CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS

FOR CELLS

PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR LIFE

Chemical Foundations for cells
The body is a collection of elements
Fundamental form of matter
Has mass and takes up space
Cannot be broken down into something else

HOW
MUCHoccur
ISnaturally
THE HUMAN
BODY?
92 elements
on earth
Most abundant in the body
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon and Nitrogen

Other elements
Phosphorous, Potassium, Sulfur, Calcium and Sodium
Nerve cell activity on these elements

HOW
MUCH
THE less
HUMAN
Trace
elements IS
represent
than 0.10%BODY?
Chemically speaking
70 kg person = $ 118.63

MOST COMMON ELEMENTS IN LIVING

ORGANISMS
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen

CHEMICAL
OF ORGANISMS
Compare ourMAKE-UP
elemental proportions
with the Earths crust or a pumpkin
The differences in the ingredients is the starting point for the bodys distinct
characteristics

CHEMICAL
MAKE-UP
ORGANISMS
Same elements
but different onOF
proportions
Different kinds and amounts are joined together as a unique highly organized,
dynamic form

YOU ARE CHEMICAL, AND SO

IS EVERY LIVING AND NONLIVING THING IN
THE UNIVERSE.

WHAT ARE ATOMS?

Smallest particles that retain properties of an element
Made up of subatomic particles:
Protons (+)
Electrons (-)
Neutrons (no charge)

Examples of Atoms
electron

proton

neutron
Hydrogen

Helium

Figure 2.2
Page 22

Atomic number, mass number interaction.

Click to view
animation.

ATOMIC NUMBER
Number of protons
All atoms of an element have the same atomic number
Atomic number of hydrogen = 1
Atomic number of carbon = 6

WHAT ARE ATOMS?

Electrons = Protons
Atomic Number = Protons
Mass Number = Proton + Neutron
Neutron = Mass Number Protons

WHAT ARE ATOMS?

Atom

Atomic Number # Protons # Electrons Mass Number Neutrons

Hydrogen (H)

Oxygen (O)

1
8

Carbon (C)

Chlorine (Cl)

17

16
6
35

WHAT ARE ATOMS?

Atomic and mass number
Idea of whether and how substances will interact
Behavior in cells, multicelled organisms and in the environment

ISOTOPES
VARIANT
FORMS
OF ATOMS
Atoms of an element
with different numbers
of neutrons
(different mass numbers)
Carbon 12 has 6 protons, 6 neutrons
Carbon 13 has 6 protons, 7 neutrons
Carbon 14 has 6 protons, 8 neutrons

Isotope animation.

Click to view
animation.

ISOTOPES VARIANT FORMS OF ATOMS

All isotopes of an element interact chemically with other atoms in the same way
Cells can use any isotope of an element for metabolic activities

RADIOISOTOPES

Have an unstable nucleus that emits energy and particles

Radioactive decay transforms radioisotope into a different element
Decay occurs at a fixed rate

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES

Tracers
Thyroid scan

normal

thyroid scan

enlarged
thyroid

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES
PET scan
Use radioisotopes to form images of body tissues
Tracers + glucose
Cells use glucose = take up labeled kind
Uptake is greater than other body cells

Positron emission tomography (PET) animation.

Click to view
animation.

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES
Radiation therapy
Radioisotope energetic emission is enough to kill cell
Stop and impair the activity of abnormal body cells
Radium226 or Cobalt 60
Drive artificial pacemakers
Plutonium 238
Smooth out irregular heart beat

WHAT DETERMINES WHETHER ATOMS

WILL INTERACT?
CELLS STAY ALIVE BECAUSE ENERGY INHERENT IN ALL
ELECTRONS MAKE THINGS HAPPEN

A C Q U I R E , S H A R E A N D D O N AT E E L E C T R O N S
THE NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT
OF THEIR ELECTRONS

ELECTRONS

Carry a negative charge

Repel one another
Are attracted to protons in the nucleus
Move in orbitals - volumes of space that surround the nucleus

y
Z
X

When all p orbitals are full

ELECTRON ORBITALS

Orbitals can hold up to two electrons

Atoms differ in the number of occupied orbitals
Orbitals closest to nucleus are lower energy and are filled first

SHELL MODEL
How electrons are arranged in an atom
First shell
Lowest energy

Holds 1 orbital with up to 2 electrons

Second shell
Higher energy level
4 orbitals hold up to 8 electrons

CALCIUM
20p+ , 20e-

SHELL MODEL

ELECTRON VACANCIES

Unfilled shells make atoms likely to react

Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen all
have vacancies in their outer shells

CARBON
6p+ , 6e-

NITROGEN
7p+ , 7e-

HYDROGEN
1p+ , 1e-

Electron arrangements in atoms animation.

Click to view
animation.

SHELL MODEL

Shell model interaction.

Click to view
animation.

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

CHEMICAL BONDS, MOLECULES,

& COMPOUNDS
Bond is union between electron structures of atoms
Atoms bond to form molecules
Molecules may contain atoms of only one element - O2
Molecules of compounds contain more than one element - H2O

CHEMICAL BOOKKEEPING
Use symbols for elements when writing formulas
Formula for glucose is C6H12O6
6 carbons
12 hydrogens
6 oxygens

CHEMICAL BOOKKEEPING

IMPORTANT BONDS IN
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
IONIC BONDS
COVALENT BONDS
HYDROGEN BONDS

IONIC BONDING

One atom loses electrons, becomes positively charged ion

Another atom gains these electrons, becomes negatively charged ion
Charge difference attracts the two ions to each other

FORMATION OF NACL
Sodium atom (Na)
Outer shell has one electron

Chlorine atom (Cl)

Outer shell has seven electrons

Na transfers electron to Cl, forming Na+

and ClIons remain together as NaCl

Ionic bonding animation.

Click to view
animation.

COVALENT BONDING

Atoms share a pair or pairs of electrons to fill outermost shell

Single covalent bond (H2)

Double covalent bond (O2)
Triple covalent bond (N2)
Molecular hydrogen

POLAR OR NONPOLAR BONDS

Nonpolar if atoms share electrons equally

Hydrogen gas (H - H)
Polar different elements dont exert the same pull on shared electrons
Water
Electrons more attracted to O nucleus than to H nuclei

HYDROGEN BONDING

Atom in one polar covalent molecule is attracted to oppositely charged atom in another such
molecule or in same molecule

Water
molecule

Ammonia
molecule

Figure 2.11a
Page 27

WATER IS A POLAR
COVALENT MOLECULE

Molecule has no net charge

Oxygen end has a slight negative charge
Hydrogen end has a slight positive charge

Figure 2.12a
Page 28

HYDROGEN BONDING IN DNA

Individual Hydrogen bond = easy to break
Hydrogen bond stabilize biomolecules
DNA
Proteins

HYDROGEN BONDING IN DNA

Figure 2.11d
Page 27

Examples of hydrogen bonds animation.

Click to view
animation.

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Polar Solvent
Bonds to hydrophilic substances
Repels hydrophobic ones

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Temperature = is a measure of molecular motion
Temperature stabilizing
Cells consist of mainly water
Metabolism => energy
Energy => breaks hydrogen bond instead of vibrating

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Temperature stabilizing
High specific heat
It takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of water
High Heat of Vaporization
It takes a lot of heat to evaporate a water molecule
High heat of fusion
Much energy is removed from water as it forms

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Expands when it freezes
Resist breaking and lock water molecules in an ordered pattern

Liquid water

Ice

Figure 2.12b,c
Page 28

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Cohesive
Resist rupturing when placed under tension
Allows light insect to walk on water
Allows trees to pull water from roots up into the leaves

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Capacity to dissolve substances
Good solvent
Can dissolve many other substances
Surround (+) and (-) ions, dissolving crystals of polar molecules

Dissolution of sodium chloride animation.

Click to view
animation.

THE PH SCALE
Water => break apart into H+ and OH- ions
Solutions with H+ > OH- is acidic
pH less than 7

Solution with H+ < OH- is basic

pH greater than 7

THE PH SCALE
Measures H+ concentration of fluid
Change of 1 on scale means 10X change in H + concentration

Highest H+

Lowest H+

0---------------------7-------------------14
Acidic

Neutral

Basic

EXAMPLES OF PH

Pure water is neutral with pH of 7.0

Acidic
Stomach acid: pH 1.0 - 3.0
Lemon juice: pH 2.3

Basic
Seawater: pH 7.8 - 8.3
Baking soda: pH 9.0

ACIDS & BASES

Acids
Donate H+ when dissolved in water
Acidic solutions have pH < 7
Bases
Accept H+ when dissolved in water
Acidic solutions have pH > 7

BUFFER SYSTEMS
Minimize shifts in pH
Partnership between weak acid and base it forms when dissolved
Two work as pair to counter shifts in pH

CARBONIC ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER

SYSTEM

When blood pH rises, carbonic acid dissociates to form bicarbonate and H +

H2C03 -----> HC03- + H+
When blood pH drops, bicarbonate binds H+ to form carbonic acid
HC03- + H+ -----> H2C03

SALTS
Compounds that release ions other than H+ and OH- when dissolved in water
Example: NaCl releases Na+ and Cl
Many salts dissolve into ions that play important biological roles