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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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Chapter : Process
File Reference: CHE10209
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Miscellaneous Mechanical Components
CONTENTS
PAGES
INFORMATION
COUPLINGS
Coupling Life
GEARS
Speed-Decreasing Gears
Gear Design
Lubrication of Gears
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BEARINGS
11
Journal Bearings
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Thrust Bearings
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Ball Bearings
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BEARING LUBRICATION
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15
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PUMP SEALS
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Packing
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Mechanical Seals
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COMPRESSOR SEALS
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Labyrinth Seals
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Oil Seals
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COUPLINGS
The function of a coupling is to transmit power from one component of a machinery train to another and allow
a certain amount of lateral and axial misalignment between the connected equipment. Some examples are:
A motor to a pump.
A motor to a gear.
A gear to a compressor casing.
One compressor casing to another compressor casing.
Couplings must be designed to absorb movements due to slight misalignment between the shafts. Before
startup, mechanics align machinery components; however, some small misalignment always remains. The two
types of misalignment are parallel and angular. They are shown in Figure 2.
Coupling
Motor
Gear
Compressor
Casing 1
Compressor
Casing 2
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COUPLINGS (CONTD)
Parallel Misalignment
Angular Misalignment
Couplings perform one other function that is shown in Figure 3. They permit axial movement of the two shafts
relative to each other, which is called free end float. The source of this movement is a change in shaft axial
position resulting from a change in temperature during operation.
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Free
End
Float
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Coupling Life
A coupling that is properly designed and installed should not experience failures during normal operation of
machinery trains. Factors that can decrease coupling life are:
A high torque stress on the coupling, greater than the design value.
Large misalignments between the two shafts.
Operation at relatively high speeds.
Corrosion or mechanical scratches on thin discs and diaphragms.
Dirt or sludge in a lubricated coupling.
A coupling can often tolerate any one of these contributing factors, but two or more in combination increase
the chances for a coupling failure.
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GEARS
Gears are sometimes needed to change the speed of rotation from one component to the next. Some examples
are:
Speed Increasing Gears
Motors typically run at a maximum speed of 3600 rpm. Centrifugal compressors operate at 5000 to 13,000
rpm. A speed-increasing gear is used to run a compressor at the higher speed.
Speed-Decreasing Gears
Steam turbine drivers run at high speeds, 5000 to 10,000 rpm. If the driven equipment is a pump or an electric
generator, the speed required is typically 3600 rpm. A speed-decreasing gear is therefore required.
Gas turbines are also high speed machines running at 5000 to 10,000 rpm. Speed-decreasing gears are required
for pumps and electric generators driven by gas turbines.
The second stage of a centrifugal compressor may run at a higher speed than the first stage.
Reciprocating compressors are low speed machines, typically running at 500 to 1000 rpm. A speed-decreasing
gear is necessary with most drivers, including 2-pole and 4-pole electric motors.
Gears are usually not needed for the following applications because the driver and the driven equipment can
operate at the same speed.
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Gear Design
The three basic types of gears--spur, helical, and double helical--are shown in Figure 8.
Spur
Helical
Double Helical
The spur gear is the simplest type of gear. The teeth are parallel to the axis of the shaft. This type of gear is
not used for large, high-speed loads.
In the helical gear, the teeth are not parallel to the shaft. Instead, they follow the shape of a helix, or spiral, on
the surface of the gear. This results in gradual loading of each tooth as the gear rotates. Vibration and noise
levels are much lower for helical gears than for spur gears.
A double helical gear has two sets of teeth included at opposite angles. This arrangement neutralizes the large
thrust, or axial load, on the shaft, which is a disadvantage of the single helical gear. Double helical gears are
common for large, high-speed loads.
Lubrication of Gears
Gears are lubricated by a spray of oil onto the teeth at the point of contact. The oil is circulated by a pump.
The circulation system may be for the gear alone, or it may be combined with a system that lubricates all the
major bearings in the train.
Power Consumption in Gears
Gears are not 100% efficient in transmitting power. A power loss of 2 to 3% is normal.
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BEARINGS
Two types of bearings are used in rotating equipment. The first is the journal bearing, which supports the
shaft and absorbs all radial forces. Radial forces are perpendicular to the shaft. The second type is the thrust
bearing, which absorbs axial forces on the shaft. Axial forces are parallel to the shaft.
Journal Bearings
Journal bearings are usually sleeve bearings or tilting pad bearings. Typical journal bearing types are shown
in Figure 9. The shaft rotates within a simple sleeve. A film of oil is maintained between the bearing and the
rotating shaft. The shaft does not touch the bearing but is supported by the dynamic forces of the oil. If
contact occurs, the sliding friction will damage the bearings in a short time.
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The rotation of the shaft causes the oil in the annular space to rotate. Since the annular space is smaller at the
bottom of the shaft, the oil is forced into a narrow wedge at this point. This causes the oil pressure to be higher
at the bottom of the shaft. The higher pressure supports the weight of the shaft and prevents contact between
the shaft and the bearing.
This type of bearing is the one most commonly used on large machinery such as centrifugal compressors,
steam turbines, and gas turbines.
At high speeds, the simple sleeve bearing may cause unacceptable vibration, because the single oil wedge may
rotate, or orbit, around the shaft. Specially designed bearings with lobes or tilting pads (See Figure 9B)
produce multiple oil wedges and greater stability at high speeds.
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Thrust Bearings
Hydraulic, aerodynamic, and magnetic forces can cause axial forces on a shaft. These forces are absorbed by
bearings called thrust bearings. Each compressor casing, turbine, and electric motor has at least one thrust
bearing. A rotating collar on the shaft presses against stationary pads mounted to the casing. A rotating oil
film between the collar and the pads supports the load without metal-to-metal contact in the same manner as a
journal bearing. See Figure 10.
Pivots or
Levelling Plates
Thrust
Shaft
Oil In
Oil Out
Collar
FIGURE 10. THRUST BEARINGS
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Ball Bearings
Another type of bearing is the ball bearing or rolling contact bearing. Figure 11 is a diagram of a ball bearing.
Ball bearings are commonly used in pumps. They absorb both the radial and the axial thrust forces on the
shaft. Metal-to-metal contact does occur, but the contact is at small points that are constantly moving. Also,
rolling friction occurs, not sliding friction. Therefore, only small amounts of heat are generated by the friction.
Outer Sleeve
Balls
Inner Sleeve
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BEARING LUBRICATION
Oil Ring Lubrication for Small Power Loads
Small pieces of rotating equipment such as pumps usually have oil-ring lubrication. See Figure 12. An oil
reservoir is located below the shaft. An eccentric ring suspended on the shaft dips into the oil level. As the
shaft rotates, this ring also rotates but at a slower speed. As the ring rotates through the oil, it picks up oil and
carries it up to the shaft. The oil then flows sideways into the bearing. A level indicator on the side of the
equipment shows the level of oil in the reservoir. Operators check the level periodically and refill with oil
when necessary.
Figure 12 also shows a constant level oiler, which keeps the level in the bearing housing constant until the
glass bottle is empty.
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Circulating pumps. Normally two pumps are provided, one driven by an electric motor, one
driven by a small steam turbine. Two pumps insure that circulation of the lubricating oil is never
lost, even during an electric power failure. Loss of circulation would cause significant damage to
the bearings.
Piping carries the lubricating oil to and from each bearing. Usually small indicator glasses are
located in these lines so that an operator can visually check that the oil is flowing.
A cooler to remove heat generated by friction. The oil cooler may be a water cooler or an air
cooler.
A dual filter to remove solid particles greater than 10 microns from the oil.
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PUMP SEALS
Seals are required between the rotating shaft and the stationary casing of a pump to prevent the leakage of
liquid. Seals are mounted in the section of the casing called the stuffing box.
Packing
The original type of seal on pumps was packing. Packing consists of rings of flexible material in the annular
space between the shaft and the casing. See Figure 13. The rings are compressed by a device called the gland
follower. Compression of the packing rings causes a tight fit between the packing and the shaft and between
the packing and the casing. Lubrication of the surface between the packing and the shaft may be required. If
so, a lubricant is injected into the space called the lantern ring. This fluid can also act as a barrier fluid if it is
maintained at a pressure higher than the pressure inside the pump.
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The disadvantage of packing as a seal is that tightening is required during operation. A small but finite amount
of leakage occurs with most packing services. Therefore, packing is not used very often today. The
mechanical seal has become the standard sealing device.
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Mechanical Seals
Most pumps today are equipped with mechanical seals rather than packing.
Mechanical seals do not require tightening during operation. Leakage rates are extremely small. Figure 14 is a
diagram of a mechanical seal. The principal parts of a mechanical seal are two seal rings. One ring is mounted
on the shaft and rotates with the shaft; the other ring is stationary and is attached to the casing. Where the two
rings touch each other, the surfaces are extremely flat and smooth. Therefore, contact between the two rings is
so perfect that liquid cannot pass between them. A spring pushes the one ring against the other to maintain
contact. O-ring seals prevent flow of liquid through any other path.
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If the pumping service is hot, or if the fluid viscosity is high, heat must be removed from the rotating seal. A
flushing liquid is circulated through the stuffing box to remove the heat. The flushing liquid also provides
lubrication between the two seal surfaces. The flushing liquid can be a liquid circulated from the discharge of
the pump if this liquid is clean. At other times, the flushing liquid may be a separate fluid. The flushing liquid
also prevents the accumulation of solids in the stuffing box.
Figure 15 shows several methods for providing flushing liquid to a pump seal.
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COMPRESSOR SEALS
There are two major types of seals on compressor casings. Labyrinth seals minimize internal leakage, for
example, backflow from one impeller to the preceding impeller. Oil seals are located at the ends of the casing
to prevent leakage of gas to the atmosphere.
Labyrinth Seals
In a compressor, leakage between the rotating impeller and stationary casing must be minimized in order to
maintain efficiency. Backflow of gas is minimized by means of labyrinth seals. See Figure 19. A labyrinth
seal contains multiple teeth located very close to the rotating shaft. This results in a breakdown of pressure
across the seal with very little flow. Labyrinth seals are usually made of a soft metal so that they will not
damage the shaft, but as a result, they are very easily damaged by excessive vibration of the shaft.
Labyrinth seals can also be used as external seals on air compressors and gas turbines. Some leakage of the
internal gas to the atmosphere can be tolerated in these places.
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Oil Seals
Most centrifugal compressors have oil seals at each end of the casing. See Figure 20. A bushing type oil seal
shown has two rings mounted on the casing. These seal rings fit very closely to the shaft but with a finite
clearance. Seal oil is pumped into the space between the two seals and circulates through the annular spaces
between the shaft and the seal rings. The pressure of the seal oil is controlled to a level 5 to 10 psi higher than
the gas pressure on the other side of the ring. Seal oil pressure is also higher than atmospheric pressure. This
means that oil will flow outward through the seals, but gas and atmospheric air cannot flow through the seal.
Seal oil is circulated by a pump.
Seal oil from the outer seal ring can be returned directly to the reservoir and the pump.
Oil that passes through the inner seal contains dissolved gas and must be treated differently. If the gas is clean,
the oil passes through a low-pressure vessel to vent the gas. The oil is then returned to the system. If the gas is
dirty or corrosive, the oil from the inner seal is usually discarded. The small pressure difference between the
seal oil and the gas minimizes the leakage to the inner seal. Typical rates are 5 to 10 gallons of oil leakage per
day.
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GLOSSARY
Accelerometer
Alignment
The relative orientation of two shafts with respect to each other. For good
alignment, the shafts should be parallel and concentric.
Ball Bearing
Barrier Fluid
An intermediate fluid that prevents contact between a process fluid and the
atmosphere.
Buffer Zone
Coupling
A gear with two rows of teeth that are inclined to the shaft at opposite
angles.
A type of vibration monitor that detects distance between the probe and a
shaft.
Flexible Diaphragm
Flexible Disc
Flushing
A liquid injected into a stuffing box to cool, lubricate, and clean a seal.
Forced Lubrication
Free-End Float
Gear
A device that transmits power and changes speed of rotation. Output speed
is in a fixed ratio to input speed.
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Gear Coupling
Helical Gear
A power transmission gear with teeth that are not parallel to the shaft.
Each tooth follows the path of a helix on the surface of the gear.
Journal Bearing
Labyrinth Seal
A seal made of a series of sharp-edged rings. The rings are very close to a
shaft, without any sealing liquid.
Mechanical Seal
A seal that prevents leakage by means of two rings whose faces fit together
very closely. One ring is stationary, the other rotates.
Oil Ring
O-Ring
Packing
Piezoelectric
Seal
Sleeve Bearing
Spur Gear
A gear with teeth that are parallel to the axis of the shaft.
Stuffing Box
The part of a pump body that contains the mechanical seal or the packing.
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Train
Thrust Bearing
A coupling that can continuously change the ratio of output speed to input
speed.
Velocity Sensor
A vibration probe that has a moving coil attached to a machine part. The
coil moves inside a fixed magnet to generate a signal.
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