Compressors - O & M-Manual - Compressors

Manual
on
Compressors
and
Compressed Air Systems
Confederation of Indian Industry

CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page. No
About the Manual
Types of air compressors
II
Sizing and Selection of Air Compressors
III
Testing of air compressors
10
IV
Compressed Air Plant Layout and Distribution
15
Compressor cooling system
19
VI
Compressed air Dryers
21
VII
Accessories
28
VIII
Energy conservation aspects in compressed air system
33
Case studies on Energy Conservation in

41
Annexure
57
IX
Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems
About the Manual

Compressed air is one of the major energy consuming utility in any industrial
operation and is often referred to as the Fourth utility.
Various estimates indicate that about 1500 MW is consumed nationwide by
compressed air systems. This presents an excellent opportunity for Energy
Conservation.
The energy saving opportunities in an industry varies from 15 30%.
It is in the national and business interest that compressed air generated must be used
efficiently. This not only results in energy savings, but also improves the bottom line.
This manual is intended to bring in awareness and educate users on energy
conservation aspects both during design and day-to-day operations.
The contents will be a ready reference on compressed air for operating &
maintenance personnel, energy consultants , designers and others alike.
The manual encapsulates the latest trends and technologies available in compressed
air systems, design aspects, testing of compressors & performance analysis, energy
saving measures etc.,
Case studies, which have been implemented in varied sectors of industries, have also
been presented in this manual. Users of this manual should fine tune the case studies
to suit their respective units.

CHAPTER I
Types of Air Compressors
Air compressors are mainly classified into two types, based on their construction and
operation.
! Positive displacement type
! Dynamic type
They are as described below in detail:
1.1
Positive displacement type air compressors

Positive displacement compressors mechanically displace a fixed volume of air into a
reduced volume. They deliver a nearly constant volume, when operated at a fixed
speed; while the discharge pressure is determined by the system load conditions. The
different types of positive displacement compressors are as follows:
1.1.1
Reciprocating air compressors:

Compressed air is generated by the to & fro movement of the piston in the
compression chamber (Just like an IC Engine). Each movement compresses a fixed
quantity of free air at a specific pressure. According to the type of construction,
reciprocating compressors can be further classified as single stage / double stage and
single acting / double acting compressors. The vertical type air compressors are
suitable for applications ranging between 50 - 150 CFM, and the horizontal balance
type is most suited for applications ranging from 200 - 5000 CFM. The schematic
representation of double stage reciprocation is given in figure.
2.1 Double stage Reciprocating Compressor

1.1.2 Rotary type air Compressors:

Air is compressed by two rotating, intermeshing rotors (in some cases one rotor is
kept stationery and the other rotates). The action of the rotary screw / lobe can be
compared to a reciprocating compressor. The different types of rotary type air
compressors are schematically given below in the figure.
1.1.2 Rotary Compressors
1.2
Dynamic type air compressors

Dynamic compressors mechanically impart a velocity to the air, through the use of
impellers rotating at high speed, in an enclosed housing. The air is forced into a
progressively reduced volume. The volumetric flow will vary inversely with the
differential pressure across the compressor. The dynamic type of air compressors are
classified into:
1.2.1 Centrifugal air compressors:

The centrifugal air compressor consists of an impeller, mounted on a shaft and
positioned within a housing, consisting of an inlet duct, a volute and a diffuser. The
impeller rotates at high speed and imparts a velocity to the air. The diffuser
surrounds the impeller and acts to convert the kinetic energy of the air into potential
energy at a higher-pressure level. The schematic of a centrifugal compressor is given
below.
1.2.1 Centrifugal compressor

1.2.2 Axial flow air compressors

The axial flow type air compressor is essentially a large capacity, high speed machine,
with characteristics quite different from the centrifugal. Each stage consists of two
row of blades, one row rotating and the next row stationery. The rotor blades impart
velocity and pressure to the gas as the motor turns, the velocity being converted to
pressure in the stationery blades.
1.2.3 Roots compressors
This is really a blower and is generally limited to a pressure of 1 bar in ingle stage and
a pressure of 2.2 bar in two stage combination. The schematic of the roots blower is
shown in the Fig below.
1.2.3 Roots compressor

CHAPTER II
Sizing and Selection of Air Compressors
The selection of type of compressor and capacity to be installed is very critical. This
plays a major role in total compressor energy consumption during normal operation
in the plant.
2.1
Estimation of compressed air consumption

The total compressed air consumption is the quantity of compressed air required by
all the pneumatic equipments connected in the plant, operating in full load condition.
Guidelines for air consumption of various equipment is provided in Annexure-1
2.1.1 Utilisation factor (Use factor or Load factor)

Typically in a plant, during normal operating condition, pneumatic devices are often
operated at less than full load capacity. The ratio of actual air consumption in a plant
to the maximum continuous air consumption is known as load factor.
Load factor
Actual air consumption in 24 hours

Maximum continuous air consumption in 24 hours
Load factor plays a vital role in estimating the total compressed air requirement at the
design stage. Depending on the plant and the operating conditions appropriate load
factor has to be considered for intermittent air requirements while estimating the
total air requirement.
For establishing the load factor, it is highly desirable to utilize experiences with
similar plants. The load factor can be determined with the help of work-study.
Another source of information and guidance would be equipment suppliers and
compressor manufacturers.
2.2
Selection of compressors
For the selection of type of compressor the choices are many. This makes the
decision of the factory manager on the selection, tougher. He has to select the right
compressors for the manufacturing process, so as to be cost competitive. For this,
the emphasis should be on energy efficiency (life cycle cost analysis) and minimum
maintenance (high reliability).

Having calculated the total average capacity requirement, the factory manager can
select the type of compressors required, from the figure.
Chart to Guide selection of air compressor

(Source: Indian standards IS 6206 1985)

The chart has the capacity (calculated average air consumption) across the X axis and
pressure across the Y axis. Having known the pressure requirement and the average
air consumption, the type of compressor best suited can be selected from the given
curves. The graph is self-explanatory.
Annexure 2 gives a few examples on the various types of compressors and
capacities required, for various applications / industry. While selecting the
compressors, the following points should be kept in view:
a) As a first step, identify the base load and fluctuating load.
b) For base (Steady) loads: Select centrifugal compressors (best for very high
capacity) or screw compressors.
c) For fluctuating loads: Select screw compressor with built-in VFD (the best
option) or reciprocating compressors.
2.3
Sizing of Compressed air receivers

An adequate air receiver should be provided for the compressed air system. The
main functions of the compressed air receivers are as follows:
! Provides additional cushion to take care of sudden compressed air demand excess
to the installed compressor capacity from the plant.
! Maintains steady pressure to meet with the plant requirement
! Since the receiver serves as a reservoir, prevents frequent loading and unloading
of the compressor
! In addition the receiver precipitates some of the moisture present in compressed
air. Other wise the moisture will be carried over to the air dryer, which will lead
to additional load on the drier.
The minimum receiver capacity can be calculated for certain applications. At the
same time, experience in similar industry and judgment based on the operating
condition of the plant shall be considered in selection of receiver capacity.
As per IS 7938-1976 the air receivers can be selected based on the following thumb
rule.
Volume of air receiver in M3
2.4
1/10th of flow rate in m3/min to

1/6th of flow rate in m3/min
Sizing of compressed air piping

The compressed air piping is sized based on the allowable velocity of compressed air
in the pipeline, keeping a check on the pressure drop. In compressed air line if the
pressure drop is high, the operating pressure at the generation end has to be
increased to match with the requirement. This will result in increased power
consumption of the compressor.

Velocities between 6 and 10 m/sec are usual in compressed air mains. This velocity
range is sufficiently low to prevent excessive pressure drops on most systems and
also will allow moisture to precipitate.
The volume airflow changes if any of the following changes.
! Operating pressure
! Temperature
! Both Pressure and Temperature
The law dealing with the expansion of air wherein pressure and temperature are
changing together is given below.
P1 V1 / T1
P2 V2 / T2
Where P1, V1 and T1 are the original pressure, volume and temperature and P2, V2
and T2 are the new pressure, Volume and Temperature respectively.
The following procedure can be adopted for estimating the size of a compressed air
line.
For an example
Quantity of compressed air flow
200 cfm
5.66 m3/min
Working pressure
Velocity limitation
Apply gas laws P1 V1 /T1
100 psig i.e 7.0 kg/cm2 (gauge)

6 m/sec
P2 V2 /T2
Assuming the temperature remains constant.

P1 V1
P2 V2
V2
=
=
P1 V1 / P2
5.66 m3/min x 1.013 kg/cm2
7.0 kg/cm2
0.819 m3/min
0.01365 m3/sec
=
=
Quantity of air flow
Area of pipe line x

velocity of air flow
0.01365 m3/sec
Area of pipe line
/4 x D2
Diameter of pipeline
=
=
=
=
=
Area of pipe line x 6 m/sec

2.275 x 10-3 m2
2.275 x 10-3 m2
0.0538 m
2.11
Hence the diameter of pipeline can be chosen as 2 NB.

2.5
Pressure drop in a pipeline

Pressure drop in a pipeline is depending upon the quantity of airflow, diameter of the
pipeline, pipe length and pipe geometry i.e the bends in the pipe lines.
The pipelines should be with minimum number of Joints, bends and fittings. Further
to minimize the joints it should be ensured that joints are welded instead of flexible
or screwed joints, wherever possible. This facilitates minimizing the leakages and
pressure drop.
The maximum pressure drop between the compressor plant and the farthest
end of compressed air consumption should be 0.3 bar.
The pressure drop can be readily obtained from the graph given below.
Pressure drop in a pipeline

(Source: Indian Standards IS 6206 1985)

10
CHAPTER - III
Testing of Air Compressors
Over a period of time performance of the compressors and compressed air systems
get deteriorated. This could be due to various reasons such as poor maintenance,
wear & tear, use of poor quality lubricants etc.
The reduction in performance of air compressors leads to increase in overall power
consumption, installation of additional compressors and increase in cost of
compressed air. Hence a periodic check on the performance of compressors is
required to ensure rated compressed air delivery, operating efficiency and specific
power consumption.
The compressed air leakage level has to be periodically monitored. The increase in
leakage level leads to increased energy loss. The leakage level in the plant can be
monitored by carrying out leakage test. In this chapter the leakage test procedure is
discussed in detail.
3.1
Performance test
The following are determined by carrying out the performance test on the
compressors.
Free air delivery (FAD)
Free air delivery is the quantity of compressed air delivered by the compressor at
ambient pressure.
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual free air delivered to the compressor
swept volume.
Specific power consumption
Specific power consumption of the compressor is the ratio of actual power
consumption to the quantity of free air delivered.
After carrying out the performance test the actual performance of the compressor
has to be compared with the design values. Suitable measures could be taken to
improve the operating efficiency.
3.2
Measurement of Free air delivered by the compressor

The quantity of free air delivered by the compressor can be measured by any of the
following two methods.
" Nozzle method
" Pump up method
11
3.2.1 Nozzle method

The compressor receiver is connected with a specially designed nozzle. The
compressor is put into operation and the compressed air is discharged to atmosphere
through the nozzle. Sonic flow sets in the nozzle throat for a particular ratio of
upstream pressure to the down stream pressure.
When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for a particular period of time, the
compressed air delivered by the compressor is equal to the quantity of airflow
through the nozzle. The air flow through the nozzle can be calculated from the
known characteristics of the nozzle.
The testing arrangement is shown in the fig.
The compressor discharge is connected to a receiver. In the receiver outlet a suitable

nozzle is installed for flow measurement. Before the nozzle a straightener and a
control valve are installed. Straightener is used to ensure streamlined airflow and the
control valve is used to set the pressures at the inlet to nozzle.

12
The nozzle used for the flow measurement has to be selected based on the installed
capacity of the compressor. As per IS standard IS 10431: 1994 the recommended
nozzle dimensions for flow measurement for various capacity of compressors is
given below.
Nozzle size
6
10
16
22
33
50
80
125
165
Capacity m3/hr
3-9
9-30
27-90
60-170
130-375
300-450
750-2000
1800-5500
3500-10000
The experiment can be carried out for different discharge pressure of compressors.
The discharge pressures can be 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of normal operating
pressure of compressor.
Start the compressor and discharge the compressed air to the atmosphere through
the nozzle. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve
should be equal to or twice the pressure beyond throttle.
Once the system is stabilized and the pressure in the receiver is maintained constant
for a period of time the following measurements have to be carried out.
The quantity of free air delivered by the compressor can be calculated using the
following formula.
Free air delivered Qf =
k x x d2/4 x T1/P1 x 2 (P3-P4) (P2xRa)

T3
Where
K
d
Ra
P1
T1
P2
T3
P3
S
P3 - P4 -
Coefficient of discharge of nozzle as per IS standards

Diameter of the nozzle
Gas constant 287.1 J/kg k
Absolute inlet pressure kg/cm2
Inlet temperature
K
Absolute pressure in receiver kg/cm2
Absolute temperature before nozzle kg/cm2
Absolute pressure before nozzle kg/cm2
Speed of the compressor in rpm
Differential pressure across the nozzle kg/cm2

13
Volumetric efficiency
Compressor swept volume =

D
L
S
n
N
Free air delivered (m3/min)

x 100
Compressor swept volume (m3/min)
x D2 x L x S x n x N
4
Diameter of the cylinder in m

Stroke length in m
Compressor speed in rpm
Number of cylinders in compressor
1 for single acting compressor and 2 for double acting
Specific power consumption
Actual power consumption

Measured free air delivered
3.2.2 Free air delivered measurement using Pump up test method

The pump up test method is the simplest method of estimating the capacity of the
compressor in the shop floor itself. The free air delivered can be measured by the
plant team themselves without using any sophisticated measuring instruments.
The compressor to be tested and a known volume of receiver have to be isolated
separately from the main line. Totally empty the compressed air receiver and close
the outlet valve of the receiver. Also it should be ensured that there is no condensate
water inside the receiver and the drain valve is also fully closed.
Start the compressor and note down the time taken for raise in pressure in the
receiver to the normal operating pressure (P2)from the initial pressure (P1). The same
exercise can be repeated for about three times.
The free air delivered by the compressed air can be calculated using the following
formula.
Free air delivered by the compressor
P2 - P1 X V Nm3/min
T
Patm
Where
P2
P1
Patm
V
T
Final pressure in the receiver kg/cm2 (abs)

Initial pressure in the receiver kg/cm2 (abs)
Atmospheric pressure kg/cm2 (abs)
Volume of compressed air storage m3
Time taken to build up pressure from P1 to P2 in minutes
While estimating the volume of compressed air storage the volume of after cooler,
volume of pipeline from the after cooler to the receiver should be included along
with receiver volume.

14
Also, since the compressed air temperature at discharge is higher than the ambient
temperature, the free air delivered has to be multiplied by the following correction
factor.
Correction factor
Tatm + 273
T1 + 273
Where
T1
Tatm
3.3
Temperature of compressor at discharge

Ambient temperature in oC
Compressed air Leakage test

The leakage test has to be periodically carried out to estimate the compressed air
leakage in the plant. The leakage test has to be carried out, when there are no
compressed air users in operation.
Run the compressor and pressurize the system to the normal pressure. Once the
system reaches the normal operating pressure the compressor will get unloaded.
If there is no leakages inside the plant the compressor should remain in the unload
condition and should not get loaded again. But in actual practice due to compressed
air leakages the system pressure will come down and the compressor will go to load
mode.
The loading and unloading of the compressor indicates the compressed air leakage
inside the plant. Note down the load / unload time (take at least 3 readings)
The compressed air leakage can be estimated using the formula given below.
3.4
The system leakages
Load time
Load time + Unload time
% leakage
(of air compressor capacity)
Air leakage
Compressor capacity
x Capacity of
compressor
x 100
Cost of compressed air leakages

One of the major opportunity for energy saving in compressed air system is to arrest
air leakages. The cost of compressed air leakage at 7.0 bar pressure is given below :
Table: Cost of compressed air leakage
Orifice size
(mm)
0.8
1.6
3.1
6.4
Energy loss
(kW)
0.2
0.8
3.0
12.0
*Cost of air leakage

(Rs/year)
8000
32000
120000
480000
*Based on Rs.5/kWh; 8000 operating hours; air at 7.0 bar pressure

15
CHAPTER IV
Compressed Air Plant Layout and Distribution
The design of compressed air plant layout and distribution of compressed air plays a
significant role in the total energy consumption. While selecting the compressed air
layout and distribution, at the design stage itself it should be ensured that the
pressure drop in the system is very minimal, so that the minimum operating pressure
set point for the compressor can be maintained.
4.1
Plant Layout
Compressed air layout can be of two types such as centralized compressor system
and decentralized compressor system. Suitable compressed air system can be selected
based on the plant. Each system has its own advantages.
The location of the compressors, suction pipe work and discharge pipe work are vital
in configuring the plant layout.
4.1.1 Selection of plant layout

Centralized and decentralized compressor layouts have their own advantages and
disadvantages. The selection would vary from plant to plant.
In centralized compressor system all the compressors are located in a single house.
This provides greater cost effectiveness in process plants.
Decentralized compressor system is more suitable for engineering industry having
multiple production lines and requiring compressed air at different pressures. The
compressors are dedicated to the individual production lines and operated at the
pressure matching with the plant requirement.
For instance if a compressor is located indoor in a centralized compressor room the
compressed air system is protected from the weather, allows for easy access for
maintenance and maximize plant floor space. However, centralized compressed air
systems usually require additional space to provide adequate ventilation and
additional piping to reach the user end which can increase pressure drops.
The decentralized air layout allows for compressors to be located closest to the
largest air users and reduces pressure drop through the airlines. However this
configuration can also result in noise and heat complaints inside the plant.
4.1.2 Location of compressors
Ideally compressors should be located where it can induct clean, dry and cool air.
One of the major issues related to the compressor location is the ambient
temperature.

16
The compressed air system exposed to extremely high temperatures can result in
higher specific power consumption, unscheduled shutdowns, increased maintenance
and decrease in lubricant life.
Ventilation is equally important for all compressors regardless of type of cooling.
It would be interesting to note that for every 4oC reduction in intake air
temperature there is 1% reduction in compressor power consumption.
At design stage, it is important to plan for proper ventilation and access to
compressor location. The locations exceeding temperature of 45oC should be
avoided. A free space of about 1 m around the compressor needs to be provided for
maintenance and 1 m for motor starter access panel.
Addressing the issue of ventilation at the design stage can help in increasing the life
of the compressor, Lubricating oil and the coolant.
The following points should be considered while locating the compressors.
!
!
!
!
Low humidity to reduce water entrainment

Adequate ventilation especially for air cooled unit.
Minimum suction piping
Minimum of bends
4.1.3 Suction pipe work

The suction pipe work plays an important role in terms of improving the operation
and performance of the compressor. The following points should be considered
while designing the suction pipe work for air compressor installations.
! The piping should be kept short to avoid excessive condensation and pressure
loss.
! A high efficiency filter should be fitted to collect particulate matter. Generally
filters with dry disposable elements are suitable.
! Sufficient access should be provided for inspection and cleaning of filters. The
intake silencer fitted with filter should be located upstream of the silencer to
minimize the effect of pulsation.
! The piping should be large enough to avoid excessive energy losses. For every
25 m bar pressure lost at the inlet, the compressor efficiency is reduced by
approximately 2%.
4.1.4 Discharge pipe work
The following points have to be considered while designing the discharge pipe work
for the compressor.
! Discharge piping should be full bore i.e. the size of the compressor outlet. Pipe
work should fall in direction of flow towards the air receiver and after cooler.
17
! The air receiver should be located close to the air compressor and the pipe work
should be as short as possible.
! Safety valve should be fitted for positive displacement compressors Normally, it
is set to release when the line pressure exceeds the operating pressure by 5-10%.
4.2
Compressed air Distribution

Compressed air layout should be selected, to minimize the length of piping between
the air compressor and the farthest user of compressed air user.
In systems with a large distribution network, it is preferable to have compressor
centrally located, to minimise the length of piping between the compressor and the
farthest end in the plant.
Some common layouts used are shown in Fig below:
4.2
Different compressed air Layouts

18
Out of these four headers, loop header is the most desired and energy efficient layout
to minimum pressure drop. In some cases, where there is a minimal usage of
compressed air at farthest ends, a dedicated small capacity compressor can be
installed.
The following points should be considered for the distribution pipe work.
! The drainage points should be installed with the aid of equal Ts. Due to sudden
change in direction of flow these fittings assist the separation of water drops
from the air.
! The pipe work should fall in the direction of flow. The gradient can be kept at
approximately 1 in 100.
! Distribution branch connections should be taken from the top of the main to
reduce water entrainment in the air.
! Drain traps should be provided at all low points
! The drain traps should be protected from the ingress of foreign matter by
installing a strainer.
! The drain traps in the main line can be installed at every 30-40 m for effective
water removal.
! Install pressure gauges in various sections of the entire distribution system for
monitoring the pressure in different sections of the network
! The number of joints and bends in the distribution network should be minimum
possible. Further to minimising the joints, it should be ensured that joints are
welded, instead of flexible or screwed joints wherever possible. This facilitates in
minimizing the leakages and pressure drop.

19
CHAPTER - V
Compressor Cooling System
Cooling of air compressors merits tremendous improtants since it affects the energy
efficiency. Cooling systems could be either air cooled or water cooled :
a) Air cooled compressors: These compressors use fan for forced cooling of the
compressors. Due to the low cooling efficiency, this type of cooling is mostly used
for low capacity compressors having intermittent usage.
b) Water cooled compressors: For heavy duty or continuous applications water
cooling system is adopted, as the efficiency of cooling is high.
5.1
Cooling water pumps

The cooling water pumps are designed such that, only one pump caters to a series of
compressors. This is a common feature in almost all the industries. The pumps are
designed keeping in view that all compressors are operated continuously. But in
actual practice, only 50 to 60 % of the compressors are operated. This results in
pumping of excess water, leading to higher power consumption. A Variable
Frequency Drive (VFD) for the cooling water pumps can be considered wherever
dedicated systems are not possible. This will result in considerable amount of power
savings, as well as good process control.
Alternatively, dedicated cooling water pumps i.e., a separate pump for each
compressor can be installed at the design stage itself. This not only saves power, but
also increases the flexibility of operation. The suggested norms below can be
considered for optimising the water & power consumption vis-a-vis the CFM
generated.
! Water consumption/CFM
(Typical 7.0 ksc Compressor)
350 LPM/1000 CFM
! Power consumption/CFM
(Typical 20 m head pump)
2.0 kW/1000 CFM
Soft, clean water is required for cooling the compressor cylinder jackets, intercooler
and after cooler. The temperature of cooling water should be as low as possible.
Lower the temperature of the cooling water better will be the volumetric efficiency.
Ultimately this will result in reduction in overall power consumption.
5.2
Cooling tower
Cooling tower is an area which merits due importance, since it also consumes power.
For compressors the cooling tower should be designed for heat duty specified by the
compressor manufacturer. To select a cooling tower the water flow rate, water inlet
temperature, water outlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperatures must be
considered.
20
At design stage any margin on wet bulb temperature is not recommended. In some
cases it is useful to provide design margins on cold well temperature. The margin on
cold well temperature will result in increase in capital cost. It is usually not
economical to design a tower with approach below 3oC.
Film flow fills are utilized for compressor applications in case where clean water is
available. If the water quality is poor i.e suspended solids > 100 ppm splash fills may
be used.
Usually, the cooling tower fans operate continuously throughout the year. The load is
lower during nights and higher during day time. This fluctuation has to be kept in
view and a temperature indicator controller (TIC) has to be incorporated in cooling
tower fan. This temperature control should automatically cut off cooling tower fan at
30 o C and start the cooling tower fan at 32o C (Suggested temperatures are typically
desired temperatures).

21
CHAPTER VI
Compressed Air Dryers
6.1
Moisture in Atmospheric air

The atmospheric air has certain amount of moisture. The moisture holding capacity
of air depends on the ambient temperature. Higher the temperature; more is the
moisture holding capacity of air in the form of water vapour and vice versa.
Saturated air at a given temperature is the air that contains the maximum amount of
water in the form of water vapour. Any excess water vapour will be condensed in the
form of water.
6.2
Dew point temperature

The extent of drying compressed air is expressed by the term Atomospheric dew
point, which is the temperature at which moisture present in the air starts
condensing at atmospheric pressure. Lower the dew point, more dry is the air. Air at
-40oC atmospheric dew point means no moisture would condense unless
temperature of the air is reduced to less than 40oC, at atmospheric pressure.
The moisture content corresponding to various dew points is shown in the table
below:
Table. Dew point temperature
Dew point at
atmospheric pressure
(oC)
0
-5
-10
-20
-30
-40
-60
-80
6.3
Moisture
content (PPM)
3800
2500
1600
685
234
80
6.5
0.3
Effect of water vapour in compressed air

The compressor compresses the air with certain amount of water vapour depending
upon the temperature and relative humidity. When the compressed air is cooled in
the after cooler the water vapour in the compressed air gets condensed and
significant amount of water is removed. Typically the after cooler removes about
50-60% of water vapour.

22
When the air leaves the after cooler and passes through the compressed air lines, the
temperature of the compressed air further reduces. The remaining water vapour in
the air starts condensing.
The effects of water particles in the compressed air are given below.
! The water particles travel at the same velocity of compressed air and damages the
pneumatic valves or instruments at the user ends.
! Corrosion in the distribution pipe work
! Impaired finishing processes particularly in paint spraying
6.4
Compressed air Drying

The water vapour in the compressed air has to be removed. This can be achieved by
passing the compressed air through the air dryers.
There are two methods of compressed air drying
! Refrigeration drying
! Adsorption drying
6.4.1 Refrigeration drying:

Refrigeration drying is based on the principle that when the temperature of the
compressed air is lowered, the moisture holding capacity is reduced. By lowering the
temperature the water vapour in the compressed air is condensed and removed.
The schematic diagram of the refrigeration type air dryer is shown in fig.
6.4.1
Refrigeration type Dryer
It is a simple mechanical refrigeration system, wherein the dew point is reduced by

chilling. Additionally there is a second heat exchanger, where in the outgoing cool air
pre cools the incoming compressed air. The maximum achievable atmospheric dew
point in this kind of refrigeration system is 20oC.
23
6.4.2 Adsorption Drying

In adsorption drying compressed air is passed through a bed of desiccant material
where the moisture adheres to the surface.
These desiccants have a very large internal surface. These desiccants once saturated
with moisture can be regenerated and reused.
These adsorption dryers can be classified into the following:
a. Desiccant heated, blower reactivated type
b. Desiccant heat less purge type
c. Desiccant Heat of compression type
The operation of the above mentioned dryer is explained in detail below.
a. Desiccant heated blower reactivated type
This dryer consists of two pressure vessels filled with desiccants, which has the
property to adsorb water. While one vessel is in service, the other vessel will be
in regeneration mode. Regeneration involves heating and cooling of the
desiccant, before put into use.
A blower and external heater is used to achieve the regenerating temperature.
The operating cost is higher because of the heater (electrical or steam) and also
because there is a purge loss of about 1-2% of compressed air. The vessel, which
is regenerated, is purged with dry air before it is taken into service. These dryers
are normally used for capacities higher than 250cfm.
The schematic of the dryer is shown.
6.4.2 (a) Desiccant heated blower reactivated type dryer

24
b. Desiccant heat less purge type

The operation is very similar to the blower-reactivated type, only difference
being that no heating of the desiccant is done. Pure dry air is used for purging
through the saturated desiccant. These are used for capacities less than 250 cfm.
The operating cost is very high due to purge losses of about 10-12%.
The schematic of the dryer is shown below.
6.4.2 (b) Desiccant heatless purge type dryer
c. Desiccant Heat of Compression type dryer

This is a break-through in drying technology where the operating cost is zero or
very minimal. HOC dryers are available from 400 cfm to 5000 cfm capacities.
The discharge compressed air, which is at a temperature of 135 o C (in the case
of reciprocating compressor) is used to regenerate the desiccant. There are no
electrical heaters and no purging loss. This makes the dryer very attractive in
terms of operating cost. The desiccant can be Activated Alumina or Silica gel
depending on the dew point required.
The dryer consists of two vessels - À and `B. Vessel À will be in service for
4 hours. Meanwhile vessel `B is reactivated which involves heating for 2 1/2 hrs
and cooling for 1 1/2 hrs. After this, vessel `B is taken into service and vessel
À is reactivated. The regeneration cycle consisting of heating and cooling cycle
as explained below:
Vessel À in service, vessel `B in heating: Air from compressor enters 4-way
valves V2 and V1 and directly to vessel `B so as to start the heating process.
From vessel `B the air through valve V3 and V2 enters after cooler AC1, where
it loses some of the moisture. Through V3 again air enters vessel À where
moisture is adsorbed by the desiccant and finally leaves through V1 to an Aftercooler AC2 where it is cooled to about 35-40o C.

25
After getting filtered in the After-filter, air goes to process, which is dry to an
atmospheric dew point of -40o C. The heating cycle is normally for 2 1/2 hours
duration.
6.4.2 (c) Vessel A in service and Vessel B in Heating mode
Vessel À in service, vessel `B in cooling: Air from compressor passes through

V2, gets cooled in AC1 and enters vessel `B through V3. After cooling the desiccant
in vessel `B air passes through 4-way valves V1, V2 and V3 and enters vessel À,
which is in service.
The air on getting dry, enters After-cooler AC2 via V1, gets cooled to about 35-40oC.
This air dried to an atmospheric dew point of -40o C is now ready for use. The
cooling cycle is normally for about 1 hour duration.
Cooling
6.4.2 (d) Vessel A in service and Vessel B in Cooling mode

26
6.4.3 Desiccant Selection

Adsorption property is exhibited by some forms of silica, alumina (including
bauxite), carbon and certain silicates (molecular sieves). Silica and alumina are used
primarily to remove moisture while carbon is used for organic vapours. Molecular
sieves can give very low atmospheric dew points, as low as -80o C while activated
alumina gives about -40o C.
While using desiccants, it should be noted that attrition (grinding) occurs due to air
pressure surges. This desiccant powder is carried away by air because of which afterfilters needs to be installed before the dry air is taken for use. Molecular sieves have
the capacity of adsorbing small molecules of water. Extremely low dew points can be
achieved by passing an air stream over molecular sieves. Normally, air is passed
through a standard desiccant before it is passed through molecular sieves.
6.4.4 Desiccant Life
Adsorbing capacity of desiccant materials decreases with age. Contaminants like oil
or dust particles will add to this effect. Heat is also one of the factors, which
contributes to desiccant ageing. Many manufacturers recommend a desiccant life of
three to five years, based on the operating conditions.
The condition of the desiccant should be checked periodically. Any effort to monitor
the desiccant condition will give significant benefits in the form of high quality air,
reduced frequency of desiccant change and reduced maintenance cost.
6.5
Compressed air dryers - comparison

The comparison between the above discussed dryers is given below.
Table. Compressed air dryers comparison
Type of dryer
Capital
cost
Running
cost
Dew
point oC
Pressure
drop
Best
suitable for
Max allowable
pressure drop
Kg / cm2
heatless
Low
High
-40
Medium
150 cfm
0.5
Desiccant
heated
blower
reactivated
type
High
Medium
-20 to 40oC
High
100-750 cfm
or decided
by dew point
0.5
Desiccant Heat
compression
High
Very low
-20 to 40oC
High
>1000 cfm
for
lubricated
compressor
0.5
Medium
Low
+3
Low
100 cfm
0.2 0.3
Desiccant
purge type
Refrigeration
dryer
of
type

27
6.6
Pressure drop across the Dryers

Pressure drop across the compressed air dryer adds to indirect energy cost. The
operating pressure of the compressor has to be set considering the pressure loss
across the air dryer and the total compressed air requirement.
If the pressure loss across the dryer is higher, accordingly the operating pressure of
the compressor has to be raised and ultimately will result in increased power
consumption.
In refrigeration type dryers the design of heat exchangers decides the pressure drop
across the dryer. The maximum allowable pressure loss across the refrigeration
dryer is 0.2-0.3 kg/cm2.
In case of adsorption dryers the pressure drop is affected by the filter used. Improper
filters can cause significant pressure drop across the dryer.
The maximum allowable pressure drop across the desiccant type dryer is
0.5 kg/cm2.

28
CHAPTER VII
Accessories
Some of the accessories used in compressed air system are Drain traps,
compressed air filters, oil/water separators, Pressure regulators. These
accessories play a major role in maintaining the quality of compressed air, effective
utilisation and enhancing energy efficiency.
7.1
Drain valves
Condensate from compressed air is always detrimental to the life of pneumatic
equipments. This condensate should be removed as and when formed at various
stages.
Condensation formation takes place at after coolers, air receivers, filters, pipe lines,
drop legs etc. The effective removal of condensate will reduce the moisture load on
the air dryers and ensure the quality of air at the user ends.
Removal of condensate is done by automatic drain valve. In automatic drain valve
there is no need for manual intervention. The automatic drain valves can be classified
as follows:
a. Electronic timer based drain valves
b. Condensate sensing drain valves
a. Electronic timer based drain valve:
The drain valve is controlled by an electronic timer. The opening of drain valve is
based on the preset timings. The cycle time of the drain valve opening is
adjustable.
The cycle time can be set based on the condensate formation rate.

29
b. Condensate sensing drain valve:

In condensate sensing drain valve the operation is based on the level of
condensate collected. The condensate is collected in the drain valve container.
There is a probe kept inside that senses the level of condensate. Once the level of
condensate reaches the set value, the controller activates the solenoid valve and
discharges the condensate.
As the level of condensate drops, the probe again senses the lower level and the
solenoid valve is shutoff. This discharges only the condensate and eliminates
passing of compressed air through the valves. The condensate sensing drain
valves are more energy efficient since there is no compressed air loss.
7.2
Filters
The compressed air treatment for ensuring the quality of compressed air is not only
limited to moisture removal. The other contaminants present in the compressed air
such as dust, oil, rust, Bacteria & Viruses etc will lead to detrimental effects.
Filters are used to remove the contaminants especially dust, oil and moisture. Some
of the filter media used is Ceramics, Sintered Bronze, Boro Silicate glass micro fibre
and activated carbon.
The contaminants and various ways & means of effective removal of those
contaminants are explained in detail below.

30
7.2.1 Solids
Solids, i.e., dust is found in compressed air depending on :
! Suction air quality
! Desiccant, activated carbon provided in dryers
! Pipeline rust and scale
It is preferable to remove dust to the extent required at the point of use. Filters
should have a low-pressure drop, as the energy loss across the filter is in the form of
pressure drop. A surface filter like pleated paper, ceramic or sintered bronze
filter can be used for dust removal. Pleated paper / cellulose are best suited,
as they offer very low-pressure drop and can handle high dust loads without
significant pressure drop. A pressure drop of 0.3 to 1.0 psi is allowable.
7.2.2 Oil
Oil from the compressor comes as vapour and liquid aerosol. The vapour cools and
becomes liquid in the line. For most industrial applications only the liquid oil need to
be removed and is done by a coalescing filter. Coalescers are depth filters and most
energy efficient. E.g. a wet 0.01 micron filters @ 99.999% efficiency has a pressure
drop of 6 psi, while a 0.01 micron filters @ 99.97% efficiency has a pressure drop of
3 psi only.
Hence it is recommended to install 99.97 % efficiency, 0.01 micron coalescing
filter for industrial applications.
7.2.3 Bacteria /Viruses
In food and pharmaceutical plants the intake air must be free from bacteria and
viruses. This can be achieved by heating the compressed air above 180oC then
cooling it to normal temperature. The compressed air can also be passed through
sterile filters, which capture bacteria of sizes 0.3 2.0 and viruses.
7.3
Pressure drop in filters

After the installation of filters, over a period of time the pressure drop across the
filters increases. The increased pressure drop across the filters leads to resetting of
compressors at slightly higher pressure to match with the requirement.
It costs 7% of the total energy for 1 kg/cm2 pressure drop at 7-8 kg/cm2 operating
pressure.

31
This can be higher for higher pressure. Hence,

! The filters have to be sized properly
! The filters have to be replaced when the pressure drop is high.
Fig. 7.3 Pressure drop in filters
It is advisable to change the filters, when the pressure drop reaches 0.5 ksc. A standby filter can also be arranged to facilitate the changing of filters. Typically a filter
element should have a working life of 12 months or 6000 working hrs.
7.4
Separators
Moisture is found in liquid as well as in suspended form. Moisture in liquid form is
called as condensate and the moisture in suspended form is called as aerosol.
Aerosol is normally removed using water separators. The common types of water
separators are:
" Ceramic cartridge
" Baffle plate
" Demister pad type
The demister pad type is the most desired and energy efficient water separator, as it
is good in removing water droplets and has a lower pressure drop also.
7.5
Pressure Switches
The possibility of lowering the compressor delivery pressure settings should be
explored by a careful study of pressure requirements of various equipment and the
pressure drop in the line between compressed air generation and utilization points.
32
A reduction in the delivery pressure by 1 bar in a compressor would reduce the

power consumption by 6 10 %.
Hence, it is suggested to use Pressure switches such that the compressor cuts-in and
cuts-out at optimum levels.
In a battery of compressors, the pressure setting can be adjusted such that only one
compressor caters to the load variation while others operate at full load.
7.6 Energy Meter

For individual compressors/ sections, sub meters could be installed to record power
consumption. This would help in identifying any deviations in power consumption
and hence record the variation in consumptions..

33
CHAPTER VIII
Energy Conservation Aspects in Compressed Air System
Energy conservation opportunities in air compressors and compressed air systems
are tremendous. Many of the energy savings ideas can be adopted either at the design
stage or during operation.
The energy saving potential in compressed air systems vary from 20 30%. The
following are some of the aspects to be considered :
8.1
Minimize unload power consumption by correctly sizing the compressor

The total energy consumption of the compressed air system depends on correct type
of size of compressors. If the installed compressor capacity is much higher than the
compressed air requirement of the plant the compressor often falls in unloading
mode.
The loading / unloading of the compressor is done based on the receiver pressure. If
the compressed air delivery is more than the requirement of the plant, the system
pressure increases. Once the system pressure reaches the unload set pressure the
compressor gets unloaded.
The compressor remains in the unload mode till the system pressure drops due to
compressed air consumption in the plant and reaches the set load pressure.
During unloading the suction valve of the compressor is closed. There is no
air intake / delivery from the compressor i.e there is no useful work done by
the compressor. The power consumption of the compressor is used only to
overcome the internal frictional losses.
The unload power consumption of the compressors is significant. In case of
reciprocating compressors the unload power consumption is in the range of 15-20%
of load power consumption. For screw compressors the unload power is still higher,
which would be in the range of 30-35% of load power consumption.
Hence energy saving can be achieved by minimizing the unload power consumption.
The unloading of the compressor can be minimized by correctly sizing the
compressor at the design stage itself i.e excess cushion on capacity of the compressor
has to be reduced. Maximum 10% excess on capacity of compressor is allowed.
In the existing system the following options can be considered to minimize the
unload power consumption.
a. Installation of ON/OFF type of compressor
b. Reducing the speed of the compressor

34
For smaller capacity of compressors i.e < 100 cfm ON/OFF type compressors can
be selected instead of Load / Unload type compressors. In ON/OFF type, once the
required pressure is achieved the compressor is switched off. Hence there is no
unload power consumption.
In case of the belt driven reciprocating compressors the speed can be permanently
reduced by altering the pulley sizes to minimize the unload power consumption.
Precaution has to be taken that the speed reduction in reciprocating compressor does
not exceed 20% of the rated speed of the compressor. In reciprocating compressors
the lubricating oil pump is directly connected to the main drive. Hence any further
reduction in speed of the compressor may affect the lubrication system.
8.2
Suction air intake to air compressor

The compressors generate heat, due to their continuous operation. This heat gets
dissipated inside the compressor room / chamber / leading to hot air feed to the
compressor intake. This results in lower volumetric efficiency and higher power
consumption. For an approximate 4o C rise in temperature, the power consumption
increases by 1% for the same output.
Effect on intake air temperature on power consumption
Relative air delivery
Power saved
Inlet temperature
(%)
(%)
(oC)
10.0
102.0
+1.4
15.5
100.0
Nil
21.1
98.1
- 1.3
26.6
96.3
- 2.5
32.2
94.1
- 4.0
37.7
92.8
- 5.0
43.3
91.2
- 5.8
Hence, it is recommended to provide a separate suction duct from outside
(atmosphere) to the compressor directly.
8.3
Segregation of HP & LP Compressed air system:

Pressure Vs Power Consumption
Higher the pressure, higher is the power consumption. In any industry, the
compressor is selected for the high pressure requirement, though there are both
higher and low pressure users.
While calculating the average compressed air consumption of the plant, the total
requirement of Low Pressure (2.5 to 3.5 bar) and High Pressure (above 3.5 bar)
compressed air has to be estimated. If any, say LP or HP air constitutes more than
30 % of the average compressed air consumption and then separate compressed air
system has to be installed. The segregation of HP & LP compressed air user has
many advantages.
35
They are:
" Reduces the leakages proportionally, as the leakage levels are high at higher
pressures.
" Reduces the overall operating cost. Say a 20 % reduction in pressure results in
20% reduction in power consumption of the compressors. Moreover, the wear &
tear of the compressors are less at low pressures.
8.4
Minimize unload power consumption when combination of reciprocating

and screw compressors are in operation
Utilisation of both reciprocating compressors and the latest screw compressors is
quite common. During normal operation, when there is a fluctuation in compressed
air requirement both the reciprocating compressors and the screw compressors get
unloaded.
The unload power consumption of the reciprocating machines is much lower than
the unload power consumption of screw compressors. In reciprocating machines the
unload power consumption is only about 15-20% of the load power consumption
where as in screw compressors it is in the range of 30-35% of load power.
Hence the screw compressor should never be allowed to unload. The pressure
settings of the compressors should be reset in such a way that the screw compressor
should be always on loading and the reciprocating compressor gets loaded/unloaded
depending upon the requirement.
8.5
Install screw compressors with built-in variable frequency drives (VFD) for
fluctuating loads
Variable speed drives eg. (variable frequency drives) can be installed for all types of
air compressors. However, it is best suited for screw air compressors. The
advantages of installing VFD for screw air compressors are:
" All the compressors connected to a common system operate at a constant
pressure. The operating pressure will be lesser than the average operating
pressure of loading / unloading system. Hence, energy saving is achieved due to
pressure reduction.
" The compressors will not operate in load / unload mode. This saves the unload
power consumption.
" Air leakages in the compressed air system also come down since the average
operating pressure is less.
Generally, high capacity air compressors are operated with loading / unloading
control, as in the case of screw & reciprocating compressors and with inlet vane
control for centrifugal compressors.

36
In loading / unloading type of control, receiver pressure is sensed and the

compressor load / unloads depending on the pressure. Hence a compressor operates
within a band of pressure range. Generally air compressors operate with 1 ksc
pressure range.
For example, for a compressor operating between load pressure of 6 ksc & unload
pressure of 7 ksc; the average pressure is 6.5 ksc, (bandwidth 1 ksc). The power
consumption of the compressor operating constantly at 6 ksc with VFD comes
down by 5 to 6 %. By installing a VFD, it is possible to maintain a bandwidth of
0.1 ksc.
The major advantage of variable speed drive is that if 4 or 5 compressors are
connected to a common header, then by installing VFD in one compressor, the
energy savings due to pressure reduction is achieved in all the compressors
Since the average operating pressure with VFD is less (6 ksc instead of 6.5 ksc as per
earlier example) the air leakages in the system is also minimized.
The installation of VFD facilitates to reduce / increase the speed of the compressor
depending on the requirement. This completely avoids unloading and saves unload
power consumption, which is normally 25 to 35% of the full load consumption.
The screw compressors with built in variable frequency drive facilitates fine - tuning
of the compressor capacity precisely to meet the fluctuating compressed air demand.
This leads to precise pressure regulation. It accurately measures the system pressure
and adjusts the speed to automatically maintain a constant pressure.
Hence it is recommended to install screw compressors with built-in VFD for
fluctuating loads, at design stage itself.
8.6
Minimize compressed air pressure fluctuation by installing intermediate

control system
The quantity of compressed air requirement varies depending on the users. The
variation in quantity is substantial due to sudden requirement in the intermittent
users. Majority of time the duration of usage may be small but quantity requirement
is significant. This leads to fluctuation in overall system pressure.
A sudden air demand leads to reduction in overall system pressure and makes the
compressor to load. There is time delay between the reduction in system demand and
the compressor to sense the pressure to come to load mode. Majority of time the
time delay is so much that by the time the compressor comes to the load mode the
demand vanishes and the compressor pumps air into the system to the higherpressure limit.
Thus the system operates for artificial demand and not for the real demand. The
compressor must be always ready to satisfy these peaks in anticipation.

37
If the pressure is simply reduced, that would result in negative impact on production
such as decrease in efficiency of production and quality related problems. Hence a
proper balancing of supply and demand is needed to satisfy the production without
creating an artificial demand. This can be achieved by installing an intermediate
controller between the compressor and the end users.
The intermediate controller creates a useful storage by introducing a controlled
differential pressure across an upstream receiver. This storage isolates the
compressor from demand side. Peaks are dealt with the reserve energy stored.
Thus by providing air at controlled differential at an optimum pressure, mass of air is
reduced and high pressure storage is created to increase the unload time of
compressors. The increase in unload time leads to reduction in overall energy
consumption of compressors.
8.7
Minimize compressed air leakages

Quantity of air losses through small holes, cracks, leaky couplings, joints, etc, can add
up to a very large value. With proper installation and maintenance, leakage losses
should not exceed 5% of the total capacity of the compressor. Keeping this in view,
the compressed air system has to be provided with good controls, so as to keep the
leakage levels to a bare minimum of 5% of the total compressed air generation.
The following should be taken care of at design stage, so as to reduce leakage levels
at:
" Welded joints should be used instead of screwed joints as far as possible.
" Install ball valves at the user ends, to facilitate easy opening & closing of valves.

38
" Initiate a system to replace the flexibles, rubber hoses, joints, packings, etc., in
regular intervals (Say once in 3 months).
" The compressors are to be provided with hour meters for measuring the loading
/ Unloading periods. The increase in the loading period for the same production
levels, indicates the increase in leakage levels.
" Normally, most of the engineering plants operate for two shifts only. However,
some units (eg.,heat treatment shops, etc.,) have to operate continuously in these
plants. In order to support this activity the whole compressed air system has to
function continuously. In such large size plants, having many individual work
shops and a centralized compressor house, individual shop-wise solenoid control
valves for compressed air lines have to be installed.
" The solenoid valve helps in cutting the compressed air supply to the individual
shop when there is no activity. This minimise the leakage loss and pressure drop
to a considerable level. Hence, it is recommended to install individual shop wise
solenoid control valves for the compressed air line at design itself, so as to
minimise the compressed air leakages during non-active periods.
The relation between hole size, quantity of compressed air leakage and power loss is
given below.
8.8
Hole Diameter
(mm)
Air leakage @ 6 Bars

(m3/min)
1
3
5
10
0.06
0.6
1.6
6.3
Power Required for

compression
(kW)
0.3
3.1
8.3
33
Substitution of compressed air

Compressed air is highly energy intensive and costly. So the factory manager has to
think of the possibilities of replacing compressed air, with an equivalent energy
source at design stage.
The possible areas for substituting compressed air are:
Agitation: Normally compressed air is utilised for agitation purposes in ETP tanks,
Pretreatment tanks, etc., For agitation purposes, the quantity of air required is
important than the pressure (required only to push through the water column
through a max of 10m (1.0 ksc) height). This can be replaced with a Roots Blower.
A high-pressure blower, can generate pressures upto 2.0 ksc) agitation, thereby
saving enormous power and cost on layout.

39
Cooling: Compressed air for cooling is a common practice in Engineering, auto

component & tyre industry. Cooling also requires large quantity of air at low
pressure. Compressed air for cooling purposes can be replaced with a blower
cooling. This not only saves power, but also provides effective cooling.
Air Curtain: Compressed air for providing air curtains is also a common practice
adopted in many industries. Air curtains are required, so as to avoid heat loss from
the ovens, shots from shot blasting machine, etc, Compressed air for such air
curtains can be replaced with a blower.
Power saving of 50% is possible by replacing the compressed air with blower air. So
it is recommended to substitute compressed air with a suitable equivalent source, say
a roots blower, blower etc.
8.9
Install transvector nozzles for cleaning hoses

The use of compressed air for cleaning applications is common in the industry. The
cleaning application requires large quantity of air at low pressure (2.5 ksc), while
compressed air at 6.0 ksc is normally used for cleaning applications. This is mainly
due to the usage of centralized compressed air for cleaning applications.
As a first step, one should think of operating a separate on/off package air
compressor at low pressure for cleaning applications.
Wherever such separate compressed air system for cleaning cannot be justified,
transvector nozzles can be installed for the compressed air cleaning hoses, to
minimise the compressed air consumption.
Transvector nozzles are based on the venturi effect - The passing of high-pressure air
through a constricted hole, creates a vacuum: This results in the atmospheric air
getting sucked through the circumferential holes provided. Results show that almost
30 to 40 % of the atmospheric air is utilised, thereby reducing the compressed air
consumption. This offers a good potential to consider installation of transvector
nozzles for the cleaning hoses at design stage.

40
8.10
Install electrical tools as much as possible, instead of pneumatic tools

The replacement of pneumatic tools with electrical tools will result in a power
savings of 30%. Moreover, pneumatic tools are highly leak-prone. This results in
unnecessary wastage of compressed air and energy.
Hither to, the electrical tools had some design problems like overweight, overheating,
frequent armature failures, etc,. Now these have been taken care of and new
generation of high frequency electrical tools is also available. So it is recommended
to consider electrical tools in place of pneumatic tools at design stage itself.

41
CHAPTER - IX
Case Studies on Energy Conservation in
Case study - 1
Optimally utilize the compressor depending upon the requirement
Background
In a textile industry a screw compressor 600 cfm capacity is in continuous operation.
Majority of compressed air users are pneumatic instruments, pneumatic valves and
actuators. In addition to the above-mentioned users, compressed air is also utilized to
remove the yarn whenever there is a yarn breakage.
During normal operation the quantity of compressed air requirement in the plant is about
100 cfm. Whenever there is a yarn breakage, there is a sudden increase in quantity of
compressed air requirement, which breakage is as high as 500-550 cfm.
Since the compressed air requirement during normal operating condition is much lower than
the installed capacity majority of time the compressor is getting unloaded. During
unloading there is no useful work done by the compressor. The unload power
consumption is used only to overcome the internal frictional losses.
Hence substantial energy saving can be achieved by minimizing / avoiding unloading of the
compressor.

42
Previous status
The operating parameters of the compressor during normal operating condition are as
below.
Table. Operating parameters
Loading time
%
Unloading time
%
Load power
kW
Unload power
kW
17
83
108
38
Energy saving project

The following measures have been taken up to minimize the unloading of the screw
compressor.
" A reciprocating compressor of capacity 125 cfm was installed to meet the compressed
air requirements during the normal operating condition.
" The screw compressor was kept as standby and given automatic starting facility based on
the system pressure.
" Whenever the system pressure falls due to sudden use of compressed air for yarn
removal, the screw compressor automatically started to meet the compressed air
requirement.
Implementation methodology and time frame
A new reciprocating compressor was bought exactly to meet the actual compressed air
requirement. The set point for automatic starting of the screw compressor was given slightly
lower than the load pressure of the reciprocating compressor.
The plant team did not face any major problem during implementation. The project was
completed within a week time.
Benefits
The unload power consumption of the screw compressor was totally eliminated and resulted
in substantial energy saving.
Financial Analysis
The annual energy saving achieved was Rs 7.44 Lakhs. This required an investment of
Rs 1.50 Lakhs, which was paid back in 3 Months.

43
Case study 2
Replace old inefficient compressor with new efficient compressor
Background
Over a period of time the compressor operating efficiency comes down and the quantity of
free air delivered reduces due reasons such as poor maintenance, wear and tear etc.
If the operating efficiency of the compressor is low the specific power consumption
(kW/cfm) increases and hence the cost of compressed air goes up.
The quantity of free air delivered, operating efficiency and the specific power consumption
of the compressor can be determined by carrying out a performance test.
If the specific power consumption increases by 25 - 30 % as compared to a new efficient
compressor, it makes economic sense to replace the compressor with new efficient
compressor.
Previous status
In one of the cement industry a reciprocating compressor of capacity (Free air delivered)
34.32 m3/min was in operation. The normal operating pressure is 6.0 kg/cm2.
Performance test was carried out and results are as follows:
" Actual free air delivered
" Specific power consumption
26.08 m3/min
6.82 kW/m3/min
The specific power consumption was observed to be very high. Typically for reciprocating
compressor the specific power consumption at an operating pressure of 6 kg/cm2 would be
about 5.5 kW/m3/min.
The existing old inefficient compressor was replaced with energy efficient compressor of the
same capacity.
The plant team did not face any major problem during implementation of the above project.
The project was implemented in two weeks.
The performance of the compressor has to be monitored by carrying out performance test
atleast once in 6 months. Any increase in specific power consumption is an indication of
inefficient operation.
The reason for increase in power consumption should be identified and attended during
regular maintenance.

44
Benefits
There was a significant reduction in specific power consumption and hence the cost of
compressed air.
Reduction in specific power consumption -
1.2 kW/m3/min.
Financial Analysis
Rs 6.00 Lakhs, which was paid back in 12 Months.

45
Case study 3
Segregate high pressure and low pressure compressed air users
Background
The compressed air pressure requirement varies depending upon the process requirement.
The operating pressure of the compressor is set in such a way that the maximum pressure
requirement in the plant can be met. For other low pressure applications air regulators are
used to reduce the compressed air pressure at user ends.
Use of compressed air regulators is an inefficient practice. The pressure loss across the air
regulator leads to energy loss.
In compressors, the power consumption is proportional to the operating pressure.
The loading power consumption reduces with reduction in operating pressure and vice
versa.
Hence energy saving can be achieved by segregating high pressure and low pressure
compressed air users and compressors can be dedicated for low pressure applications
supplying compressed air at lower pressure matching with the requirement.
Present status
In one of the process industry 5 Nos of reciprocating compressors of 2700 m3/hr capacity
each are available for compressed air generation. Three compressors are in continuous
operation. The total quantity of compressed air supply at a pressure of
6.5 kg/cm2 is about 7000 m3/hr.
Compressed air is utilized for both instrumentation applications and in interlacers. The
maximum compressed air pressure and quantity requirement for both the users are given
below.
Quantity
Area
Pressure
m3/hr
kg/cm2
Instrumentation
6.0
2600
Interlacers
4.0
4400
For the interlacers air regulators are installed at the user ends and the compressed air
pressure is reduced from 6.0 kg/cm2 to 4.0 kg/cm2.
The pressure loss across the air regulator is about 33%.
The following measures were taken up for energy saving.
" The low pressure (interlacers) and the high-pressure users (instrumentation) were
segregated.

46
" The existing line was utilized for the high-pressure compressed air supply and separate
compressed air line was laid for the low-pressure applications.
" Two compressors were dedicated for low-pressure compressed air supply and operated
at a pressure of 4.5 kg/cm2. The air regulators at the user end were kept fully opened.
Identification of low pressure compressed air users was easier. The existing compressed air
line was utilized for high pressure compressed air supply and a separate compressed air line
was laid for the low pressure applications.
Only after the compressed air lines were in place, two compressors were connected to the
low pressure lines and operated at lower pressure. The process was not disturbed during the
implementation of the project.
The implementation of project was completed in 4 months.
Cost benefit analysis
Rs 8.25 Lakhs for dedicated compressed air line, which was paid back in 4 Months.

47
Case study 4
Install variable frequency drive for the screw compressor with feed back control
Background
The compressors go on unload mode if the installed capacity is more than the compressed
air requirement. During unloading, there is no useful work done, the power consumption is
used to overcome only the internal frictional losses.
In screw compressors the unload power consumption can be eliminated by installing
variable frequency drive with feed back control. The pressure sensor provided at the
discharge side of the compressor continuously senses the pressure and gives signal to the
variable frequency drive.
The variable frequency drive varies the speed of the compressor to maintain the same set
pressure. The unload power consumption of the compressor can be totally eliminated.
The other advantages of installing variable frequency drive are as follows:

" Using the variable frequency drive the operating pressure can be precisely controlled.
There is no need to maintain a bandwidth as maintained in case of load/unload control.
This leads to reduction in average operating pressure of the compressor and hence
reduction in power consumption.
" The leakage in the compressed air system is proportional to the operating pressure. Since
there is a significant reduction in operating pressure and hence significant reduction in
leakage level.
" In addition, by using the variable frequency drive the V/F ratio for the motor can be
precisely maintained. This leads to marginal improvement in operating efficiency of
motor.
Previous status
In one of the process industry 4 nos of screw compressors of capacity 500 cfm each are in
operation for compressed air supply. Out of four compressors 3 compressors are fully
loaded and one compressor was getting loaded and unloaded.

48
The compressor was getting loaded at 6.0 kg/cm2 and unloaded at 7.0 kg/cm2. An average
operating pressure of 6.5 kg/cm2 was maintained.
The unloading percentage of the compressor was about 50% of the operating time. The
unloading power consumption of the screw compressor was about 27 kW.
The following energy conservation measures were taken up.
The screw compressor, which was getting loaded and unloaded was installed with variable
frequency drive with feed back control. The unloading power consumption of the screw
compressor was totally eliminated.
The operating pressure of the compressors was precisely set at 6.0 kg/cm2. Since the overall
system pressure is reduced and reduction in power consumption is achieved in all the
compressors.
When a battery of compressors is in operation and connected to a common receiver,
installation of variable frequency drive for one screw compressor is sufficient. This will take
care of the fluctuation in compressed air requirement of the entire system.
For standby compressors, the VFD can be installed with change over contactors, so that
whenever change of compressor is required the VFD control can be changed to the
compressor in operation.
The plant team did not face any major problem during implementation. The VFD was
installed with feed back control with a day time.
Rs 12.00 Lakhs for installation of variable frequency drive with feed back control, which
was paid back in 14 Months.

49
Case study 5
Install intermediate controller and minimize the pressure fluctuation in the
compressed air system
Background
The quantity of compressed air requirement varies depending upon the users. The variation
in quantity is substantial due to sudden requirement in the intermittent users. This leads to
fluctuation in overall system pressure and compressor air requirement.
The system operates for artificial demand and not for the real demand. The compressor
must be always ready to satisfy these peaks in their anticipation.
A proper balancing of supply and demand is needed to satisfy the production without
creating an artificial demand. This can be achieved by installing an intermediate controller
between the compressor and the end users.
The intermediate controller creates a useful storage by introducing a controlled differential
pressure across an upstream receiver. This storage isolates the compressor from demand
side. Peaks are dealt with the reserve energy stored.
Thus by providing air at controlled differential at an optimum pressure, mass of air is
reduced and high pressure storage is created to increase the unload time of compressors.
The increase in unload time leads to reduction in overall energy consumption of
compressors.
Previous status
In one of the textile mills two numbers of compressors of capacity 200 cfm were in
operation.
The operating pressure fluctuation was monitored over a period of time. The variation in
the pressure fluctuation was about +/- 7 psi.
The total energy consumption per day was about 1579 kWh.

50

An intermediate controller was installed. After installation of the intermediate controller the
pressure variation is reduced.
The pressure
+/- 2 psi.
variation
in
the
compressed
air
system
is
maintained
at
The energy consumption per day is reduced from 1579 kWh to 1325 kWh.
Installation of intermediate controller requires an additional receiver for the compressed air
storage.
The plant team did not face any problem during implementation of the intermediate
controller. The project was completed in two days time.
Rs 3.00 Lakhs for the total project, which got paid back in 11 Months.

51
Case study 6
Replace compressed air with blower air for agitation in Effluent Treatment Plant
(ETP)
Background
In effluent treatment plant, generally the agitation is carried out by supplying compressed
air. The compressed air is tapped from the main header at normal operating pressure of
5.0-6.0 kg/cm2.
For agitation, only the volume of air flow is the criteria not the pressure. The maximum
pressure requirement is not more than 0.5 kg/cm2. The effective agitation can be achieved
by using blower air.
The comparison between the specific power consumption of compressed air and blower air
is given below.
! Compressed air
! Blower air
16 kW/100 cfm
2 - 4 kW/100 cfm
Hence significant energy saving can be achieved by replacing compressed air with blower air
for agitation applications.
Previous status
In one of the engineering industry compressed air is utilized for the agitation application.
The compressed air is taken from the main header, which is at a pressure of 5.5 kg/cm2. A
control valve is utilized for controlling the pressure and supply compressed air to match
with the requirement.
The quantity of compressed air utilized for agitation application is about 50 cfm.

52

A positive displacement blower of following specifications was installed.
! Capacity ! Pressure -
50 cfm
0.5 kg/cm2
Compressed air was replaced with blower air for agitation applications.
The plant team did not face any major problem for implementing the project. The project
was implemented in two days.
Rs 0.50 Lakhs for installation of positive displacement blower, which got paid back in
5 Months.

53
Case study 7
Install Transvector nozzles for cleaning applications
Background
Use of compressed air for cleaning applications is normally practiced air in any industry. In
engineering, foundry and textile industries majority of compressed is used for cleaning
application alone.
For cleaning applications only the volume of airflow is the criteria not the operating
pressure. The cleaning can be effectively achieved with maximum pressure of
3-3.5 kg/cm2.
The latest trend is utilizing transvector nozzles for cleaning applications. The transvector
nozzle is working based on the venturi principle. The nozzle has holes at periphery. When
compressed air at higher pressure passes through the nozzle, it sucks in atmospheric air
through the holes at the periphery. Air at a pressure of 3.0-3.5 kg/cm2 is supplied for the
cleaning application, which is sufficient.
In this system, atleast 30-40% of the compressed air is replaced with atmospheric air. Hence
the over all compressed air consumption reduces.
Previous status
In one of the engineering industry there were about 25 compressed air cleaning points
available. Compressed air at a pressure of 6.0 kg/cm2 was utilized for the cleaning
applications. The quantity of compressed air utilized for the cleaning application alone was
in the range of 125-150 cfm.
Transvector nozzles have been installed in all the cleaning points. Air at a pressure of
3.5 kg/cm2 is utilized for the cleaning applications.
This has resulted in reduction in compressed air usage of about 50 cfm.
Awareness among the operators needs to be created about the effective use of compressed
air.
The plant team did not face any problem in implementing the projects. The project was
implemented in two days time.
In case of larger industry the project can be taken up in phases.
Rs 0.50 Lakhs for installation of Transvector nozzles, which got paid back in 5 Months.

54
Case study 8
Utilize electrical tools in place of pneumatic operated tools
Background
Use of pneumatic tools is quiet common in engineering industry. Pneumatic tools require
compressed air at a pressure of 5.5 6.0 kg/cm2. When compressed air is utilized for
pneumatic applications, from compressed air generation to end-use many energy
transformations take place. i.e (electrical energy to compressed air and then compressed air
to mechanical energy)
In each stage of energy transformation, due to inefficiency of individual equipment certain
amount energy is lost. This can be eliminated if electrical energy is directly utilized for
producing mechanical work.
The theoretical estimation reveals that use of compressed air is about 25% costlier than
direct use of electrical energy for producing mechanical work.
Previous status
In one of the engineering industry about 40 pneumatic grinders were utilized for the
grinding application.
Compressed air at a pressure of 6.0 kg/cm2 was being utilized for the pneumatic grinders.
All the 40 numbers of pneumatic grinders are replaced with the electrical grinders.
This has resulted in substantial energy savings.
While utilizing the electrical equipment for the grinding applications, the safety aspects have
to be taken into consideration.
The project can be taken up in a phased manner for large installations.
The plant team did not face problem in implementing the project. The project was
implemented in a phased manner in two months time.
Rs 11.00 Lakhs for procuring electrical grinders, which got paid back in 21 Months.

55
Case study 9
Replace desiccant heater dryer with Heat of compression type dryer
In conventional desiccant dryers electrical heaters are utilized for heating the desiccant. In
addition to the electrical heating, compressed air is utilized for purging and removal of
moisture from the desiccant. Due to these two, a significant amount of energy is wasted.
Heat of compression dryer is a break-through in drying technology where the operating cost
is zero or very minimal. Compressed air, directly from compressor discharge, which is at a
temperature of 135 o C (in the case of reciprocating compressor), is used to regenerate the
desiccant. There are no electrical heaters and no purging loss. This makes the dryer very
attractive in terms of operating cost.
The desiccant can be Activated Alumina or Silica gel depending on the dew point required.
HOC dryers are available from 400 cfm to 5000 cfm capacity.
Previous status
A process industry had an Adsorption type, heater reactivated dryer of capacity 50 M 3 /min.
The heater capacity for reactivation was about 32 kW. This apart, the dryer had a purge loss
of about 10 %.
The plant team has replaced the heater reactivated adsorption type dryer with heat of
compression type dryer.
Use of electrical heater has been avoided and there is no compressed air purge loss.

56

The plant team did not face any problem in implementing the above project. The project
was implemented in a week time.
The following points have to be considered while selecting the HOC dryer for the drying
application.
" Select the desiccant depending on the required dew point, life of desiccant and cost.
" If temperature (at the discharge of the compressor) of air is less than
135oC as in the case of screw compressors/centrifugal compressors, additional heaters
are required for regeneration of desiccant.
" Since air carries some dust, two After-filters need to be installed, one being a stand-by.
Rs 14.85 Lakhs for installing heat of compression dryer, which got paid back in
25 Months.

57
Annexure - 1
Approximate air consumption of pneumatic machine tools
Free Air
Consumption at
6.0 0.5 bars
(m3/min)
Description of
Pneumatic Machine
Free Air Consumption

at 6.0 0.5 bars
(m3/min)
0.65
Rivet buster, heavy single

blow type
0.10 per rivet
Rammer, bench (2.7 to 5.5 ksc)
0.30 to 0.65
Rivet, Cutter, rapid blow

type for rivets upto 2o
mm
Rammer, floor type (6.5 to 11.5

ksc)
0.35 to 0.80
Riveter, single blow (One

Shot for air craft rivets)
0.18 for 100 rivets
0.7
Riveter staybolt for 25mm

copper staybolts
Description of Pneumatic
Machine
Core Blower
Moulding Machine
Sand Blast (Shot)
Chipper, weld flux
0.75
Sander
0.3
8 mm jet
3 @ 4.2 bars
9 mm jet
4.3 @ 4.2 bars
Tube Cutter for tubes
11 mm jet
5.8 @ 4.2 bars
62 mm
1.35
13 mm jet
7 @ 4.2 bars
62 to 100 mm
1.65
Blow Gun
0.5
Fettling Grip to Vice

Hot Miller (1 to 2 Cutters)
0.0035 per
operation
62 mm
1.35
0.9 per cutter
75 mm
1.65
100 mm
1.9
Air Host
Light (upto 2 kg)
Tube expander for tubes

upto:
Scaling Hammer
Medium (upto 4 kg)
2.5
Valveless,
work
Heavy (upto 6 kg)
5.8
For large boiler tubes
Chipping Hammer
for
surface
0.2
0.6
Grinders
Light (upto 2 kg)
0.35 to 0.50
13 to 20 mm dia wheels
0.25
Medium (upto 4 kg)
0.50 to 0.70
Upto 50 mm dia wheels
0.75
Wood deck caulker
0.75 to 1.00
1.3
0.68 to 0.73
1.5
Angle
grinder
polishers
0.75
Riveting Hammer
20 to 25 mm hot rivets
31 mm hot rivets
0.82
34 mm hot rivets
and

58
Approximate air consumption of pneumatic machine tools

Machine
Drilling Machine for :

6 mm holes in steel
9 mm holes in steel
13 to 20mm holes in steel
22 to 25mm holes in steel
32 mm holes in steel
Free Air
Consumption at
6.0 0.5 bars
(m3/min)
0.37
0.45 to 0.60
0.75 to 0.90
1.00 to 1.20
1.30 to 1.75
1.50 to 1.60
1.65 to 1.80
1.80 to 2.40
Wrenches (rotary type) for :
Machine
Free Air
Consumption at 6.0
0.5 bars (m3/min)
Drill Sharpener
Small
Large
Forging Hammer (Power)
50 Kg
150 Kg
250 kg
500 kg
1000 kg
1.5
3.6
1.8
3.9
5.7
9.6
16
Concrete Breaker
7 mm nuts
0.15 to 0.25
35 to 40 kg weight
9 mm nuts
0.45 to 0.50
25 kg weight
1.35
13 to 25 mm nuts
0.75 to 1.00
15 kg weight
0.9
22 to 25 mm nuts
1.00 to 1.20
Pile driver
1.8
Spike Driver
1.8
Wrench impact for nuts upto

20 mm
0.6
Stone Tool for
32 mm
1.1
Lettering and light
1.65 to 2.20
0.17
Carving
Wrench, Tapping
0.45
Medium dressing
0.3
Saw, 150 mm dia
0.6
Roughing and Bushing
0.4
Air chuck or Arbor
0.003 per operation
Stone surfacer, for large

blocks
0.9
Air lift pump
Considerable
variation according
to prevailing
conditions
Spike puller, per spike
0.1
Sump Pump (400 to 1000

LPM)
Air Press
1.50 to 3.60
0.007 per operation
Air Motors
Small
Medium
Upto 1 kw
1.20 to 1.35 per

KW
Over 5 kw
1.00 per KW
Air Cylinder
Cement Gun
4.8
Grouting Machine
Variable upto 3.00 @

2.5 bars
0.15 per meter

tonne of lift

59
Description of Pneumatic Machine

Internal Vibrator, Internal diameter
62 mm
75 mm
112 mm
140 mm
Shuttering vibrators
3 kg
4.5 kg
6 kg
Concrete Compactor
Rock drills Drifter drill (Cradle mounted)
75 mm
88 mm
100 mm
Wagon drill with
100 mm drifter
88 mm drifter
Hand hammer drill (Jack hammer)
14 kg weight
17 kg weight
22 kg weight
30 kg weight
Plug drill
Sinker Drill
75 mm
88 mm
Stopping drill
Light
Heavy
Dustless dry drill
88 mm
75 mm
Underwater drill
Auger drill, for coal
Coal cutter, percussive
62 mm
88 mm
100 mm
Free Air Consumption at 6.0

0.5 bars (m3/min)
1.1
1.5
2
2.5
0.18
0.3
0.45 to 0.60
0.18 to 0.30
3.7
4.8
5.7
6.3
5.2
1.5
1.9
2.25
2.7
0.9
4.8
2
3.75
5.4
3.6
2.50 to 2.70
2.24
3
4.3
5.4

60
Annexure - 2
Compressors recommended: segment / application wise
S.
No
Industry
Application of
compressed air
Capacity
requirement
Recommend compressor
type
Workshop / Auto
Garage
Pneumatic Tools Spray,

Paintaing & Cleaning
30 CFM
Air cooled reciprocating

compressor
Construction, Mines,
Borewell, Borewell,
Rings, Quarry &
Tunnel
Rock Drills, Borewell

Rigs & Wagon Drills
100 1200 CFM
Portable screw compressor
Small engineering &

Small foundries
Pneumatic tools,
Moulding M/c. Spray,
Painting & Cleaning
Large Engineering,
Forging & Foundries
Pneumatic Tools,
Moulding M/c. Spray,
Painting & Cleaning
1. Single stage reciprocating

100 CFM
2. Screw compressor
1. Two stage reciprocating

compressor
100 200 CFM
2. Screw compressor
*Oil free preferred
Textile small spinning
Spinning M/c.
Autoconer & Splicers
100 CFM
Single stage reciprocating (Oil

free type)
Textile large spinning
Spinning M/c.
Sutoconer & Splicers
100 500 CFM
Two stage reciprocating (Oil

free type)
Textile Composite &

Weaving
Air jet looms
500 3000 CFM

(Oil free type)
2. Two stage screw (Oil free
type)
(Oil free type)
200 2000 CFM

8
Chemical & Process
Instruments, Conveying
& Agitators

type)
(oil free type)
Above 2000 CFM

type)
3. Centrifugal
Oxygen & other Gas

applications
Gas separation
Upto 2000 CFM
Single or Two stage

reciprocating (Oil free)

61
S.
No
Industry
Application of
compressed air
Capacity
requirement
Recommend compressor
type
10
Sugar
Sulphur burning &

instruments
300 CFM
Root blowers Two stage

Reciprocating Compressors
Cement
Raw Mill, Cement Mill,

Demsephase Coveying,
Air blaster &
Instruments
2000 CFM
11
Root blowers
Two stage
Reciprocating Compressors
12
Glass
Furnace combustion
instruments
1500 CFM
Two stage Reciprocating

Compressors (Oil free)
13
Food processing
Boilers, Bottling &

Conveying
200 500 CFM
Two stage reciprocating

compressors (Oil free)
14
Paper & Pulp
Boilers & Instruments
1000 CFM
Two stage reciprocating

compressor (Oil free)


H No 1-11-252/9, Plot No 7, Motilal Nehru Nagar
Regal House, Begumpet, Hyderabad 500016
Tele : 040 27765913, 27765923 24
Fax : 040 27765912
Email : gbc@ciionline.org
Website : www.greenbusinesscentre.com

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Manual

Confederation of Indian Industry

Types of air compressors

Sizing and Selection of Air Compressors

Testing of air compressors

Compressed Air Plant Layout and Distribution

Compressor cooling system

Compressed air Dryers

Energy conservation aspects in compressed air system

Case studies on Energy Conservation in

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

About the Manual

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

Positive displacement type air compressors

Reciprocating air compressors:

2.1 Double stage Reciprocating Compressor

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

1.1.2 Rotary type air Compressors:

1.1.2 Rotary Compressors

Dynamic type air compressors

1.2.1 Centrifugal air compressors:

1.2.1 Centrifugal compressor

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

1.2.2 Axial flow air compressors

1.2.3 Roots compressor

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

Estimation of compressed air consumption

2.1.1 Utilisation factor (Use factor or Load factor)

Actual air consumption in 24 hours

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

Chart to Guide selection of air compressor

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

Sizing of Compressed air receivers

1/10th of flow rate in m3/min to

Sizing of compressed air piping

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

100 psig i.e 7.0 kg/cm2 (gauge)

Assuming the temperature remains constant.

Area of pipe line x

Area of pipe line x 6 m/sec

Hence the diameter of pipeline can be chosen as 2 NB.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

Pressure drop in a pipeline

Pressure drop in a pipeline

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

Measurement of Free air delivered by the compressor

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

3.2.1 Nozzle method

The compressor discharge is connected to a receiver. In the receiver outlet a suitable

Confederation of Indian Industry

Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems

k x x d2/4 x T1/P1 x 2 (P3-P4) (P2xRa)

Coefficient of discharge of nozzle as per IS standards

Confederation of Indian Industry