1 - ANN&GA-MPPT-based Artificial Intelligence Techniques For Photovoltaic Systems

Energy 70 (2014) 1e21
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy
Review
MPPT-based articial intelligence techniques for photovoltaic systems

and its implementation into eld programmable gate array chips:
Review of current status and future perspectives
Adel Mellit a, b, Soteris A. Kalogirou c, *
a
b
c
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Jijel University, 18000, Algeria
Unit de Dveloppement des quipements Solaires (UDES-EPST/CDER), Bousmail, Tipaza 42000, Algeria
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering, Cyprus University of Technology, P.O. Box 50329, Limassol 3603, Cyprus
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 3 January 2014
Received in revised form
22 March 2014
Accepted 25 March 2014
Available online 28 April 2014
In this paper, the applications of articial intelligence-based methods for tracking the maximum power
point have been reviewed and analysed. The reviewed methods are based upon neural networks, fuzzy
logic, evolutionary algorithms, which include genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, ant colony optimization, and other hybrid methods. Rapid advances in programmable logic devices (PLDs)
including eld programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) give good opportunities to integrate efciently such
techniques for real time applications. An attempt is made to highlight the future trends and challenges in
the development of embedded intelligent digital maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controllers into
FPGA chip. Special attention is also given to the cost, complexity of implementation, efciency, and
possible practical realization. We believe that this review provides valuable information for engineers,
designers and scientist working in this area and show future trends in the development of embedded
intelligent techniques for renewable energy systems.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Photovoltaic systems
Maximum power point tracking
Articial intelligence
Implementation
Programmable logic devices
Field programmable gate arrays chip
Real-time applications
1. Introduction
Energy consumption in the word has increased noticeably due
to world population augmentation. The sustainable use of renewable energy solves one of the major concerns of the world community, since the amount of fossil energy sources is no longer
sufcient. Among renewable sources, solar energy is one of the
most promising nowadays [1]. Photovoltaic (PV) is expanding very
rapidly due to effective supporting policies and recent drastic cost
reductions [2]. PV is a commercially available and reliable technology with a signicant potential for long-term growth in nearly
all world regions. The IEA [2] estimates that by 2050, PV will provide around 11% of global electricity production and avoid 2.3 Gt of
CO2 emissions per year. PV arrays have the advantage of directly
converting light energy into electrical energy through semiconductors [3]. Furthermore, they generate electricity from
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: soteris.kalogirou@cut.ac.cy,
(S.A. Kalogirou).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.102
0360-5442/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
skalogir@spidernet.com.cy
sunlight instead of using fossil fuels, so no carbon dioxide is emitted

in the process.
Tracking the maximum power point (MPP) of a photovoltaic
module/array is an essential task in a PV control system, since it
maximizes the power output of the PV system, and therefore
maximizes the PV modules efciency. To enhance the conversion
efciency of the electric power generation a maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) module (i.e., it consists of MPPT algorithm used to
control a DCeDC converter) is usually integrated with the PV power
installations so that the photovoltaic arrays will be able to deliver
the maximum power available in real time under all possible system operating conditions.
In the last decade, several researchers have focused on various
MPP methods to track the maximum power of photovoltaic module/arrays [4e6]. These algorithms vary in many aspects, such as
simplicity, required sensors, cost, range of effectiveness, convergence speed, correct tracking when irradiation and/or temperature
change, hardware needed for the implementation and popularity.
Recently, Ishaque and Salam [7] reviewed classical techniques such
as incremental conductance and Hill Climbing (HC) and some other
recent MPPT approaches using soft computing methods. Reisi et al.
[8] classied different MPPT methods based on three categories,
A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21
Nomenclature
Terminology
ACO
Ant Colony Optimization
ANFIS
Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System
ANN
Articial Neural Network
ASIC
Application Specic Integrated Circuit
CLBs
Congurable Logic Blocks
D
Duty cycle
DSP
Digital Signal Processor
ED
Evolutionary Evolution
ENN
Elmen Neural Network
FCN
Fuzzy Cognitive Networks
FL
Fuzzy Logic
FPGA
Field programmable gate array
G
Solar irradiance
GA
Genetic Algorithm
GKA
Genetic k-Means Algorithm
GMPP
Global Maximum Power Point
GMPPT Global maximum power point tracking
HCPV
High Concentrator Photovoltaic
HDL
Hardware Description Language
HIS
Hybrid Intelligent Systems
HNN
Hopeld Neural Network
IncCond Incremental Conductance
ofine, online and hybrid methods. Advantages and disadvantages

of each class were also compared based on simulations using
MATLAB/Simulink. MPPT-based soft-computing techniques have
been recently reviewed by Salam et al. [9]. A detailed description
and classication of the MPPT techniques have been reported by
Subudhi and Pradhan [10]. This classication is made based on
features, such as number of control variables involved, types of
control strategies employed, types of circuitry used suitability for
PV system and practical/commercial applications. Bhatnagar and
Nema [11] have presented a comprehensive presentation of
working principle of MPPT techniques, which were also compared
against each other in terms of some critical parameters. Another
comprehensive review can be also found in Ref. [12]. The capability
of the application of articial intelligence techniques in modelling,
prediction and control of photovoltaic systems has been demonstrated in an extensive review given by the authors in Ref. [13].
Additionally, the use of the intelligent techniques-based MPP
trackers should be noted. These are recently developed and used to
improve energy conversion efciency.
According to Tyugu [14] there are two different understandings
of articial intelligence (AI) as a research eld: The rst approach
takes a philosophical attitude, and is interested in the possibilities
of building articial systems with intelligent behaviour primarily
for scientic purposes. The second approach is aimed at practical
applications, and is interested in building applications that possess
some intelligence, or more precisely, seem to be intelligent. This
approach became very popular with the development of expert
systems about thirty years ago. AI analysis is based on past history
data of a system (represented as a set of patterns) and it is therefore
likely to be better understood and appreciated by designers than
other theoretical or empirical methods. AI may be used to provide
innovative ways of solving design issues and will allow designers to
get an almost instantaneous expert opinion on the effect of a proposed change in a design [15].
Advances in articial intelligent techniques embedded into eld
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) platform include the application
ISE
MPP
MPPT
NARMA
OTP
P&O
PGS
PID
PSC
PSO
PV
PWM
RBFN
SMC
STC
SRAM
VHSIC
ZSI
Integrated Software Environment

Maximum Power Point
Maximum power point tracking
Nonlinear Autoregressive Moving Average
One-Time Programmable
Perturb and Observe
Power Generating System
Proportional Integral Derivative
Partial Shading Conditions
Particle Swarm Optimization
Photovoltaic
Pulse Width Modulator
Radial Basis Function Network
Sliding Mode Control
Standard Test Conditions
Static Random Access Memory
Very High Speed Integrated Circuit
Z-Source Inverter
Symbols
T
Vref
Iin
Iout
Vin
Vout
Air temperature ( C)
Reference voltage (V)
Input current (A)
Output current (A)
Input voltage (V)
Output voltage (V)
of such technologies in real-time modelling, co-simulation and

control of photovoltaic systems [16e18].
FPGAs are reprogrammable silicon chips, which offer lower cost
implementations since the functions of various components can be
integrated onto the same FPGA chip, and they can provide equivalent or higher performance with the customization potential of an
Application Specic Integrated Circuits (ASICs). They implement
circuits just like hardware, providing huge power, area, and performance benets over software, yet can be reprogrammed cheaply
and easily to implement a wide range of tasks. Just like computer
hardware, FPGAs implement computations spatially, simultaneously computing millions of operations in resources distributed
across a silicon chip. Such systems can be hundreds of times faster
than microprocessor-based designs [19]. However, unlike in ASICs,
these computations are programmed into the chip and are not
permanently frozen by the manufacturing process, which means
that an FPGA-based system can be programmed and reprogrammed many times [19]. Furthermore, they are truly parallel in
nature, so different processing operations do not have to compete
for the same resources. Each independent processing task is
assigned to a dedicated section of the chip, which can function
autonomously without any inuence from other logic blocks. As a
result, the performance of one part of the application is not affected
when you add more processing [20]. With reference to Cofer and
Harding [21] a constant of the FPGA industry has been a relentless
pace of innovation, enhancement and change. These technology
advances have been targeted to provide the FPGA designer with
increased exibility and more design implementation options.
Recent architecture advances include enhanced digital signal processing (DSP) support elements such as dedicated hardware multipliers and larger blocks of embedded and distributed Random
Access Memory (RAM) with enhanced features, higher performance embedded processor cores, higher speed input/output (I/O)
implementations and expanded FPGA conguration options. These
advances serve to expand the range of functionality FPGA components can implement. FPGA tool set improvements have also
contributed signicantly to a design teams ability to take advantage of FPGA exibility and features. These broad enhancements are
requiring more FPGA designer cross training within the areas of
systems, hardware, software, rmware and DSP engineering [21].
Conventional MPPT methods such as perturb and observe
(P&O), variable step-size P&O and other improved versions of P&O
have been implemented into FPGA, due to their simplicity of
implementation [22e25]. However, these algorithms are not efcient with respect to the MPPT-methods based on articial intelligence techniques (such as, fuzzy logic, neural network, etc.).
An attempt is made in this paper to present a complete detailed
review on the MPPT-based intelligent methods, as well as their
hardware implementation into FPGAs taking into account the efciency, cost, ease of implementation, stability, and robustness as
well as the response time of each controller. Challenges, opportunities and future research trends of implementing of intelligent
MPPT methods into recongurable devices (FPGAs) are also provided. Through this paper, we try also to answer the following key
questions:
- Is there a need to develop an effective MPPT method?
- Are AI techniques present a good solution for the development
of an effective (intelligent) MPPT controller?
- Is there a need to implement an MPPT into FPGA chips?
- Are FPGAs adequate for intelligent MPPT controllers?
- For which requirements may FPGAs be better than DSP and
ASIC? Why FPGA is chosen?
- Are the actual design tools of sufcient high-level for implementing intelligent MPPTs?
- Are advances of embedded intelligent MPPTs on FPGA easy for
designers and developers?
This paper is organized as follows: a brief introduction to articial intelligence techniques is provided in the next Section. Short
description about programmable logic devices (PLDs) including
FPGA is provided in Section 3. Section 4 outlines a state-of-the-art
overview on the applications of AI techniques in tracking the MPP
under uniform and non-uniform insolation conditions. Section 5
highlights the implementation of AI techniques into FPGA chip.
Concluding remarks including challenges and opportunities are
reported in Section 6.
2. Articial intelligence techniques
2.1. Denition of AI
to Barr and Feigenbaum [37] AI is the part of computer science

concerned with the design of intelligent computer systems, i.e.,
systems that exhibit the characteristics associated with intelligence
in human behaviourdunderstanding, language, learning,
reasoning, solving problems and so on [38]. Several intelligent
computing technologies are becoming useful as alternate approaches to conventional techniques or as components of integrated systems [39].
2.2. Branches of AI
AI consists of several branches, namely, expert systems (ES),
problem solving and planning (PSP), knowledge representation
(KP), common sense knowledge and reasoning (CSKR), logic programming (LP), natural language processing (NLP), computer vision
(CV), genetic programming (GP), non-monotonic reasoning (NMR),
pattern recognition (PR), heuristics, robotics, hybrid intelligent
systems (HIS), epistemology, ontology, etc.
In this paper specic branches of AI are used like articial neural
networks (ANN), fuzzy logic (FL), evolutionary algorithms (EA) and
various hybrids intelligent systems (HIS), which are combinations
of two or more of the branches mentioned previously [40e43]. A
brief introduction for each technique is given below.
2.2.1. Articial neural networks
Articial neural networks are electrical analogues of the biological neural organs. Biological nerve cells, called neurons, receive
signals from neighbouring neurons or receptors through dendrites,
process the received electrical pulses at the cell body and transmit
signals through a large and thick nerve ber, called an axon. In a
similar way, the electrical model of a typical biological neuron
consists of a linear activator, followed by a non-linear inhibiting
function. The linear activation function yields the sum of the
weighted input excitation, while the non-linear inhibiting function
attempts to capture the signal levels of the sum. The resulting
signal, produced by the electrical neuron, is thus bounded (amplitude limited) [42]. Fig. 1, shows a typical structure of a feed-forward
neural network.
Articial neural networks provide successful models and metaphors to improve our understanding of the human brain. The
familiar serial computer with its precise spatially allocated functions of memory, computation, control, and communications is a
poor metaphor for a brain. Memory in a brain is distributed, with
your memory of, say a face, not precisely allocated to a small group
of neurons as they are on a workstation [44]. Furthermore, ANNs
John McCarthy, who coined the term Articial intelligence in

1956 [26], denes it as the science and engineering of making
intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs.
Denitions that are more recent speak of imitating intelligent human behaviour, which is already a much stronger denition [27].
Denitions of AI can be also classied into the following four
categories [28]:
-
Systems
Systems
Systems
Systems
that
that
that
that
think like humans [29,30]

act like humans [31,32]
think rationally [33,34]
act rationally [35,36].
In other word, AI is a term that in its broadest sense would

indicate the ability of a machine or artefact to perform the same
kind of functions that characterize human thought. The term AI has
also been applied to computer systems and programs capable of
performing tasks more complex than straightforward programming, although still far from the realm of actual thought. According
Fig. 1. Feed-forward neural network [13].
are viable computational models for a wide variety of problems,

they play a very important role in prediction, approximation
functions modelling, control of complex systems forecasting,
regression and other problems. Some applications in PV systems
are reviewed by Mellit and Kalogirou in Ref. [13].
2.2.2. Fuzzy logic
The logic of fuzzy sets was rst introduced by Zadeh [45], who
introduced the concept in systems theory and later extended it for
approximate reasoning in expert systems. Fuzzy logic deals with
fuzzy sets and logical statements for modelling human-like
reasoning problems of the real world. A fuzzy set, unlike conventional sets, includes all elements of the universal set of the domain
but with varying membership values in the interval [0,1]. The most
common operators applied to fuzzy sets are AND (minimum), OR
(maximum) and negation (complementation), where AND and
OR have binary arguments, while negation has unary argument
[42]. It is based on fuzzy logic reasoning which employs linguistic
rules in the form of IF-THEN statements. The principle of fuzzy logic
is depicted in Fig. 2.
Fuzzy logic control does not require a conventional model of the
process, whereas most conventional control techniques (i.e.,
model-based control for example), require either an analytical
model or an experimental model [47]. The benet of the application
of fuzzy logic in control, complex system, engineering and real
word problems has been well justied. Applications in photovoltaic
are given in Ref. [13].
2.2.3. Evolutionary algorithms
In articial intelligence, an evolutionary algorithm is a subset of
evolutionary computation, a generic population-based meta-heuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms inspired by
biological evolution, such as reproduction, mutation, recombination, and selection. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the tness
function determines the environment within which the solutions
live (as given by the cost function). Evolution of the population
then takes place after the repeated application of the above operators [48]. Evolutionary computation is becoming common in the
solution of difcult, real world complex problems in engineering
and industry.
The main owchart of the main processes followed by the majority of evolutionary algorithms is given in Fig. 3.
EA includes genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm optimization
(PSO), differential evolution (DE), ant colony optimization (ACO),
and others.
- Genetic algorithm
Genetic algorithm was introduced by John Holland [49] over the
course of the 1960s and 1970s, and nally popularized by one of his
Fig. 3. Evolution algorithm.
students, David Goldberg, who was able to solve a difcult problem

involving the control of gas-pipeline transmission for his dissertation [50]. Since then, many versions of evolutionary programming
have been tried with varying degrees of success. A GAis a stochastic
algorithm that mimics the natural process of biological evolution
[41]. GAs are inspired by the way living organisms are adapted to
the harsh realities of life in a hostile world, i.e., by evolution and
inheritance. The algorithm imitates in the process, the evolution of
a population by selecting only t individuals for reproduction.
Therefore, a GA is an optimum search technique based on the
concepts of natural selection and survival of the ttest. It works
with a xed-size population of possible solutions of a problem,
called individuals, which are evolving in time. GAs nd extensive
applications in intelligent search, machine learning and optimization problems. Problem states in a GA are denoted by chromosomes, which are usually represented by binary strings. A GA
utilizes three principal genetic operators; selection, crossover and
mutation [42].
Some of the advantages of a GA are [51]:
Optimizes with continuous or discrete variables,
Do not require derivative information,
Simultaneously searches from a wide sampling of the cost
surface,
Deals with a large number of variables,
Is well suited for parallel computers,
Optimizes variables with extremely complex cost surfaces (they
can jump out of a local minimum, etc.).
- Particle swarm optimization
Fig. 2. Fuzzy logic diagram (fuzzy inference system) [46].
PSO is a stochastic, population-based EA search method,

modelled after the behaviour of bird ocks. The method was proposed by Kennedy [52]. PSO is similar to GA in that it begins with a
random population matrix. Unlike the GA, PSO has no evolution
operators such as crossover and mutation. The rows in the matrix
are called particles (same as the GA chromosome). They contain the
variable values and are not binary encoded [48]. Nowadays, PSO is a
promising method working in the direction of simulation and
optimization of difcult engineering and other nonlinear complex
problems.
Fig. 4. PLD categories [21].
- Differential evolution
The multi-agent heuristical optimization method known as
differential evolution (DE) is introduced initially by Storn and Price
[53], and works by creating a new potential agent-position by
combining the positions of randomly chosen agents from its population, and updating the agents current position in case of
improvement to its tness. Like GA, the DE method also employs
operators that are dubbed crossover and mutation (albeit with
different meanings), and which are typically applied in turn [54].
Differential evolution algorithm has been demonstrated to be an
efcient and effective optimization method [53].
- Ant colony optimization
Ant colony optimization (ACO) is a population-based metaheuristic that can be used to nd approximate solutions to difcult
optimization problems. In ACO algorithm initially introduced by
Dorigo [55,56], the inspiring source of ant colony optimization is
the foraging behaviour of real ant colonies, which is a probabilistic
algorithm aiming to nd the global optimal solution for a nonlinear
complex problem. ACO mimics the foraging behaviour of the ants to
achieve optimization of the path in a graph.
2.2.4. Hybrid intelligent systems
Hybrid intelligent systems combine more than one of the
technologies introduced above, either as part of an integrated
method of problem solution, or to perform a particular task that is
followed by a second technique, which performs some other task.
For example, neuro-fuzzy is an efcient tool to deal with nonlinearly complicated systems, in which there are linguistic information and data information, simultaneously, i.e., to control a
process, whereas in another hybrid intelligent system a neural
network may be used to derive some parameters and a GA may be
used subsequently to nd an optimum solution to a problem
[57,38].
3. Programmable logic devices
3.1. Denition
3.2. Field programmable gate array

FPGAs are programmable semiconductor devices that are based
around a matrix of congurable logic blocks (CLBs) connected
through programmable interconnections. As opposed to ASICs,
where the device is custom built for the particular design, FPGAs
can be programmed to the desired application or functionality requirements [58].
The fundamental FPGA structures are as follows [59]: logic
blocks, routing matrix & global signals, I/O blocks (IOBs), clock resources, multiplier, memory and advanced features. Generally all
Xilinx FPGAs contain the same basic resources as shown in Fig. 5
[60].
Although one-time programmable (OTP) FPGAs are available,
the dominant types are SRAM-based which can be reprogrammed
as the design evolves. The logic and routing elements in an FPGA
are controlled by programming points, which may be based on
antifuse, Flash, or SRAM technology. For recongurable computing,
SRAM-based FPGAs are the preferred option, and in fact are the
primary style of FPGA devices in the electronics industry as a whole.
In these devices, every routing choice and every logic function are
controlled by a simple memory bit. With all of its memory bits
programmed, by way of a conguration le or bit stream, an FPGA
can be congured to implement the users desired function. Thus,
the conguration can be carried out quickly and without permanent fabrication steps, allowing customization at the users electronics bench, or even in the nal end product. This is why FPGAs
are eld programmable, and why they differ from maskprogrammable devices, which have their functionality xed by
masks during fabrication [19].
FPGAs allow designers to change their designs very late in the
design cycle e even after the end product has been manufactured
and deployed in the eld. In addition, Xilinx FPGAs allow for eld
upgrades to be completed remotely, eliminating the costs associated with re-design or manually updating electronic systems [58].
ASIC and FPGAs have different value to designers and they must be
carefully evaluated before choosing any one over the other. While
FPGAs used to be selected for lower speed/complexity/volume
Programmable logic devices (PLDs) are divided into three primary architectural groups:
- Simple programmable logic devices (SPLDs)
- Complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs)
- Field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs)
While each of these programmable logic device architectures
have typical focused applications, they also have some common
feature overlap which leads to some overlap of applications. Fig. 4
illustrates the overlap between the three PLD technologies. For
example, some applications could be implemented in either a CPLD
or an FPGA.
Fig. 5. Example of distribution of CLBs, IOBs, PIs, RAM blocks, and multipliers in Virtex
II [60].
designs in the past, todays FPGAs easily push the 500 MHz performance barrier. With unprecedented logic density increase and a
host of other features, such as embedded processors, DSP blocks,
clocking, and high-speed serial at ever-lower price points, FPGAs
are a compelling proposition for almost any type of design [58].
FPGAs based hardware solutions, using the devices inherent
parallelism, have been recently received increased attention, as
they allow engineers/designers to develop efcient hardware architectures based on exible software. Additional FPGA advantages
include the fact that their hardware logic is extremely fast, much
faster than software-based logic. They are easier to interface to the
outside world, either through custom peripherals or via glue logic
to custom co-processors. They are also better suited for bit-level
operations than a microprocessor. Other advantages are: ability to
control part obsolescence through design ownership and viable
technology roadmap, improved design update and enhancement
options, higher system performance, lower tool costs and verication costs than ASIC implementation, lower implementation
costs, and allows consolidation of multiple components into a
single component. More potential FPGA advantages are listed in
Ref. [21]. Furthermore, FPGAs are especially suited to control applications requiring custom hardware, such as digital communication protocols, rapid control prototyping, hardware-in-the-loop
simulation, in-vehicle data acquisition, machine control and machine condition monitoring [61]. As reported in Ref. [62] ASIC and
FPGA developments can be done in parallel to get the benets of
both technologies. The FPGA devices are used as prototypes and in
initial shipments to cut the manufacturing lead-time. When the
ASIC devices become available later, they are used for volume
production to reduce cost. Actually, modern FPGAs embed dedicated multipliers to increase the speed of multiply-accumulate
operations that are essential for many DSP designs. However, the
best system performance relies on more than raw multiplier speed
[63]. It is critical to couple these multipliers with a complementary
logic structure and routing fabrics of the same performance. For

example, The Stratix II family seamlessly integrates DSP blocks that
operate at up to 450 MHz with high performance adaptive logic
modules (ALMs) and routing fabric to offer the highest system
performance for the DSP designs [63]. A typical FPGA mapping ow
is shown in Fig. 6.
3.3. Hardware description language (VHDL)
Generally, implementation of any algorithm into FPGA can be
done by using a hardware description language, such as VHDL.
VHDL is a hardware description language; it describes the behaviour of an electronic circuit or system, from which the physical
circuit or system can then be implemented. VHDL stands for VHSIC
Hardware Description Language. VHSIC is itself an abbreviation for
Very High Speed Integrated Circuits, an initiative funded by the
United States Department of Defence in the 1980s that led to the
creation of VHDL [64]. Its rst version VHDL 87 was later upgraded
to the so-called VHDL 93. VHDL was the original and rst hardware
description language to be standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, though the IEEE 1076 standard. An
additional standard, the IEEE 1164, was later added to introduce a
multi-valued logic system.
As reported in Ref. [64] a fundamental motivation to use VHDL is
that VHDL is a standard. The two main immediate applications of
VHDL are in the FPGA and in the eld of ASICs. Once the VHDL code
is written, it can be used either to implement the circuit in a programmable device (from Altera, Xilinx, Atmel, etc.) or can be submitted to foundry for fabrication of an ASIC chip. Currently many
complex commercial chips (for example, microcontrollers) are
designed using such an approach.
V
VHDL
entry
(Registtter Transfer levvel)
Compilation
Source code (VHDL

L or
Verilog)
L
Logic synthesis
Netlist
((Gatelevel)
Bitstream
0100100111011
Simulation
OptttimizedNetlist
((Gatelevel)
Place and
route
Techhnology mappin
ng
Optimisation
Placeement & Routinng
Synthesis
Techhnology mappinng
Phhysicaldevice
FPGA
Fig. 6. A typical FPGA mapping ow [19].
Simulation
Fig. 7. VHDL design ow [64].
A digital system can be described at different levels of abstraction and from different points of view. An HDL should faithfully and
accurately model and describe a circuit, whether already built or
under development, from either the structural or behavioural
views, at the desired level of abstraction. Because HDLs are
modelled after hardware, their semantics and use are very different
from those of traditional programming languages [62]. Figs. 7 and 8
depict a summary of VHDL design ow. Implanting a VHDL code is
principally a two-step process, i.e., synthesis and placement and
routing described bellow [65].
3.3.1. Synthesis
Synthesis involves compiling the VHDL code with tools (e.g.
Xilinx Foundation ISE 11.1i) which is a commercially available tool.
The result of this compilation is a ip-op and logic function
transcription of the high-level functionalities. Some functions can
be resolved in different ways, depending on the target component.
VHDL codes can be simulated using ModelSim Xilinx or other tools.
3.3.2. Placement-and-routing
The result of the placement-and-routing is the nal code to be
implanted on the FPGA. An auxiliary result is the VHDL le giving
the operation of the implanted code and taking the propagation
time of the target device into account. This le can be used in cosimulation and this result in a representation of a virtual prototype. This allows checking that the placement-and-routing has
not altered the performance and that the synchronization of all
signals is compatible with the propagation times.
4. Application of articial intelligent based method for MPP
tracking
As reported in Table 1 [2], the current efciencies of different PV
technology commercial modules varied between 6 and 20%. In
addition, the efciency of a photovoltaic cell/module is quite
dependent to the environmental conditions, such as solar irradiance, air temperature, dust accumulation, shading, mismatch, and
other less important parameters. With reference to Table 1, the low
energy conversion efciency of PV materials remains a barrier and
necessitates tracking the maximum power point of the PV module
to ensure the maximum energy production.
Extracting the optimal power from a PV arrays has been
addressed generally in two ways:
- Optimal conguration of PV arrays.
- Design efcient MPPT algorithms.
Uniform conditions
Non-Uniform conditions
Table 1
Current efciencies of different PV technology commercial modules [2].
Wafer-based c-Si
Thin lms
SceSi
14e20%
a-Si, a-Si/mc-Si
6e9%
mc-Si
13e15%
CdTe
9e11%
CIS/CIGS
10e12%
In this paper, we focus on the second category of methods. As an

example, Fig. 8 shows the power-voltage characteristics under
uniform and non-uniform insolation conditions.
As can be observed, under uniform insolation conditions (solid
line), the PeV characteristic presents a unique point, so-called the
MPP, in which the PV array operates with maximum efciency and
produces maximum output power. Under non-uniform insolation
conditions (dotted line), it is possible to have in the PeV characteristic multiple local MPP and only one global MPP for the entire
arrays. The non-uniform insolation occurs quite frequently due to
clouds, trees, electric poles, and the shadow of neighbouring
buildings. In such a situation, the produced power by photovoltaic
modules/arrays can be reduced signicantly, and therefore development of an efcient technique to keep the system working in its
global MPP continuously is a big challenge.
The efcient operation of photovoltaic systems requires an optimum transfer of energy generated in the array to load. For this, an
adaptive DCeDC converter is usually added to photovoltaic systems; however, to keep a photovoltaic module/array working in its
MPP, an efcient MPPT algorithm should be integrated, see for
example Fig. 9.
An overview on the applications of AI techniques-based MPPT
for photovoltaic systems is provided in this section. Table 2 reports
a summary of different efcient MPPT methods using intelligent
MPPT controllers (such as fuzzy logic, neural network, evolutionary
algorithms, and hybrid systems).
As can be observed the area of application includes both standalone and grid-connected PV systems under uniform insolation and
partial shading conditions.
4.1. Application of FL for MPP tracking
Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) belongs to the class of articial intelligent control. FLC utilizes knowledge-based decision-making
employing techniques of fuzzy logic in determining the control
actions. The application of fuzzy logic to track the MPP in photovoltaic systems has been widely used with good efciency [66e82].
Table 3 summarizes the applications of fuzzy logic controller for
tracking the MPPT of photovoltaic systems whereas Fig. 10 shows
the basic schematic block diagram of two-inputs one-output digital
fuzzy logic controller.
The application of fuzzy logic for tracking the MPP in photovoltaic systems has been rstly introduced in Refs. [66e69].
Global MPP
Power
Local MPPs
Voltage
Fig. 8. PeV characteristics of a photovoltaic array under uniform (solid line) and nonuniform (dotted line) insolation conditions.
Fig. 9. Example of a stand-alone PV system with integrated MPPT algorithm.
Table 2
Summary of the numbers of applications presented in tracking the MPP for
photovoltaic systems using articial intelligence techniques.
AI-techniques
Area of applications
Number of
applications
Fuzzy logic
controllers
- MPP tracking in
PV modules
- Grid-connected
PV systems under
uniform and
non-uniform insolation
- Water pumping
photovoltaic systems
- Stand-alone
17
Neural
networks
- MPP tracking in
PV module
- Grid-connected
PV systems
- High concentration
PV under uniform
insolation
- Stand-alone
15
Neural networks
and fuzzy logic
controller
- MPP tracking in
PV systems under
uniform and non-uniform
insolation conditions
13
Genetic algorithm
and fuzzy logic
controller
- Stand-alone
- Photovoltaic module
Genetic algorithm
and neural networks
controller
- Stand-alone
- Photovoltaic module
Evolutionary
algorithms
- Tracking the global MPP

under partial shading
conditions of PV systems
- Partial shading
photovoltaic generator
- Stand-alone PV system
with induction
motor drive
13
- Tracking the global

MPP under partial
shading conditions
of PV systems
10
Application of
hybrid methods
MPPT controller for a grid-connected PV generation system, which

is a representative example of this category and proved that the
fuzzy logic control is an effective tool to extract maximum power to
the grid. A microcontroller has been programmed to generate ring
pulses to the thyristors in the inverter. The method takes also in
consideration the shading problem of PV panel. According to the
authors, when a fraction of a module is shaded, the panel voltage
and the panel current get reduced resulting in decrease of
maximum power from the array. Hence, the ring angle correspondingly gets reduced from the value when no shading occurs.
TakagieSugeno (TeS) fuzzy-model-based approach is designed to
track the MPPT [74]. The proposed TeS fuzzy controller directly
drives the system to the maximum power point without searching
the maximum power and measuring insolation. According to the
author, when considering disturbance and uncertainty, robust
MPPT is guaranteed by advanced gain design. The developed
controller is realized by a DSP-based control card (dSPACEDS1104).
The proposed controller has a strict stability and performance
analysis, and it could be implemented easily.
Chiu and Ouyang [75] proposed a unied TeS fuzzy MPPT
control method for uncertain solar power generation systems. According to the authors, advantages of the proposed control method
are summarized as:
1) no coordinate transformation and no calculation of the
maximum power operational point is required;
2) the overall stability has strict analysis, which is lacked in
traditional methods; and
3) better control performance is obtained in comparison with the
traditional methods from theoretical analysis and experiments.
Table 3
Summary of the applications of fuzzy logic for MPP tracking of photovoltaic systems.
Patcharaprakiti et al. [70] have proposed a method of MPPT using

adaptive fuzzy logic (AFL) control for grid-connected PV systems.
The system is composed of a boost converter and a single-phase
inverter connected to a utility grid. Results show that this system
is able to adapt the fuzzy parameters for fast response, and good
transient performance, which is insensitive to variations in external
disturbances. The efciency of the system depends on the insolation variation. A novel and simple on-line FL-based dynamic search,
detection and tracking controller developed to ensure MPP operation under variations in solar insolation, ambient temperature and
electric load is proposed by Atlas and Sharaf [71]. According to the
authors, MPP-search and detection algorithm is fully dynamic in
nature and operates without requiring direct measurement or
forecasted PV array information about the irradiation and temperature. The method is also tested under rapid variation of irradiance and simulation results conrm the effectiveness of the
method.
Lian et al. [72] have proposed a TakagieSugeno (TeS) fuzzy
method to deal with the power-tracking problem of the power
generating systems. The designed method has been veried
experimentally using dSPACE. Gounden et al. [73] presented an
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
Won et al.
[66]
1994
[67]
1994
Senjyu and
Uezato
Simoes et al.
[68]
1998
Mahmoud et al.
[69]
2000
Patcharaprakiti et al.
[70]
2005
Altas and Sharaf
[71]
2008
Lian et al.
[72]
2008
Gounden et al.
[73]
2009
Chiu
[74]
2010
10
Chiu and Ouyang
[75]
2011
11
12
Messai et al.
Algazar et al.
[76]
[77]
2011
2012
13
Ramaprabha et al.
[78]
2012
14
[79]
2012
15
Al Nabulsi and
Dhaouadi
Chao et al.
MPPT for
PV arrays
MPPT for
PV arrays
Photovoltaic
system
Photovoltaic
system
Grid-connected
photovoltaic system
Photovoltaic solar
energy systems/rapid
variation of insolation
Micro-grid
photovoltaic system
Grid-connected
Solar power
generation systems
Control of uncertain
Photovoltaic module
Stand-alone water
pumping system
Partially shaded solar
photovoltaic system
Stand-alone PV system
[80]
2012
16
Alajmi et al.
[81]
2013
17
Dounis et al.
[82]
2013
Generic photovoltaic
system for two-stage
DCeDC converter
Partially shaded
in microgrids
Fig. 10. Example of a basic MPPT-based fuzzy logic controller.
Messai et al. [76] have designed a fuzzy-logic controller (FLC) for

seeking the MPP deliverable by a photovoltaic module using the
measured values of the photovoltaic current and voltage. The
simulation results obtained show a satisfactory performance with a
good agreement between the expected and the obtained values. A
similar FLC was developed in Ref. [77] to track the MPP of a standalone PV water pumping system. The developed intelligent method
was tested under variable temperature and insolation conditions. It
was shown that the system with MPPT using FLC increase the efciency of energy production from the PV.
A modied Fibonacci search based MPPT scheme and FLC for a
PV array is introduced in Ref. [78]. Results show that the method
tracks very fast the global MPPT. In addition, the GA optimized
fuzzy control improved the tracking performance compared with
the conventional PI controller and FLC which avoids the tuning of
controller parameters. A new digital control scheme for a standalone PV using FL and dual MPPT controller is proposed in Ref.
[79]. Two controllers were designed, the rst one is an astronomical
two-axis sun tracker that keeps maximum radiation on the panel
throughout the day, and the second one is a new fuzzy-based MPPT
technique to change adaptively the P&O perturbation step size. The
designed system has been developed and implemented on DSP
(TMS320F28335eZdsp). The results show that the proposed control
scheme achieves stable operation in the entire region of the PV
Table 4
Summary of applications of ANN techniques for MPP tracking in PV systems.
#
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
1
2
5
Hiyama et al.
Hiyama and Kitabayashi
Veerachary and Yadaiah
[83]
[84]
[85]
1995
1997
2000
Photovoltaic modules
Al-Moudi and Zhang
[86]
2000
Zhang et al.
[87]
2002
6
7
8
9
10
Ocran et al.
Bahgat et al.
Nguyen et al.
Lee et al.
Rai et al.
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
[92]
2005
2005
2007
2010
2011
11
12
Islam and Kabir

Kassem
[93]
[94]
2011
2012
13
Liu et al.
[95]
2013
14
Almonacid et al.
[96]
2013
15
Ben Ammar et al.
[97]
2013
Photovoltaic system
supplied DC motors
Grid-connected
Grid-connected
Solar electric vehicle
Photovoltaic arrays
Solar photovoltaic
systems
Photovoltaic generator
powered DC
motor-pump system
operating under fast
changing environments
High Concentrator
Photovoltaic (HCPV)
module
PV/T pumping system
panel and therefore eliminates the resulting oscillations around the

MPPT.
Chaoet al. [80] developed an intelligent MPPT of PV system
based on FLC. It has been shown that, the optimized tracking speed
of the proposed FC-MPPT is in fact more stable and faster than the
general P&O method with the boost voltage capable of offering a
stable DC output. The method was veried experimentally using a
DSP (TMS320F2812), and the efciency is about 96%. Recently, a
modied fuzzy-logic-based MPPT has been proposed to extract the
GMPP (Global Maximum Power Point) under partially shaded PV
system conditions [81].
An advanced microcontroller (Inneon TriCore/TC1796)is used
to realize the proposed MPPT. The controller offers accurate
convergence to the global maximum operating point under
different PSCs. The results of the proposed MPPT exhibit a faster
converging speed, less oscillations around the MPP under steadystate conditions, and no divergence from the MPP during varying
weather conditions. Dounis et al. [82] proposed a methodology to
track the MPP using feedback control based on a proportionale
integral-derivative (PID) controller tuned by fuzzy gain scheduling
and online adaptation of the scaling factors. Results showed that
the designed adaptive approach achieve a good maximum power
operation under any conditions such as different levels of solar
radiation and PV cell temperature for varying PV sources.
4.2. Application of ANNs for MPP tracking
MPPT-based ANN controller has been largely used in photovoltaic systems. The capability of the ANN to track the MPPT under
uniform atmospheric conditions has been proven [83e97]. Table 4
reports different MPPT methods based on neural networks for
photovoltaic systems. Fig. 11 depicts an example of a schematic
diagram of MPPT-based ANN controller. In this method, Vref or MPP
could be estimated from measured PV voltage and current or
measurement of solar irradiance and air temperature, however, an
additional controller is required, e.g. PID or other.
Hiyama et al. [83] and Hiyama and Kitabayashi [84] used a
neural network for estimating the maximum-power generation
from PV module using environmental information. The proposed
network can be utilized for the prediction of the next days generation from the PV systems by using the predicted information
from a weather ofce. According to the authors, the proposed
method gives more accurate prediction compared to the prediction
obtained by using the conventional multiple regression models.
Veerachary and Yadaiah [85] presented an application of an ANN
for the identication of the optimal operating point of a PV supplying a separately excited DC motor, driving two different load
torques. They found that the ANN provides a highly accurate
identication/tracking of optimal operating points even with stochastically varying solar insolation. Al-Moudi and Zhang [86] and
10
Fig. 11. Example of MPPT-based ANN controller.
Zhang et al. [87] presented an application of radial basis function

networks (RBFNs) for solar array modelling and maximum-power
point prediction. The proposed RBFN model can lead to energy
saving, and it can calculate MPPs accurately and without searching
around the optimal power point, which is required by the P&O
method. The RBFN-based scheme can be used to predict the
reference voltage on-line for the power conditioner of any PV-gridconnected system.
Ocran et al. [88] used an ANN MPPT for solar electric vehicles.
The MPPT is based on a highly efcient boost converter with
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power switch. The reference
voltage for the MPPT is obtained by an ANN with gradient descent
momentum algorithm. The experimental and simulation results
show that the proposed scheme is highly efcient. Bahgat et al. [89]
presented an algorithm for maximum power point tracking
controller for PV systems using neural networks. According to the
authors, the experimental results showed that the PV system with
MPPT always tracks the peak power point of the PV module under
various operating conditions. The MPPT transmits about 97% of the
actual maximum-power generated by the PV module. The MPPT
not only increases the power from the PV module to the load, but
also maintains longer operating periods for the PV system. The air
velocity and the air mass ow rate of the mechanical load are
increased considerably, due to the increase of the PV system power.
It is also found that the increase in the output energy due to the use
of MPPT is about 45.2% for a clear sunny day. A neural network
based model of the shadow effect on maximum output power of
the solar PV array is described by Nguyen et al. [90]. It is assumed
that shading due to moving objects such as clouds has a uniform
Table 5
Summary of applications ANN-FL techniques for MPP tracking in PV systems.
#
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
Veerachary et al.
[98]
2003
2
3
4
5
Khaehintung et al.
Kottas et al.
Karlis et al.
Syafaruddin et al.
[99]
[100]
[101]
[102,103]
2003
2006
2007
2009
6
7
Iqbal et al.
Aymen et al.
[104]
[105]
2010
2010
8
9
10
Ben Salah and Ouali

Subiyanto et al.
Abu-Rub et al.
[106]
[107]
[108]
2011
2012
2012
11
12
Afghoul et al.
Tarek et al.
[109]
[110]
2003
2013
Coupled-inductor
interleaved-boost
converter supplied
PV systems
Photovoltaic array
Photovoltaic module
Three phase
grid-connected
Photovoltaic system
Photovoltaic
generation systems
PV module
effect on the PV array, and hence, it uses only the sun position to
consider the effect of partial shading. This is advantageous as it
needs fewer inputs to train the neural network. However, the
assumption of a uniform shading effect due to mobile objects is not
always valid.
An articial neural network based MPPT method has been
proposed for searching maximum power point [91]. The method
combines an ANN-based model and the incremental conductance
method. The proposed algorithm is veried experimentally using
dSPACE 1104 with good accuracy. Rai et al. [92] proposed an ANN
based maximum power point tracking controller for Solar PV system and analysed it in MATLAB/Simulink. The model was used to
predict maximum power voltage and maximum power current
under variable atmospheric and load conditions. According to the
authors, the simulated results show that the ANN based controller
in its MPPT performance excels over the conventional PID
controller and avoids the tuning of controller parameters. Islam and
Kabir [93] used a neural network to track the MPP of PV systems
and the MATLAB/Simulink is used to simulate the developed ANNbased MPPT algorithm. According to the authors the ANN-based
algorithm performs better than fuzzy logic with changes of solar
irradiance and air temperature. An intelligent (NARMA-ANN)
method for tracking the MPP in a photovoltaic water pumping was
proposed in Ref. [94]. Simulation results show that accurate MPPT
tracking performance of the proposed system has been achieved.
Further, the performance of the proposed ANN controller is
compared with a PID controller through simulation studies. The
obtained results demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of
the proposed approach.
A new embedded digital MPPT system based on ANN is recently
developed by Liu et al. [95]. The advantages of the proposed system
include low computation requirement, fast tracking speed and high
static/dynamic tracking efciencies. In addition, using the developed neural network model, the photovoltaic generation systems
user can apply the developed MPPT controller to any photovoltaic
module without the need to modify the rmware of the photovoltaic generation system. An ANN-based model is developed by
Almonacid et al. [96] to predict the maximum power of an HCPV
module using easily measurable atmospheric parameters. The results showed that using atmospheric parameters, the proposed
ANN is capable of estimating the maximum power of an HCPV
module with a root mean square error of 3.29%. Ben Ammar et al.
[97] have suggested a PV/T control algorithm based on ANN to
detect the optimal power operating point (OPOP) by considering
the PV/T model behaviour. Simulation results conrm that the
approach delivers fast and accurate PV/T ow rate control.
4.3. Application of combined ANNs and FL for MPP tracking
Articial neural networks and fuzzy logic have been combined
in order to improve the efciency of the tracking MPP controller;
here this technique is applied for photovoltaic systems under uniform and non-uniform conditions. The applications of hybrid systems, which combine ANNs and FL for MPP tracking, are reported in
Table 5. Fig. 12 shows a block diagram of MPPT-based ANFIS
controller. This diagram is similar to Fig. 5 just FL is replaced by
ANFIS controller.
Veerachary et al. [98] proposed a feed-forward MP-point
tracking scheme for the coupled-inductor interleaved-boost
converter-fed PV system using a fuzzy controller. Simulation and
experimental results demonstrated the peak power tracking
capability of the proposed scheme. It was also demonstrated that
the fuzzy control improves the tracking performance compared to
the conventional PI controller and, thus, avoids the tuning of
controller parameters. Khaehintung et al. [99], proposed an adaptive ANFIS to track the MPP in PV systems in which the sliding mode
control (SMC) was used to eliminate the need for training of the
ANFIS. Simulation and experimental results conrm the ability of
the technique to track the MPP with good accuracy. Kottas et al.
[100] developed a method for MPPT using a fuzzy cognitive
network. According to the authors, the methodology can be applied
on any photovoltaic array of the market. Due to the existence of the
fuzzy cognitive networks (FCN) the method could track and adapt
to any physical variations of the photovoltaic array through time.
Therefore, the method is guaranteed to present its very good performance independently of these variations. A novel MPPT method
based on FCN is proposed by Karlis et al. [101] which give a good
maximum-power operation of any PV array under different conditions such as changing insolation and temperature. The numerical results show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.
According to the author, the total annual error for the year 2002 of
the P&O method is estimated to be 6.61%.
Syafaruddin et al. [102,103] proposed a novel MPPT algorithm
using articial neural network and fuzzy logic with polar information controller. The ANN with three-layer feed-forward is
trained once for several partial shading conditions (PSC) to determine the Global MPP (GMPP) voltage; therefore, it is system
dependent. Moreover, this method uses insolation and temperature
as inputs to obtain GMPP, while this information is often not
available in power generation system. An ANFIS based MPPT
controller was developed by Iqbal et al. [104]. The ANFIS is trained
to estimate the MPP under various solar irradiance and air temperature. Results indicate that the proposed MPPT effectively extracts maximum available power from a solar PV module. Aymen
et al. [105] proposed a novel methodology for maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) of a grid-connected 20 kW photovoltaic (PV)
system using neuro-fuzzy network. Simulation results under
several rapid irradiance variations showed that the MPPT method
fullled the highest efciency compared to a conventional single
neural network and the Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm
dispositive. Ben Salah and Ouali [106] carried out a comparative
11
Table 6
Summary of applications of combined ANN and FL with GA techniques for MPP
tracking in PV systems.
#
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
Akkaya et al.
[111]
2007
2
3
4
5
Larbes et al.
Liao
Messai et al.
Afsin and Akkaya
[112]
[113]
[46]
[114]
2009
2010
2011
2012
Photovoltaic system
with A brushless DC
(BLDC) motor drive
Photovoltaic MPP prediction
Sand-alone PV system
with induction motor drive
study between the fuzzy logic and the NN to track the MPP for solar
PV system. The developed MPPT controllers receive solar radiation
and photovoltaic cell temperature as inputs, and estimate the optimum duty cycle corresponding to maximum power as output.
According to the authors, the FL controller can generate up to 99% of
the actual maximum power and the NN controller can generate up
to 92% of it. Subiyanto et al. [107] developed an intelligent method
to track the MPP of PV system by using a Hopeld neural network
(HNN) optimized fuzzy logic controller. According to the authors,
the proposed HNN optimized FLC can provide accurate tracking of
the PV maximum power point and improve the efciency of PV
systems. An articial-intelligence-based solution to interface and
deliver maximum power from a photovoltaic (PV) power generating system in standalone operation is proposed by Abu-Rub et al.
[108]. The closed-loop control of the Quasi Z-Source Inverter (QZSI)
regulates the shoot through duty ratio and the modulation index to
effectively control the injected power and maintain the stringent
voltage, current, and frequency conditions. Other methods are
recently published in Refs. [109,110].
4.4. Application of combined FL and ANN with GA for MPP tracking
Applications of combined FL, ANN and GA to track the MPP are
summarized in Table 6. In these applications, genetic algorithms are
used generally to tune the fuzzy logic parameters, as well as to
optimize the structure of the neural network (i.e., the number of
hidden layers, and neurons) in order to improve the efciency of
the controller.
Akkaya et al. [111] presented a brushless DC motor drive for
heating, ventilating and air conditioning fans, which is the load of a
PV system with an MPPT. The MPPT controller is based on a genetic
assisted multilayer perceptron neural network (GA-MLP-NN)
structure and includes a DCeDC boost converter. The DSP-based
unit provides rapid achievement of the MPPT and current control
of a brushless DC (BLDC) motor drive. The performance results of
the system are given and experimental results are presented for a
120 W laboratory prototype. Larbes et al. [112] developed an MPPT-
Fig. 12. Example of a block diagram of MPPT-based ANFIS controller.
12
Table 7
Summary of applications of evolutionary algorithms (GA, PSO and ACO) for MPP
tracking in PV systems.
#
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
Chen et al.
[116]
2010
Taheri et al.
[117]
2010
Tumbelaka
and Miyatake
[118]
2010
Miyatake et al.
[119]
2011
Ngan and Tan
[120]
2011
Ishaque et al.
[121]
2012
Liu et al.
[122]
2012
Ishaque et al.
[123]
2012
Photovoltaic module under

uniform insolation
Grid-connected PV systems
conditions
A grid current-controlled
inverter with particle
swarm optimization
MPPT for PV generators
Multiple photovoltaic
arrays under partial shading
conditions/grid connected
Multiple peaks tracking
algorithm using PSO incorporated
with articial neural network
Photovoltaic generating system
under partial shading conditions
PSO-Based MPPT under partial
shading conditions
A direct control based maximum
power point tracking method
for photovoltaic system under
partial shading conditions using
PSO algorithm
A deterministic particle swarm
optimization MPPT for PV
systems under partial shading
conditions
A novel ant colony
optimization-based maximum
power point tracking for
photovoltaic systems under
partial shading conditions
ACO with PID and fuzzy logic
for MPPT in stand-alone PV systems
Shading solar photovoltaic
generators
Ishaque
and Salam
[124]
2013
10
Jiang et al.
[125]
2013
12
Adly and
Besheer
Shaiek et al.
[126]
2013
[127]
2013
13
algorithms become a successful alternative for the conventional

tuning method to adapt controllers. Recently, these techniques
have justied their capability to track the global MPP for photovoltaic systems. They are employed to track the MPP under uniform
and non-uniform conditions with successful results. As an example,
Fig. 13 shows a owchart of a standard PSO used in tracking of MPP.
Chen et al. [116] presented an MPPT method based on biological
swarm chasing behaviour to increase the MPPT performance. This
method is only applicable when the entire module is under uniform
insolation conditions, hence PSC is not considered. Taheri et al.
[117] have used a differential evolution algorithm to track the global
MPP under partial shading conditions. According to the authors,
simulation results show that DE can track MPP very fast and
accurately. Tumbelaka and Miyatake [118] have proposed a three
phase, four-wire controlled voltage source inverter for both power
quality improvement and SPV energy extraction. The MPPT
controller employs the PSO technique. From computer simulation
results, it proves that grid currents are sinusoidal and in phase with
grid voltages, delivering maximum power to the loads.
Sttart
PSO innitialization
j=1
Callculate the fitnesss value of particlee j
Betterind
ddividual
fitness vvalue ?
based FL controller, which is optimized by using a GA in order to

improve the efciency of the system under variable temperature
and irradiance conditions. The results show that the developed FL
controller with GA performs better than the classical fuzzy logic
controller. A hybrid Genetic k-Means Algorithm (GKA) was proposed by Liao to improve the effectiveness of maximum power
point track [113]. By precisely determining the number of centers
and the clustering of the training patterns using the proposed
methods, the objective of accurately and rapidly approximate the
MPP of PV systems has been achieved with the least squares criterion in RBFN. Messai et al. [46] demonstrated that the application
of genetic algorithms to fuzzy logic controllers (GA-FL) design holds
a great deal of promise in overcoming two of the major problems in
fuzzy controller design; design time and design optimization. It was
concluded that the performance of the new GA-FL based MPPT is
better than the one obtained with classical FL and P&O controllers.
Afsin and Akkaya [114] proposed an intelligent GA-ANN based
MPPT algorithm for a stand-alone PV system with direct-coupled
induction motor drive. In this method, a PI controller is adopted
for simple implementation. The developed algorithm was implemented on DSP. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness
of the proposed method.
Yes
Update pbest
No
Bettergllobalfitn
ess value ?
Yes
Update gbest
No
Nextparticle
j=j+1
No
All paarticles
a
evaluated
Fitnesss value ?
Yes
Y
es
es
Update particles velocity and positiion
Converrrgence
criterion
n met?
Fitness vvalue?
No
N
Nextiteration
i=i+1
Yes
Y
es
4.5. Application of evolutionary algorithms for MPP tracking

Endd
Table 7 depicts the applications of evolutionary algorithms such

as GA, PSO and ACO for tracking the MPP in photovoltaic systems.
Particle swarm optimization and ant colony optimization
Fig. 13. Flowchart of a standard PSO [115].

Table 8
Summary of applications hybrid methods for MPP tracking in PV systems.
#
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
Mozaffari et al.
[130]
2011
Lin et al.
[131]
2011
Alajmi et al.
[132]
2011
Jinbang et al.
[133]
2011
Sheraz and Abido
[134]
2012
DC motor drives supplied

by PV power system
Stand-alone hybrid power
generation system
Microgrid stand-alone
photovoltaic system
Photovoltaic system
generation
Miyatake et al. [119] attempted to approach the GMPP using the

PSO algorithm. In these investigations, the authors try to realize
centralized MPPT control of the modular (multi-module) Power
Generating System (PGS). These MPPT algorithms have good performance under various partial shading conditions (PSC); however,
these methods are only suitable for systems that consist of multiple
converters. However, for PGS, the use of one central high-power
single-stage electronic converter is very common for economic
reasons and the relative simplicity of the overall system.
A hybrid algorithm of PSO and ANN MPPT algorithm to track the
GMPP is proposed in Ref. [120]. The ANN was used to generate
suitable values of DP and initial value of PV current to the PSO algorithm, when there is a change in solar irradiance. Then PSO algorithm generates the corresponding PV current at MPP.
Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm performs well
to detect the true global peak power. An improved PSO-based MPPT
algorithm for PGS is developed by Ishaque et al. [121]. The results
indicate that the proposed controller outperforms the Hill Climbing
(HC) and gives a number of advantages: it has a faster tracking
speed; it exhibits zero oscillations at the MPP; it could locate the
MPP for any environmental variations including partial shading
condition and large uctuations of insolation; and the algorithm
can easily be developed using a low-cost microcontrollers. Liu et al.
[122] modied the standard version of PSO to meet the practical
consideration of PGS operating under PSC. The proposed method
boasts the advantages such as easy to implement, systemindependent, and high tracking efciency. An MPPT algorithm
based PSO to track the global MPP under partial shading conditions
is developed by Ishaque et al. [123], the advantage of the method is
that it does not need additional control loops. According to the
author, the method performs excellently under all shading
conditions.
13
To improve the efciency of the MPPT capability for PV system

under PSC a deterministic PSO technique is designed in Ref. [124].
Simulation results indicate that the proposed method outperforms
the HC method in terms of global peak tracking speed and accuracy
under various partial shading conditions. Furthermore, it is tested
using the measured data of a tropical cloudy day, which includes
rapid movement of the passing clouds and partial shading. Despite
the wide uctuations in array power, the average efciency for the
10-h test prole reaches 99.5%. Jiang et al. [125] proposed a ACObased MPPT scheme for PV systems. A new control scheme is also
introduced based on the proposed MPPT method. This heuristic
algorithm based technique not only ensures the ability to nd the
global MPP, but also gives a simpler control scheme and lower system cost. Adly and Besheer [126] have used ant system optimization
to improve both the design efciency of PI and fuzzy control systems. It has been shown that the developed MPP tracking technique
enhances the initial starting point of the traditional tracking algorithms and it could be used under variable irradiance levels. Shaiek
et al. [127] have used a GA to track the global MPP under partial
shading conditions using PowerSim toolbox of MATLAB, and making
comparison with two classical techniques. The results indicate that
the GA can track the GMPP successfully. Other intelligent search
methods can be found in Refs. [128,129].
4.6. Application of hybrid methods for MPP tracking
Some applications of hybrid approaches which combine two
methods (intelligent or classical methods) are illustrated in Table 8. As
example, Fig. 14 shows a simplied schematic fuzzy logic with MPPT
classical search algorithms (IC, P&O, HC or other effective search
techniques), however, the search algorithm could also be replaced by
ANN or ANFIS to estimate the reference voltage Vref or MPPref.
Mozaffari et al. [130] employed the incremental conductance
(IC) method which has been improved by using FL. The proposed
FL-IC MPPT scheme provides enough modication to the conventional IC method to enjoy an appropriate variable step size MPPT
control signal for the Z-source inverter (ZSI). The developed
method is used for a water pumping system. An intelligent
controller (RBFN and ENN) is developed to extract the maximum
power from a stand-alone hybrid system (solar-wind). An efcient
power sharing technique, among energy sources, are successfully
demonstrated and showed more efciency, a better transient and
more stability, even under disturbance [131]. Alajmi et al. [132]
used the Hill-Climbing search method, which has been modied
Fig. 14. Example of a block diagram of MPPT-based hybrid methods.
14
Fig. 15. Block diagram of intelligent MPPT controller under FPGA [46].
based on fuzzy logic control for MPPT under rapidly changing

weather conditions. Fuzzy-logic based Hill Climbing offers fast and
accurate converging to the maximum operating point during
steady-state and varying weather conditions compared to conventional HC. Jinbang et al. [133] have developed a hybrid technique using an ANN and the conventional IC algorithm to track the
MPP for a photovoltaic system generation. Simulation results are
shown to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method. A hybrid
method based on DE and ANN was introduced in Ref. [134] to track
the MPP in partial shading conditions. Simulation results showed
that the proposed MPPT-controller could track the MPP in less time
compared to conventional MPP methods and without any uctuation in steady state.
5. FPGA-based implementation of intelligent MPPT
controllers
Developing and producing a digital system is a complicated
process and involves many tasks. The best way to handle the
complexity is to view the circuit at a more abstract level and utilize
software tools to derive the low-level implementation [62]. A critical
step in the design of any electronic product is the nal verication.
Therefore, the designer must take some action to assure that the
product, once in production, will perform to its specication. There
are two general ways to do this: prototyping and simulation [135].
- Prototyping
product. The
measurement
prototype
is
tested
through
operation
and
- Simulation
Simulation attempts to create a virtual prototype by collecting as
much information as is known or considered pertinent about the
components used in the design and the way they are connected.
The majority of the MPPT-based AI techniques are demonstrated
based on simulation results, except some hardware validation using
microcontrollers and DSPs [74,121,136e138]. However, due to the
advantages of recongurable chips such as FPGA reported before,
MPPT-based fuzzy-logic, fuzzy logic optimized GA, adaptive neurofuzzy inference system and neural network controllers have been
recently designed and implemented into recongurable FPGAs
[46,76,139e150], in order to improve the efciency of the photovoltaic system.
High-level design tools are becoming popular for designing
using FPGAs. There are generally three ways to convert the
designed MPPT algorithm to a code source adequate for FPGAs:
The rst is to use directly a hardware description language such
as VHDL or Verilog; however, this method is not easy as more
knowledge about soft-computing and hardware language are
required specially in the case of intelligent techniques, which is a
serious barrier for designers and engineers.
The second way, which is very easy, includes the use of MATLAB/
Simulink, such as system generator [58] from Xilinx that allows
Xilinx chips to be programmed within the common MATLAB
The most obvious and traditional method of design verication

is prototyping. A prototype is a physical approximation of the nal
Fig. 16. Floor planning of the FPGA implementing the MPPT controller and interface
circuits (the used space (area) in the FPGAVirtex II V2MB1000 development kit) [46].
Fig. 17. The designed DCeDC boost converter with data-acquisition system [147].
15
Fig. 18. The Electronics circuit of the designed DCeDC with data-acquisition system reported in Fig. 17 [147].
programming environment. The system generator automatically

compiles designs into low-level representations. Experiments using hardware generation can suggest the hardware speeds that are
possible and, through the resource estimation, give a rough idea of
the cost of the design in hardware. If a promising approach is
identied, system generator can create the bit stream (physical
level) to the FPGA chip. It can also generate equivalent representations of the design, at the same or lower level, and furthermore it
is an equivalent high-level module that performs a specic function
in applications external to system generator (ModelSim hardware
co-simulation) [58].
The third way consist to use another high-level design tool such
as DK2 [151] from Celoxica and Forge [58] from Xilinx, which use
high-level languages such as C and Java to develop the code source
for FPGA. This way is also not easy as it needs more knowledge and
skills and it takes more time.
As example, Fig. 15 depicts the block diagram of FL-based GA
controller for tracking the MPP in a PV module. This controller was
designed using VHDL integrated with the Xilinx Foundation ISE 7.1i
tools.
The used space (area) for the embedded MPPT-based FL-GA
controller into a Virtex II V2MB1000 development kit [46] is
illustrated in Fig. 16. As can be observed this chip is large enough to

implement this controller.
Fig. 17 shows the designed DCeDC boost converter with dataacquisition system for measuring photovoltaic current and
voltage (Iin, Vin, Vout and Iout). While Fig. 18 depicts the corresponding electronics circuit using Eagle software.
Fig. 19 shows the simulated system under MATLAB/Simulink;
the system includes PV module, DCeDC converter, PWM generator,
MPPT algorithm based on GA-FL and a resistive load.
Other results about the implementation of intelligent MPPTs
into FPGA are given in Ref. [149]. For example, Fig. 20(a) and (b)
shows the FPGAVirtexV ML501-XC5VLX50 and the duty cycle
generated by the designed FL-GA controller [149], which is displayed in PWM form with a scope under constant conditions, using
real measured IeV curve at G 700 W/m2, T 24 C. This is the
nal step, which conrms the implementation of designed intelligent controllers into FPGA chip. It should be noted that the
employed VirtexV is more powerful compared to Virtex II used in
our previously designed controllers; it is also very fast and has
more memory space and facilities.
Simulation results using ModelSim software of the MPPT based
FL-GA for rapid variation of solar irradiance and air temperature is
Fig. 19. MATLAB/Simulink of the system (PV module DCeDC converter, PWM generator and GA-FL MPPT controller and load) [147,148].
16
Fig. 20. (a) The FPGA chip used for co-simulation, (b) The duty cycle D generated by the FL-GA controller, displayed in PWM form under constant conditions (G 700 W/m2,
Ta 24 C) using real measured IeV curve [149].
Fig. 21. The evolution of the PV power and duty cycle vs. time of the designed FL-GA for rapid variation of solar irradiance and air temperature (G 700 W/m2,
Ta 24 C / G 300 W/m2, Ta 19 C / G 700 W/m2, Ta 24 C) [149].
shown in Fig. 21. Simulation results show that the designed technique performs better under variable conditions.
As an example, Table 9 reports a comparison between four
intelligent MPPT controllers [149].
Results reported in Refs. [46,76,139e150] indicate that good
effectiveness of the implemented MPP-intelligent controllers is
observed and demonstrate the feasibility of implementing such
techniques in real-time applications. Some of them are tested
experimentally [150]. However, hardware development of a prototype for commercial applications is not yet achieved. We believe
in the future more efforts will be done to make a commercial
prototype of such embedded intelligent MPPT controllers.
Table 10 summarizes the implemented intelligent MPPT controllers into FPGA. It is important to point that the FPGA chip shows
opportunities for improved performance and design exibility for
digital control of MPP in photovoltaic systems. The most implemented intelligent MPPTs are based on: fuzzy logic, neural
network, FL-genetic algorithm, ANFIS and other hybrid techniques
which combine a classical method with one AI technique, e.g. HC
and fuzzy logic.
Cheng et al. [139] implemented a fuzzy MPPT algorithm into
FPGA (Altera Corporation CycloneII chips EP2C8Q208C8), experimental verication show that the method is more quick and
accurate than P&O algorithm and does not cause any oscillation
near the maximum power. A combination method between ANN
and IncCond algorithm is proposed and implemented into an FPGA
chip (FPGAVirtex II Prof of Xilinx) [140]. The ANN increases the
tracking time of the IncCond by guiding the DCeDC converter to
optimal voltage immediately, and then the IncCond tracks the exact
MPP and helps ANN not be trained periodically. Messai et al. [76]
described the hardware implementation of a two-inputs oneoutput digital FLC on a XilinxFPGA chip. The simulation results
obtained with ModelSim Xilinx Edition-III show a satisfactory
performance with a good agreement between the expected and the
obtained values. In another work Messai et al. [46] improved the
efciency of the designed FLC-MPPT using a genetic algorithm, and
then the method has been implemented into an FPGA; results
conrm the good tracking efciency and rapid response to changes
in environmental parameters.
Chekired et al. [141] have developed an MPPT method based on
fuzzy logic, and then the designed method was implemented into
FPGAVirtex II. Results show that the proposed MPPT controller is
faster in transient state and presents smoother signal with less
oscillation in steady state. An adaptive fuzzy MPPT controller is
designed and implemented into FPGA (Altera Corporation Cyclone
II series chip EP2C8Q208C8) [142]. Experiments proved that the
17
Table 9
Comparison of different intelligent MPPT controllers according to their complexity level, rapidity, efciency, power consumption and space memory required in the FPGA chip
[149].
Controllers
Complexity level
Response time (rapidity)
Efciency
Oscillation around the MPPT
Estimated power consumption
Space memory
FL-GA
FL
ANN
ANFIS
Complex
Simple
Medium
Medium
Very fast
Relatively fast
Fast
Relatively fast
More efcient
Efcient
Efcient
Efcient
Negligible
Low
Low
Low
0.46798
0.46678
0.42531
0.46266
z45%
z45%
z25%
z12%
controller using this method can adjust the parameter according to

the change of the external condition with good accuracy.
Two intelligent MPPT controllers have been designed and
implemented on FPGA by Chekired et al. [143]. The implemented
controllers are neuro-fuzzy and FL. Both MPPT controllers have
been evaluated and compared in real-time simulation. The implementation of intelligent controllers into FPGA for the tracking of the
MPP is very promising. They achieved very good performances, fast
responses without overshoot and less uctuation in the steady
state, for rapid variation of atmospheric conditions.
To increase the energy generation efciency of the solar cells,
Hamed and El-Moghany [144] proposed the MPPT using fuzzy
control and implemented into an FPGA card (Spartan-3AN, Xilinx
Company). A Buck DCeDC converter is used for this application. The
comparison shows that the FLC is better in response and does not
depend on the knowledge of any parameter of the PV panel. The
information required for fuzzy control is only the generated power,
therefore, the hardware is simple and the cost of this system is
inexpensive.
A sun tracking generating power system is designed and
implemented in real time using a fuzzy logic [145]. A fuzzy logic
controller is implemented into Spartan-3AN. The proposed FLC
shows an excellent result. It is shown that the sun tracking system
using fuzzy controller with FPGA technology is 24% more energy
efcient than a xed sun panel system.
Punitha et al. [146] used a modied IncCond and fuzzy logic to
track the MPP of a PV system under the partial shading and varying
atmospheric conditions. The designed controller is implemented
into Xilinx spartran-3 FPGA. The experimental results show satisfactory performance of the proposed approaches. Another two
applications on Photovoltaic nodule with DCeDC converter are
presented by Messai [147] and Messai and Mellit [148].
Four intelligent methods for tracking the MPP in photovoltaic
systems have been designed in order to improve the efciency of
PV systems under variable weather conditions (air temperature and
solar irradiance) [149]. The effectiveness of these methods has been
evaluated with different simulation studies under MATLAB/Simulink and ModelSim. The advantages of the intelligent methodsbased MPPT controller are: they offer an alternative approach to
conventional MPPT controllers; they exhibit a faster converging
speed, good performance, better efciency, less oscillation around
the MPP under steady-state conditions, and no divergence from the
MPP during varying weather conditions.
Punitha et al. [150] also developed a method using IncCond algorithm and an ANN to track the MPP under partial shading condition. The developed ANN was used to supply the voltage Vref to
the modied IncCond method. The designed approach was implemented into FPGA to validate the results from the hardware setup.
6. Comments and remarks

With respect to the above reviewed papers, which include the
latest research work, the following key conclusions can be made:

The advantages of the intelligent methods based MPPT controllers are that they exhibit a faster converging speed, good
W
W
W
W
performance and efciency, less oscillations around the MPP

under steady-state conditions, and no divergence from the MPP
during varying weather conditions.
MPPT-based intelligent methods such as fuzzy-logic, neural
networks (MLP, RBF, etc.) and neuro-fuzzy could not be used in
the case of partial shading conditions. These techniques should
be modied or combined with other advanced search algorithms or one of AI techniques (e.g., ANN with PID controller,
fuzzy logic with adaptive search algorithm, fuzzy logic with
ANN, etc.). These techniques can be implemented into FPGA
chips. However, the required FPGA memory space/area and the
simplicity implementation depend mainly to the nal structure
of the developed controller. Generally, Virtex II or Spartan-3E
chips are sufcient to implement the methods [67,149]. Nevertheless, additional effort and more knowledge on FPGAs
conguration are indispensible to optimize the space memory
(area) inside FPGA.
The ANN controller, under uniform insolation and PV array built
of the same PV modules technology, can provide good results.
The main advantages of this technique are that no detailed information about the system is required, are easy to be implemented and requires relatively less memory space. However, it
needs a heuristic sense and it works as a black box. In addition,
its robustness depends on the good training parameters.
Although, good performance has been demonstrated in the
literature, for rapid variation of weather conditions, the method
has some drawbacks [152]. The main drawback of this technique
is that it could fail when the PV modules start to be degraded, at
approximately 10%, especially for thin lm solar cells (CIGS,
CdTe, etc.); in this situation, training with new data should be
carried out periodically. Furthermore, most photovoltaic arrays
have different IeV characteristic, in this case, the problem of
mismatch is observed [153] and the ANN suffer to track the
exact MPP. Therefore, these are the most important points,
which are not cited in almost any published paper using an ANN
to track MPP.
The fuzzy controller can also provide acceptable results and
require less memory space and easy implementation compared
to other AI techniques as reported in Ref. [143]. Furthermore,
this technique does not require the knowledge of the exact
photovoltaic model. However, the shortcoming of fuzzy
computation is to obtain the correct fuzzy rules and membership functions which heavily rely on prior knowledge of the
system and has an impact on the robustness and reliability of
the method. It has been also used in the case of rapid variation of
weather conditions as reported in the literature.
The ANFIS controller exhibits good results compared to the ANN
controller for the point of view of time response and efciency
and require more space memory. However, its robustness depends on the tuning of fuzzy logic parameters and is relatively
easy to be implemented compared to fuzzy logic controllers
optimized by GA [46,148]. It performs also better in rapid variation of weather conditions [148].
Genetic algorithm can be used to track the global MPP in partial
shading conditions [77], however, in some complex cases, the
method fail to track the GMPP. GA shave been employed to
18
Table 10
Summary of the implemented intelligent MPPT controllers into FPGA chip.
#
Authors
Reference
Year
Subject
1
2
Cheng et al.
Dzung et al.
[139]
[140]
2010
2010
Messai et al.
[46]
2011
Messai et al.
[76]
2011
Chekired et al.
[141]
2011
Cheng et al.
[142]
2011
Chekired et al.
[143]
2012
[144]
2012
[145]
2012
10
Hamed and
El-Moghany
Hamed and
El-Moghany
Punitha et al.
[146]
2013
11
Messai
[147]
2013
12
Messai and Mellit
[148]
2013
13
Chekired et al.
[149]
2013
14
Punitha et al.
[150]
2013
Photovoltaic power systems

Grid-connected
photovoltaic system
Stand-alone photovoltaic
system
Photovoltaic nodule with
DCeDC converter
DCeDC converter
Photovoltaic power
generation system
with DCeDC converter
Photovoltaic nodule
Photovoltaic nodule
Photovoltaic module
with sun tracking system
Two stage grid-connected
PV system/under partial
shading conditions
DCeDC converter
DCeDC converter
Stand-alone Photovoltaic
system with DCeDC converter
Photovoltaic system with
DCeDC converter/under
partial shading conditions
improve the efciency of the MPPT-based fuzzy logic controller

by optimizing the membership functions [46,112]. They have
also been used in ANNs controller to automatically select the
important data among all the inputs, resulting in a smaller and
more effective data set [152]. The implementation of this type of
method is relatively complex and needs high technical knowledge and skills in this area. An improved version of GA could
decrease the complexity implementation of the MPPTcontroller, and therefore the required memory space and
response time will be reduced.
Particle swarm optimization and improved versions of PSO, such
as deterministic PSO, are very suitable to track the global MPP in
partial shading conditions [116e123] as this meta-heuristic algorithms work efciently in multivariable problem with multiple maxima. However, they exhibit signicant algorithmic
complexity, which increases the implementation cost of the
global MPP control system, except in the case of deterministic
PSO in which the control structure is simplied [124]. The
implementation of such controller into a recongurable FPGA
chip needs more allocated memory space, and therefore using
other version of FPGA, i.e., Xilinx VirtexV or VIcan resolve the
problem, but may increase the implementation cost.
Differential evolution and ant colony optimization have proven
their capability to track the global MPP [117,134], but they
require additional effort and complex calculations and their
implementation needs also more memory space and running
time. Designed methods should be well optimized in order to
reduce the space memory and the running times.
Hybrid methods in which two techniques were combined have
been developed to improve the efciency of the MPPTcontrollers. For example, conventional methods such as HC, IC
or other can be coupled with intelligent methods [81]. The
mostly used technique is the fuzzy logic, which has been
coupled with ANN and search MPP algorithms [130e132]. Their
implementation, however, seems relatively complex and
requires more space and less response time as it combines two

methods [140].
The possibility of implementation of these techniques into FPGA
chip has been recently justied in Refs. [46,76,139e150] and we
believe that the practical realization of the embedded techniques into FPGA will play an important role to improve
signicantly the efciency of the photovoltaic systems in real
time applications. Furthermore, rapid development of FPGA
chips will strongly contribute to reduce the implementation cost
of such techniques.
As reported in Ref. [154], FPGAs are an excellent choice for designers building industrial ecosystems to meet the rapidly
changing needs of the 21st century factory oor. With Spartan-6
and 7 series FPGAs, exibility, cost competitiveness, ease of
deployment and integration with legacy systems are all advantages that make FPGAs a leading solution for factory automation and control.
Although software tools (such as ModelSim, ISE, etc.) can
automate certain tasks, they are capable of performing only
limited transformation and optimization. They cannot, and will
not, do the design or convert a poor design to a good one. The
ultimate efciency still comes from human ingenuity and
experience [62]. In addition, developing and producing a
digital (hardware) circuit is a complicated process, and the
design and synthesis are only two of the tasks. We should be
aware of the big picture so that the design and synthesis can
be efciently integrated into the overall development and production process [62]. Therefore, these are two interesting points
that should be taken in consideration by the designers working
in this area.
The FPGA chip offers lower cost implementation since the
functions of various components can be integrated onto the
same FPGA chip as opposed to DSP, which can perform only DSPrelated computations. Implementing of complex algorithms in
DSP results in poor performance, and DSPs are difcult to meet
the size, cost and power consumption demands. In addition,
FPGAs can provide equivalent or higher performance with the
customization potential of ASIC. Because FPGAs can be reprogrammed at any time, repairs can be performed in-situ while the
system is running, thus providing a high degree of robustness.
These are some reasons why several scientists in engineering
areas are very motivated by the using of FPGA devices.
Using recent developed FPGA (boards) and tools (software)
allow design teams and engineers to spend less time developing
the structure of such application and more time building
differentiating features into the end application.
Opportunities of using such recongurable programmable
(FPGA) devices to design intelligent MPPTs have been shown.
Using FPGA chips, as an alternative way to implement such
intelligent MPPT techniques, direct to a better compromise between the computation power of ASIC and the exibility of DSP.
Real-time implementation of intelligent MPPT into programmable logic devices such as FPGA has also been veried. However, the main challenges are:
Optimize the nal structure of the implemented MPPT controllers as possible, in order to improve the speed, and the
required space (area) memory on FPGA chips.
Design a lower total cost hardware (prototype) with higher
efciency and low power consumption.
Generalize and adapt the implemented MPPT controllers for
different photovoltaic technologies (devices).
Develop a dynamic, reliable and exible prototype that will be
used in different climatic conditions (arid, semi-arid, etc.).
Generalize the capability of such prototype for large-scale
photovoltaic applications.
Use effectively the resources available on an FPGA chip to

support intelligent MPPT controllers.
7. Conclusions and perspectives

In this paper a number of intelligent methods for tracking the
MPP in photovoltaic systems, under uniform and non-uniform
conditions, have been reviewed. As can be concluded from the
above overview, MPPT controllers based on articial intelligence
techniques were applied in different circumstances. These techniques have been proved more benecial than classical models;
specically from the point of view of efciency and accuracy. In
addition, it is important to point out that recent advances in articial intelligent techniques embedded into an FPGA allowed the
application of such technologies in the tracking of the MPP of
photovoltaic systems.
This review is expected to be benecial for the designers, engineers and scientists working in this area and particularly for those
thinking about the realization of digital intelligent MPPT controller
for real applications. As future research trends and direction,
intelligent algorithms embedded into FPGA could play a very
important role in energy and renewable energy systems by developing digital hardware modules that can be integrated within the
systems. Some examples are the following:
Controller module: control of DCeDC converter and DCeAC
inverter in stand-alone, grid-connected or hybrid photovoltaic
systems. Advanced control techniques (such as model predictive
control, FL control, GA control, etc.) can also be used in other
renewable energy systems.
Fault-detection and diagnosis module: faults detection and
localisation in including stand-alone, grid-connected and hybrid
photovoltaic systems (occurred faults in PV module, PV string,
PV arrays, DCeDC, DCeAC and connection lines). Possible
correction can be carried out via internet or GSM for decentralised systems. This can be applied also in other renewable
energy systems.
Monitoring and supervision module: collecting data (power,
voltage current, temperature, irradiance, etc.) from decentralised renewable energy systems via GSM or internet for system
monitoring and supervision.
Prediction module: prediction of produced power of stand-alone,
grid-connected and hybrid photovoltaic systems, or other
interesting parameters in renewable energy systems.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the TWAS under grants (Ref. 09-108
RG/REN/AF/AC_C: UNESCO FR:3240231224 and 12-194RG/REN/AF/
AC_C: UNESCO FR:3240270869). The rst author would like to
thank the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP),
Trieste (Italy) for providing the materials and the computer facilities for performing the present work.
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1 - ANN&GA-MPPT-based Artificial Intelligence Techniques For Photovoltaic Systems

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Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

MPPT-based articial intelligence techniques for photovoltaic systems

sunlight instead of using fossil fuels, so no carbon dioxide is emitted

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

ofine, online and hybrid methods. Advantages and disadvantages

Integrated Software Environment

of such technologies in real-time modelling, co-simulation and

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

to Barr and Feigenbaum [37] AI is the part of computer science

John McCarthy, who coined the term Articial intelligence in

think like humans [29,30]

In other word, AI is a term that in its broadest sense would

Fig. 1. Feed-forward neural network [13].

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

are viable computational models for a wide variety of problems,

Fig. 3. Evolution algorithm.

students, David Goldberg, who was able to solve a difcult problem

Fig. 2. Fuzzy logic diagram (fuzzy inference system) [46].

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

PSO is a stochastic, population-based EA search method,

3.2. Field programmable gate array

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

logic structure and routing fabrics of the same performance. For

Source code (VHDL

Placeement & Routinng

Fig. 6. A typical FPGA mapping ow [19].

Fig. 7. VHDL design ow [64].

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

In this paper, we focus on the second category of methods. As an

Fig. 9. Example of a stand-alone PV system with integrated MPPT algorithm.

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

- Tracking the global MPP

- Tracking the global

MPPT controller for a grid-connected PV generation system, which

Patcharaprakiti et al. [70] have proposed a method of MPPT using

Altas and Sharaf

Chiu and Ouyang

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

Fig. 10. Example of a basic MPPT-based fuzzy logic controller.

Messai et al. [76] have designed a fuzzy-logic controller (FLC) for

Al-Moudi and Zhang

Islam and Kabir

Ben Ammar et al.

panel and therefore eliminates the resulting oscillations around the

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

Fig. 11. Example of MPPT-based ANN controller.

Zhang et al. [87] presented an application of radial basis function

Ben Salah and Ouali

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

Fig. 12. Example of a block diagram of MPPT-based ANFIS controller.

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

Ngan and Tan

Photovoltaic module under

algorithms become a successful alternative for the conventional

Callculate the fitnesss value of particlee j

based FL controller, which is optimized by using a GA in order to

4.5. Application of evolutionary algorithms for MPP tracking

Table 7 depicts the applications of evolutionary algorithms such

Fig. 13. Flowchart of a standard PSO [115].

A. Mellit, S.A. Kalogirou / Energy 70 (2014) 1e21

Sheraz and Abido

DC motor drives supplied