) to i)*l% that the Bnconditioned is conditioned. (his is one reason I
*refer a 'ariation )ore *o*ular in Bur)a <Ida6 me sila6 magga phala
*(assa pa%%ay# h#tu=, <Ma% )% s&illful conduct create the conditions for the
*ath and fruition insi-hts=. I used the si)*ler 'ersion +ith <nibanassa= to
a'oid ha'in- to eL*lain the traditional anal%sis of realiIation to the %oun-
adults in the )idst of the *rece*ts recitation but in )% En-lish renderin-
of <the realiIation of nibbna6 I did incor*orate the )ore *hiloso*hicall%
sound as*iration.
.O EAra'a Sutta :S.VI.";XI.$#Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
099 A STRON? ROOTS
-ratitude to+ards his o+n teacher the MahAsi Sa%ada+ and in
turn to the Min-un Jeta+un Sa%ada+ the AleP(a+%a Sa%ada+
the (hePDon Sa%ada+ and so on bac& to the Buddha. B Pa?@ita
cited a discourse fro) the PAQi on the t+o t%*es of *eo*le that are
4Hard to 7ind6, those +ho -i'e freel% +ithout eL*ectin-
an%thin- return and those +ho are -rateful for and ac&no+led-e
+hat has been done for the).
.W
As lon- as there are *eo*le actin-
in these t+o +a%s Sa%ada+ said the trans)ission of the
teachin-s for a+a&enin- +ill be carried out in accord +ith the
teachin-s the)sel'es and thus be triu)*hantl% successful in
-eneration after -eneration.
(he *ractice of -ratitude and reci*rocit% in a teacherPstudent
relationshi* can be one of the )ost e)*o+erin- and freein-
as*ects of Dhamma-&inaya. Jhen such a <-ood friendshi*= reaches
its *erfection there is no one there Hust the Dhamma doin- itself.
I su--est that a si)ilar relationshi* is *ossible in trans)ission
bet+een t+o cultures.
2*eratin- fro) the *rinci*les of the (hera'Ada allo+s us to dra+
on a herita-e of infor)ation about +hat has hel*ed hu)an
bein-s a+a&en o'er the *ast t+ent%Pfi'e hundred %ears. M%
studies of the MahAsi Sa%ada+=s teachin-s and the discourses of
the PAQi as +ell as )% eL*eriences *racticin- and inter*retin- at
)editation retreats ha'e -i'en )e -reat confidence in the abilit%
of the traditional inter*reti'e *rinci*les to direct our
in'esti-ations of conte)*orar% Kuestions. (o +hate'er de-ree
A)ericans continue to *a% attention and *a% res*ect to the
source +hile +e fulfill its *otential the Ssana +e recei'e +ill be
\ in a +ord \ authentic.
(here are fi'e thin-s Kassa*a that lead to the lon-e'it% of the
true Dha))a to its nondeca% and nondisa**earance. Jhat are
the fi'eU Here the bhi&&hus the bhi&&hunis the )ale la%
follo+ers and the fe)ale la% follo+ers d+ell +ith re'erence and
deference to+ards the (eacher> the% d+ell +ith re'erence and
.W B Pa?@ita cited the Dullabha Sutta :A.II...N;XIWOY in an inter'ie+ Januar%
"##0 +hich I hel*ed to inter*ret.
Co*$ng F+ll C.'le A 09:
deference to+ards the Dha))a> the% d+ell +ith re'erence and
deference to+ards the SaT-ha> the% d+ell +ith re'erence and
deference to+ards the trainin-> the% d+ell +ith re'erence and
deference to+ards concentration. (hese Kassa*a are the fi'e
thin-s that lead to the lon-e'it% of the true Dha))a to its
nondeca% and nondisa**earance.
.N
.N Saddha))a**atir9*a&a Sutta : S.^VI..0;XII""1Y trans. Bhi&&hu Bodhi.
?lossar.
abhidhamma, teLts <concernin- the doctrine=> the i)a'a containin-
anal%ses of *s%choP*h%sical *heno)ena and the *rocess of
liberation.
.

abhi**, &no+in- that directl% confronts its obHect.
a'li'a, literall% <ti)eless=, i))ediate.
a'usala, uns&illful es*eciall% for alle'iatin- sufferin-. 2**osite, 'usala.
"
anatt, nonself> lac& of an% solid inde*endent lastin- identit%.
ani%%a, i)*er)anence> the nature of eL*erience to be in constant
chan-e.
anuggahita, su**ort or *rotection es*eciall% for de'elo*in- ri-ht 'ie+.
arahat, :Sans&rit, arahant; full% a+a&ened one es*eciall% one +ho
a+a&ened after bein- tau-ht. Co)*are sammsambuddha.
attha :a))ha;, +elfare benefit> *ur*ose -oal> )eanin-. Co)*are va%ana.
a))ha'ath, <discussions on the )eanin-=> the Co))entaries on the PAQ i.
avijj, not seein- clearl%, delusion i-norance. 2**osite, vijj.
bh(a'a, reciter es*eciall% one +ho orall% )e)oriIes PAQ i teLts.
bhs, lan-ua-e> dialect.
bhvan, increase culti'ation *roduction and de'elo*)ent> thence
the *ractice of )ental culture or )editation.
bhi''hu, full% ordained )on&> :as a for) of address in the suttas;
an%one underta&in- the *ractice for liberation fro) sufferin-.
0
. Jarder=s translation of the ter) is cited in note "0 on *.$$.
" Please see the discussion re-ardin- absolute 'alues on *..S..
0 Please see the discussion of the Co))entar%=s :DA.""; definition
4pa)ipattisampda'apuggala6 in note O on *.W.
0:0 A STRON? ROOTS
bhi''hun., full% ordained nun.
b#dhi, a+a&enin-> :)eta*horicall%; the realiIation that ends sufferin-.
b#dhisatta, :Sans&rit, b#dhisattva; a bein- on the +a% to a+a&enin-.
brahmana, :Sans&rit, brahman; a hol% *erson> caste of Vedic *riests.
buddha, a+a&ened one> es*eciall% a sammsambuddha.
dna, -enerosit%> -enerous -i'in-.
deva, hea'enl% bein-, -uardian s*irit of a forest )ountain or other
real)s.
dhamma, :Sans&rit, dh2ma; the order of thin-s> truth ri-hteousness>
doctrine teachin- es*eciall% the Buddha=s teachin-s for
a+a&enin-.
di))hi, +a% of seein-> *ers*ecti'e> 'ie+. 7ro) dassa, <to see=.
du''ha, the sufferin- en-endered b% the i)*er)anence of life its lac&
of reliabilit%.
gahapati, householder es*eciall% )iddle class, an o+ner of the )eans
of *roduction.
$
jhna, absor*tion in an obHect of a+areness due to concentration
:samdhi;.
'aly(amitta, a <-ood friend=, a )entor in the *ractice of a+a&enin-.
'amma, :Sans&rit, '2ma; action> 'olitional action and its results.
'amma-nimitta, <i)a-e of one=s actions= life flashin- before one=s e%es
at the ti)e of death.
'ammapatha, <course of action=> a *s%cholo-icall%Poriented for) of s.la.
1
'ata**ut, -ratitude> literall% <&no+in- +hat +as done=.
S
'usala, s&illful es*eciall% for alle'iatin- sufferin-. 2**osite, a'usala.
O
l#'a, +orld> uni'erse.
l#'asa**., 4our eL*erience of the +orld3 in the sense that one need not
-rant an% +orld a*art fro) our eL*erience.6
W
majjhima-pa) ipad, <)iddle *ractice= the )iddle +a% es*eciall%
bet+een the eLtre)es of absolutis) and nihilis).
mti'a, list re-ister tabulated su))ar% es*eciall% as fra)e+or& for
teLts.
mett, lo'in-&indness unconditional lo'e. 7ro) mitta, <friend=.
$ Please see Cha&ra'arti .NWO, S1PNW for an co)*rehensi'e eL*lanation.
1 Please see *..0N.
S :ata :**. of 'ar#ti <do= <)a&e=; b -j*a :<to &no+=;. (his insi-ht I o+e to
Ber&+itI "##0, 1WO.
O Please see the discussion re-ardin- absolute 'alues on *..S..
W KatI .NWN, .$OPW discussed on *..ON.
?lossar. A 0:2
mi%%h, +ron- contrar%. 2**osite, samm.
I
*(a, +isdo) insi-ht &no+led-e> *articular sta-es of vipassan.
nma-r!pa, )ental and *h%sical sensation the )indPbod% *rocess.
nibbna, :Sans&rit, nirv(a; eLtin-uishin-> :)eta*horicall%; cessation of
sufferin-.
p, i, teLt es*eciall% those of the (hera'Adin 9ipi)a'a.
pa**, +isdo) es*eciall% that due to the direct &no+led-e of vipassan.
paramatth, that +hich can be directl% &no+n, sensation. Co)*are
sammuti.
.#
parinibbna, the final unbindin- of the )indPbod% *rocess at the death
of a full% a+a&ened bein-.
pariyatti, theoretical stud% es*eciall% of the Buddha=s teachin-s.
pa)i%%a-samuppda, de*endent coParisin- the *rocess b% +hich 'arious
)ental and *h%sical as*ects of eListence :nma-r!pa; cause each
other to co)e into bein-.
pa)ipatti, *ractical a**lication es*eciall% of the Buddha=s teachin-s.
pa)ivedha, <*enetration= realiIation es*eciall% of the Buddha=s
teachin-s.
phassa, <contact= bet+een sense base and sense obHect *roducin-
sensation.
saddh, faith confidence con'iction. 2**osite, vi%i'i%%h.
saddhamma, <eListin- order of thin-s=, *rinci*les true across conteLts>
the true teachin-s. 7ro) sant :**r. atthi <to be=> -ood true; b
dhamma.
..
sama(a, renunciate> one <li'inin cal)ness=.
."
samdhi, concentration or unification of attention.
samatha, tranKuilit% due to concentration :samdhi;.
samm, 4Hust ri-ht6, co)*lete correct har)onious balanced.
.0

2**osite, mi%%h.
sammsambuddha, one +ho disco'ers the correct *ath to full
a+a&enin- +ithout a teacher or teachin-s and then initiates a
tradition of a+a&enin- :buddha-ssana;.
N Please see the discussion re-ardin- absolute 'alues on *..S..
.# (he definition of paramatth -i'en b% Pa?@ita .NN0 is Kuoted on *..W#.
.. Gh%s Da'ids .NNN, s.v. 4saddha))a6 SO1.
." 4sama%ariy6 as *er Dh*.0WWXDh*.1SY.
.0 Please see (hanissaro Bhi&&hu=s definition of <samm= on *...W and the
discussion re-ardin- absolute 'alues on *..S..
0:5 A STRON? ROOTS
sammuti, <con'entional= or co))onl% acce*ted truth or realit%.
Co)*are paramatth.
sasra, the c%cle of sufferin- the continuance of eListence due to
cra'in-.
sandi))hi'a, directl% 'isible eL*erientiall% 'erifiable.
sa>gha, -atherin-> co))unit% es*eciall% of )on&s and nuns noble
ones +ho ha'e entered the strea) of a+a&enin- or those +ho
follo+ the Buddha=s teachin-s.
sa>ghyana, official -atherin- of the sa>gha to collate authentic
teachin-s.
sa>'har, conditioned *henon)ena> )ental states> for)ed habits.
ssana, )essa-e teachin-s> thence 4cu)ulati'e tradition6 of stud%
*ractice and realiIation es*eciall% that initiated b% the Buddha.
.$
sati, re)e)berin-> continousl% returnin- to an obHect of attention>
)indfulness, continous attention to *resent *h%sical and )ental
sensations :nma-r!pa;.
satipa) ) hna, the establish)ent of )indfulness :sati;.
.1
s.la, :s&illful; conduct. Abbre'iation of 'usala s.la.
sutta, :Sans&rit, s!'ta; teLt discourse es*eciall% those of the PAQ i.
.S
tathgata, one <thus -one= one full% a+a&ened.
9heravda, <Doctrine of the Elders= a tradition descended throu-h
)edie'al :Sri; DaT&a fro) the conser'ati'e Sthaviravda faction of
the Buddha=s follo+ers.
9ipi)a'a, the <three bas&ets= of teLts co)*iled b% follo+ers of the
Buddha.
updna, clin-in-> sustenance for the fires of clin-in-, nma-r!pa.
upya, :s&illful; <a**roach= or )eans. Abbre'iation of upya 'usal#.
va%ana, eL*ression desi-nation +ord ter). Co)*are attha.
va6sa, ba)boo> a t%*e of chronicle tracin- linea-es of succession.
vi%i'i%%h, doubt and indecision. 2**osite, saddh.
vijj, clear seein- of the *rocess of sensation. 2**osite, avijj.
vimutti, release liberation es*eciall% fro) the c%cle of sufferin-
:sasra;.
.$ (he definition of a 4cu)ulati'e tradition6 -i'en b% S)ith .NOW is discussed
on *.S".
.1 Please see note . on *.".
.S Accordin- to Vetter .NWW, 'ii the Sans&rit <s!'ta= :<+ellPs*o&en=; is the
actual co-nate of the PAQi <sutta= +hile <s!tra= :<thread=; is a later
)istranslation.
?lossar. A 0:#
vinaya, disci*line es*eciall% the rules in the PAQ i for nuns and )on&s.
vipassan, seein- the chaos of life as chaotic> a+areness of eL*erience
as i)*er)anent unsatisf%in- and nonself. 2ften -lossed as
<insi-ht=.
viriya, coura-eous ener-% heroic effort. 7ro) v.ra, <hero=.
yna, )otion> )eans of )otion 'ehicle es*eciall% to a+a&enin-.
yathbh!ta, thin-s <Hust as the% ha'e co)e to be=.
.O
y#gi, <one )a&in- effort= in the *ractice for liberation fro) sufferin-.
.O Please see the discussion of Kalu*hana=s definition in note " on *."$0.
Ill+strat$on In-e,
Photos used +ith the -enerous *er)ission of the res*ecti'e co*%ri-ht holders.
Pa-e I)a-e er missi#n
Co'er, Bodhi (ree Panel East Eate...........-meri%an Institute #3 Indian Studies
.$ East Eate of the Sa8c[ Stu*a...................................................... V...............
1" Monaster% Co)*leL at Anuradha*ura.......................Dr. "aggie <yn%h
O" SteinerRs Her)eneutic C%cle............................... AuthorRs Illustration
W0 Northern End of the Sa-ain- Hills........................................ 9#m +iddle
.#0 (he Her)eneutic C%cle of A+a&enin-...............AuthorRs Illustration
.#S 7ront Eate of the MahAsi SAsana Mie&tha....... Buddhassana /uggaha
.O# (he late Venerable MahAsi Sa%ada+ at +or&.........................V...............
.ON (hree Instances of the All.................................... AuthorRs Illustration
.W# (he All of an A**le......................................................................V...............
.N" (he All Across Death...................................................................V...............
"1" (hou-ht Process +ith A'iHHa..................................................... V...............
"10 (hou-ht Process +ith ViHHa....................................................... V...............
"OO Bodhi (ree Panel............................. -meri%an Institute #3 Indian Studies
"ON Sa8c[ Stu*a...................................................................................V...............
"W1 (he Bodhi tree at Anuradha*ura..... Cames +i%alt#n :Public Do)ain;
.W
.W Gicalton .WN..
3$bl$ogra&%.
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the) are -i'en in the follo+in- seKuence, /i'ya :first letter
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nu)eral of Sa6yutta :S; /ipata :A; or &agga :Khd.;. Sutta
nu)ber, 'erse :if s*ecified;. P(S 'olu)e and *a-e in brac&ets.
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