Elements of Urban Stormwater

Elements
of
Urban Stormwater
Design
by
H. Rooney Malcom, P.E.
North Carolina State University
Copyright 0 1989 North Carolina State University and H. Rooney Malcom, P.E.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Engineering Extension Education
Box 7902
North Caroiina State University

Raleigh, NC 27695-7902
PREFACE
These notes are intended as the basis for teaching the elements of urban stormwater design to
engineering students and practicing professionals. Students and readers are assumed to have a
basic understanding of hydraulics and hydrology. As there is considerable local and regional
variation in accepted practices, particularly in the determination of system design loadings, it will
be necessary for designers to modify the methodology from time to time and place to place. The
ideas presented have been distilled over some years by the author and a good many colleagues and
students to become comfortable tools to use in routine component selection and preliminary design
of more complex systems.
The fundamental process of engineering design is one in which the engineer selects one or
more mathematical models to represent a physical system, manipulates the system components to
acheive some desired response under loadings of interest, and specifies the system to be
constructed in the field. The process is dominated by judgments to be made by designer and
reviewer. Is the model valid and appropriate? Are the assumptions inherent in the model justified
in the case at hand? Are the design loads prudent? Have the worst cases been identifed? Has the
system been defined with adequate precision? Can the results be verified? Will the system
perform as expected? This manual, together with the course that it supports, explores these issues
in the common elements of stormwater management systems.
The manual and lectures have evolved since 1975 from an early set of notes prepared for a
workshop series by the author with Vemon New. Since then, the author has taught more than fifty
short courses nationwide: from 1979 through 1983 with Bruce Bradford using extensions of the
1975 notes and from 1984 through 1987 in the APWA Urban Drainage Workshops. These were
enriching experiences in that they brought together designers and reviewers from many semngs to
consider the issues of nutsy-boltsy design of storm drainage systems. The author fully enjoys
these opportunities to interact with practicing professionals.
DISCLAIMER
To the best of his ability, the author has insured that the methods and procedures included
herein are valid and reliable. The manual is intended for educational purposes. The execution of
an engineering design or analysis, however, involves the judgment of the engineer, and only he or
she can determine whether a technique or procedure is correctly applied to a given purpose.
Therefore, neither the author nm the lndusmal Extension Sewice accepts responsibility for real or
alleged error, loss, damage, or injury resulting from the use of this manual.
iii
SECTION 1
STORMWATER COLLECTION SYSTEMS
GENERAL
The term "stormwater collection system'' applies to the set of inlets and pipes used to drain an
area of interest, such as a subdivision, parking lot or street. The design storm used varies from
region to region, but it is usually in the range of the two- to twenty-five year storm, with the
ten-year storm predominating. In most cases, the selection of a design storm that recurs fairly
frequently reflects a judgment that the consequences of a system overload are minor -- usually the
nuisance of a flooded yard or intersection for a few minutes.
The design storm is stated in terms of the return period, given in years. A ten-year storm has a
retum period of ten years. The ten-year flood is expected to be equaled or exceeded, on the
average, once in ten years. It has a probability of Occurrence in a given year of ten percent, or 0.1.
It is incorrect to t h i i that ten years will transpire between ten-year floods. In a ten-year period, one
such flood is expected, but more than one can occur.
Certain conventions, judgments and assumptions have emerged over the years to simplify what
would otherwise be an impossibly complex system to design. The first of these is the use of the
Rational Equation as the model of choice in setting design discharges at points of interest in the
system. The second is to select pipes such that they will flow just full in uniform steady flow at the
peak of the design storm. The system thus obtained is likely to be conservatively designed.
It has become conventionaldto separate the design into two fairly independent operations -- inlet
location and pipe sizing. Inlets are located such that they will perform at or near the "threshold of
misbehavior" in the design storm. The threshold of misbehavior exists when the highest level of
flow is reached, beyond which some adverse behavior takes place such as:
a. Flow is too deep; something is flooded.
b. Flow is too fass something is eroded.
c. Flow is too wide; it bypasses an inlet, or it becomes a barrier.
An inlet, is placed to relieve the surface channel of flow that it could not handle acceptably.
The texts have not generally dealt with inlet location as extensively as they might have, but the
performance and economics of the stormwater collection system are significantly affected by
decisions made in the inlet-location process.
Pipes are sizcd to flow just full according to the Manning Equation. The discharge into each
pipe is computed by the Rational Equation, with the runoff coefficient composited of all
contributing drainage areas, and with the time of concentration based upon the overland flow time
to the most remote inlet plus the lime of flow in the pipe or pipes upstream of the pipe under
consideration. This is less than the flow one would get by adding all inlet inflows.
In recent years, designers have been advised to become more sensitive to the major-minor storm
concept (APWA, 1981). The design storm for which system sizes are set is the minor storm having
a typical rem period of ten years. The probability is greater than 90percent that such a storm will
be exceeded at least once in a 25-yearperiod. It is prudent therefore to provide for the major storm
an emergency route along suets and between structures to minimize property damage. For some
systems the major storm may be routed intuitively or by inspection. For others, quantitative
routing is justified.
I-1
Elements of the Model

The Rational Equation is given as:
Q=CM
in which:
Q = The estimated design discharge (cfs).
C = The composite runoff coefficient (dimensionless) for the watershed.
I
= Rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the designated return period and the time of
concennation.
A = Watershedarea(ac).
Observe the units carefully. The left and right sides of the equation are essentially equal, because
one acre-inch per hour is very nearly one cubic foot per second.
The limit of application of the Rational Method is much in debate. Various writers will
recommend as an upper limit of applicability anywhere from zero to two square miles of watershed
area. Your author has had acceptable results up to two square miles when compared to statistical
analysis of gaged floods.
Following the steps given above:
1. Delineate the Watershed: Normally this is done on a topographic map. Detennine the area
of the watershed by using a digitizer, a planimeter, an overlaid grid or other suitable
device. Remember to put the watershed areain acres. Question the applicability of the
Rational Method if the watershed area exceeds 1300 acres.
2.
The time of concentration is interpreted as the

longest time of flow from points on the watershed ridge to the outlet of the watershed.
There are several recognized ways to estimate time of concentration. One way is to use the
Kirpich Equation, which is widely recognized (Bureau of Reclamation, 1974, p 71):
in which:
= Time of concentration (min).
L = Hydraulic length of the watershed (ft). Hydraulic length is the length of the longest
flow path from the most remote point on the watmhed ridge to the outlet.
H = The height (ft) of the most remote point on the watershed ridge above the watershed
outlet It is the elevation difference, or fall, along the hydraulic length.
Another efficient method is that given by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS, 1986). the
expressions given there are suitable for spreadsheet analysis.
1-3
cc=
Z (Ci Ai)
(1-4)
ZAi
in which:
Cc = The composite runoff coefficient (dimensionless).
Ai = The area taken by an individual category of composition.

Ci
= The runoff coefficient for the individual area.
The units of the areas are immaterial as long as they are the same in numerator and
denominator.
5.
Auulv the Rational Eauation: Substitute the values for C, I and A into Equation 1-1, taking
c&e that the values are expressed in the correct units.
INLET LOCATION
Basic Approach
Inlets capture all or most of the water coming to them from the contributing drainage area.
The inlet is placed such that the inlet or its delivery channels will just reach the threshold of
misbehavior in the design storm. If the discharge associated with the threshold is known, the
allowable watershed area contributing flow to the inlet may be determined from the Rational
Equation:
in which:
A = Allowable drainage area (ac)
Q = D ischarge at threshold of misbehavior (cfs).
I = Rainfall intensity ( i n h ) for the time of concentration, tc, which is based on the flow
time to the inlet. This is usually taken to be 5 minutes, but that assumption may be
verified by using Eguation 1-2.
C = Runoff coefficient (dimensionless) for the inlet drainage area.
In order to set the inlet capacity, Q,conditions around the inlet must be analyzed against design
judgments as to the nature of the misbehavior. Both the inlet and the approach channels are
involved. For example:
a. It may be judged in the case of a curb inlet that water may not spread into the street more
than eight feet. The allowable discharge, Q, may be found by applying the Manning
Equation to the gutter cross section.
b. It may be decided in a parking lot that water should not stand around an area inlet at a
depth greater than three inches. The weir and o s i c e equations may be invoked to find
Q.
1-5
The basic weir equation is:
Q = Cw L H3'2
where:
= Discharge (cfs).
Cw
= Weir coefficient (dimensionless).
Length of weir (ft), measured along the crest. i
4,''
'
I\
= Driving head (ft), measured vertically from the crest of the weir to the water
surface at a point far enough upstream to be essentially level.
For the case of the free overfall, use Cw = 3.0.

Grated inlets
A grated inlet is the familiar inlet found in most parking lots. The behavior of the inlet at low
head is a complex weir action in which the weir length varies as head increases in the storm. As
water runs farther out on the inlet, the weir length is longer because more bar length is involved. At
some point the entire inlet is submerged, and it acts as an orifice for all higher heads. Most
designers default to the orifice action for design. The driving head, or standing water depth should
be two inches or more for this assumption.
To test whether an inlet is acting as an orifice or a weir, calculate the discharge capacity both as
an orifice and as a weir with water surface at the level of interest. The lesser of the two discharges
will indicate the prevailing condition.
The basic equation for orifices is:
Q=CCIA-
(1-7)
where:
Q = Discharge (cfs).
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless). See below. (. L ]O
A = Cross-sectional area of flow at the orifice enhance (sq ft).
g = Acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec*).
h = Driving head (ft), measured from the centroid of the orifice area to the water
surface. In a grating, the centroid is usually in the plane of the surface of the
grating.
When using the d i c e equation with a grating, the orifice area is the sum of the areas of the
holes in the grating. The driving head is measured from the top of the grating.
i2Uulh
If curb inlets are placed at the sag points of vertical curves, they may be analyzed adequately by
the weir and orifice equations. However, inlets placed at the curb on a grade are. generally analyzed
by using experientially derived charts. Such inlets are curb-opening inlets, grating inlets or a
1-7
8. The pipe slope is selected based on profile constraints.
9. The pipe diameter is determined from Manning Equation for the pipe to flow just f u l l
10. The full-flow velocity is computed and used to find the flow time in the pipe for use in
the next section downstream.
11. Continue at step 2 with the next pipe to be designed. Always work downstream, being
sure that all pipes conmbuting flow to the pipe of interest have been sized and located
in the proffie.
12. At the bottom of the system, check for a high tailwater situation that may consrain the
system to a flow less than that designed for. In such a case, apply the energy equation
to estimate water levels and surcharge pressures in the system. This operation is
referred to as plotting the hydraulic grade line through the system. If no resniction of
flow exists, the hydraulic grade line follows the top of the pipe.
Practical Constraints
Note the following:
1. If pipe sections are designed to flow under surcharge, care should be taken to insure
that the hydraulic grade line does not rise above ground level, and special attention
should be given to prevention of leakage at joints.
2. In the event that further development is anticipated upstream of the system being
designed, consider placing a stubbed-out pipe of sufficient depth and capacity to
accept flow from the future development.
3. To reduce clogging problems, the minimum size for storm drainage should be 15
inches. There should be no reduction in pipe size in the downstream direction, even if
steeper slopes would seem to permit a smaller pipe.
4. Manholes should be provided at pipe junctions, bends, and in straight sections such
that the maximum distance between points of access is 400 feet.
5.
At all smctures, the invert of the mainline should be dropped to offset minor losses.
These may be computed or convenient rules of thumb may be used:
a. If there is an increase in pipe size at the structure, align the tops of the pipes.
b. Drop the invert of the mainline through the structure one tenth of a foot for each
incoming flow stream, whether from a pipe or from the inlet.
6. Pipes should be laid at least as steeply as the slope that will provide flow at a
self-scouring velocity at or near design discharge. That velocity is usually taken to be
three feet per second. See Exhibit 7.
7. M i n i u m cover should be three feet to the top of the pipe.
1-9
The pipe diameter obtained should be rounded up to the nearest standard pipe size. Standard pipe
sizes (diameter in inches) used in drainage systems are 15, 18, 21*, 24,27*, 30, 33*, 36, 42, 48,
54,60, 66, and 72. Sizes larger than 72 inches are available, but sometimes require special order.
Those marked (*) are not available in all locations and all materials.
For circular uipes flowing iust full, the average cross-sectional velocity of flow can be found by
another reformulation of the Manning equation:
(1-10)
where:
V = Full-flow velocity (fdsec).
D = Pipe diameter (in).
s = Longitudinal slope (fdft).

n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless).
A Tabular Approach
The procedure given above, together with consideration of the profile consaaints is conveniently
executed in a tabular format. Many texts suggest a format, and most jurisdictions adopt a standard
format. One that the author prefers is shown in Table 1-1. Structures are identified by numbers
prefixed by Ifor inlets and M for manholes. Drainage areas are given unique designations.
Then the table can be filled in the stepwise procedure.
NOTES
1-11
79.
The columns of Table 1 are treated as follows:

1.
FROM - The designation of the structure at the upper end of the pipe.
2.
TO - The designation of the structure at the lower end of the pipe.
3.
AREAS - The drainage areas contributory to the upstream end of the pipe, listed by
designation (conveniently the designations of the inlets conhibuting flow).
4.
TOTAL AREA - The total area (ac) draining to the upstream end of the pipe.
5.
INLET TIME - Flow time (min) on the ground to the most remote inlet on the longest
flow path (in terms of time) to the pipe being sized.
6.
PIPE TIME - Sum of the flow times (min) in pipe along the longest flow path (in
terms of time) to the pipe being sized.
7.
TIME OF CONC - Col5 + (316. This is the longest flow time of all possible paths
from the most remote point in the system to the upstream end of the pipe being sized.
It is the time of concentration (min).
8.
INTENSITY - The rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the design storm of interest and the
time of concentration (Col7), taken from the applicable Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Chart (e&, Exhibit 3). or computed from an IDF equation.
9.
RUNOFF COEFF - The composite runoff coefficient for the areas in Col3.
10.
DISCHARGE - The design discharge (cfs). Q = CIA. (Col9)*(Col8)*(Col4)
11.
SLOPE - Invert slope of pipe (fdft), as decided within profile constraints.
12.
Dtheo - Theoretical minimum pipe diameter (in), from Equation 1-9.
13.
SIZE - Standard pipe size (in), as selected.
14.
Vfull - Full-flow average cross-sectional velocity (fusec), computed from Equation

1-10.
15.
LENGTH - Length (ft) of the pipe segment of interest, from map or given data.
16.
SEGMENT TIME - Flow time (min) through pipe segment of interest, (Col 15)/((Col
14)*60).
17.
UPPER INVERT Invert elevation of the upper end of the pipe of interest, set by
reference to upstream pipes and cover requkements.
18.
LOWER INVERT Invert elevation of the lower end of the pipe of interest, set equal
to (Col 17)-((CoI 1 l)*(Col 15)). Check for adequate cover; revise slope (Col 11) if
necessary.
19.
TOP ELEV Ground elevation at upstream end, for reference.
1-13
Friction Losses
Several experientially derived expressions exist for estimating pipe-friction losses. Among
these, the Darcy-Weisbach and Manning equations are most useful in stormwater applications.
Each of the equations is reformulated for efficient application in commonly encountered units.
Darcy-Weisbach equarion:The equation is usually presented in a form similar to:
L vz
h f = f -D 2g
0-12)
One can reformulate and convert units to arrive at:

hf=
6264 f L Q2
0-13)
D5
in which
hf
= Head loss due to pipe friction (ft)
= Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (dimensionless)
= Pipe length (ft)
= Discharge (cfs)
= Pipe diameter (in).
The friction factor may be estimated by reference to a Moody diagram, available in most
hydraulics references, or it may be computed from the Colebrook formula, or one of a number of
other approximations. The value of the friction factor is usually about 0.020.
Manning equation: The Manning version is useful for applications in corrugated-metal pipe and
other materials for which the specific roughness is not readily available. The Manning equation is
usually presented in a form similar to:
(1-14)
The head loss term is embedded in the friction slope (s). The equation m y be usefully reformulated
as:
LQ2n2
hf = 2,660,000 D 5 ~ 3
(1-15)
in which
hf
= Head loss due to pipe friction (ft)
= Pipe length (ft)
= Discharge (cfs)
n
D
.= Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless)

= Pipediameter (in).
1-15
(See Exhibit 8.)
For bends and fittings, estimates can be based on the following (Perry, 1950):
Fittine
ke
45-degree bend
90-degree sharp bend
90-degree medium bend
90-degree long bend
Open gate valve
0.3
1.3
0.6
0.46
0.13
For the exit from the pipe system, as a practical matter, the exit loss coefficient may be taken to
be either 0 or 1. If the water exits unrestrained at the pipe velocity, use 0; there is no exit loss. If
the water exits to a stillwater container, or if it exits perpendicularly to the flow downstream, use 1;
the exit loss is one velocity head.
For the exit, in the case where flow continues to another pipe, the equation for a sudden
enlargement may be used
Ke = [l
-($r
where:
ke = the exit loss coefficient (dimensionless).
DA = the smaller of the two diameters.

D g = th e larger of the two diameters.
NOTES
1-17
(1-20)
5.
Compute the elevation (Za)of the HGL at the upstream end of the pipe section.
6.
Proceed upstream in a similar fashion.
Occasionally, one will find that the head loss incurred between structures is unsatisfactorily
large. Note that head loss is very sensitive to pipe diameter, as evidenced by the large exponent on
diameter in the head loss equations. Increasing the pipe diameter a size or two.will greatly reduce
head loss in a section.
NOTES
1-19
1-21
1-23
1-25
L2
0.44
s4
1-27
SECTION iI
CHANNEL DESIGN
GENERAL
Artificial stormwater channels are critical components of the stormwater management system.
Three prime concerns govern their design: that they cany their design storm flows without
overtopping, that they carry those flows without being excessively eroded, and that they are
economically constructed and maintained. The consequence of failure to provide sufficient capacity
is flooding. The consequences of excessive bank erosion are eventual undermining of facilities near
the channel and abnormally high conmbutions of sediment to downstream channels and lakes.
The design of two frequently encountered channel types is treated here. One is the common
trapezoidal channel, and the other is the triangular swale. The latter is a subset of the former.
Triangular swales are usually used for smaller design discharges than trapezoidal channels.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The Manning equation is the model of choice for many design and analysis applications in which
the channel or conduit is flowing under the influence of gravity. Its mathematical flexibility makes
it a powerful tool in a wide variety of conditions. One should take care, however, to apply the
equation in circumstances where its fundamental assumptions are satisfied.
The Manning equation is applicable where flow is steady and uniform. Steady flow means that
discharge does not vary with time. Uniform flow means that velocity does not vary with distance
at an instant of time. Although discharge does vary in a channel during the passage of a flood wave,
during the time around the peak, the time of interest in channel design, flow is essentially steady.
Uniform flow generally requires channel cross-sections to be the same along the channel length,
and it requires a straight alignment. But it is reasonable to apply the Manning equation to most field
cases where channel segments are practically prismatic and straight.
The Manning equation is well-suited to the task of determining the configuration of the cross
section for the channel. Other models, such as water-surface profile computation come into play
after design when analyzing specific conditions of flow near obstructions, constrictions and other
discontinuities.
II-1
In the sketch,
W = Top width of flow (ft).
B = Bottom width of the channel (ft)
y = Depth of flow [ft).
M = Side slope ratio (ft horizontal/ft vertical). (For a 2-to-1 side slope, the value of M is
2.)
Section Relationships
The following equations are derived geometrically, and the units of the variables are consistent
with those given above:
A = BY+
a-2)
P=Bi2y d1+M2
(II-3)
W=B+2My
m-4)
R = -A
P
(11-51
The variable P represents wetted perimeter.
Four Main Procedures

Four main design tools are considered here. Each is an extension of the Manning equation and
is subject to the same assumptions of the existence of steady, uniform flow. The tools are
developed as the following procedures:
1. Best hydraulic section procedure.
2. Velocity-limited procedure.
3. Normal-depth procedure.
4. Depth-limited procedure.
Using these, singly or in combinations, one can quickly arrive at a cross section appropriate to
the design objectives.
Best Hvdraulic
The best hydraulic section is that cross section which simultaneously minimizes cross-sectional
area and wetted perimeter. Minimizing cross-sectional m a minimizes the quantity of excavation.
Minimizirrg wetted perimeter minimizes the quantity of lining. These are the two principal cost
sources in channel construction. Land taken by the channel is another cost source, and land quantity
II-3
If one is preparing a spreadsheet or a program for channel analysis, the full equations on
which Exhibit 9 is based are to be prefemed. These were derived by Vemon E. New for use in the
previous version of this manual. The value k is only a function of sideslope:
-M)
k=2[-
(n-8)
Once k is known, the depth of the best hydraulic section can be found from:
The bottom width of the best hydraulic section is:

B = kv
(II-lo)
In these equations,
M = Horizontal component of side slope (for 2/1, M=2)

Q = Design discharge (cfs)
n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless)
= Longitudinal channel slope (fdft)
= Depth of best hydraulic section (ft)
B = Bottom width of best hydraulic section (ft)

Velocitv-Limited Procedu rs
Frequently, in the design of trapezoidal channels, the ve-.city expected for :best hydraulic
section is too great for the lining of interest. The following procedure, worked out by a visiting
colleague, Ray Walton, will avoid a laborious mal-and-emr exercise:
1. Insure that the assigned velocity, Va, is less than the velocity of flow computed for the
best hydraulic section (the channel will not flow any faster).
2. Compute the required cross-sectional area:
(11-11)
where
A, = Required cross-sectional area (sq ft)
Q = Design flow (cfs).
Va = Assigned (desired) velocity (ft/sec)

11-5
Normal-Deuth ProcedurG
The problem of finding the normal depth of flow in a trapezoidal channel is very frequently
encountered. It is necessarilv a trial-and-error urocedure. To find normal depth is to find the depth
of flow, y, that satisfies the Manning equation. Usually one is asked for the expected depth when a
certain flow occurs, given the dimensions of the channel, including bottom width.
An efficient manual procedure for fmding normal depth follows.
Rearrange the Manning Equation as:
(II-16)
In this form, the right-hand side contains knowns, and the left- hand side contains unknowns.
When the values of B and y, and thus A and R, are chosen correctly, the left-hand side will equal
the right-hand side and Manning is satisfied. So, think of the right-hand side as a required quantity,
Zreq. It can be computed as a single value at the beginning of the problem:
z =
req
Qn
1.49 (z
01-17)
Think of the left-hand side as the quantity available in a given section, Zav:
Zav= A R
213
(II-18)
Now, select y such that Zav is tolerably close to Gq and that y is the depth at v ..ich the c iannel
will flow.
It is reasonable to carry out the computation in a table:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
G V
(7)
Remark
is computed by Equation 11-17.Then one proceeds

To begin the computation, the value of
line by line through the table working across the columns as folIows:
(1) Enter the known bottom width, B. This value will be entered in all lines in col. (1).
(2) On the first line, guess at the depth, y. On subsequent lines, enter an improved estimate.
This is essentially an assumption that will be validated if Z,is tolerably close to
h.
(3) Compute the cross-sectional area, A, by Equation 11-2,using B and y from Col. (1) and (2),
and the side slope.
(4) Campute the wetted perimeter, P, by Equation 11-3, using B and y from Col. (1) and (2),
and the side slope.
11-7
Ad =
1.21Va4(1+M)
CIM
(11-19)
in which
Ad = Allowable drainage area (ac) for the point of interest along the channel.
I = Applicable rainfall intensity (in/hr) for the storm of interest (usually the 5-min. storm
of an appropriate return period.
C = Rational runoff coefficient (dimensionless), composited for the drainage area.

n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless) for the channel lining.
s = Longitudinal channel slope (dimensionless) at the point of interest along the channel.
Va = Allowable velocity of flow (fvsec) for the channel lining.
Once these parameters have been set for the point of interest, for detailing purposes, the
following can be computed for conditions of full allowable flow:
The allowable discharge is:
Q = C I Ad = Va M$
Cn-20)
The depth of flow at allowable discharge is:

I Ad
[%TI
(II-21)
The top width (for setting the required width of lining at allowable flow) is:
W=2My
(II-22)
The equations are most useful in a spreadsheet or in a program for a programmable calculator.
Their best use is to move along a channel on the site plan, selecting points of interest and
comparing the allowable to the actual drainage area. By mal and e m , points may be found below
which the channel would be overloaded. At such points, an inlet may be placed to relieve the load
on the channel, or the channel may be b e d as a concrete swale below that point.
The equations also may be used to determine the extent and width of lining material to protect the
channel against erosion just after construction until grass is established.
Reference Data for Channels

Typically, experiential information is needed to set the Manning roughness coefficient and to set
limits on velocity of flow to preclude excessive bank erosion. The author has collected some
defensible values for Manning roughness coefficients in Exhibit 8. Suggested values for allowable
velocities for various linings appear in Exhibit 10.
II-9
Practical Considerations
The following are suggestions collected by the author from a number of practioners:
1. Fine materials in the soil underlying a stone lining tend to migrate through the stone into
the channel during high-flow events. A filter fabric placed between the stone lining
and the bank material should be considered.
2. The depth of stone lining should be two to three stone diameters.
3. In some cases, designers line the banks, but not the bed. The bed is subjected to greater
erosive stresses than the bank. If the bed is not lined, the designer should insure that the
bed material is sufficiently robust.
4. Give special consideration to points of heaviest stress. These are the center of the
bottom, on the bank about one fifth to one third of the depth up from the bottom, and
along the outside of bends.
5. In the design process, account for the projected maintenance policy for the channel
lining. If weeds will be allowed to grow on the banks, they must be considered in
setting the section dimensions.
11-11
A:
L I ~ E U 45
750
At
b d"
198.00
44.25
2@.50
5o.qLr
SlO.SO
55.43
5qlS
5.41
SECTION ID[
STORMWATER IMPOUNDMENTS
GENERAL
Stormwater impoundments serve several purposes in urban watersheds. Impoundment types
include flood-control reservoirs, stormwater detention ponds, aesthetic or recreational ponds,
sediment-control basins, water-quality-conuol ponds, and even culverts. Multipurpose facilities
are common, and there are many variations on the theme. Irrespective of purpose, impoundments
are subjected to flood-wave loading. The elementary design of impoundments for the control or
passage of flood waves is treated in this section.
The process of design and analysis of stormwater detention systems has emerged as a routine
activity in stormwater management in recent years. Stormwater detention is essentially flood control
at small scale. Flood water is stored temporarily in an impoundment and released such that the
maximum release rate is reduced to some satisfactory level below that which would have been
expected without the detention facility. The design objective in a typical stomwater detention
regulation might require that the ten-year peak discharge from a site after development be no greater
than the ten-year peak discharge from the same site prior to development. The design storm for
detention varies from place to place, but the ten-year storm seems to predominate. Application of
detention policy on a watershed basis requires careful consideration of whether to dismbute control
facilities widely at small scale or to develop larger scale flood-control reservoirs at strategic points in
the stream system.
Facilities take several forms. The larger scale ponds usually involve placing flood storage above
a normal pool. Smaller scale facilities may use normally dry ponds designed in conjunction with
other uses: storage on parking lots, in parks, perhaps behind culverts. Rooftop storage, though
sometimes used, seems to the author rarely justifiable.
The design process includes formulation of the inflow hydrograph, selection of the size and
shape of the storage container, and selection of the type and size of the outlet device.
For an impoundment, there are virtually always two design storms to consider. One is the
control storm for which the principal spillway is designed. The other is the emergency storm, a
large storm for which an emergency spillway is designed to pass the excess discharge without
overtopping the dam.In some facilities the principal spillway incorporates the emergency capacity.
The basis for analyzing detention facilities is the flood-routing algorithm. It derives f the
continuity principle which states that, at every instant during the passage of a flood, the rate of
change of storage in the reservoir is equal to the rate of inflow minus the rate of outflow. There are
several procedures available for executing the routing algorithm. All involve a numerical solution of
the differential equation:
where:
a
=
dt
Rate of change of storage with respect to time.
I = Rateofinflow.
0 = Rate of outflow.
m-1
Alternate Hvdroerauh Formulation Methods

Methods exist in large variety. Perhaps the most detailed are the computerized watershed models
such as HECl of the Corps of Engineers and TR-20 of the Soil Conservation Service. For smaller
watersheds, the methods of TR-55 are useful (SCS, 1986). Desktop methods, such as
unit-hydrograph synthesis, are described in most hydrology texts. Many of these require a heavy
investment of time and effort in field data gathering and data set preparation. Such precision may
not be justified for small facilities and early feasibility studies.
Small-Watershed Hvdromph-Formulation Method
The author has proposed a method for use in routine design of small systems and for feasibility
studies and site selection studies of larger watersheds (Malcom, et al, 1986). A variation of the
method was adopted for use in design of facilities in the Houston area (Harris County, TX, 1984).
The method is based upon the observation that there are three important aspects of the
hydrograph on which the design will depend. These are the peak discharge, the volume of water
under the hydrograph, and the shape of the hydrograph. Separate decisions may be made regarding
these, and the hydrograph will be determined. The necessary decisions, and the author's
suggestions are:
1. Accept as a pattern function a step-function approximation to the SCS dimensionless
unit hydrograph (see McCuen, 1982, for a listing and discussion). The step-function
devised by the author is
For
0 I t 5 1.25Tp
/ppQIPr'5
3.L
=1[ ITPI
Q P 1-cos
For
t > 1.25 Tp
.,!. t:, ,
'
>
, '
in which
Qp = Peak discharge of the design hydromph
Tp = Time to peak of the design hydrograph, measured from the time of significant rise of
the rising limb to the time at which the estimated peak occurs
t = Time of intenst at which the discharge is to be estimated.
The argument of the cosine is in units of radians.
The volume of water under this hydrograph is. in consistent units,
Vol = 1.39 Qp Tp
m-3
In many cases, the detention storage container is a natural stream valley, a ravine or a draw that
has evolved to its current topographic shape over time. The source of information for the
stage-storage function is usually a topographic map.
A representative set of storage volumes can be computed by applying the average-end-area
method vemcally from contour to contour. A conventional stage-storage curve may thus be plotted.
If one plots storage versus stage on log-log axes, the resulting line is usually remarkably straight,
suggesting that the reservoir stage-storage function may be adequately represented by a
power-curve fit of the form
s=Kszb
@I-7)
in which
S = Storage volume (cu ft)
Z = Stage (ft) referred to the bottom of the reservoir

The computation of such a function is perhaps best illustrated by an example. Figure ID-1shows
the contours digitized from city toPo for a location in piedmont North Carolina. The site is just
upstream of a road crossing thought to be suitable as a detention basin. The computation is carried
out in Table lII-I.
700
600
'Ioo
0
EL 700,702.
710
1
0
0.2
0.6
0 4
East
CTmusamsl
CWQ U t 3
~~
Figure m-1
m-5
O B
There are two reasonable ways to determine the values of Ks and b of Equation 111-7. Both
depend upon the assumption that the logarithm of storage is linear with the logarithm of stage. The
first few times one does the calculation, it is insmctive to plot storage versus stage on log-log axes;
or, if a spreadsheet program is being used, to plot In S versus In Z, as in Figure III-2.
It is usually true that the lowest point lies somewhat off the line of best fit. The purists among
the readers will argue rightly that the fit would be improved by computing the lowest incremental
volume by a pyramidal approximation (volume being estimated as one-third of the base area times
the height). The author observes that the lowest increment trivially influences the the outcome of the
routing, and that it is reasonable to disregard the lowest point in subsequent computations. (We're
not making watches; we're merely toting water.)
Algebraic Estimation of Stage-Storage Parameters: One may select two representative points on the
curve, preferably in the upper end of the range of stage, and compute values of Ks and b. Writing
the logarithmic form of Equation III-7 for two pints and solving simultaneously yields
and
Linear-Regression Estimation of Stage-Storage Parameters: Many spreadsheet programs and

programmable calculators have built-in procedures for regression analysis. For the fundamentals of
regression analysis, the reader is referred to any basic statistics text. To cany out the operation in a
spreadsheet or on a programmable calculator,refer to the operating manual.
NOTES
m-7
STAGE-STORAGE FUNCTION
200
0
Furrtlon
400
(Tmusands)
5toraQe (CU f t )
+ s w c e data
600
Figure III-3
The stage-storage function may be put to other uses:
1. It is useful early in the design process to consider the impoundment to be a vemcal-sided
reservoir. To do so, set b equal to one and Ks equal to the surface area in square feet.
2. A stage-area function may be obtained from the stage-storage function by taking the
fust derivative if storage with respect to stage. The results may be used to determine the
area of inundation at a given stage, or to fmd the stage for a desired surface area. See the
example problem.
3. Sometimes the average waterde th is of interest. Using the definition of average depth
as the volume divided by the s ace area, average depth is Zlb.
UK
Stage-Discharge Function
of the hydraulic performance
The stage discharge function nprcsents the most important
of the outlet device in its influence on the shape of the outflow hydrograph. The stage-discharge
function may be presented as a graph of stage ( n f d to the same datum as the stage-storage
function) versus discharge, or reservoir outflow.
The stage-discharge function is derived by hydraulic analysis of the set of outlet devices
comprising the spillway system of the reservoir. Usually, these devices can be adequately analyzed
by considering the individual outlets as orifices and weirs. For a sample of stages throughout the
m-9
Qrifices
The basic equation for orifices is:
@I-12)
where:
Q = Discharge (cfs).
CD = Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless). See below.
A
= Cross-sectional area of flow at the orifice enmance (sq ft).
= Acceleration of gravity (32.2 fUsec2).
= Driving head (ft), measured from the centroid of the orifice area to the water surface.
An idealized sketch of a culvert under inlet control illustrates the orifice application.
--Q
Ei
Figure III-5 Schematic section through an orifice.
Table III-2
Values of Coefficient of Discharge, Cd
Entrance Condition
cd
Typical default value
Square-edged entrance
Concrete pipe, grooved end
Corr mtl pipe, m i d to slope
Corr mtl pipe, projecting from fill
0.60
0.59
0.65
0.52
0.51
Source: These values were back-calculated from the inlet-control culvertcapacity charts of
Exhibits 11 and 12 for HW/D = 2.
m-11
STAGE-DISCHARGE COMPARISON
,
20
,
40
,
60
80
100
,
120
,
140
,
160
,
180
Discnarpe ( c t s )
OT(fIce-ba5iS
C u l v e r t COD
cMrt
Figure III-6
The typical case to be routed involves combinations of the fundamental orifices and weirs. The
composite stage-discharge function can be prepared by applying the fundamental relationships to the
outlet components and combining the results as the system behaves. Frequently encountered cases
are the overtopped roadway at a culvext, and various combinations of pond spillways, including the
riserbanel spillway.
Culverr and Overtopped Rood: The case of a pipe or pipes under a road or dam is illusmted in the
schematic section of Figure III-7. For upstream water levels at or below the crest of the weir (top
of road), outflow is computed for the pipe acting under inlet control. After the crest of the weir is
overtopped, the outflow below the facility is the sum of the flow through the pipe and the flow over
the broadcrested weir.Thus for any upstream water level, the outflow can be determined.
It is instructive to picture the behavior as water rises. To begin, water drops over the rim of the
riser. The riser rim acts as a weir with length equal to its circumference and driving head equal to
the water-surface elevation minus the elevation of the crest of the riser. As the head increases, one
would likely observe a vortex to form as control makes the transition from riser acting as a weir to
riser acting as an orifice. The orifice is f m e d by the top entrance of the riser, the area being the
cross-sectional area of the riser. The driving head is measured from the water surface to the
horizontal plane of the crest of the riser. These behaviors may be separately computed, as in Table
HI-3, and p1otted;as in Figure DI-9.In the figure, the action of the riser as a weir is indicated by
the plus signs, and that of the riser as an orifice by the diamonds. Independently of the action at
the top of the riser, there is the action of the barrel, which is behaving as a culvert under inlet
control. In order to drive the flow through the barrel, water backs up in the inside of the riser. If the
barrel is small relative to the riser, the water may rise to submerge the crest of the riser, superseding
the action of the riser as a weir. If the barrel is relatively large, the action at the top of the riser may
go through the transition from weir to orifice conaol before barrel conwl asserts itself. In Figure
III-9, the barrel action is plotted with triangles.
COMPOSITE STAGE-DISCHARGE PLOT

800
700
600
500
400 -
Figun m-9
The thrrc behaviors of the barrel may be computed scparatcly. but at a given stage one will
control. At a given stage, choose the least of the discharges. At a given discharge, choose the
highest of the thrce stages.
When the emergency weir is ovutopjxd, the contribution ofthe weir is added to the contribution
of the riserbanel. In Figun III-9, the values used in the composite function are enclosed in
rectangles. The net stage-discharge function is shown in Figure III-lo, plotted with stage on the
vertical axis and discharge on the horizontal axis as is more conventional.
III- 15
NET STAGE DISCHARGE F U N C T I O N
'i
2
100
200
300
400
O I S C M T p (CfS)
Figure III- 10
ROUTING PROCEDURES
Two routing procedures will be discussed. The most widely recognized routing procedure is
called the storage-indication method. A second method, devised by the author, is included for its
inherent simplicity and efficiency. Several names have been suggested for it: Chainsaw Routing
(it's rough and quick), California Routing (it does have its faults). Some of the author's students
have given it clever names that arc regrettably inapproPriate for public documentation. Ofthem all,
the author currently prefers Chainsaw Routing as a reminder of the coarseness of the information on
which analysis and design of these systcms arc based. Our tools arc like chainsaws, and we aren't
making watches.
To execute either of the methods, one first formulates the three sets of source data described
above.
Routing of the flood proceeds by time steps. At each step in time during the passage of the
inflow hydrograph through the reservoir, the outflow is computed. The result is a fist of values of
outflow at stated times the outflow hydrograph.
III-17
significant rise of the rising limb to the time at which the peak occurs. In this case the time to peak
is 36 minutes, so the time increment was conveniently selected at 4 minutes. Note that in calculations the time increment was expressed in seconds.
Table Ill-4
CHAINSAW ROUTING APPLIED TO A SITE WITH CULVERT AND OVERFLOW WEIR
Input data:
Qp
368
Tp
36
RESULTS
dT
4
OUTFLOWPEAK
173
MAX STAGE
8.94
Ks 284
b 3.3
Cd
D
zi
cw
L
zcr
1
0.65
48
0
3
120
10
Routing:
~
1
TIME
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
~~
2
INFLOW
0
11
44
94
155
219
279
328
358
368
354
320
277
239
207
179
154
133
115
.loo
86
74
~~
3
STORAGE
0
0
2718
5484
17396
35378
64046
103103
150432
202386
254328
301293
338670
364822
381358
389740
391210
386828
377506
364032
347094
327290
4
STAGE
0
0.00
1.98
2.45
3.48
4.31
5.17
5.97
6.69
7.32
7.84
8.26
8.56
8.75
8.87
8.93
8.94
8.91
8.84
8.75
8.62
8.47
5
OUTFLOW
0
0
32
44
80
100
117
130
142
151
158
164
168
170
172
172
173
172
171
170
169
167
m-19
6
CULVERT
WEIR
[cfsl
[cfsl
0.0
0.0
32.4
44.1
79.7
99.7
116.6
130.5
141.9
151.1
158.4
163.9
167.8
170.2
171.7
172.5
172.6
172.2
171.4
170.2
168.6
166.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Sometimes this method is subject to numerical instability. It will occur if the outlet system is of
high discharge capacity and the storage container is of low storage capacity. In the real situation, the
outflow hydrograph is tracking closely the inflow hydrograph. The effect ohtorage upon outflow
is negligible. In the routing table, it will present itself when oufflow exceeds inflow on the rising
limb of the inflow hydrograph. In the extreme,khange in storage becomes negative and large,
perhaps large enough to make total storage go negative, and the computation of stage becomes
impossible. Should this happen, it may be corrected by re-initializing the system on the line where
the fault occurs as follows:
1. Set oufflow (Col5) equal to inflow (Col2).
2. Set Stage (Col 4) equivalent to outflow (Col 5), by reference to the stage-discharge
function.
3. Set Storage (Col3) equivalent to stage (Col4), by using the stage-storage function.
4. Restart the routing, repeating the re-initialization if necessary until the system behaves.
If instability occurs while stage is low in a multiple pipe outlet, it is reasonable to re-initialize where
stage is near the top of the pipe. If instability persists to the inflow peak, it indicates that storage
is ineffective in the system -- there is no detention effect.
The dry pond routed here would thus reduce the peak of the hydrograph from 368 cfs to 173 cfs
by storing water to just under nine feet deep. The hydrographs are shown in Figure IU-11. In
Figure III-12, the stage-dischargefunction is plotted showing the points used in the routing.
ROUT I NG RESULTS
CMiwaw
wutiw
400
Figure III-1 I
III-21
The incremental change in storage can be estimated as the area of a fzapezoidal element:
A
si
(1-b)AT^
(In-19)
in which:
ASij = change in storage in the time increment i to j
I
-
= Average inflow from time i to time j

= Average outflow from time i to time j
Aqj = Time increment

Equation III-19can be manipulated algebraically to obtain the following basis for taking a time step
in this procedure:
in which:
Ii = Inflow at the beginning of the interval
Ij = Inflow at the end of the interval
Si
= Storage at the beginning of the interval
Sj = Storage at the end of the interval
Oj = Outflow at the beginning of the interval

Oj = Outflow at the end of the interval
AT= Tmeincranent
fh
,,
iA-
,,J
~~)irt)13'
The equation is put in this form to collect on the left side the variables known at the beginning of
the interval. From these, the sum on the right side may be computed. Note that that the right side
has a storage term tied up with the outflow.The outflowmay be determined from the value of the
right side by means of a chart, or function, prepared from two of the Sets of source data, stagestorage and stage-discharge. This chart iskalled the storage-indication curve. It is a curious function
when first viewed, but its uscfulmu btcomes clear in the tabular computations of the routing. The
storage indication curve is a plot of a certain exjmssion, twice the storage divided by the time
S outflow.
increment to which is added the outflow. V ~ U the
The timi:inmment must be selected prior to formulatirig the storage indication c w e .
ID-23
STORAGE-INDICATION CURVE
7
f w emwle Site
200
400
OUtf low
Ccfs)
Figure III-13
The routing is carried out in a table such as that in Table III-6. The columns of the table are
selected for efficient application of Equation IU-20.
Initialization of the Roun'ng Table: As in all such methods, the state of the system must be set at the
beginning of the storm. On Line 1, the table is initialized as follows (note the similarity to the
previous method):
Col2: Set initial inflow from hydrograph. Here, at rime zero, inflow is zero.
Col5: Set initial outflow q u a l to initial inflow.
Col3: Compute the value of twice the initial storage divided by the time increment (here
240 sec), minus initial outflow. In this case. since at time zero both storage and
outflow arc zero,the result is zero.If there is a normaIly wet reservoir, or if initial
outflow were non-zcro, then a non-zcro result would be expected.
C o l 4 This cell of the table is not used.
ILI-25
Tuking u Time Step: A time step follows Equation HI-20, followed by use of the storage-indication
curve. Let us take as an example the ennies on Line 3, the time step from time 4 to ime 5 min. Line
2 contains values for time i; Line 3 contains values for time j.
On Line 3:
Col 2: Enter the computed inflow for the time of Col 1. Here, the value was computed by
the step function (Equations III-I and -2). (Differences between inflow values in
this table and the chainsaw table are due to the use of rounded values for Qp and Tp
in this table, whereas quite precise values were used in the chainsaw table. Again -a manifestation of the spreadsheet.)
Co14 Compute the value of the right side of Equation 20. Inflow at time i (4 cfs) plus
inflow at time j (8 cfs) plus the value in col3 at time i (-7 cfs) is entered in col4 at
time j (47 cfs). (Again, the numbers may not add exactly due to rounding of the
spreadsheet values.)
Col5: Enter the storage-indication curve with the value in Col4, time j (47 cfs), and find
the associated outflow (28 cfs).
Col3: Compute this value from the values at the same time in Cols 4 and 5. Co14 (47 cfs)
minus twice Col 5 (28 cfs) yields the value for Col 3 (-9 cfs),
The routing continues line by line until the response of interest is obtained.
Note that the peak outflow of 173 cfs obtained by chainsaw routing agrees closely with the 171
cfs computed here. The two sets of rtsults of the two methods are plotted in Figure ID-14.
ROUTING COMPARISON
stwape I m c c a t i o n v s C M I n s a r
400
350
300
250
200
'150
100
50
0
20
0
S t Ind
60
T i m Cmln)
Chainsow
Figure Ill-14
ID-27
EO
100
I"f 101
111-31
A=
c0''s4QI'
eo
o=
III- 33
RWTINC SPREADSHEET:
EXAUPLE 111-1
INPUT DATA:
QP =
Tp =
dT =
430 c f s
37 min
3 min
Ks =
20 =
332
3.15
241.17 f t ( R f )
Dr =
72 i n
3.3
252 f t
36 i n
241.17 f t
0.59
b =
cu
Zcr =
Db =
Zi =
Cd
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
60
63
5.6
69
72
75
78
81
84
0 6.03E+05
7
27
60
102
152
206
260
312
357
393
418
429
427
411
382
346
311
280
252
227
204
184
165
119
134
120
108
98
e7
ea
9::
93
96
79
71
64
58
52
47
42
99
102
105
108
6.03E+05
6.04E*05
6.09E*05
6.20E+05
6.38E+05
6.64E*05
6.WE*05
7.42E105
7.91Ec05
8.44+05
9.00*05
9.55E+05
1.01*06
1.07E*06
1.12E106
1.17E*06
1.21E*W
1.25E46
1.28E46
1.30E*06
1.32E*06
1.34+06
1.35E+06
1.36+06
1.ME*06
1.36*06
1.37+06
1.36+06
1.36+06
1.35+06
1.35*06
1.34E*06
1.33Ei06
1.32E46
1.31+06
1.29E+06
Yksht assums
r i s e r acts as u e i r .
252.00
252.00
252.01
252.03
252.10
252.20
252.34
252.52
252.74
252.97
253.22
253.47
253.70
253.94
254.16
254.36
254.54
254.69
254.81
254.91
255.00
255.06
255.11
255.15
255.18
255.20
255.21
255.21
255.20
255.19
255.17
255.15
255.12
255.09
255.05
255.01
251.97
0
D
0
0
2
5
12
23
39
60
84
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
117
117
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
118
117
nn
0.0
0.0
0.4
1.8
5.4
12.2
23.4
39.3
59.8
84.0
110.7
138.4
167.8
197.5
226.0
251.9
274.3
293.4
309.4
322.6
333.3
341 .8
348.2
352.8
355.8
357.3
357.5
356.5
354.5
351.5
347.6
343.0
337.7
331.8
325.3
318.3
na
102.2
102.2
102.4
102.7
103.2
104.0
105.0
106.1
107.4
108.7
109.9
111.1
112.3
113.4
114.4
115.3
116.0
116.6
117.1
117.4
117.8
118.0
118.2
118.3
118.4
118.5
118.5
118.4
118.4
118.3
118.2
118.0
117.9
117.7
117.5
117.3
III-35
Norm Surf Area =

Peak wtflw =
Peak stage =
4.03 ac
118 c f s
255.21 f t , d
SECTION IV
SEDIMENT BASIN DESIGN
GENERAL
Sediment basins, as treated in this section, are used for two main purposes. One is the
entrapment of sediment particles eroded from construction sites. The other is the entrapment of
particles suspended in stormwater flowing from urban catchments. In both, the principle is the
same -- provide a storage container of sufficient volume and surface area to settle a design particle
in the design storm.
Construction sediment control consists fundamentally of measures taken to reduce sediment
production (by controlling erosion), and those taken to control sediment discharge (by entrapment
of waterbome sediment. The channel design portion of this manual deals in part with minimizing
sediment production, and the techniques discussed therecan be applied to temporary and permanent
channels on construction sites to minimize scour of exposed channel banks.
There is an emerging interest in treating urban stormwater to remove suspended pollutants. Since
many pollutants ride "piggyback on sediment particles, one of the indicated treaanent processes is
plain sedimentation. Hence, with reconsideration of the design storm and the design panicle size,
the procedures described here may be applied in configuring the sediment basin.
Construction sediment basins are usually crude, temporary devices. Stormwater settling ponds
are likely to be permanent facilities that should be integrated into their surroundings with careful
consideration of appearance, safety and convenient maintenance. Compared to sedimentation tanks
in wastewater ueament plants, these devices rarely can be expected to operate with high efficiency.
Applicable research is scant on the subject of basins subjected to unsteady flow. All this leads one
to realize that watchmaking precision is not to be expected in this design. However, the analytical
approaches can support design decisions.
Good judgmental and experiential shortcut design procedures have been published by Soil
Conservation Service and regulatory agencies in several states. These have been adopted as
acceptable for design submission in the various jurisdictions. The criteria and procedures given
here are suggested to augment others, especially for unusual circumstances, such as the design of a
basin whose watershed is partially disturbed, or to consider remedial action for a basin that is
performing unacceptably.
The design of a sediment basin is mated here as sequence involving the arrangement of the major
basin components: the settling zone, the sediment storage zone, the inlet zone, the outlet zone, the
dam or dike and the set of outflow devices. The design involves fundamental applications of
discrete settling theory, the hydraulics of weirs and orifces, and the muting procedures described
in Section III.
DESIGN CRITERIA
The critical design condition for the usual basin occurs a little before and a little after the time of
the outflow peak. It is during this time when settling efficiency reaches its minimum, and inflow
sediment concentration is likely to be highest. It is not economically feasible to design for highly
improbable storms. Neither is it reasonable to attempt to settle very small particles. The selection
of the design storm and the smallest particle to be settled with a given efficiency together determine
Iv-1
Settling Zone
The settling zone is the "working unit" of the sediment basin. Detailed discussions of ideal and
real settling theory, appear in most texts of wastewater engineering. For a real settling basin
subject to stray currents having various causes, Allen Hazen developed about the year 1900 an
equation to describe the mechanics of settling of discrete particles [Fair,Geyer and Okun, 19681.
The required surface area of a settling basin is related to the discharge, settling velocity of the
design particle and the nature of the basin performance with respect to short circuiting of flow.
Hazen's eauation can be written
IL3"
E = 1- 1 + 0
in which
E = Settling efficiency of a particle

having settling velocity vo.
A = Surface area of the settling zone.
N = Effective number of cells in the settling zone.

Q = Flow through the basin
Solving for area yields a useful design expression:
.,
in which
A =Required surface area (sq ft)
N = Effective number of cells
Q = Basin outflow (cfs)
vo = Settling velocity of design particle
(fused
E = Settling efficiency of design particle.

The N value is treated as an indicator of settling performance as follows:
N=Infinity
N=8or5
N=3
N=2
N= 1
Best performance
very good performance
Good performance
Poorperformance
Very poor performance.
The effective number of cells is not precisely equal to the number of real cells in the basin,
according to Hazen and his followers, but if inlet and outlet baffles are provided, the effective
number of cells can be estimated as the number of real cells into which the settling zone is divided
(not counting inlet and outlet zones as cells). For instance, setting off inlet and outlet zones with
baffles, &d installing another baffle across the basin near the center of the settling zone, justifies
setting N = 2, at the level of precision of this work. It would be difficult to justify a value larger
than N = 2 for a construction settling basin.
Iv-3
emergency spillway as the flow overtops the riser. It can be shown that this distinction of
confining settling performance to flow through perforations is unnecessarily restrictive. Settling
can take place adequately when flow overtops the riser, if the system is carefully designed.
Settling EnveloDe: In configuring the outlet device, satisfactory settling performance can be
assured by c o n f i i n g that the stage-discharge function is within bounds as estimated by a "settling
envelope." The settling envelope is a function that may be derived from Hazen's Equation and the
stage-storage function. Hazen's Equation solved for discharge yields
voA
Q = N[(l-E)-lM
- 13
W-5)
Restating the stage-storage function in general form (see Section m):
W-6)
S = KsZb
\
Differentiation of Equation N-6 results in an expression for surface area at a given stage:
W-7)
As = b&Z'-')
Substitution of the surface area expression (Equation N-7)into Equation IV-5 and rearranging
provides an expression for the settling envelope:
Q=
[N[ (1vo
-E)-"]
Z(b - 1)
W-8)
A convenient restatement of Equation N-8 is

Q = C,Z@.')
W-9)
in which
Q = Discharge limit (cfs) at stated stage
2 = Stage (ft above pond invert)

and
c,
b & vo
N [(1 - E)."
- 11
where
v,,
= Settling velocity of design particle [fdsec]
Ks,b = Constants from stage-storage relation

N
= Number of effective cells
= Settling efficiency, expressed as a decimal fraction
CS
=The settling constant of Equation N-9.
IV-5
W-10)
5=
3.65
1-381
N-7
Iv-9
IV-13
BASIN DATA:
=
=
=
=
72 =
13.1
3.05
100
3.3
Time
Ininl
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
M
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
,62
64
66
STORM DATA:
Ks
b
Invert e l pond
Cu r i s e r
Dia riser l i n l
= di
1min1
EFFICIENCY DATA:
l n f l o u Storage
Stage Outflow Surf Area S e t Env Set E f f
tcfsl
t c u f t l 1ft.nsll
tcfsl
tsqftl
Icfsl
1x1
0 8.WE*02
8.WE*02
9.18E+02
9.97EiO2
1.17+03
1.48Ei03
5 1.95E+03
7 2.60*03
9 3.47E+03
11 4.56E*03
13 5.88E*03
15 7.43E+03
17 9.22E*03
18 l.l2E+04
20 1.34E+04
21 (.%E44
22 1.83E+04
23 2.1OE+04
23 2.37E104
23 2.62E*04
23 2.75E+04
22 2.86*04
21 2.97E+04
20 3.07E+04
18 3.15E+04
17 3.22E*04
16 3.27+04
15 3.30E+04
14 3.33E*04
13 3.34E*04
12 3.33E104
11 3.32E+04
11 3.30E+04
10 3.27E*DC
0
1
1
3
4
104.00
104.00
104.03
104.14
104.36
104.71
105.15
105.67
106.23
106.81
107.41
108.00
108.58
109.15
109.71
110.24
110.75
111.23
111.69
l12.W
112.27
112.45
112.60
112.73
112.84
112.93
113.00
113.04
113.07
113.08
113.08
113.06
113.03
112.99
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.72
12.64
12.74
12.83
12.91
12.99
13.04
13.09
13.12
13.15
13.16
13.17
13.17
13.16
13.14
13.12
N-15
685
685
695
7-55
819
958
1152
1401
1699
2041
2422
2835
3276
3739
4217
4706
5198
5690
6176
6615
6824
7020
7200
7358
7489
7593
7671
m 7
mi
7776
7n3
m3
7718
7669
L ' l T o W - CUDI-U
na
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
15
16
16
16
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
ERR
183 emu
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR c
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
98.2
73.5
74.1
74.6
75.1
75.5
75.8
76.1
76.3
76.4
76.5
76.5
76.5
76.5
wutne
S-\
OWWLO-
=a
13.1 = Ks
3.05 = b
100 = I n v e r t e l Dwd
3.3 =
72 =
111 =
0.59 =
12 =
100 =
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
'62
64
66
23 = ap t c f s i
37 = Tp t c f s l
2 = dl tminl
Cw r i s e r
Oia r i s e r tin1
Crest e l r,iser T
Cd b a r r e l
Oia b a r r e l [in]
Invert e l barrel
0 8.WE*02
0 8.WE42
1 9.18E42
1 9.97E102
3 l.l7E*O3
4 1.48E*03
5 1.95E+03
7 2.60E*03
9 3.47E*03
11 4.56E+03
13 5.BBE*03
15 7.43E+03
17 9.22E+03
18 l.l2E*04
20 1.34E*04
21 1.58E+04
22 1.83E+04
23 2.10E+04
23 2.28E+04
23 2.41E*04
23 2.54E*04
22 2.66+04
21 2.77E+04
20 2.87E*04
18 2.95E104
17 3.02E+04
16 3.07E104
15 3.llE104
14 3.13E104
13 3.14+04
12 3.14E+04
11 3.13E+04
11 3.11E+04
10 3.08E+04
E F F I C I E N C Y DATA:
-Y
104.00
104.00
104.03
104.14
104.36
104.71
105.15
105.67
106.23
106.81
107.41
108.00
108.58
109.15
109.71
110.24
110.75
111.23
111.55
111.76
111.96
112.11
112.31
112.45
112.57
112.66
112.73
112.78
112.81
112.83
112.83
112.81
112.79
112.74
___
O
l
d
'
.
(
G.U&OGt
Foo1* P G e 4 I 6 M .
70 = Desired e f f i c i e n c y
2 = No. o f e f f e c t i v e c e l l s
0.08715 ==> Cs
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.02
12.34
12.46
12.57
12.67
12.76
12.83
12.w
12.95
12.98
13.01
13.03
13.04
13.04
13.03
13.01
12.w
685
685
695
735
819
958
1152
1401
1699
204 1
2422
2835
3276
3739
4217
4704
5198
5690
6027
6251
6469
6674
6862
7026
7163
7272
7355
7414
7452
7470
7169
7452
7419
7371
na
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
na
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
ERR
83.5
71.7 c
72.4
73.1
73.7
74.2
74.6
75.0
75.3
75.5
75.6
75.7
75.8
75.8
75.7
75.7
75.5
-.
IV-19
SECTION V
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Concrete Pipe Association (1985), Concrete P

2-
i m Manual, ACPA, Vienna, VA.
American Iron and Steel Institute (1971), findbook of Steel Drain= and Hiyhwav Construction
Products, AISI, New York, NY.
American Iron and Steel Institute (1980). Modern Sewer Desia,AISI, Washington, DC.
American Public Works Association (1981), !Jr ban Stormwater Managem - , APWA, Chicago.
and Floodplain Analv&, Addison-Wesley.
Bedient (1988), P.B. and W C. Huber,
Bureau of Public Roads (1965), "Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts,"
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 5 , U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, DC.
Bureau of Reclamation, 1974, Besien of S mall D m , USGPO, Washington, DC.
Chow (1959). Ven Te, Open Channe1 Hvdraulics, McGraw-Hill.
Chow (1964), Ven Te, Ed.,
VQ E
-
,McGraw-Hill.
Chow (1988), V.T., D.R. Maidment and L.W. Mays, Applied Hvdroloey,McGraw-Hill.
Fair (1968) G.M., J.C. Geyer and D.A. Okum, Waterand Wastewater Enplneen'ng, v. 2,
John Wiley.
Fair(1971)G.M.,J.C.GeyerandD.A. Okum, f
1
W
i
w r
,
2d ed., John Wiley.
Federal Highway Adminiswtion (1979), "Design of Urban Highway Drainage -- State of the
Art," Report FHWA-TS-79-225, US. Dept of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Federal Highway Administration (1985). "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts," Hydraulic
Design Series No. 5 , Report FHWA-IP-85-15, U.S.Dept. of Transportation, Washington,
DC.
Frederick (1977), R.H., V.A. Myers and E.P. Anciello, "Five to 60 Minute Precipitation
Frequency for the Eastem and Central United States," NOAA Technical Memorandum N W S
HYDRO-35, National Weather Service, N O M , U.S. Dept of Commerce, Silver Spring,
MD.
French (1985) R.H., @en-
'
,McOraw-Hill
Harris County Flood Conml District (1984), "Criteria Manual for the Design of Flood Control
and Drainage Facilities in Harris County, Texas," Houston, TX.
King (1963), Horace W., and E.F. Brater, Handbook of Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill.
Malcom (1973), HR.,"Economic Incentives in Urban Sediment Control," Doctoral dissertation,
North Carolina State University.
Malcom (1977). H.R. and Smallwood, C., "Sediment Prediction in the Eastem United States,"
ASCE, v. 103, no. WR2.
n
,
v- 1
SECTION VI
EXHIBITS
The following exhibits were collected for the purpose of illustrating the concepts taught in the
presentations.
Sources and Credits
1. Taken from various sources as referenced.
2.
Computed by Malcom from data given in USWB, 1961, and N O M , 1977.
3. Computed by Malcom from Exhibit 2.

4.
Taken from FHWA, 1979.
5.
Taken from Bauer and Woo (1964), "Hydraulic Design of Depressed Curb Opening Inlets,"
Highway Research Record, Highway Research Board, No. 58.
6 . Same as 5.
7.
Computed by Malcom using Manning Equation.
8.
From Chow, 1959, and common citings.
9.
Computed by Malcom.
10 Based on similar information in Bureau of Public Roads (1965). "Design of Roadside

Channels," Hydraulic Design Series No. 4, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, DC.
11. through 21. Federal Highway Administration (1985), "Hydraulic Design of Highway
Culverts," Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Report FHWA-IP-85-15, U.S. Dept. of
Transportation, Washington, DC.
VI-1
by H. R. Malcom, P.E.
C. E. Dept, NCSU
Raleigh, NC
Exhibit 2
Depth-Di. ition-Frequency Table
+.
Locati
Raleigh-Durham,NC
RetumPeriod>-.
Duration
2-yr
[in1
0.48
0.79
1.01
1.35
1.70
1.91
2.12
2.65
3.13
3.60
5 min
10 min
15 min
30 min
60 min
2hr
3hr
6hr
12 hr
24 hr
0.68
1.17
1.51
2.16
2.84
3.23
3.62
4.62
5.52
6.41
50-yr
[in3
0.75
1.28
1.66
2.40
3.17
3.61
4.06
5.19
6.20
7.21
100-yr
[in1
0.81
1.40
1.81
2.64
3.50
4.00
4.49
5.75
6.88
8.00
10-yr
25-j~
50-yr
rim1
[i&l
[i&l
7.22
6.13
5.25
3.7 1
2.41
1.37
1.02
0.65
0.39
0.22
8.19
7.01
6.03
4.32
2.84
1.62
1.21
0.77
0.46
0.27
8.96
7.71
6.64
4.80
3.17
1.81
1.35
0.86
0.52
0.30
100-jT
[in/hrl
9.72
8.40
7.24
5.28
3.50
2.00
1.50
0.96
0.57
0.33
25-yr
5-yr
10-yI
ri1
[GI
0.55
0.92
1.18
1.64
2.12
2.40
2.68
3.38
4.02
4.65
0.60
1.02
1.31
1.85
2.41
2.74
3.07
3.90
4.64
5.38
GI
Intensity-Duration-FrequencyTable
Location:
Raleigh-Durham, NC
>
RetumPericd
2-yr
Duration
[in/hrI
5 min
10 min
15 min
30 min
60 min
2hr
3hr
6hr
12 hr
24 hr
5.76
4.76
4.04
2.10
1.70
0.95
0.71
0.44
0.26
0.15
~~
5-yr
li&I
6.58
5.54
4.74
3.28
2.12
1.20
0.89
0.56
0.33
0.19
Input Data:
Location:
Duration
5 min
15 min
in
24-hr
+ Raleigh-Durham, NC
2-yr P
100-yrP
rim1
[in1
0.81
1.81
3.50
8.00
0.48
1.01
. 1.70
3.60
Source
NOAA HYDRO-35
N O M HYDRO-35
NOAA HYDRO-35
USWB TP-40
IDF Equations:
I = e/Ol+T)
for 5; T < 120 min
h
R
P
n
5
10
25
50
100
.I
IJL
IO
169
195
232
261
290
21
22
23
24
25
to
EO
-I
IO01
PO
W0.01
PO
w-
O
.
om om-
O
,
001
LO
mo
01
02
-1
Or'
.__----
0,'
09'
oooc
OW
01'
OW
OOOL
07
Ooom
ooom
OOOU
0.1
S l 3 N N V H 3 k J V l f l 9 N V l k J l NI M o l 3 kJ03 HdV89OWON
P FlIrPrEl
Exhibit 6
10 ft opening length, n = 0.016, W = 2.0 ft,

a greater than or equals 2 inches
minimum height of curb opening = TS,
0
6
7
8
GUTTER FLOW SPREAD, T (FT.)
..-
0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4
Qi
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
10
15 ft opening length, n = 0.016, W = 2.0 ft,

2 3 4
5
6
7
0
GUTTER FLOW SPREAD, T (FT.)
INLET INTERCEPTIONFATE,
10
VI-I
INLET INTERCEPTIONFATE,
Qi
y
Exhibit 9
Best Hydraulic Section Coefficients
M
0 11
0.5 I 1
0.577 I 1
1 /1
1.5 11
2 /1
2.5 I 1
3 11
3.5 I 1
4 11
5 11
6 11
7 11
8 11
9 /1
10il
11/1
12 /1
Cm
0.790
0.833
0.833
0.817
0.715
0.729
0.688
0.653
0.622
0.595
0.552
0.518
0.490
0.467
0.447
0.430
0.415
0.402
k
2.000
1.236
1.155
0.828
0.606
0.472
0.385
0.325
0.280
0.246
01198
0.166
0.142
0.125
0.111
0.100
0.091
0.083
VI-9
Comment
Vertical sides
&degree sides
45-degree sides
Steepest to mow
Exhibit 11
10,Ooo
EXAMPLE
8.Ooo
156
144
132
6.
5.
120
--4.
108
- 3.
--
6.
r 6,
5.
4.
-- 3.
- e.-=
400
/'
300
s
E~
e -e.
Em :-
- 1.5
- 1.5
E
W .
SO
[ 7 2
I-
C .
40
nw0 SCALE
ENTRANCE
TYPE
a
W
- 1.0
t -
.e
g4
W -
- .e
1.0
- .e
- .e
,
1.0
- .9
- .e
- .r
Le
- I5
*u(EEw
- 1.5
-.I
-.I
IL
e-
I W
0
;
-- 3.
-
4 a
:
4.
----
- --+
,/'
- 5.
t 1.0
IC
w M L l C 101m
HEADWATER SCALES 2 6 3
llEWSED YAVR64
y*
Iw3
VI-11
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

CONCRETE PIPE CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL
Exhibit 13
5.4.000
1.000
no0
Ill
1.10
2.0
I
4
1.1s
1.1
IJI
1.22
2.2
600
SO0
*D 11 1-1
400
300
200
v1
U
0
100
/'
60
'0
!O
:
'
SCALE
ENTRANCE
TYPE
i
v
,o
B
.6
.s
*ACQITIONAL
WZES HOT OIMEWSIONED A M
LISTLD' I N CAORICATOR'S
W-bU
CATALOG
OF W I C mYDI JAN t W
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

C. M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL
VI-I3
Exhibit 15
0
-
-:1000
-- 800
- 600
- 500
- 120
- 108
- 96
- 300
:
200
m -
u -
-- _
/*'
1?',
W
z-
54
z :.
m
w
-40-1
X
0
/-
7100
0.48
1-3
.
*0 .
-42
w -2
u -
- 60
0 -
1.0
O'A'
-84
- 72
- 66
y 400
w -4
1
I.
-60
Y -
o -50
-40
-5
-36
2I- - 3 3
-6
= -30
i
0 -27
- 30
- 24
- 20
-el
-18
-10
-I5
-8
-6
--It
HEAD FOR
FLOWING FULL
n = 0.0 12
VI-15
Exhibit 17
360
260
8
W
?!
L
X
s
W
N
0
-HEAD FOR
STANDARD C
M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
1180.024
UUIV 0 U I C - O M JAa. Du
VI-17
Exhibit 19
F...
SO00
16.6 110.1
ISS I 9.2
12.9 I 0,s
I L4 I 7 . 2
9.5 I L 4
.
t
LI I 4.6
HEAD FOR
ST R U CTU R AL P LA1E
CORRUGATED METAL
P I P E ARCH CULVERTS
18 IN. CORNER RADIUS
TLOWING FULL
11.0.0327 TO 0.0306
VI-19
Exhibit 21
Ennance Loss Coefficients
V2
Coefficient k, to apply to velocity head -for
determination of head loss at entrance to a structure,
2E
such as a culvert or conduit, operating full or partly full with control at the outlet.
V2
Entrance head loss H, = k, 2g
Coefficient ke
Type of Structure and Design of Entrance
Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from fdl, socket end (groove-end)
Projecting from fill, sq. cut end
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Socket end of pipe (groove-end)
Square-edge
Rounded (radius = 1/12D)
Mitered to conform to fd slope
*End-Section conforming to fill slope
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.7
0.5
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal

0.9
Projecting from fill (no headwall)

Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Square-edge
Mitered to conform to fill slope
*End-section conforming to fill slope
0.5
0.7
0.5
Box, Reinforced Concrete

Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension
Wingwalls at 30' to 75' to barrel
Square-edged at crown
crown edge rounded to radius of 1/12 barrel dimension
Wingwalls at 10' to 25' to barrel
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.7
*Note: "End Section conforming to fill slope", made of either metal or concrete, are the sections
commonly available from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are equivalent in
operation to a headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some end sections, incorporating a closed
taper in their design have a superior hydraulic performance.
VI-21
Elements of Stormwater Design

Schedule
Day Tbo
Day One
____-______-__-_-__-------_----_--------__--------_-_--_----------------------- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time
Topic
Time
Topic
-____---_-_-___-___---_-_----_---------- _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - -.-.-.-. -. -. .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
08:30
O8:SO
1O:OO
1O:lS
11:OO
12:OO
O1:OO
O2:3O
O2:45
0430
Introduction
Welcome
Course history
Schedule
Set informal tone
Srormwater collection
General
Inlet location
Pipe sizing
Break
Stormwater collection (cont.)
Example 1-1
Example 1-2
Hydraulic-grade-line check
Stormwater channels
General
Best-hydraulic-section procedure
Velocity-limited procedure
Normal-depth procedure
Depth-limited procedure
Triangular swales
Lunch
Stormwater channels (cont.)
Example 11-1
Example 11-2
Examples with program and spreadsheet
Break
Stormwater Impoundments
General
Analysis vs design
Flood-routing algorithms
Source data
Inflow hydrograph
Stage-storage function
Stage-discharge function
Adjourn
0830
10:00
1015
1200
01:OO
a30
0245
04:W
0430
Stormwater impoundments (cont.)

Chainsaw routing
Storage-indication routing
Preliminary design
Break
Stormwater impoundments (cont.)
Example 111-1
The DSC problem
A parking lot case
Lunch
Sediment basin design
General
Design criteria
Basin components
Settling model
Sizing sediment storage
Preliminary suing of the riserbarrel
Dike configuration
Break
Sediment basin design (cont.)
Example IV-1
A water-quality variation
Concluding discussion
Adjourn
<
DEPTH-DURATION-FREQUENCY TABLE
by H.R. Malcwn, P.E.
C.E.Dept, NCSU
Raleigh, NC
LOCATION:--------.Yiimington, NC
5
10
15
30
60
2
3
6
12
min
min
min
min
min
hr
hr
hr
hr
0.47
0.76
0.97
1.31
1.67
1.87
2.07
2.59
3.04
0.54
0.89
1.14
1.61
2.10
2.35
2.59
3.20
3.75
4.59
3.88
2.63
1.67
5.37
4.55
3.22
2.10
1.17
0.86
0.53
0.31
0.60
1.26
1.82
2.41
2.68
2.95
3.64
4.26
0.69
1.14
1.45
2.13
2.84
3.16
3.47
4.28
4.99
0.75
1.25
2.59
2.37
3.18
3.53
3.88
4.77
5.56
0.82
1.36
1.74
2.61
3.52
3.90
4.29
5.26
6.13
5.95
5.05
3.65
2.41
1.34
0.98
0.61
0.36
6.82
5.79
4.26
2.84
1.58
1.16
0.71
0.42
7.50
6.38
4.75
3.18
1.77
1.29
0.79
0.46
8.18
6.96
5.22
. - ~
3.52
1.95
1.43
0.88
0.51
0.99
..
10 min
15 min
30 m i n
60
2
3
6
12
min
hr
hr
0.94
0.69
hr
hr
0.25
~~
5
10
15
30
60
2
3
6
min
min
rain
min
min
hr
hr
hr
5.88
5.06
4.36
3.17
2.10
1.18
0.88
0.55
6.63
5.76
4.97
3.79
2.58
1.47
1.10
0.70
7.23
6.30
5.45
4.25
2.92
1.67
1.25
0.80
8.15
7.13
6.17
4.92
3.41
1.96
1.47
0.95
8.87
7.79
6.75
5.44
3.80
2.19
1.65
1.07
9.60
8.45
7.32
5.96
4.18
2.41
1.82
1.18
INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY
vilmington.
10
FUNCTIONS
9
8
7
6
S
2
7
0
0
20
+
40
0
60
Time of Q u a t i o n Cmln)
10
n
25
124
100
BO
50
100
TECHNICAL PROGRAM ON
BASIC STORMWATER DRAINAGE DESIGN
8:OO -
8:15
Check-i n
8:30
Introduction and Announcements
9:45
I. Background Concepts
8:15
8:30
Flow Estimation
A.
1.
Description of Various Methods
2.
Development of the Rational Method
Elements of the Stormwater Drainage Systbm
B.
Coffee/Coke and Conversation Break

11.
Stormwater Collection Systems

A.
Basis f o r the Procedure
8.
Inlet Location
C.
Pipe Sizing
12:oo-
l:oo
Lunch and Conversation
3:OO
111.
1:00
3:OO
3:OO
4:30
Channel Design
A.
Basic Concepts
B.
Trapezoidal Channels
C.
Triangular Swales
3:15
CoffeeICoke and Conversation Break
4:30
IV.
5:QO
V.
Culvert Design
A.
Basic Concepts
B.
Inlet Control Case
C.
Outlet C o n t r o l Case
A.
Some Examples of Good and Bad Drainage Practices
B.
Summary and Questions and Answers
TECHNICAL PROGRAM ON
8:OO -
8:15
Check-in
8:15 -
8:30
Introduction and Announcements
8:30
- 9:45
I.
Background Concepts
Flow Estimation
A.
B.
9:45
1o:oo
12:oo
1:OO
3:OO
2.
Development of the Rational Method
Elements of the Stormwater Drainage System
12:oo
11.
3:15
3:OO - 4:30
4:30
Description of Various Methods
1o:oo
- l:oo
- 3:Q0
1.
5:OO
Stormwater Collection Systems

A,
Basis for the Procedure
B.
Inlet Location
C.
Pipe Sizing
Lunch and Conversation

111. Channel Design
A.
Basic Concepts
B.
Trapezoidal Channels
C.
Triangular Swales
IV.
V.
Culvert Design
A.
Basic Concepts
B.
Inlet Control Case
c.
Outlet Control Case
A.
Some Examples of Good and Bad Drainage Practices
B.
Summary and Questions and Answers
by H. Rooney Malcom, Ph.D., P.E.

Associate Professor of Civil Engineering
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC
Notes prepared in support of a one-day workshop

co-sponsored by the Transportation Technology Transfer
Service, Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University and the Technology Transfer Program,
Institute for Transportation Research and Education,
University of North Carolina.
May 1988
TABLE OF' CONTENTS
=.====================~=======================
ITEM
FAGE
_-----___-------__-_________________I___-----
I.
Stormwater C o l l e c t i o n Systems
11.
The R a t i o n a l Method
I n l e t Location
Fipe Sizing
H y d r a u l i c Grade L i n e A n a l y s i s
Examples
Channel Design
1-1
1-3
1-0
1-13
I-20
1-26
11-1
Best H y d r a u l i c S e c t i o n
V e l o c i t y - L i m i t e d Procedure
Normal-Depth P r o c e d u r e
Depth-Limi t e d Procedure
T r ia n g u l a r Swales
P r e l i m i n a r y Cost E s t i m a t e s
Esamplee
11-4
11-7
11-0
11-9
11-11>
11-12
11-14
I XI-1
111. C u l v e r t Design
Use of C h a r t s
I n l e t Control
Outlet Control
Examples
111-2
I 11-2
I 11-2
III'-.Z
SEC'TION I
STORMWATEK COLLECTION SYSTEMS
GENEfiAL
set
The term "stormwater c o l l e c t i o n system" a p p l i e s t o t h e
0 . f i n l e t s and p i p e s used t o d r a i n an a r e a o f i n t e r e s t ,
s u c h as a
s u b d i v i s i o n , parl.::ing l o t o r s t r e e t .
The d e s i g n storm used v a r i e s
from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n , b u t i t i s u s u a l l y i n t h e range of t h e t w o t o t w e n t y - f i v e year storm, w i t h t h e ten-year s t o r m p r e d o m i n a t i n g .
I n most cases, t h e s e l e c t i o n of a d e s i g n s t o r m t h a t r e c u r s f a i r l y
frequently
r e f l e c t s a judgment t h a t t h e consequences of a !system
u s u a l l y t h e nuisance o f a flooded yard
or
o v e r l o a d a r e minor
i n t e r s e c t i o n f o r a few minutes.
--
r e t u r n period.
The d e s i g n .storm i s s t a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e
i n years.
4 t e n - y e a r s t o r m has a r e t u r n p e r i o d 0.f t.en
given
years.
The ten-year f l o o d i s expected t o be equaled o r exceeded,
I t has a p r o b a b i l i t y o f
on
the
average,
once i n t e n years.
0.1I t is
occurrence
i n a g i v e n year o f t e n
percent,
or
i n c o r r e c t t o t h i n k t h a t t e n y e a r s w i l l t r a n s p i r e between ten-year
but
floods.
I n a ten-year p e r i o d ,
one such f l o o d i s e:.:pected,
more t h a n one can occur.
C e r t a i n conventions,
judgments and assumptions have @merged
over
t h e y e a r s t o s i m p l i f y what would o t h e r w i s e be an i m p s s s i b l y
the
comples system t o design.
The f i r s t of t h e s e i s t h e use O f
Rational
E q u a t i o n as
the
model of c h o i c e i n s e t t i n g d e s i g n
d i s c h a r g e s a t p o i n t s o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e system.
The second i s t o
s e l e c t p i p e s such t h a t t h e y w i l l j u s t f u l l i n u n i f o r m steady f l o w
is
at
t h e peak o f t h e d e s i g n storm.
The system t h u s o b t a i n e d
l i k e l y t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y designed.
I t has become c o n v e n t i o n a l t o s e p a r a t e t h e d e s i g n i n t o two

i n l e t l o c a t i o n and p i p e s i z i n g .
. f a i r l y independent o p e r a t i o n s
near
the
I n l e t s are
l o c a t e d such t h a t t h e y w i l l p e r f o r m a t o r
" t h r e s h o l d of m i s b e h a v i o r " i n t h e d e s i g n storm.
The t h r e s h o l d o f
i s reached,
misbehavior
esi'sts
when t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l of f l o w
beyond which some adverse b e h a v i o r t a k e s p l a c e such as:
--
a.
b.
c.
Flow i s t o o deep;
Flow i s t o o f a s t :
Flow i s t o o wide;
barrier.
something i s f l o o d e d .
something i s eroded.
i t bypasses an i n l e t ,
o r i t becomes a
An i n l e t ,
then, i s p l a c e d t o r e l i e v e t h e s u r f a c e channel o f f l o w
t h a t i t could n o t handle acceptably.
'The t e x t s
have n o t g e n e r a l l y d e a l t w i t h i n l e t l o c a t i o n
as
e x t e n s i v e l y as t h e y m i g h t have, b u t t h e performance and economics
o f t h e stormwater c o l l e c t i o n system a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by
d e c i s i o n s made i n t h e i n l e t - l o c a t i o n process.
1-1
Pipes are sized t o flow j u s t . f u l l according t o t h e

Manninq
Equation.
The
d i s c h a r g e j . n t o each p i p e i s computed
by
t.he
R a t i o n a l Equation,
w i t h t h e r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t c o m p o s i t e d of a l l
c o n t r i b u t i n g d r a i n a g e a r e a s 1 and w i t h t h e t i m e o f
concentration
based upon t h e o v e r l a n d f l o w t i m e t o t h e most r e m o t e i n l e t
plus
. t h e t i m e o f f l o w i n t h e p i p e o r p i p e s u p s t r e a m of t h e p i p e u n d e r
consideration.
This
i s
l e s s t h a n t h e f l o w one would
get
by
adding a l l i n l e t inflows.
I n recent years,
d e s i g n e r s have been a d v i s e d t o become more
s e n s i t i v e t o t h e major-minor s t o r m concept.
The d e s i g n s t o r m . f o r
which system s i z e s a r e s e t i s t h e minor s t o r m h a v i n g a t y p i c a l
return
p e r i o d of t e n y e a r s .
The p r o b a b i l i t y i s g r e a t e r t h a n 90
I p e r c e n t t h a t s u c h a s t o r m w i l l b e exceeded a t l e a s t once i n a 2 5 year
period.
I t i s p r u d e n t t h e r e f o r e t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e fna-jor
s t o r m an emergency r o u t e a l o n g s t r e e t s and between s t r u c t u r e s t.0
m i n i m i z e p r o p e r t y damage.
F o r some s y s t e m s t h e m a j o r s t o r m may
b e r o u t e d i n t u i t i v e l y o r by i n s p e c t i o n .
For others, q u a n t i t a t i v e
routing i s justified.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
The p r i n c i p a l
mathematical
stormwater c a l l e c t i o n systems a r e :
models used i n t h e
design
of
--
1.
R a t i o n a l Method
used f o r e s t i m a t i n g d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e
a t a p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e system.
2.
Weir e q u a t i o n s
weirs.
.,.
7
Orifice
--
used f o r
--
equation
s i z i n g i n l e t s t h a t behave a s
used f o r s i z i n g i n l e t s j u d g e d
to
used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b e h a v i o r
of
behave a s o r i f i c e s .
--
4.
Manning e q u a t i o n
flow i n pipes.
5.
Energy b a l a n c e
u s e d t o compute
t h e approximate
p o s i t i o n of t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d e l i n e I n systems
having
high tailwater
to
insure a g a i n s t
an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
backup o f w a t e r i n t h e system.
--
'THE RRTIONAL.
ME'IHOD
LS
' aCA-KLQU.L!-d_
There a r e
many methods a b r o a d . f o r e s t i m a t i n g
flood
peal.::
d i s c h a r g e s where
n o measurements o f f l o w
are
available.
.I 1
1
stormwater
collection
systems,
i n d i v i d u a l drainage areas
are
Method
q u i t e small,
and o f a l l methods a v a i l a b l e t h e
Rational
r e m a i n s t h e method of c h o i c e .
i s
quite
The
Rational
Method,
though w i d e l y
used,
so many
controversial.
I t s t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o r t i s none t o o f i r m ,
i t abandoned.
The d i f f i . c u l t y i s t h a t
no
writers
would
have
nor has
any
method o f s i m i l a r e f f i c i e n c y h a s g a i n e d a c c e p t a n c e ,
been
o f . f e r e d b y t h o s e who w o u l d
eliminate
Rational
ilethod.
I n practice,
t h e method h a s e n j o y e d s u c c e s s b o r n e of e x p e r i e n c e
It y i e l d s a crude e s t i m a t e o f
t h e peak
and
efficiency.
discharge,
but
t h e p r e c i s i o n i s j u s t i f i e d b y t h e o b v i o l t s need
For
a
only
t o be w i t h i n a p i p e s i z e o r t w o i n t h e t h e d e s i g n .
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R a t i o n a l Method, see APWA, 1981.
The f o l l o w i n g a r e t h e s t e p s t o b e t a k e n i n d e t e r m i n i n g
peak d i s c h a r g e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t :
the
1.
Delineate the
watershed c o n t r i b u t o r y t o t h e p o i n t
of
interest,
and
determine t h e drainage area
i n acres.
(The
terms
"watershed"
and
"drainage
area"
are
synonymous. )
2.
D e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e of
.i
Determine t h e
rainfall intensity for
the
r e t u r n period a t t h e time of concentration.
4.
Determine t h e composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .
5.
A p p l y t h e R a t i o n a l E q u a t i o n t o o b t a i n t h e peal:.
-.
concentration for
t h e watershed.
designated
Elements of
t h e Model
The R a t i o n a l E q u a t i o n i s g i v e n as:
c! = C I A
i n which:
c! = The e s t i m a t e d d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e ( c f s ) .
C = 'The composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t
f o r t h e watershed.
I = Rainfall
intensity
(in/hr)
r e t u r n p e r i o d and t h e t i m e of
(dimensionless)
for
t h e designated
concentration.
A = Watershed area ( a c ) .
Observe
the u n i t s carefully.
The l e f t and r i g h t s i d e s
of
the
e q u a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y equal,
because one a c r e - i n c h
per
hour is v e r y n e a r l y one c u b i c f o o t per second.
The
l i m i t o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e R a t i o n a l Method is much i n
debate.
Various
writers
w i l l recommend as an upper
l i m i t
of
a p p l i c a b i l i t y anywhere f r o m z e r o t o two square m i l e s o f watershed
area.
Your
a u t h o r has had a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t s up to two square
m i l e 5 when compared t o s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of gaged f l o o d s .
F o l l o w i n g t h e s t e p s g i v e n above:
1.
D e l i n e a t e t h e Watershed:
Normally
this
i s done on a
topographic
map.
Determine t h e a r e a o f t h e watershed
by
using a d i g i t i z e r ,
a planimeter,
an o v e r l a i d g r i d or o t h e r
s u i t a b l e device.
Remember
t o put t h e watershed
area
in
C h e s t i o n t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e R a t i o n a l Method if
t h e watershed area exceeds 1300 acres.
acres.
1-4
2.
Determine
the
'Time of
Concentration:
The
time , of
of
flow
concentration
i s
i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e l o n g e s t t i m e
f r o m p o i n t s on t h e watershed r i d q e t o t h e o u t l e t o f t h e
watershed.
There
a r e s e v e r a l r e c o g n i z e d ways t o e s t i m a t e t i m e
of
concentration.
One way i s t o use t h e K i r p i c h Equation,
which is
widely recognized
( H u r e a ~ io f Reclamation, 1974, p 7 1 ) :
[$J0'3'5
4c
(1-2)
I qk
i n which:
t c = Time o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(min).
= H y d r a u l i c l e n g t h o f t h e watershed
= The
( f t ) . Hydraulic
l e n g t h i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l o n g e s t f l o w path from
t h e most
remote p o i n t on t h e watershed r i d g e t o
the outlet.
h e i g h t ( f t ) o f t h e most remote p o i n t on t h e
It i s
watershed r i d g e above t h e watershed o u t l e t .
the
elevation
difference,
or
fall,
along
the
hydraulic length.
Time o f
concentration
can
also
be e s t i m a t e d
in field
reconnaissance
by
dividing
the
stream
length
into
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e segments and e s t i m a t i n g t h e b a n k f u l l v e l o c i t y
of
each
section
by a p p l y i n g t h e
Manning e q u a t i o n t o
a
crudely
estimated
cross section.
Flow t i m e s t h r o u g h
the
stream
segments
a r e computed
from
segment
length
and
v e l o c i t y and summed t o y i e l d t h e t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
Be
s u r e t o i n c l u d e t i m e e s t i m a t e s f o r f l o w a l l t h e way from t h e
most remote p o i n t on t h e r i d g e t o t h e o u t l e t .
...
.1
Determine
Rainfall
Intensitv:
Rainfall
intensity
.is
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l
at
t h e d e s i g n :Location.
'The N a t i o n a l Weather S e r v i c e p u b l i s h e s
A t y p i c a l form o f presentation 1%
s ~ i c t id a t a f o r t h e n a t i o n .
t h e Intensity-Duration-Frequency Chart,
an example 0.f w h i c h
NCI i n E x h i b i t 3 .
i s g i v e n f o r F7aleigh-Durtiam.
T o use such a c h a r t f o r f i n d i n g
rainfall
intensity,
i s set
equal
to
time
of
concentration,
and
duration
i n t e n s i t y i s read a t t h e designated r e t u r n perlad.
Alternatively,
one may u s e an e q u a t i o n t h a t r e p r e s e n t s
F a r N a l e i gh-Durham a
s a t i s f act.ar-y
the
same r e 1 a t i o n s h i p .
5e.t o f e q u a t i o n s i s o f t h e form:
I = g/(h+T)
i n which
i I-::)
I = Rain.fal1 i n t e n s i t y ( i n / h r )
T = Time o f d u r a t i o n ( m i n )
and
the
values
o f g and h f o r v a r i o u s r e t u r n
f o l l o w s ( f o r Raleigh-Durham o n l y ) :
periods
are
R
9
h
____________-_____=-__
____--___----__----L
3
5
10
25
50
1 oc)
1.32
le
169
195
233
26 1
29 1
21
22
23
24
25
=====I======P======P==
l h i s e q u a t i o n a p p l i e s o n l y when t h e t i m e o f d u r a t i o n i s i n
the
r a n g e of 5 t o 120 m i n u t e s .
For t i m e s of concentration l e s s
than 5 minutes. use 5 minutes.
1-6
a%
4.
Q e t e r m i n e .the Composite Runoff

C o d f icient.:
The
run0f.f
coefficient
must
b e e s t i m a t e d b a s e d on
ei:perience.
Such
experience
as
is
a v a i l a b l e h a s been
captured
in
tables
widely
pctb%i,shedo r a d o p t e d i n c e r t a . i n j u r i s d i c t i o n s .
The
t a b l e i n E x h i b i t 1 i s t y p i c a l and r e a s o n a b l e .
I t compares
. t a v o r a b l y w i t h t a b l e s i n s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s (Chow, 1964, f o r example.).
Usually,
t h e d r a i n a g e a r e a o f i n t e r e s t w i l l crrr1sis.t 0.1:
s e v e r a l d i . f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s ot- composi t i a n ,
and these m u s t
b e combineti t o o b t a i n a c o m p o s i t e r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .
The
i s simply
to
weight
the
individual
accepted
procedure
c o e f f i c i e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a r e a t a k e n b y each c a t e g o r y :
z
Lc -
(C; A i )
(1-4)
2 A i
i n which:
Cc
= The
composi t e
( d i m e n s i o n 1e s s )
c o e f f ic i e n t
runoff
A i = The a r e a t a k e n b y a n i n d i v i d u a l c a t e g o r y
composi t i on.
C i = The r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t f o r
area.
the
individual
The u n i t s o f t h e a r e a s a r e i m m a t e r i a l as l o n g a s
t h e same i n numerator and d e n o m i n a t o r .
5.
of
they
are
S u b s t i t u t e t h e v a l u e s f o r C, I
and
A
i n t o E q u a t i o n 1-1,
t a k i n g care that t h e values
are
expressed i n the c o r r e c t units.
Apply t h e R a t i o n a l Eauation:
1-7
INLET LOCATION
Basic Anoroach
I n l e t s cap,tLire a l l o r most o f t h e water coming t o them from
t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g d r a i n a g e area.
The i n l e t i s p l a c e d such
that
t h e i n l e t o r i t s d e l i v e r y channels w i l l j u s t r e a c h t h e
threshold
o f misbehavior i n t h e d e s i g n storm.
I f t h e discharge associated
with
the
threshold
i s
known,
the allowable
watershed
area
contributing
flow
t o the
i n l e t may
b e determined
from
the
R a t i o n a l Equation :
A =
Q
(1-5)
i n which:
A = A l l o w a b l e d r a i n a g e area ( a c ) .
G! = Discharge a t t h r e s h o l d o f misbehavior ( c f s ) .
I =
Rainfall
intensity
(in/hr)
for
the
time
of
concentration,
tc,
which i s based on t h e f l o w t i m e t o
the i n l e t .
T h i s i s u s u a l l y t a k e n t o be 5 minutes, b u t
t h a t assumption may be v e r i f i e d by u s i n g E q u a t i o n 1-2.
= Runoff
coefficient
d r a i n a g e area.
(dimensionless)
for
the
inlet
I n o r d e r t o s e t t h e i n l e t c a p a c i t y , Ls!, c o n d i t i o n s around t h e
inlet
must
be analyzed a g a i n s t d e s i g n judgments
as t o t h e
nature of
t h e misbehavior.
Both t h e i n l e t and t h e approach
channels a r e i n v o l v e d .
For example:
a.
I t may be judged i n t h e case o f a c u r b i n l e t t h a t water

may n o t spread i n t o t h e s t r e e t more t h a n e i g h t
feet.
The a l l o w a b l e d i s c h a r g e may be found by
applying
the
Manning E q u a t i o n t o t h e g u t t e r c r o s s s e c t i o n .
b.
I t may be decided i n a p a r k i n g l o t t h a t water

should
n o t s t a n d around an area i n l e t a t a depth g r e a t e r
than
three
inches.
The w e i r and o r i f i c e e q u a t i o n s may
be
i n v o k e d t o f i n d G!.
c.
It may be decided t h a t f l o w i n a g r a s s - l i n e d
swale
l e a d i n g t o an i n l e t s h o u l d n o t exceed f o u r
feet
per
second i n o r d e r t o a v o i d e r o s i o n o f t h e l i n i n g .
Ls! may
be found by Manning Equation.
Frequently
several
such judgments need t o
be made.
The
effective
allowable discharge i s t h e l e a s t of those
identified,
and
i t becomes t h e t h r e s h o l d o f
misbehavior.
The
inlet
i s
located
so t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t o r y area does n o t exceed t h a t
computed by E q u a t i o n 1-5.
1-8
W o r k i n g f r o m t h e u p l a n d a r e a s of t h e s i t e t o w a r d t h e l o w l a n d
areas,
i n l e t s a r e l o c a t e d so a s t o d r a i n a c c e p t a b l y t h e e n t i r e
site.
Stormwater I n l e L z
Stormwater i n l e t s o f t h e t y p e c a l l e d a r e a i n l e t s o r y a r d
Some a c t almost
i n l e t s c a n b e m o d e l e d a s weirs o r o r i f i c e s .
e x c l u s i v e l y like w e i r s .
O t h e r s may a c t a s weirs a t l o w h e a d s a n d
change t o o r i f i c e ' a c t i o n at h i g h e r heads.
T h e s e i n l e t s are
u s u a l l y p l a c e d i n low s p o t s w h e r e water w o u l d p o n d i f t h e i n l e t s
were n o t t h e r e .
Inlets placed along a sloping gutter,
called
curb i n l e t s i , u s u a l l y act d i f f e r e n t l y .
Wr-tvDe
inlets
T h e i n l e t is c o n s t r u c t e d as a n o p e n box w i t h r i m f l u s h w i t h
ground.
Water a p p r o a c h e s o n e t o f o u r s i d e s a n d f a l l s i n .
T h e w e i r l e n g t h i s t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e i n l e t over w h i c h water
flows.
T h e w e i r c o e f f i c i e n t is 3.0, c o n s i d e r i n g i t t o b e a f r e e
overfall.
To c a l c u l a t e t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y of
the
inlet,
a
judgment
i s made of t h e a l l o w a b l e d e p t h of + t . a n d i n g water a t t h e
i n l e t , and t h i s becomes t h e d r i v i n g head.
the
5EC
b-A
The b a s i c w e i r e q u a t i o n i s :
where:
L!
= Discharge ( c f s ) .
Cw = Weir c o e f f i c i e n t
L
= Length o f w e i r
= Driving
( f t ) ,measured a l o n g t h e C r e s t .
head ( f t ) , measured v e r t i c a l l y from t h e c r e s t

o f t h e w e i r t o t h e water s u r f a c e a t a p o i n t f a r
enough
upstream t o be e s s e n t i a l l y l e v e l .
For t h e case of
Grating
(dimensionless).
the free overfall,
use Cw = .Z.(:l.
inlets
A g r a t i n g i n l e t is t h e f a m i l i a r i n l e t found i n most
parking
lots.
The b e h a v i o r of t h e i n l e t a t low head i s a complex
weir
action
i n which t h e w e i r l e n g t h v a r i e s as head i n c r e a s e s i n t h e
A s water r u n s f a r t h e r o u t on t h e i n l e t ,
t h e weir length
storm.
A t some p o i n t t h e
i s l o n g e r because more bar l e n g t h i s i n v o l v e d .
a l l
entire
inlet
i s submerged,
and i t a c t s as an o r i f i c e f o r
higher
heads.
Most d e s i g n e r s d e f a u l t t o t h e o r i f i c e a c t i o n f o r
design.
The d r i v i n g head, o r s t a n d i n g water d e p t h s h o u l d be two
i n c h e s o r more f o r t h i s assumption.
To
test
whether
an i n l e t i s a c t i n g as
an
calculate the
discharge
orifice
o r a weir,
c a p a c i t y b o t h as an o r i f i c e and as a w e i r w i t h
water
surface a t the l e v e l of i n t e r e s t .
The
l e s s e r of t h e t w o d i s c h a r g e s w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e
p r e v a i l i n g condition.
I - 10
'The b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r o r i f i c e s i s :
where:
G2
= Discharge
ids).
C d = C o e f f i c i e n t of
discharge
= Cr-oss-,eectional
ai-ea
(dimensionless)
See below.
0.F flow a t the o r i f i c e
entrant!?
(sq f t ) .
g
h
::
A c c e l e r a t i o n of
g r a v i . t y ( 9 2 . 2 .ft/sec."7'
2)"
= Driving
head ( f t ) , measured from t h e c e n t r o i d o f

I n a grating,
o r i f i c e area .to t h e water s u r f a c e .
centroid
i s u s u a l l y i n t h e p l a n e of t h e s u r f a c e of
q r a t ing.
the
the
the
When u s i n g t h e o r i f i c e e q u a t i o n w i t h a g r a t i n g ,
the o r i f i c e
grating.
The
area
i s t h e sum o f t h e a r e a s o f t h e h o l e s i n t h e
d r i v i n g head i s measured f r o m t h e t o p o f t h e g r a t i n g .
Curb i n l e t s
If c u r b
i n l e t s a r e p l a c e d a t t h e sag p o i n t s o f
vertical
curves)
t h e y may be analyzed a d e q u a t e l y by t h e w e i r and o r i f i c e
equations.
However,
i n l e t s p l a c e d a t t h e c u r b on a grade a r e
g e n e r a l l y analyzed by e x p e r i e n t i a l l y d e r i v e d c h a r t s .
Such i n l e t s
g r a t i n g i n l e t s o r a combination.
lhe
a r e curb-opening i n l e t s ,
c h a r t s p u b l i s h e d u s u a l l y r e l a t e f l o w c a p t u r e d by t h e
inlet
to
c r o s s s l o p e and t h e d i s t a n c e f l o w spreads i n t o t h e
g u t t e r slope,
of
the
flow
street.
Frequently,
a significant
fraction
inlet
passes on
to
the
inlet
below.
approaching
the
curb
Judgments of t h e d e s i g n e r ,
o r t h e d e s i g n standard, a r e needed t o
decide
the
e x t e n t t o which water i s a l l o w e d t o spread i n t o t h e
street
and t h e a l l o w a b l e f r a c t i o n o f f l o w t o be passed t o
the
inlet
below.
The f l o w t h a t passes must be accounted f o r
in
placing
t h e i n l e t downstream.
When g u t t e r f l o w becomes l a r g e ,
on s t e e p slopes,
c u r b i n l e t s must be p l a c e d
very
particularly
c l o s e together t o capture t h e flow.
It i s t h i s fact that
leads
t o t h e judgment t h a t stormwater s h o u l d b e c a p t u r e d i n a r e a i n l e t s
street.
The
to
the
extent
p o s s i b l e b e f o r e i t reaches t h e
collection
p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g t h e s t r e e t g u t t e r as a stormwater
conduit
for
adjacent
p r o p e r t i e s can l e a d t o
frequent
street
f loading.
E:tamples
of curb-opening-inlet
E x h i b i t s 5 and 6.
1-11
design c h a r t s a r e
given
as
Other
c h a r t s have been p u b l i s h e d and a d o p t e d f r o m p l a c e
to
p l a c e as s t a n d a r d s .
Clear-ly, t h e c h a r t s a r e s p e c i f i c t o cer.tain
i n l e t geometries.
Some m a n u f a c t u r e r s p u b l i s h c h a r t s f o r
their
stocl:: i n l e t s .
F o r m a t s v a r y w i t h t h e soctrce,
b u t t h e I.nput d a t a
d e s c r i b e d above a r e r e p e a t e d i n most c h a r t s .
Hoof d r a i n a q . g
Roof d r a i n s a r e h a n d l e d q u i t e l i k e s t o r m w a t e r i n l e t s ,
they are smaller.
Some a c t a s o r i f i c e s and some as w e i r ' s .
1-12
except
PIPE SIZING
Basic Procedure
Pipe
location.
sizing
i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y done i n d e p e n d e n t l y of
A suggested s e t o f s t e p s f o l l o w s :
inlet
1.
Determine t h e
d r a i n a g e a r e a s f o r each
connected t o t h e d r a i n a g e system.
Proceeding from upstream toward t h e downstream,

select
a p i p e f o r design.
Determine t h e i n l e t t i m e f a r
the
most
remote
i n l e t upstream o f t h e p i p e of
interest.
This
i s t h e t i m e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r t h a t i n l e t .
It
i s popular
t o assume t h a t i n l e t t i m e
i s 5 minutes,
which
i s the
minimum t i m e of d u r a t i o n g i v e n
i n the
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
charts.
The assumption
may
be' v e r i f i e d by computing o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e
actual
time o f concentration.
A.
.
.>
inlet
to
be
If
t h e r e a r e p i p e s upstream of t h e p i p e of
interest,
compute
the flow
time
i n pipe a l l the
way
to
the
upstream end o f t h e p i p 6 o f i n t e r e s t .
4.
The t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s t h e sum o f t h e i n l e t
time
of
t h e most remote i n l e t and t h e f l o w t i m e s a l o n g
the
longest path
( i n terms o f f l o w t i m e ) t o t h e upstream
end o f t h e p i p e of i n t e r e s t .
5.
The r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t i s composited f o r a l l
drainage
areas c o n t r i b u t i n g f l o w t o t h e p i p e o f i n t e r e s t .
4.
The r a i n f a l l
i n t e n s i t y i s determined f o r
the
design
s t o r m a t a d u r a t i o n equal t o t h e t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
found i n s t e p 4.
7.
The d i s c h a r g e
i s computed b y
t h e Rational
Equation
u s i n g t h e composite C o f s t e p 5 ,
t h e I of s t e p 6,
and
the
t o t a l drainage area c o n t r i b u t i n g f l o w t o t h e
pipe
of interest.
a.
The
pipe
c o n s t r a i nt s .
on
profile
9.
The p i p e diameter i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m Manning

f o r the pipe t o flow j u s t f u l l .
Equation
slope
i s
selected
based
IO.
The f u l l - f l o w v e l o c i t y i s computed and used t o f i n d t h e

flow
time
i n t h e p i p e f o r use i n t h e n e x t
section
downstream.
11.
C o n t i n u e a t s t e p 2 w i t h t h e n e x t p i p e t o be designed.
Always
work
downstream,
being sure
that
a l l " pipes
contributing
flow
t o the p i p e of i n t e r e s t
have been
s i z e d and l o c a t e d i n t h e p r o f i l e .
1-13
12.
H t t h e b o t t o m of: t h e system, check f o r a h i g h t a i l w a t e r

s i . t u a t i o n t h a t may c o n s t r a i n t h e system t o a f l o w l e s s
than
t h a t designed .For.
I n such a case,
apply
the
energy
e q u a t i o n t o e s t i m a t e water l e v e l s and s u r c h a r g e
p r e s s u r e s i n t h e system.
This o p e r a t i o n i s r e f e r r e d t o
as
p l o t t i n g the hydraulic
grade
l i n e through
the
system.
If no r e s t r i c t i o n
of
flow
exists,
the
h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e f o l l o w s t h e t o p of t h e p i p e .
Practical
Constraints
Note t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1.
If p i p e sections are
c a r e s h o u l d be taken
l i n e does n o t r i s e
a t t e n t i . o n s h o u l d be
joints.
2.
I n t h e e v e n t t h a t f u r t h e r development i s a n t i c i p a t e d
upstream o f t h e system b e i n g designed, c o n s i d e r p l a c i n g
a stubbed-out p i p e of s u f f i c i e n t d e p t h and c a p a c i t y
to
accept f l o w f r o m t h e f u t u r e development.
.3
designed t o f l o w under
surcharge,
t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e h y d r a u l i c grade
above ground
level,
and s p e c i a l
g i v e n t o p r e v e n t i o n of leakage a t
To r e d u c e c l o g g i n g problems, t h e minimum s i z e f o r s t o r m
d r a i n a g e s h o u l d be
15 inches.
There s h o u l d be no
reduction
i n pipe size i n the
downstream d i r e c t i o n ,
even
if s t e e p e r s l o p e s would seem t o p e r m i t a s m a l l e r
pipe.
4.
Manholes s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d a t p i p e j u n c t i o n s ,
bends,
and i n s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n s such t h a t t h e maximum d i s t a n c e
between p o i n t s o f access i s 400 f e e t .
5.
I?t all s t r u c t u r e s , t h e i n v e r t o f t h e m a i n l i n e s h o u l d be
dropped t o o f f s e t minor l o s s e s .
These may be computed
o r c o n v e n i e n t r u l e s o f thumb may be used:
is an i n c r e a s e i n p i p e s i z e
a l i g n t h e t o p s of t h e p i p e s .
a.
If
there
structure,
b.
Drop t h e
invert
of
the
m a i n l i n e through
the
structure
one t e n t h of a f o o t f o r
each
incoming
flow
stream,
whether
from a p i p e or
from t h e
inlet.
at
the
6.
P i p e s s h o u l d be l a i d a t l e a s t as s t e e p l y as t h e s l o p e
that
w i l l provide flow a t a self-scouring v e l o c i t y a t
or
near d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e .
That v e l o c i t y
i s usually
t a k e n t o be t h r e e f e e t per second.
See E x h i b i t 7.
7.
Minimum
pipe.
cover s h o u l d be t h r e e f e e t t o t h e t o p
1-14
of
the
A p p l i c a t i . o n o f Mann-ins Eciuation
The Manning e q u a t i o n can be s t a t e d as:
i n which
a =
Discharge ( c f s )
n = Manning
roughness c:oef 1: ic i e n t
(dimensionlessj ,
e x p e r i e n t i a l l y determined v a l u e which i s a f u n c t i o n
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e channel l i n i n g .
a r e a of f l o w ( s q u a r e . f e e t ) ,
A = Cross-sectional
d/
t h r o u q h which .flow t a k e s p l a c e .
<:
the
an
of
area
4-
Hydraulic
radius
(,ft)
found
by
dividing
crosss e c t i o n a l area, A ( s q f t ) , by w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r , P ( f t ) .
Wetted p e r i m e t e r i s t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e p e r i m e t e r a+
the..-dross s e c t i o n a g a i n s t which water i s f l o w i n g .
It
does n o t i n c l u d e t h e f r e e water s u r f a c e .
s = Longitudinal
slope
of t h e water s u r f a c e
(ft fall/ft
run).
I f f l o w i s u n i f o r m , i t i s a l s o t h e s l o p e of t h e
i n v e r t o f t h e channel.
The c o n s t a n t ,
1.486,
i s f r e q u e n t l y rounded t o 1.49,
respecting
t h a t o t h e r parameters,
most n o t a b l y roughness,
a r e r a r e l y known
t o more t h a n two s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s .
The c o n s t a n t has u n i t s
associated
with
it.
The v a l u e g i v e n h e r e r e q u i r e s t h a t
the
s p e c i f i e d u n i t s be used f o r t h e v a l u e s e n t e r e d i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n .
Long
p i p e segments o p e r a t i n g
under
gravity
flow
are
frequently
s i z e d t o f l o w j u s t f u l l w i t h t h e Manning e q u a t i o n .
Usual
source d a t a
are the
discharge,
s l o p e and roughness
coefficient.
The p i p e d i a m e t e r f o r f u l l f l o w i s computed,
and
average c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l v e l o c i t y i s o f t e n o f
interest.
Another
r e c u r r i n g problem i s t o f i n d t h e c a p a c i t y ( d i s c h a r g e ) o f a p i p e
a t a g i v e n slope.
Such problems may be s o l v e d w i t h t h e a i d o f a Manning c h a r t .
(For
an example,
see A I S 1 manual f o r corrugated-metal p i p e and
t h e ACPA manual f o r c o n c r e t e p i p e . )
However, s i n c e t h e advent of
electronic
calculators,
i t may be more e f f i c i e n t t o make d i r e c t
calculations.
1-15
For c i r c u l . a r p i p e s f1owin.a i u s t f u l l ,
can b e r e f o r m u l a t e d as:
t h e Manning
equation
(1-9)
w he r c :
, Ac
@J
l4i-i
D = T h e o r e t i c a l p i p e diameter ( i n ) f o r j u s t - f u l l
,flow.
G! = Discharge ( c f s ) .
n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t
(dimensionless).
s := L o n g i t u d i n a l s l o p e ( f t / f t ) .
The p i p e diameter o b t a i n e d s h o u l d be rounded up t o t h e
nearest
standard
pipe size.
Standard p i p e s i z e s (diameter
i n inches)
used i n d r a i n a g e systems a r e 15,
18,
21*, 24, 27+, 30, 3 3 * , 36,
42, 48, 54, 60,
66,
and 72.
S i z e s l a r g e r t h a n 72 i n c h e s a r e
a v a i l a b l e , b u t sometimes r e q u i r e s p e c i a l o r d e r .
Those marked ( * )
a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e i n a l l l o c a t i o n s and a l l m a t e r i a l s .
For
circular
Dioes f l o w i n q i u s t f u l l ,
t h e average c r o s s s e c t i o n a l v e l o c i t y o f f l o w can be found by another
reformulation
o f t h e Manning e q u a t i o n :
where:
V
= Full-flow velocity ( f t l s e c ) .
D = F i p e diameter
(in).
s = Longitudinal slope ( f t / f t ) .
n
= Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) .
A Tabular Aoproach
The p r o c e d u r e g i v e n above,
t o g e t h e r w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e
p r o f i l e c o n s t r a i n t s i s c o n v e n i e n t l y executed i n a t a b u l a r format.
Many t e x t s
suggest a format,
and most
jurisdictions
adopt
a
standard format.
One t h a t t h e a u t h o r p r e f e r s i s shown i n T a b l e
1.
Structures
are
i d e n t i f i e d by numbers p r e . f i x e d by
"I" f o r
i n l e t s and "M" f o r manholes.
Drainage areas a r e g i v e n u n i q u e
designations.
Then
t h e t a b l e can be f i l l e d i n t h e
stepwise
procedure.
1-16
Table I. 1 pipe-sizing table.
The columns of
Table 1 a r e t r e a t e d as f o l l o w s :
FROM - The d e s i g n a t i o n of
t h e pipe.
TO
- The d e s i g n a t i o n of
t h e pipe.
t h e s t r u c t u r e a t t h e upper end o f
t h e s t r u c t \ . \ r e a t t h e lower
end
of
AREAS
The d r a i n a g e areas c o n t r i b u t o r y t o t h e upstream end
of
t h e pipe,
l i s t e d by
designation
(conveniently the
d e s i g n a t i o n s of t h e i n l e t s c o n t r i b u t i n g f l o w ) .
HREH
The t o t a l a r e a ( a c ) d r a i n i n g t o
t h e pipe.
4 ,,
TOTAL
end of
5.
INLET T I M E
Flow t i m e (min) o n t h e ground t o
the
most
remote
i n l e t o n t h e l o n g e s t f l o w p a t h ( i n terms of t i m e ) t o
t h e pipe being sized.
6.
PIPE TIME
Sum o f t h e f l o w t i m e s ( m i n ) i n p i p e a l o n g t h e
longest
flow path
( i n terms of t i m e ) t o t h e p i p e b e i n g
sized.
7.
T I M E OF CONC
Col 5 + Col 6.
This i s t h e longest f l o w time
of
all
p o s s i b l e p a t h s from t h e most remote p o i n t
i n the
system t o t h e upstream end o f t h e p i p e b e i n g s i z e d .
It i s
t h e t i m e 0.f c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m i n ) .
8.
INTENSITY
The r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y ( i n / h r ) f o r
t h e design
storm o f
i n t e r e s t and t h e t i m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(Col 7 j ,
taken from t h e a p p l i c a b l e Intensity-Duration-Frequency Chart
(e.g.,
E x h i b i t 31, o r computed from an IDF e q u a t i o n .
9.
RUNOFF COEFF
areas i n Col 3.
10
upstream
The
composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t
DISCHCIHGE
The d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e
(Col 9 ) . * ( C o l 8 ) + ( C o l 4 )
( c f s ) . G!
11.
SLOPE
Invert
slope of pipe ( f t / f t ) ,
p r o f i l e constraints.
12.
Dtheo
Theoretical
E q u a t i o n 1-9.
13
the
14.
15.
minimum
- Standard p i p e s i z e
V f u l l - F u l l - f l o w average
SIZE
pipe
Length ( f t ) of
the
CIA.
as
decided
diameter
within
(in),
from
( i n ) , as s e l e c t e d .
cross-sectional
computed f r o m E q u a t i o n 1-10.
LENGTH
for
velocity
t h e p i p e segment o f
(ft/secj,
interest,
from
map o r g i v e n data.
16.
SEGMENT T I M E
Flow t i m e (min) t h r o u g h
i n t e r e s t , (Col 15)/ ( (Col 1 4 ) U b O ) .
1-18
pipe
segment
of
I n v e r t e l e v a t i o n o f t h e upper end of t h e p r p e
s e t by r e f e r e n c e .to upstream p i p e s and
cover
17.
UPPER I N V E R T
of
interest,
requirements.
18.
LOWER I N V E R T .- I n v e r t e l e v a t i o n of t h e l o w e r end of t h e p i p e
of
interest,
set
equal t o ( C o l 17)-((Col
1 1 ) + ( C o l 15)).
Check
for
adequate cover;
revise
slope
(Col
11) i.f
necessary.
19.
TOP L E V
There
references.
Ground e l e v a t i o n a t upstream end,
f o r reference.
a r e a good many v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e t a b l e found i n

Some t h a t have been n o t e d a r e l i s t e d :
the
1.
Some d e s i g n e r s r e c o r d S U M ( C i * A i ) i n a
column,
rat.her
t h a n computing a r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t
externally.
Then
dischar.ge i s computed
as
(SUM(Ci*Ai))+I,
which
i s
e q u i v a l e n t t o u s i n g a composite r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .
2.
Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s
r e q u i r e t h a t v e l o c i t y (Col 1 1 )
be
computed f o r t h e p a r t - f u l l f l o w c o n d i t i o n t h a t
usually
results
from
the pipe-selection
decision.
In a
c i r c u l a r pipe,
t h e f u l l - f low v e l o c i t y e x i s t s b o t h when
flow
i s f u l l and when i t i s h a l f - f u l l .
Between f u l l
and h a l f - f u l l ,
f l o w i s s l i g h t l y f a s t e r than t h e f u l l flow
velocity,
Given
the imprecision of the
entire
p i p e - s e l e c t i o n a l g o r i t h m , t h e use o f f u l l - f l o w v e l o c i t y
t o set i n l e t time i s j u s t i f i e d .
...
2,
Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e p r e c i s e c a l c u l a t i o n s t o s e t
the
drop i n i n v e r t t h r o u g h a s t r u c t u r e .
Again,
the
overall
crudeness of t h e procedure
rarely
justifies
watch-making p r e c i s i o n i n any element.
1-17
U Y D R A U L I C GKADE LINE RNRLYSIS

The
chief
concern
i n a system t h a t i s a f f e c t e d
by h i g h
t a i l w a t e r a t t h e o u t l e t i s water ponding above an i n l e t .
Systems
in
flat
t e r r a i n frequently are i n s t a l l e d with the
pipe o u t l e t
below
design
water
level
i n the
receiving
channel.
Many
j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h e h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e on
the
system p r o f i l e s as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e surcharged
system
w i l l n o t misbehave.
The h y d r a u l i c
g r a d e l i n e i s t h e l e v e l t o which
the
water
would
r i s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e system ifu n c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e
pipes.
The h y d r a u l i c
grade l i n e i s o f p a r t i c ~ t l a r i n t e r e s t a t
inlets
where
water
can escape from t h e system if t h e r e
i s
inadequate
capacity.
N o t e t h a t when p i p e s a r e s e l e c t e d t o f l o w j u s t + u l l ,
and
t h e r e i s no submergence a t t h e o u t l e t ,
the hydraulic
grade
l i n e f o l l o w s t h e t o p o f t h e i n s i d e of t h e p i p e .
A p p l i c a t i o n o f Enerqv B a l a n c F
The
location
of
t h e h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e i s computed b y
a p p l y i n g an energy b a l a n c e f r o m a known water s u r f a c e downstream,
t h r o u g h a s e c t i o n of p i p e , t o an unknown e l e v a t i o n a t an upstream
point.
The i d e a i s p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n an a b b r e v i a t e d b u t
useful
form.
The a p p l i c a t i o n
of the basic
energy
equation
usually
indicates
t h a t t h e upstream water l e v e l i s d e t e r m i n e d by a d d i n g
t h e f r i c t i o n and form l o s s e s t o t h e downstream e l e v a t i o n :
Za
= Zb
+ hf
+ hm
(1-11)
i n which
Za = The upstream
(ft).
Zb
= The
elevation
of the hydraulic
grade
line
downstream e l e v a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c
grade
line
(ft).
hf
= The head l o s s due t o p i p e f r i c t i o n ( f t ) .
hm = The minor l o s s e s ,
o r form l o s s e s ( f t ) .
1-20
FLi.c.t,&OQ Losses
Several
e x p e r i e n t ia l l y
d e r 1 ved
e x p r e s s i o n s e:.: i st
ior
e s t i m a t i n g p i p e - f r i c t i o n 1o s s ~ s . Amang t h e s e , t h e Darcy-Wei sbach
and Manning e q u a . t i o n s are most u s e . f u l i n s t o r m w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Each
of t h e e q u a t i o n s i s r e . f o r m u l a t e d f o r e f f i c i e n t
application
i n commonly e n c o u n t e r e d u n i t s .
w - W e i s b a c h e_qLlation:
farm s i m i l a r to:
The e q u a t i o n i s u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n a
One can r e f o r m u l a t e and c o n v e r t u n i t s t o a r r i v e a t :
6264
Af
L Q*
(1-1.3)
D5
i n which
h f = Head l o s s due t o p i p e f r i c t i o n
f
= Pipe length ( f t )
I
2
= Pipe diameter ( i n ) .
Darcy-Weisbach
f r i c t i o n factor
(ft)
(dimensionless)
Discharge ( c f s )
The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r m a y b e . e s t i m a t e d b y r e f e r e n c e
or
diagram,
a v a i l a b l e i n most h y d r a u l i c s r e f e r e n c e s ,
a
computed
from
t h e Colebrook formula,
o r one o f
other
approximations.
The
value
of t h e f r i c t i o n
u s u a l l y a b o u t 0.020.
t o a Moody
i t may b e
number
of
.factor
i s
Manninq e a u a t i m :
The Manninq v e r s i o n i s u s e f u l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s
in
corrugated-metal
p i p e and o t h e r
materials f o r
which
the
readily
available.
The
Manning
specific
roughness i s n o t
e q u a t i o n i s u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d in a f o r m s i m i l a r to:
1-21
The
head l o s s term is embedded i n t h e i r i c t i o n s l o p e
e q u a t i o n may be u s e f u l l y r e f o r m u l a t e d as:
Af
L
2
2 LCO
LIDO
(5).
1 he
nL
(1-15)
5.13
i n which
h f = Head loss due t o p i p e f r i c t i o n
L
= Pipe l e n g t h ( f t )
L!
= Discharge ( c f s )
= Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t
(See E x h i b i t t3.)
= P i p e diameter
(ft)
(dimensionlessi
(in).
Based on t h e s e two r e f o r m u l a t i o n s ,
be r e l a t e d as:
t h e v a l u e s of
and n can
nz
$=
425
(1-16)
i n which
f
= Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
= Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
(dimensionless)
(See E x h i b i t 8 . )
= F'ioe diameter
(in).
Form l o s s e s
Minor losses;, o r f o r m l o s s e s , a r e t h e l o s s e s of energy t h a t
occur
a t entrances,
bends,
fittings,
and e x i t s i n t h e system
between t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s A and 6, upstream and downstream of
t h e p i p e segment o f i n t e r e s t .
In general, the head loss due to form can be expressed as:
which may be reformulated as:

522 ICe QZ
4,
(1-18)
P4
where:
h m = Head loss due to form (ft).
Ke = Aggregate loss coefficient (dimensionless).

L!
= Dischar'ge (cfs).
= Pipe Diameter (in).
T h e aggregate-loss
coefficient, Ke, is the sum of the
individual loss coefficients, k i , for the entrance, bends,
fittings and exit, as they may exist in the system between points
A and B:
Ke = SUM(ki)
(1-19)
For entrance loss coefficients, see Exhibit 2 1 .

For bends and fittings,
following (Perry, 1950):
estimates can be
Fitting
--------------
ke
45-degree
90-degree
90-degree
90-degree
Open gate
bend
sharp bend
medium bend
long bend
valve
0. J
1.3
0.6
based
on
the
--------------E--------------
0.46
0.13
.
For the exit from the pipe system, as a practical matter,

the exit loss coefficient may b e taken to b e either 0 o r I .
If
the water exits unrestrained at the pipe velocity, use 0 ; there
is no exit loss.
If the water exits to a stillwater container,
or if it exits perpendicularly to the flow downstream, use 1; the
exit loss is one velocity head.
pipe,
IFor
the exit,
i n t h e case where f l o w c o n t i n u e s t o
t h e e q u a t i o n f o r a sudden enlargement may be used:
another
where:
ke = t h e e x i t loss c o e f f i c i e n t
Da = t h e s m a l l e r o f
Da = t h e l a r g e r o f
(dimensionless).
t h e two d i a m e t e r s .
t h e two d i a m e t e r s .
Comb i ned Equat ions

The t e r m s
of
the
energy b a l a n c e can
i n most
cases
be
combined
i n t o a s i n g l e e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e upstream water
surface
elevation
(HGL) b e i n g t h e unknown.
The e q u a t i o n can be a p p l i e d
t o a l e n g t h o f p i p e w i t h appurtenances (manholes, bends, e t c . ) as
l o n g as t h e d i s c h a r g e and p i p e d i a m e t e r do n o t change.
HGL based on Darcy-Weisbach:

U s i n g t h e Darcy-Weisbach
.friction
factor,
t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c grade l i n e a t t h e upstream
o f t h e s e c t i o n can be e,:oressed as:
z 4 =zq
rzf
(1-21)
4-
i n which
Za
= The
e l e v a t i o n o f t h e water s u r f a c e ,
grade
line,
at
t h e upstream end of
( f t above t h e datum)
or the
the pipe
hydraulic
section
Zb = The
e l e v a t i o n o f t h e water s u r f a c e ,
or the hydraulic
grade
line,
a t t h e downstream end o f t h e p i p e s e c t i o n
( f t above t h e datum)
G!
= Discharge ( c f s )
= Pipe diameter
= Darcy-Weisbach
= Pipe length ( f t )
(in1
f r i c t i o n factor
(dimensionless)
I
Ke = Aggregate l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t
1-24
(dimensionless)
.~ d /
_/.
,-
!-.
I
I,
eroar-ession t h r o u a h Svstem
To
compute t h e e l e v a t i o n s
0.f
p o i n t s on t h e h y d r a u l i c
grade
1 ine:
1.
Hegin w i t h t h e known water l e v e l a t t h e most downstream

p o i n t i n t h e system of i n t e r e s t .
2.
E s t i m a t e t h e aggregate l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t (Ke) by summing

i n d i v i d u a l l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r e n t r a n c e , e x i t and any
bends o r
fittings.
Typically,
a l l o w an e x i t
loss
coefficient
of
1.0 a t t h e o u t l e t ,
and a r e a s o n a b l e
value
f o r t h e e n t r a n c e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t o f about
0.2.
The u s u a l v a l u e o f t h e aggregate l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t
for
t h e most downstream segment i s about 1.2.
3.
E s t i m a t e t h e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and o t h e r v a l u e s f o r
t h e p i p e s e c t i o n , and compute t h e e l e v a t i o n (Za) of t h e
upstream p o i n t on t h e HGL.
Let t h i s elevation
become
t h e reference elevation
(Zb)
of t h e n e x t s e c t i o n
u p s t ream.
4.
For
a s e c t i o n where t h e downstream element i s a n o t h e r
pipe,
compute
the
e x i t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t as a sudden
espansion.
If
there
i s no change i n p i p e d i a m e t e r ,
there
i s no change i n v e l o c i t y ,
and
the e s i t
loss
coefficient
i s zero.
The e n t r a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t
would
remain about
0.2.
The u s u a l v a l u e of t h e a g g r e g a t e
loss c o e f f i c i e n t f o r an i n t e r n a l p i p e s e c t i o n i s a b o u t
0.2.
5.
Compute t h e e l e v a t i o n ( Z a j o f t h e HGL a t t h e
end of t h e p i p e s e c t i o n .
6.
Froceed upstream i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n .
upstream
Occasionally,
one w i l l
f i n d t h a t t h e head l o s s i n c u r r e d
between s t r u c t u r e s
i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y large.
Note t h a t
head
loss
i s very s e n s i t i v e t o p i p e diameter,
as evidenced
by
the
large
exponent
on diameter
i n t h e head
loss
equations.
I n c r e a s i n g t h e p i p e diameter a s i z e o r two w i l l g r e a t l y
reduce
head l o s s i n a s e c t i o n .
1-25
2-27
a=
0.79 GF5
5-
1-24
1-30
I\
I
\
\.
f '
/-
1-31
1.3
6.49
6.38
0.67
S-32
SECTION I 1
CHHNNEL DESIGN
GENERAL
Artificial
stormwater
c h a n n e l s a r e c r i t i c a l components of
t h e stormwater management system.
Three p r i m e concerns
govern
their
design:
t h a t they c a r r y t h e i r design storm ,flows w i t h o u t
overtopping,
that
they
carry
those
f low!^
without
being
excessively
eroded,
and t h a t t h e y a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y
constructed
and maintained.
The consequence o f f a i l u r e t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t
capacity i s f looding.
The consequences o f e x c e s s i v e bank e r o s i o n
are
eventual
undermining o f f a c i l i t i e s near
t h e channel
and
abnormally
h i g h c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f sediment t o downstr-eam channels
and l a k e s .
The d e s i g n o f two f r e q u e n t l y encountered channel t y p e s

i s
t r e a t e d here.
One i s t h e common t r a p e z o i d a l channel,
and t h e
other
i s t h e t r i a n g u l a r swale.
'The l a t t e r i s a subset
of
the
former.
Triangular
swales a r e u s u a l l y used , f o r s m a l l e r
design
d i s c h a r g e s t h a n t r a p e z o i d a l channels.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The Manning e q u a t i o n i s t h e model of c h o i c e f o r many d e s i g n
and a n a l y s i s
a p p l i c a t i o n s i n which t h e channel
or
conduit
is
. f l o w i n g under . t h e
influence of
gravity.
I t s mathematical
flexibility
makes i t a p o w e r f u l t o o l i n a wide v a r i e t y
of
conditions.
One s h o u l d t a k e c a r e , however, t o a p p l y t h e e q u a t i o n
i n circumstances where i t s fundamental assumptions a r e s a t i s f i e d .
The Manning e q u a t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e where f l o w i s steady
and
uniform.
Steady
flow
means t h a t d i s c h a r g e does n o t v a r y
with
time.
U n i f o r m f l o w means t h a t v e l o c i t y does n o t
vary
with
d i s t a n c e a t an i n s t a n t of t i m e .
A l t h o u g h d i s c h a r g e does v a r y i n
a channel d u r i n g t h e passage o f a f l o o d wave,
during the time
around t h e peak,
t h e t i m e of i n t e r e s t i n channel design, f l o w i s
essentially
steady.
Uniform f l o w g e n e r a l l y
r e q u i r e s channel
cross-sections
t o be t h e same a l o n g t h e channel l e n g t h ,
and
it
r e q u i r e s a s t r a i g h t alignment.
H u t i t is r e a s o n a b l e t o a p p l y t h e
Manning e q u a t i o n t o most f i e l d cases where channel segments
are
p r a c t i c a l l y p r i s m a t i c and s t r a i g h t .
The
Manning e q u a t i o n
i s well-suited
t o t h e task
0.f
determining t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of
t h e cross
section for
the
channel.
Other models, such as w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e computation
come i n t o p l a y a f t e r d e s i g n when a n a l y z i n g s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s of
f l o w near o b s t r u c t i o n s , c o n s t r i c t i o n s and o t h e r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s .
11-1
DESIGN AND ANAI-YS I S PHOCEDURES
The Manning equation can be stated as:
in which
L! = Discharge ( c . f s ) .
n = Manning
roughness coefficient (dimensionless)
experientially determined value which is a function
the nature of the channel lining.
A = Cross-sectional
area of flow (square feet),

through which ,flow takes place.
the
an
of
area
R = Hydraulic
radius (ft),
found by dividing crosssectional area, A (sq ft), by wetted perimeter, P (ft).
Wetted perimeter is the distance along the perimeter of
It
the cross section against which water is flowing.
does not include the free water surface.
s = Longitudinal
slope of the water surface (ft fall/ft

If flow is uniform, it is also the slope of the
run).
invert of the channel.
The constant, 1.486, is frequently rounded to 1.49, respecting

that other parameters, most notably roughness, are rarely known
to more than two significant figures.
The constant has units
associated with it.
The value given here requires that the
specified units be used for the values entered into the equation.
Notation
For
the trapezoidal application,
s k e t c h i n d i c a t e s some o f t h e v a r i a b l e s :
the i o l l a w i n g
definition
I n t h e sketc'h,
W = Top w i d t h o f f l o w
H =
y
Bottom w i d t h o f
Depth o f
flow
(ft).
t h e channel
(ft)
(ft).
M = Side slope r a t i o ( f t h o r i z o n t a l / f t v e r t i c a l ) .
2-to-1 s i d e s l o p e , t h e v a l u e of M i s 2.)
Section
(For a
Relationships
The
f o l l o w i n g equations a r e derived geometrically,
and t h e
u n i t s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e g i v e n above:
(I
1-2)
(11-4)
The v a r i a b l e F r e p r e s e n t s w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r .
I 1-3
Four Main Fracedures

Four
main d e s i g n t o o l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d here.
Each
i s an
entensian
of
t h e Manning e q u a t i o n and i s s u b j e c t t o
the
same
assumptions o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of steady,
uniform f l o w .
The t o o l s
a r e developed as t h e f o l l o w i n g procedures:
1.
Best h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n procedure.
2.
V e l o c i t y - 1 i m i t e d procedure.
7-
._..
Normal-depth procedure.
4.
D e p t h - l i m i t e d procedure.
Using these, s i n g l y o r i n combinations, one can q u i c k l y a r r i v e a t

a cross s e c t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e design o b j e c t i v e s .
Hest H v d r a u l i c S e c t i o n
The b e s t
hydraulic
section i s t h a t
c r o s s s e c t i o n which
simultaneously
minimizes
cross-sectional
area
and
wetted
perimeter.
Minimizing
cross-sectional
area minimizes
the
quantity
of e x c a v a t i o n .
M i n i m i z i n g wetted perimeter
minimizes
the quantity of l i n i n g .
These a r e t h e two p r i n c i p a l c o s t s o u r c e s
i n channel c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Land t a k e n by t h e channel i s a n o t h e r
cost
source,
and l a n d q u a n t i t y i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y minimized
in
the best
hydraulic
section.
B u t even when l a n d i s q u i t e
expensive,
i t does n o t i n f l u e n c e g r e a t l y t h e economic c h o i c e of
s e c t i o n dimensions.
Thus,
the best hydraulic section i s l i k e l y
t o be t h e l e a s t expensive channel a l t e r n a t i v e , i f i t i s o t h e r w i s e
satisfactory
I f i t w i l l n o t work,
i t i s u s u a l l y because i t is
too
deep f o r s i t e c o n d i t i o n s ,
o r because f l o w w i l l be t o o f a s t
f o r the l i n i n g .
The b e s t o f a l l h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n s i s t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r c r o s s
section,
but
i t i s rare that i t i s practical.
For t r a p e z o i d a l
cross sections,
t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n i s h a l f of a r e g u l a r
hexagon
a channel w i t h s i d e s l o p e s t o o steep f o r many l i n i n g s .
Hut
even f o r t h e u s a b l e s i d e s l o p e s ,
those f l a t t e r
than
1/1,
there
i s a c e r t a i n c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t t o m w i d t h and depth
that
w i l l m i n i m i z e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a and w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r , and t h u s
q u a l i f y as t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n f o r those c o n d i t i o n s .
--
11-4
T'he
width, B,
f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e c a n b e u s e d t o compLite t h e
a n d t h e d e p t h , yI of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c . t i o n :
1.
Select a c a n d i d a t e l i n i n g .
r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t , n.
2.
Select a s i d e s l o p e ,
lining conditions.
._I
and d e t e r m i n e its
suitable for the
M,
Manninq
soil
and
From E x h i b i t 9 f i n d t h e c o n s t a n t s I.; a n d C f o r t h e s i d e
M
slope.
Find t h e depth,
E q u a t i o n 11-6.
5.
Find t h e bottom width,H?

f r o m E q u a t i o n 11-7.
6.
Check t h e d e p t h ,
7.
Compute t h e a v e r a g e cross-sectional v e l o c i t y ,
and check a g a i n s t t h e l i n i n g v e l o c i t y l i m i t .
y.
y,
of
t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n .from
4..
8.
bottom
of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n
against profile constraints.

V = m/O,
I f t h e s e v a l u e s o f H and y are u s e d w i t h t h e o t h e r d a t a
t h e Manning
equation,
it w i l l yield
t h e design
d i s c h a r g e , C!.
in
The d e p t h ,
y,
and bottom width,
H,
of t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c
c a n b e f o u n d f r o m E q u a t i o n s 11-6 a n d 1 1 - 7 , . a n d E x h i b i t
section
9.
'd =
[I
CM
-w
'A7
(
11-6)
11-7)
Note t h a t t h e d e p t h a n d b o t t o m w i d t h c o m p u t e d i n E q u a t i o n s
11-6 a n d 11-7 are a " m a t c h e d p a i r . "
E q u a t i o n 11-6 is n o g o o d f o r
computing t h e d e p t h of f l o w i n a channel f o r which t h e bottom
w i d t h i s known.
U s e t h e Normal D e p t h p r o c e d u r e f o r t h a t .
11-5
If
one i s p r e p a r i n g a spreadsheet o r a program f o r
channel
analysis,
the
f u l l e q u a t i o n s on which E x h i b i t 9 is based a r e t o
be p r e f e r r e d .
These were d e r i v e d b y Vernon E. New f o r u s e i n t h e
p r e v i o u s v e r s i o n o f t h i s manual.
The v a l u e I.< is o n l y a f u n c t i o n
of sideslope:
( I 1-0)
Once
I.: i s known,
found from:
The b o t t o m w i d t h of
t h e d e p t h of
t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s ' e c t i o n can b e
.
the best hydraulic section is:
I n these equations,
M = H o r i z o n t a l component of
s i d e s l o p e ( f o r 2/1, M = 2 )
0 = Design d i s c h a r g e ( c f s )
n = Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t
(dimensionless)
= L o n g i t u d i n a l channel s l o p e ( f t / f t )
= Depth of best h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n ( f t )
B = Bottom w i d t h o f b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n ( f t )
11-6
Velocitv-Limited
F'rocedure
trapezoidal
channelsthe
Frequently,
i n the
d e s i g n of
v e l o c i t y e ~ p e c t e df o r t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c s e c t i o n i s too g r e a t . f o r
The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e , worked o u t b y a
the l i n i n g of interest.
w i l l avoid a laborious t r i a l v i s i t i n g colleague,
Ray Walton,
a n d - e r r o r ex e r c is e :
1.
I n s u r e t h a t t h e assigned v e l o c i t y , V
i s l e s s than t h e
t E i best hydraul-ic
velocity
of
flow
computed
for
s e c t i o n ( t h e channel w i l l n o t f l o w any f a s t e r ) .
2.
Compute t h e r e q u i r e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
area:
Aicr
(11-11)
where
A = Required c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
:<
area (sq f t )
= Design f l o w ( c f s ) .
V = Assigned
a
.-..
7
(desired) v e l o c i t y
(ft/sec)
Compute w o r k i n g c o n s t a n t s :
( I 1-12>
(wl
4.
i s always n e g a t i v e . )
Compute t h e d e p t h o f f l o w :
(11-14)
5.
Compute t h e b o t t o m w i d t h :
0=
6.
Ax
% -
(11-15)
I f t h e s e v a l u e s o f B and y a r e used w i t h t h e o t h e r d a t a
i t w i l l y i e l d t h e design
i n t h e Manning e q u a t i o n ,
12; and
if v e l o c i t y i s computed, i t w i l l
discharge,
e q u a l Va.
~
11-7
The V e l o c i t y - L i m i t e d procedure f r e q u e n t l y produces a channel

that
i s u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y wide and s h a l l o w .
T h i s w i l l happen f:i
t h e assigned v e l o c i t y , V y * i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s l o w e r t h a n t h e b e s t h y d r a u l i c - s e c t i o n velociEy.
I t i s u s u a l l y b e t t e r t o y o t n a more
r o b u s t l i n i n g t h a n t o p u t i n a v e r y wide channel.
Normal-DeDth
Procedure
The problem of
finding
t h e normal depth
of
flow
in
a
trapezoidal
channel
i s very
frequently
encountered.
It i s
n e c e s s a r i l v a t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r prwcedure.
To f i n d normal depth i s
to
find
the
depth o f f l o w ,
yI
that
satisfies
t h e Manning
equation.
U s u a l l y one i s asl::ed f o r t h e expected d e p t h when
a
certain
flow
occurs,
given
t h e dimensions
of
thr? channel,
i n c l u d i n g bottom width.
An
follows.
efficient
manual
procedure f o r
finding
nor-mal
depth
Rearrange t h e Manning E q u a t i o n as:
I n t h i s form,
t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e c o n t a i n s knowns, and t h e l e f t hand s i d e c o n t a i n s unknowns.
When t h e v a l u e s o f 5 and
y.
and
t h u s CI and H, a r e chosen c o r r e c t l y , t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e w i l l equal
t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e and Manning i s s a t i s f i e d .
So, t h i n k o f t h e
r i g h t - h a n d s i d e as a r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t y ,
I t can be computed
Zre
as a s i n g l e v a l u e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e pPoblem:
f 11-17>
o f the left-hand
Think
s e c t ian
Z av:
s i d e as t h e q u a n t i t y a v a i l a b l e i n a g i v e n
(11-18)
11-8
To
b e g i n t h e computation,
t h e v a l u e of Z
is computed by
r
Then one proceeds l i n e b v l i n e Farough t.he t a b l e
Equation 11-17.
worI.::ing across t h e columns as f o l l o w s :
E n t e r t h e 1::nown b o t t o m w i d t h ,
8.
entered i n a l l l i n e s i n c o l . ( 1 ) .
This value w i l l
be
(In t h e f i r s t
line,
guess
at
the
depth,
y.
On
subsequent l i n e s ,
e n t e r an improved e s t i m a t e .
T h i s is
essentially
an assumption t h a t w i l l be v a l i d a t e d i f Z
a
i s equal t o Z
reqCompute t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area.
A , by E q u a t i o n 11-2,
using H
and y f r o m Col.
( 1 ) and ( 2 ) . and t h e s i d e
slope.
Compute t h e w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r ,
F,
by E q u a t i o n
11-3,
using
F3 and y from Col.
( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , and t h e s i d e
slope.
Compute t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s ,
R,
i n Col. ( 3 ) by t h a t i n Col. ( 4 ) .
by d i v i d i n g t h e v a l u e
Compute Z
by E q u a t i o n 11-18,
using t h e values
from
Col. ( 4 ) afia ( 5 ) . Compare t h e v a l u e of Z
i n Col. ( 6 )
with
t h e computed v a l u e o f Z
I f thzv are n e a r l y
equal
t h e v a l u e of y on t h e ks8e l i n e i n Col.
(2) i s
t h e normal depth.
I f t h e y a r e n o t c l o s e then e n t e r a
was
too
new e s t i m a t e o f y i n t h e n e x t l i n e .
If zav
b i g , t h e n y was t o o b i g .
The r e s u l t i s t o l e r a b l y c l o s e
i f
two
values
o f y,
t h a t a r e c l o s e enough t o each
o t h e r , have a s s o c i a t e d v a l u e s of Z
t h a t b r a c k e t Zre
av
A
crude p l o t o f Z
versus y w i l l h e l p
i n minimiziag
t h e number
of
trres
necessary t o converge on t h e
answer.
To e n t e r a remark is h e l p f u l ,
Depth-Limi t e d
b u t keep i t c l e a n .
Procedure
The depth-1 i m i t e d p r o c e d u r e is q u i t e u s e f u l f o r cases where

channel depth i s l i m i t e d by p r o f i l e c o n s t r a i n t s .
The procedure
can be executed p r e c i s e l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e normal-depth p r o c e d u r e
detailed
above.
One d e c i d e s on t h e depth a t which t h e channel
should
flow
under t h e g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s .
The bottom w i d t h
i s
computed as t h e o u t p u t .
The same t a b u l a r approach can be used as shown above.
The
d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t h a t depth,
yI i s h e l d c o n s t a n t i n Col. ( 2 ) - and
bottom w i d t h ,
B, i s guessed a t and improved s u c c e s s i v e l y i n Col.
( 1 ) u n t i l Zav matches
s u f f i c i e n t l y closely.
req
11-9
T r i a n s u l a r Swales
Triangular
swales
may be t r e a t e d as
trapezoidal
channels
w i t h bottom width,
B, equal t o zero.
The f o u r a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s
d e s c r i b e d f o r t r a p e z o i d a l channels a p p l y .
It i s true,
however,
t h a t t h e absence of a bottom w i d t h makes i t unnecessary t o r e s o r t
t o trial-and-error
s o l u t i o n s i n many cases.
One can
substitute
into
the
Manning
equation
directly
and
find
solutions
algebraically.
When a t r i a n g u l a r swale i s t h e economical s o l u t i o n ,
a besthydraulic-section analysis w i l l point t o it.
Bottom w i d t h ,
B,
w i l l compute t o a t r i v i a l l y s m a l l v a l u e .
Note t h a t bottom w i d t h
can never b e e : t a c t l y zero,
because depth, y , cannot be zero, and
Equation
11-10
w i l l
always
yield
a non-zero
value f o r
H.
Triangular
swales
w i l l u s u a l l y be t h e s o l u t i o n o f
c h o i c e when
s i d e s l o p e s a r e f l a t , say 4 / 1 o r f l a t t e r .
Grass-lined
t r i a n g u l a r swales a r e f r e q u e n t l y used i n openarea d r a i n a g e such as roadway mediansj, i n t e r c h a n g e s ,
open space
i n developments o f m u l t i - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s ,
and a l o n g s t r e e t s n o t
constructed
w i t h c u r b and g u t t e r .
I n these a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
the
capacity
of
t h e g r a s s - l i n e d swale i s n o r m a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e
discharge
at
which
flow
approaches
erosive velocity.
Two
mathematical
models can be combined t o compute an a l l o w a b l e
d r a i n a g e a r e a f o r a g i v e n p o i n t a l o n g a channel.
I f the actual
d r a i n a g e area exceeds t h e a l l o w a b l e , one would expect t h e channel
t o erode.
E q u a t i n g t h e R a t i o n a l f o r m u l a and t h e Manning e q u a t i o n
through
t h e d i s c h a r g e G!,
and s o l v i n g f o r t h e a l l o w a b l e d r a i n a g e
a r e a i n terms of o t h e r parameters s e t i n t h e - d e s i g n process,
one
obtains:
/.ZI vr4 ( I + " )
AA
3
(11-19)
CIM
i n which
A d = Allowable drainage area (ac) f o r

a l o n g t h e channel.
interest
= A p p l i c a b l e r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y ( i n / h r ) f o r t h e storm
interest
(usually
r e t u r n period.
t h e p o i n t of
t h e 5-min
storm o f
an
of
appropriate
= R a t i o n a l r u n o f f c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) , composited
f o r t h e d r a i n a g e area
= Manning
i=
roughness c o e f f i c i e n t
channel l i n i n g .
(dimensionless) f o r
the
L o n g i t u d i n a l channel s l o p e ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) a t t h e p o i n t
o f i n t e r e s t a l o n g t h e channel.
Va = Allowable
lining.
velocity
of flow
11-10
(ft/sec) for
the
channel
Once these
parameters have been s e t
for
the point
of
interest,
f o r d e t a i l i n g purposes,
t h e f o l l o w i n g can b e computed
f o r conditions of f u l l allowable flow:
The a l l o w a b l e d i s c h a r g e i s :
I 1-20)
The depth o f f l o w a t a l l o w a b l e d i s c h a r g e i s :
The t o p
width
(far
a l l o w a b l e flow) i s :
s e t t i n g t h e required width
of
lining
W =
(
at
11-22)
The e q u a t i o n s a r e most u s e f u l i n a,Tareadsheet

or
in a
program f o r a programmable c a l c u l a t o r .
Thees b e s t use i s t o move
a l o n g a channel on t h e s i t e p l a n ,
s e l e c t i n g p o i n t s of
interest
and comparing
the alloyable t o the actual
d r a i n a g e area.
By
trial
and e r r o r ,
p o i n t s may be found below which
t h e channel
would be overloaded.
A t such p o i n t s ,
an i n l e t may be p l a c e d t o
r e l i e v e t h e l o a d on t h e channel, o r t h e channel may be l i n e d as a
c o n c r e t e swale below t h a t p o i n t .
The e q u a t i o n s a l s o may b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t
and
w i d t h o f l i n i n g m a t e r i a l t o p r o t e c t t h e channel a g a i n s t
erosion
j u s t a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n u n t i l grass i s established.
Reference Data f o r Channels

Typically,
experiential
i n f o r m a t i o n i s needed t o s e t
the
Manning roughness c o e f f i c i e n t and t o s e t l i m i t s on v e l o c i t y
of
flow
t o p r e c l u d e e x c e s s i v e bank
erosion.
The a u t h o r
has
collected
some
defensible
values
for
Manning
roughness
caefficients
i n Exhibit
8.
Suggested v a l o e s
for
allowable
v e l o c i t i e s f o r v a r i o u s l i n i n g s appear i n E x h i b i t 10.
11-1 1
P r e l i m i n a r v Cost E s t i m a t e s
The ' t o t a l
initial
c o s t o f t h e channel i s t h e sum
of
the
c o s t s of l a n d ,
l i n i n g and e x c a v a t i o n ,
c o n v e n i e n t l y expressed i n
dollars
per f o o t l e n g t h o f channel.
Component c o s t s of
land,
lining
and e x c a v a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y determined b y
t.op
width,
wetted
perimeter
and
cross-sectional
area? respectively.
4
useful
preliminary
c o s t e s t i m a t e can be based upon t h e
section
properties
and
estimated
unit
costs
for
land,
lining
and
excavation.
The f o l l o w i n g u n i t c o s t s a r e d e f i n e d :
Land c o s t
($/acre)
Lining cost
($/square yard)
Excavation c o s t
($/cubic yard)
Then t h e t h r e e components o f channel c o s t can be e s t i m a t e d

the section properties:
from
Land c o s t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t o p w i d t h :
( I 1-23)
L i n i n g c o s t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o wetted perimeter:
( I1-24)
Excavation c o s t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o cross-sectional
Excavation c o s t
Each o f
channel.
the
area:
c o s t s i s i n u n i t s of
d o l l a r s per
foot
11-23)
length
of
One s h o u l d c o n s i d e r c a r e f u l l y t h e i n c l u s i o n of l a n d c o s t
in
t h e estimate.
Ifc o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t i s t h e o b j e c t ,
c l e a r l y land
c o s t s h o u l d be o m i t t e d .
However, i f t h e t o t a l p r o j e c t c o s t i s a t
issue,
and t h e
object
i s t o minimize t o t a l
cost,
then
the
opportunity
cost
of
c o m m i t t i n g l a n d t o t h e channel
s h o u l d be
included.
11-12
The crudeness o f t h i s e s t i m a t i n g approach i s i m p o r t a n t .

The
q u e s t i o n a r i s e s as t o whe.ther t.o compute e x c a v a t i o n t o t h e i n s i d e
channel s u r f a c e o r t o ixllow f o r t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e l i n i n g .
It
in
l.il:ely
matters l i t t l e .
Consider t h e sources o f i u n c e r t a i n t y
the
ec.timate a t such an ea.rly p l a n n i n g s t a g e f o r
the
channel:
i.
The u n i t
costs
are subject
t o gross
error.
Haul
d i s t a n c e s f o r s p o i l and l i n i n g m a t e r i a l may be unknown.
Actual
c o n d i t i o n s under which e x c a v a t i o n must be done
cannot b e p r e d i c t e d .
The channel depth w i l l
vary along t h e p r o . f i l e .
Chances
a r e t h a t t h e s e c t i o n drawn i s a t a c r i t i c a l s p o t i n t h e
p r o f i l e where depth may be a minimum.
Given
the
uncertainty,
t h e a u t h o r suggests
for
computational
efficiency
that
t h e i n s i d e channel dimensions be used
i n the
estimate,
and
that
c o n s e r v a t i v e l y h i g h u n i t - c o s t e s t i m a t e s be
used t o o f f s e t t h e u n c e r t a i n t y .
Watchmaking p r e c i s i o n i s oLit of
p l a c e i n t h e mucky b o t t o m o f t h e newly excavated channel.
F r a c t I c a l Consi d e r a t ions
The f o l l o w i n g a r e s u g g e s t i o n s c o l l e c t e d by t h e a u t h o r from a
number o f p r a c t i o n e r s :
1.
Fine materials i n
tend
to
migrate
during
h i g h - f low
between t h e s t o n e
be considered.
t h e s o i l u n d e r l y i n g a stone
lining
t h r o u g h t h e 'stone i n t o t h e
channel
A
filter
fabric
placed
events.
l i n i n g and t h e bank m a t e r i a l
should
The depth o f s t o n e l i n i n g s h o u l d be two t o t h r e e
stone
d i ameters.
.2..
I n some cases)
d e s i g n e r s l i n e t h e banks,
but not the
bed.
The bed i s s u b j e c t e d t o g r e a t e r e r o s i v e s t r e s s e s
I f t h e bed i s n o t l i n e d ,
t h e designer
than t h e bank..
should
i n s u r e t h a t t h e bed m a t e r i a l
i s sufficiently
robust.
4.
Give
special
consideration
t o points of
heaviest
stress.
These
a r e t h e c e n t e r o f t h e bottom,
on
the
bank
about one . f i f t h t a one t h i r d o f t h e depth LIP from
t h e bottom, and a l o n g t h e o u t s i d e of bends.
I n the
design
process,
account
for
the
projected
If
weeds
maintenance p o l i c y f o r t h e channel l i n i n g .
w i l l
be a l l o w e d t o grow on t h e banks,
they
must
be
c o n s i d e r e d i n s e t t i n g t h e s e c t i o n dimensions.
3.
11-13
IL-I4
I' 7 . 1 0
GT
*/P
4.6
4.0
4 .o
4.0
4.0
11. I
240.8
53.64
Z-lb
.
VI
I
I
n
r
TRY
6-54:
M= +/I
SECTION I 1 1
CULVERT DESIGN
FCISIC CONCEPTS
Culverts
a r e c o n d u i t s used t o pass streamf low under
some
obstruction,
usually
under
roadways and
usually
for
short
diatances.
C u l v e r t s can a c t h y d r a u l i c a l l y i n a v a r i e t y o f ways.
Control
can e x i s t a t t h e upstream end
i n l e t control
or
in
the
pipe or
downstream
outlet
control.
Inlet
control
e s s e n t i a l l y i s o r i f i c e a c t i v i t y i n which t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e p i p e
i s the o r i f i c e .
O u t l e t c o n t r o l i s b e s t modeled by a p p l i c a t i o n of
t h e energy e q u a t i o n .
,
--
--
--
The c h a r t procedures d e s c r i b e d h e r e a r e g e n e r a l l y s u f f i c i e n t
f o r t h e s i m p l e cases which predominate.
For v e r y l a r g e systems,
f o r t h o s e i n which headwater d e p t h is c r i t i c a l ,
and f a r t h o s e i n
which
i t i s u n c l e a r as t o whether t h e system i s under i n l e t
or
outlet
control,
one s h o u l d a n a l y z e mare deeply.
The
latest
reference
known
to
t h e author
i s
the
Federal
Highway
Administration
pub1ic a t i o n
"Hydraul i c
Design
of
Highway
C u l v e r t s , " (FHWA, 1983).
Culvert
Capacity
Charts
I n t h e e a r l y 1966s, t h e Bureau o f P u b l i c Roads p u b l i s h e d i t s

culvert
capacity
nomographs.
These remain t h e mast r e l i a b l e
source f o r r a p i d a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n of c u l v e r t s .
They have been
widely d i s t r i b u t e d
i n p u b l i c documents,
and t h e y
have been
included
in
many
of .the recent
publications
of
pipe
manufacturers.
S e v e r a l a r e i n c l u d e d here,
b e i n g t a k e n from t h e
o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n o f FPR.
E s t i m a t i o n o f Peak D i s c h a r g e
C u l v e r t s can be t r e a t e d h y d r o l o g i c a l l y e i t h e r as s t e a d y - f l a w
systems o r as impoundments.
I f there i s substantial capacity f a r
storing
water
temporarily
behind t h e
culvert,
impoundment
analysis
i s justified.
If
l i t t l e water can
be s t o r e d ,
the
steady-flow
assumption
i s valid.
Steady-f 1ow
analysis
i s
c o n s e r v a t i v e , and i t is t h e usual approach.
I f t h e a n a l y s i s i s t o b e made under s t e a d y - f l o w
conditions,
one need o n l y t o e s t i m a t e t h e peak d i s c h a r g e .
I f t h e watershed
area i s l e s s t h a n about two square m i l e s ,
t h e R a t i o n a l Method,
detailed
i n the previous section,
i s t h e most p o p u l a r p r o c e d u r e
for
e s t i m a t i n g peak d i s c h a r g e .
For watersheds l a r g e r t h a n
two
square m i l e s ,
mare complex procedures must be used,
such as t h e
methods o f
the Sail
Conservation
Service,
unit-hydrograph
synthesis,
regression-based
p r e d i c t o r s such
as t h o s e o f
US
G e o l o g i c a l Survey o r t h e v a r i o u s computer models.
111-1
USE UF THE CHAR'TS

g e n e r a l d e s i g n case,
t o
one i s l i k e l y t o be a b l e
I n the
identify a
maximum a l l o w a b l e
headwater
elevation
for
given
conditions
of
discharge
and
downstream
water
level.
-rh e
approach
i s t o .find a conduit,
o r c o m b i n a t i o n 0.f
conduits,
to
pass t h e d e s i g n .flow a t an a c c e p t a b l e headwater
elevation.
The
system s h o u l d b e checked f o r capacit.y under b o t h i n l e t and o u t . l e t
control.
I n a g i v e n d e s i g n case, s e v e r a l a c c e p t a b l e c u l v e r t s can
frequently
be found.
There may be h y d r a u l i c a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y
combinations
i n one.
two,
three,
.four and more b a r r e l s .
'The
selection
among
s e v e r a l adequate c o m b i n a t i o n s i s t h e n
made on
a e s t h e t i c and economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
E::hibits
ii
t h r o u g h 14 a r e f o r a n a l y s i s of
systems
under
i n l e t control,
w h e r e i n t h e water l e v e l upstream i s d e t e r m i n e d by
energy
losses
that
take place only a t
the
culvert
entrance.
Eshibits
15 t h r o u g h 20 a r e f o r a n a l y s i s of systems under o u t l e t
c o n t r o l , wherein t h e water l e v e l upstream i s d e t e r m i n e d by energy
l o s s e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e a t t h e e n t r a n c e , t h r o u g h t h e b a r r e l and a t
the
esit
of t h e conduit.
The o u t l e t - c o n t r o l c h a r t s
apply
to
submerged o u t l e t s ,
and t h e upstream water l e v e l i s i n f l u e n c e d b y
the
driving
head r e l a t i v e t o t h e
downstream water
level.
T h e r e f o r e e s t i m a t e s o f t h e downstream water l e v e l a r e c r u c i a l
i n
design o r a n a l y s i s .
the
I n l e t Control-:
The i n l e t c o n t r o l c h a r t s r e l a t e t h e s i z e o f
conduit
and
t h e d i s c h a r g e t o a measure of headwater
depth
for
selected
entrance conditions.
Separate c h a r t s a r e g i v e n
for
v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l shapes.
A solution esists
f o r each a l i g n m e n t o f t h e l e f t t h r e e l i n e s on t h e c h a r t .
On each
chart
an
example
s o l u t i o n i s shown.
Because t h e
pipe-size
variable
appears
i n two o f t h e
three
lines;,
pipe selection
consists
of
a trial-and-error
exploration of solutions
on
the
chart.
O u t l e t Con-:
The o u t l e t c o n t r o l c h a r t s m u s t t a k e i n t o account
more v a r i a b l e s t h a n t h e i n l e t c o n t r o l c h a r t s do,
so t h e y
appear
more comple:.:.
However,
t h e a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s of l e n g t h and
entrance
head l o s s do n o t become u n w i e l d y .
The c o n d u i t
size,
length
and e n t r a n c e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t d e t e r m i n e a p o i n t
on
the
turning
line.
Then
selection
of
either
discharge
or
head
determines t h e o t h e r .
Please n o t e t h a t a t a b l e o f entrance l o s s
c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s i s g i v e n i n E x h i b i t 21.
The
t a b l e i s t a k e n f r o m t h e same source.
I n either i n l e t or o u t l e t control, the charts y i e l d a single
conduit
solution.
For m u l t i p l e b a r r e l s ,
divide the
discharge
among b a r r e l s and proceed.
If i t i s u n c l e a r whether t h e system i s under i n l e t o r o u t l e t

control,
compute t h e headwater e l e v a t i o n b o t h ways.
'The h i g h e r
o f t h e two e l e v a t i o n s c o n t r o l s .
111-2
-4'
w
=
3'
l
7
- 3.0
SECTION I V
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
(American
Concrete P i p e A s s o c i a t i o n
Manual, ACPA, Vienna, VA.
Concrete F i p e Desiqn
(1985)
of
5.L.e-e-L
New York,
American
I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e
(1971)
Handbook
Q r a i n a q e and Hiqhway C o n s t r k c t i a n Produc.&,
AISI,
NY.
American
I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e ( 1 9 8 0 ) ,
A I S I , Washington, DC.
(lYEI1)
American
Public
Works
Association
Manaaement, APWA, Chicago.
Desisn,
Modern Sewer
Urban
Stormwat-5.C.
8ureau o f
Public
Roads
(1965),
"Hydraulic
Charts
for
the
of
Highway
Culverts,"
Hydraulic
Engineering
Selection
Dept. o f Commerce, Washington, DC.
C i r c u l a r No. 5 , U.S.
Bureau of
Reclamation,
Washington, DC.
Chow ( 1 9 5 9 ) , Ven Te,
Chow (1964),
Hill.
1974,
Der,icln
of
Small
O D e n Channel H y d r a u l i c s ,
Ven Te,
Ed.,
-book
of
Dams,
USGPO.
McGraw-Hill.
ApDlied Hvdroloav,
McGraw-
F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (1979)
"Design of Urban Highway
Drainage
S t a t e of t h e A r t , " R e p o r t FHWA-TS-79-225,
U.S.
Dept. o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Washington, DC.
--
Federal
Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
(1985),
"Hydraulic
Design
of
No.
5,
Report
Highway C u l v e r t s , 'I H y d r a u l i c D e s i g n S e r i e s
FHWA-IP-55-15,
U.S.Dept.
of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Washington, DC.
K i n g (1963), Horace W.,

McGraw-Hi 11.
Perry,
(1950),
John
McGraw-Hi 11.
Streeter (1975)McGraw-Hi 11.
U.S.
and
ti.,
V i c t o r L.
E. F. B r a t e r , Handbook
Ed.,
Chemical
and E.
B.
o f Hydraulics,
Enqineers'
Wylie,
Fluid
Handbook,
Mechanics,
Geological
Survey
(1967)
Roushness C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
USGS Water-Supply Faper 1849,
U.S.
Dept.
N a t u r a l Channels,
of I n t e r i o r , Washington, DC.
Washington
Suburban
Sanitary
Commission
Drainage Standards, 'I H y a t t s v i l l e , MD.
IV-1
(c.
19/38)
"Storm
SECTION V
EXH I: B 11s
The
following
e x h i b i t s were c o l l e c t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e
illustrating
the
concepts
taught i n t h e
presentations.
0.f:
S o u r c e s and C r e d i t s
1.
'Tal::en f r o m v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a s r e f e r e n c e d .
2.
Computed b y Malcom f r o m d a t a g i v e n i n (JSWB,

177'7.
1.
._I
1961,
and N O A A ,
Computed b y Malcom f r o m E x h i b i t 2.
197Y.
4.
Ta!-::en f r o m FtiWA,
9.
Taken
from
Hauer
a n d Woo
(1964) " H y d r a u l i c D e s i g n o f
Depressed
Curb
Opening I n l e t s , " Hiohwav Research Record,
Highway R e s e a r c h B o a r d , No. 5 8 .
6.
Same a s 9.
7.
Computed b y Malcom u s i n g M a n n i n g E q u a t i o n .
8.
From C h o w ,
9.
Computed b y Malcom.
1I:)
1959,
and common c i t i n g s .
similar
i n f o r m a t i o n i n Bureau of
Public
Roads
Based on
ilY65)
"Design
of
Roadside Channels, "
Hydraulic
Design
S e r i e s No. 4, U . S . D e p t . of Commerce, W a s h i n g t o n , DO.
~
11
through
21.
From B u r e a u of
Public
Roads
(1965),
"Hydraulic
Charts for the Selection of
H i g h w a y C u l v e r t s a"
Hydraulic Engineering
Circular
No.
5,
U.S.
Dept.
of
Commerce, W a s h i n g t o n , DC.
v-
Table of Rational runoff coefficients.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description
C
Source
____________________--------_------------------------Roof inclined
Street, driveway, sidewalk
Parking lot
Roof, flat
Commercial , generalized
Apartment's, schools, churches
Residences, 1 0 dwell ings/acre
Residences, 6 dwellings/acre
Unimproved cleared a r e a
Lawn, dense soil, steep >7%
Playground
Park, cemetery
Lawn, dense soil, avg 2-7%
Wooded, sparse ground litter
Lawn, dense soil, f l a t 2%
Lawn, sandy, avg 2-7%
Lawn, sandy, flat < 2 %
Wooded, deep ground litter
----------====--------==--------------------*==------------)34R C
t'tiai~
.
o .YO
1 00
0 . 95
0.90
0.85
0. 60
60
0. s5
0.so
(3.40
0.35
0.35
0.35
U.
0.25
0.22
0. 20
0.17
0.15
0.10
0.10
Mal com
Chow, lY64
Malcom
Mal cam
Malcom
WSSC, c.1968
Mal com
Malcom
Malcom
Malcom
Mal com
Chow, 1964
Chow, 1964
Chow, 1964
Chow, 1964
M a l com
Chow, 1964
Chow, 1964
Chow, 1964
Malcom
-------------
q<
Exhibit 1
INTENSITY- DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
EI
1
0
a
m
5
40
4
I.
60
r i d cutdial
(min)
A 2 5
10
80
x 5 0
a -
im
100
100
,r.
E x h i b i t .3
FLOW IN TRIANGULAR CHANNELS
NOMOGRAPH FOR
1.0
1.0
.a0
,TO
a0
.SO
40
. .........
..
IU.U
..... .-."...-.
. ..+
u
WUI
18.
y.
0s".
.
I
I"Y
n"
LO"*
.
.
.
I
#
ea".*
.
..
.
.
,
I "W
CIYI.
'WI.
u ne
:t-
.ooo
.007
.ow
LO
I2
G
a
I-
u)
W
W
IO
00
07
oa
00
a
,008
3
0
I-
oa
I-
.OOI
Onr loot i m 0.3048m

Onr cubic loot i a 0.0203m'
08
W
0
01
Exhibit 4
INLET D E S C R I P T I O N
STREET SIDE
So
street s l o p e
in ft/ft
= cross slope
sx
in f t / f t
L i = length of i n l e t
in f t
a = depression drop
in inches
w = width i n f e e t
of depression
OEPRESSEO AREA
CUR8
C U R 8 OPENING
PLAN
5 ft
opening len gth, n = 0.016, W = 2 . 0 f t ,

minlmum height of curb opening TS,
Qi
INLET INTERCEPTION R A T E . 7
CHART 4s
10 ft opening length, n = 0.016, W

2.0 ft
INLET INTERCEPTION
RATE,7)Oi
0 01 0 2 03 0 4 O S 0 6 01 0 8 09 I O
1 5 f t opening length, n * 0.016, V

2.0 ft
minimum height of curb opening TSx
INLET INTERCEPTIW RATE,TOi
Minimum s l o p e s for pipe selection.
Exhibit 7
Abbreviated Table o f
V a l u e s o f Manning Roughness C o e f f i c i e n t s .
Exhibit 8
B e s t H y d r a u l i c S e c t i o n C a e f f i ci e n t s .
Exhibit 9
Suggested Maximum Velocities for Various Channel Linings.
..
.. .
Ex hi b i t 1(:I
CHART 2
10,000
160
EXAMPLE
168
156
144
- 4.000
132
120
Y*
fed
8.8
7 3,000
(I)
2.5
(21
2.1
HW
1.4
IO8
-- 1.000
-- a00
-
96
84
- 600
-- 500
--
72
u):
%=-m
54
46
/
4 2
Lt/
./:
/'
&
-- 300
60
400
IO0
-80
a -
v -- 6 0
r50
O - 4 0
HW
SCALE
0
ENTRANCE
TYPE
.36
- 33
- so
- 27
- 24
- 21
- I8
~
21.0
HEADWATER SCALES 283

mwsm MAY 1964
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

WITH INLET CONTROL
5-22
Eshibit
11
CHART 5
- 10.000
144
- 8,000
- 6.000
- 5.000
- 4,000
132
= 3.000
120
.
c
2,000
- 1.000
- 800
- 600
- so0
- 400
Hw
0
SCALE
Ill
I4
(31
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

C. M. PIPE CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL
5-25
E x h i b i t 12
- 1,000
- 800
- 600
- so0
1.10
2.0
(4
1.15
2.1
(3)
1.22
2.2
(I)
*o in
t
- 2
I..*
- 2
- 2
- 1.5
- 1.5
400
300
200
1.5
_-_-.--
,P
/
/
--
1.0
- 1.0
z:
- 1.0
- .9
.9
a
Y
- .9-
- .e
- .8'
u)
-.7
E
IENTRANCE
SCALE
TYPE
a -.e
-- e
-
IO
.e
.7-
- .7
5 S
I-
- .6
- .6
w -
s
2
- 6
- 5
3T
- 4
-.5
.I)
- .5
;3
- 2
f
22' a 13.
1.0
.e
.6
.5
18. I I I.
*A.001TIONAL
I
l
a
WmLU W R l K l C 11010 ,A*
.35
.35
HEADWATER DEPTH FOR

C. M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL
SIZES MOT OIYEMSIONEO ARC
LISTED I M FABRICATOR'S
.35
CATALOQ
1-3
5-26
CHART 1
HEADWATER DEPTH
FOR BOX CULVERTS
WITH INLET CONTROL
5-21
E x h i b i t 14
-4
3J
CHART I I
r 2000
- 1000
-1eo0
- 600
- 500
7
400
- 300
200
ioe
96
04
72
' 7 6 6
a-
60
- 54
I&-
0 -
:
100
120
u)
s-00
5-
'0?: - 4 0
z-60
-_
z-
42
5
S--5 0
s-36
i-4Oa.,$
2-33
0---+
r30
-__
g-304$
54 7
- 20
- 24
-21
-IO
-0
-
-16
-6
-I5
-5
-4
-12
HEAD FOR
STA N DA RD
C. M. PIPE CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
n = 0.024
5-34
E x h i b i t 16
CHART 12
300
200
- 100
- 90
0-
- 80
-70
-60
- so
I
0
-40-0..0-w
0.
u)
Y
s -30
a-
e.
w -
e.
a
4 -20
f
E
a
L
I -
o-
4p
o:
E -
49x27'
?! !
a
361x224
u)
I?
u)
i:
-IO
- 9
- 8
- 7
2cx161
1
90
-6
-5
-4
-3
L 2
HEAD FOR
STANDARD C M. PIPE-ARCH CULVERTS
FLOWING F U L L
nr0.024
5-35
E x h i b i t 17
CHART 13
5000
4000
3000
F-'
SUlYERGEO OUTLET CULVERT FLOIINC fVLL
1000
too
HEAD FOR
STRUCTURAL PLATE
CORR. METAL PIPE CULVERTS
FLOWING FULL
n = 0.0328 TO 0.0302
5-36
E x h i b i t 18
E
g
ul
05
001
002
x
-
00s
SI
ul
0
I
D
P
c)
p oot
P
F
?
ji
005
0
W
Y)
I 009
E
W
fi-I 008
0001
OOOE
CHART 8
I::::
5000
kzoo0
1.0
I-
6
8
H E A D FOR
CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS
FLOWING F U L L
n = 0.012
5-31
E x h i b i t 20
Appendix B
Table 1.
TABLES
- Entrance Loss Coefficients

v2 f o r
2g
Coefficient k, t o apply t o velocity head
determination of head
loss a t entrance t o a structure, such a s a culvert or conduit, operating full or p a r t l y full w i t h control a t t h e o u t l e t .
v2
Entrance head loss H, = k

e z i
Coefficient k,
Type of Structure and Design o f ' h t r a n c e

Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from P i l l , socket end (groove-end)
Projecting from fill, sq. cut end
Headwall o r headwdl and w i n g v a l l s
Socket end of pipe (groove-end)
Square-edge
Rounded (radius = 1/12D).
Mitered t o conform to fill slope
*End-Section conformiw t o f i l l slope
.....
...........
..........
....................
.............
............
..........
0.2
C.5
0.2
'3.5
0.2
0.7
0.5
Pipe, o r Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal
...........
....................
............
..........
Projecting from fill (no headwall)

Headwall o r headvall and wingValla
Square-edge
Mitered t o conform t o fill slope
*End-Section conforming to f i l l slope
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.5
Box, Reinforced Concrete

Headwall p a r a l l e l to embankment (no wingwalls)
0.5
Square-edged on 3 edges
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 b a r r e l
dimension..
0.2
Wingwalls a t 30' t o 7 9 t o b a r r e l
0.4
Square-edged a t c r m
C r m edge rounded to radius of 1/12 b a r r e l
0.2
dimension..
Wingwalls a t 1
0
' to 25' to,b a r r e l
0.5
Square-edged a t crown
Wingvalls p a r a l l e l (extension of s i d e s )
Square-edged a t crown
0.7
*Note: "Ebd Section conforming to f i l l slope", made of e i t h e r metal or
concrete, are the sections colmponly available from manufacturers.
From limited hydraulic tests they a r e equivalent i n operation t o
8 headwall i n both i n l e t and outlet control.
Some end sections,
incorporating a closed taper i n t h e i r design have a superior hydraulic performance. These latter sections can be designed using
the Information given f o r the bevelled i n l e t , p. 5-13.
..............
...................
................
...................
...............
. . . . . . .-. . . . . . . .
-
5-49
E x h i b i t 21
ADDENDUM
TO
B A S I C STORMWATER
' '
DRAINAGE DESIGN
by H.H.
Malcom,
P.E.
Errata:
p.
1-9:
I n Sec
A-A of t h e f i g u r e ,
a t the l e f t ,
the
dimension i s "H," t h e d r i v i n g head an t h e w e i r .
p.
11-3:
Eqn 11-3 s h o u l d read:
omitted
p= B + Z
p.
11-11:
I n t h e second l i n e below Eqn 11-22,

"Their. 'I
p.
11-14:
Under
Depth,
"There" should r e a d
"Situation,"
t h e value
of
Maximum
which i s o m i t t e d , s h o u l d be 8.0 f t .
Hvailable
&Id enda :
duration
and
Attached
a r e t a b l e s and g r a p h s o f i n t e n s i t y ,
i
n
a
.
Be
ore
freauencv
far
t h r e e l o c a t i o n s acrass
South
Car0
usin'g t h e s e i n any d e s i g n ,
t h e designer should v e r i f y t h a t
the
r e l a t i o n s h i p s presented adequately represent those a p p r o p r i a t e t o
t h e region.
Those p r e s e n t e d a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f d a t a g i v e n i n
USWE TP 40 and NOAA Hydro-35,
f a r which t h e d e t a i l e d r e f e r e n c e s
are:
U.
S.
Weather Bureau,
" R a i n f a l l Frequency H t l a s of t h e
United
States
f a r D u r a t i o n s f r o m 30 M i n u t e s t o 24 Hours and R e t u r n
F e r i o d s f r o m 1 t o i o 0 Years," U. S. Weather Bureau T e c h n i c a l
Faper 40, May 1941.
Frederick,
H.H. 'I V.A.
Myers, E.P. A n c i e l l o , " F i v e t o 60 M i n u t e
P r e c i p i t a t i o n Frequency f a r t h e E a s t e r n and C e n t r a l
United
S t a t e s , I'
NOAA T e c h n i c a l Memorandum NWS HYDHO-33,
N a t ianal
Weather
Service,
NOAA,
U.S.
Dept.
of
Commerce,
Silver
Spring, MD, June 1977.
VI-1
INTENSITY- DURAT1ON-FREQUENCY FUNCTlONS

=uE.
0
0
40
20
sc
60
r i ot ~ m b b n(mini
10
A 2 5
VI-3
80
x s o
im
v
120
tm
FUNCTIONS
COLUMBIA. sc
10
a
7
CI
h
Y
a
c
4
3
2
1
20
40
4
60
80
hdDvrrtian(ndn)
A 2 5
x 9 0
10
VI-5
100
120
1w
INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
-=
10
a
7
6
4
3
2
1
0
20
40
60
80
r i d oumtian (mh)
a
10
A 2 5
VI-7
x 5 0
120
100
100
COMPARISON OF TEN-YEAR STORMS
20
40
60
VI-8
80
100
1M
INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS
MMmE BEACH, SC
0
0
20
40
Time of Duration (min)

10
A
25
-__--
80
60
120
100
so
100
LOCATION: --------)MYRTLE
TABLE
BEACH,
SC
...............................................................
Return Period
-->

Elements of Urban Stormwater

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Elements of Urban Stormwater

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Elements

North Carolina State University

North Caroiina State University

Elements of the Model

The time of concentration is interpreted as the

Cc = The composite runoff coefficient (dimensionless).

Ai = The area taken by an individual category of composition.

= The runoff coefficient for the individual area.

The basic weir equation is:

= Weir coefficient (dimensionless).

Length of weir (ft), measured along the crest. i

For the case of the free overfall, use Cw = 3.0.

8. The pipe slope is selected based on profile constraints.

7. M i n i u m cover should be three feet to the top of the pipe.

D = Pipe diameter (in).

s = Longitudinal slope (fdft).

The columns of Table 1 are treated as follows:

TO - The designation of the structure at the lower end of the pipe.

DISCHARGE - The design discharge (cfs). Q = CIA. (Col9)*(Col8)*(Col4)

SLOPE - Invert slope of pipe (fdft), as decided within profile constraints.

Dtheo - Theoretical minimum pipe diameter (in), from Equation 1-9.

SIZE - Standard pipe size (in), as selected.

Vfull - Full-flow average cross-sectional velocity (fusec), computed from Equation

TOP ELEV Ground elevation at upstream end, for reference.

One can reformulate and convert units to arrive at:

= Head loss due to pipe friction (ft)

= Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (dimensionless)

= Pipe length (ft)

= Pipe diameter (in).

= Head loss due to pipe friction (ft)

= Pipe length (ft)

.= Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless)

(See Exhibit 8.)

DA = the smaller of the two diameters.

Proceed upstream in a similar fashion.

The variable P represents wetted perimeter.

Four Main Procedures

The bottom width of the best hydraulic section is:

M = Horizontal component of side slope (for 2/1, M=2)

n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless)

= Longitudinal channel slope (fdft)

= Depth of best hydraulic section (ft)

B = Bottom width of best hydraulic section (ft)

Va = Assigned (desired) velocity (ft/sec)

is computed by Equation 11-17.Then one proceeds

and the side slope.

C = Rational runoff coefficient (dimensionless), composited for the drainage area.

The depth of flow at allowable discharge is:

Reference Data for Channels

Rate of change of storage with respect to time.

Alternate Hvdroerauh Formulation Methods

Z = Stage (ft) referred to the bottom of the reservoir

Linear-Regression Estimation of Stage-Storage Parameters: Many spreadsheet programs and

= Cross-sectional area of flow at the orifice enmance (sq ft).

= Acceleration of gravity (32.2 fUsec2).

COMPOSITE STAGE-DISCHARGE PLOT

NET STAGE DISCHARGE F U N C T I O N

ASij = change in storage in the time increment i to j

= Average inflow from time i to time j

Aqj = Time increment

Ij = Inflow at the end of the interval

= Storage at the beginning of the interval

Sj = Storage at the end of the interval

Oj = Outflow at the beginning of the interval

DISCHARGE - The design discharge (cfs). Q = CIA. (Col9)(Col8)(Col4)