Flame For Cement Kilns KP Pradeep Kumar

Combustion techniques
and
Coal flame for cement
kiln
If coal is mixed it is burnt

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Always to be remembered
If coal is mixed it is burnt
If flame is wrong everything goes wrong
whatever you may do with chemistry or
higher heat input through calciner or kiln.
The burning zone needs heat and it can be
only obtained from well shaped radiant
flame.i.e., short, snappy and convergent
flame .
Kinetics of coal combustion in kilns

The coal combustion phenomenon takes place in a cement
Rotary kiln takes place in four stages.( for normal coal)
1.Heating
Heating of coal particles takes place by conduction and convection

till ignition takes place is reached.
Ignition temperature of
bituminous coal =
300 O C
lignite
=
250 O C
anthracite
=
400 O C
pet coke
=
800 O C
2. Devolatilisation
Devolatisation process starts after the coal particles attain a
temperature of 350 to 400 O C . At this temperature the coal
bond structure breaks up to yield carbon monoxide , hydrogen
and hydrocarbons.
3.Volatile burning
The volatiles that are formed burn in gas phase and the rate
of burning depend upon two factors , the rate at which the
volatile mix with air after being emitted from the coal particles
and the rate of chemical reaction.
4. Residual char burning

The residual char is the solid carbon left after complete
devolatilisation. As the reaction progresses the residual char
starts to take up 70 to 80 % 0f the total burning time.
heat
Volatile matter evolution

And burning
oxygen
CO2
H2O
NOX
SOX
etc
Char gasification
and
combustion
char
Coal combustion process
Main Processes in Coal Combustion
coal particle
p-coal, d=3070m
volatiles
char
homogeneous
combustion
heterogeneous
combustion
CO2, H2O,
CO2, H2O,
devolatilization
tdevolatile=1-5ms
tvolatiles=50-100ms
tchar=1-2sec
Stages of coal combustion

Coal particle drying , and then heating-up to the
Pyrolysis reaction temperature
Heating up to the pyrolysis reaction temperature
Pyrolysis of the coal particle to produce non-condensable
Volatiles ( gases) , condensable volatiles ( tars) , and
carbonaceous char
Oxidation of the combustible volatiles ; and finally
Char oxidation.
Reburning
Excess air
volatiles
char
homogeneous
combustion
heterogeneous
combustion
devolatilization
CO2, H2O, NO
CO2, H2O, NO
CO2, H2O, N2
CHi + NO HCN
HCN + NO N2 +
CHi
Staged Combustion
Fuel Rich
homogeneous
combustion
volatiles
char
heterogeneous
combustion
Devolatilizatio
n
CO, CO2, H2O, N2
CO, CO2, H2O, N2
CO2, H2O, N2
O2
Combustion time as a function of particle

diameter
The combustion time , T = K ( D ) 1.5
D = diameter of coal particle
K = constant characteristic of coal quality
low for bituminous coal
high for pet coke
That is why we maintain high residue for bitumen coal and low
residue for pet coke (pet coke has low volatile)
The faster the combustion are gases are removed and replaced
by fresh air( hot secondary air), the faster the coal particles burn.
To fulfill this precondition , a high relative velocity between
Combustion air and coal particles is required. This needs a high
flame momentum with high primary air velocity and low % of
Primary air.
For pet coke

And anthracite
For bituminous coal
Relationship between coal types,compostion

and grinding fineness
Petcoke
< 10
< 1.0
4%< + 0.09 mm
0 %< + 0.2 mm
0.5 sec
0.1
Total combustion time
Combustion time
for a particular coal
particle
Ignition time
Burning time of gases
pause
Burning time of carbon(char)
The physical processes influencing

pulverized coal combustion
Turbulent/swirling flow of air and coal.

Turbulent/convective/molecular diffusion of
gaseous reactants and products.
Convective heat transfer through the gas and
between the gas and coal particles.
Radiative heat transfer between the gas and
coal particles and between the coal/air mixture
and the furnace walls.
COAL COMBUSTION CHARS

When coal is combusted in air it burns in a two step process. In the first step
gases are driven out of the coal structure leaving behind a carbon char that burns
in the second step. These chars play a critical role in combustion in that they must
burn up in the reaction zone of the furnace or be carried out of the furnace as
unburnt carbon in fly ash. This unburnt carbon represents an inefficiency as well
as an economic loss because the energy in the unburnt carbon is not being used.
Excess unburnt carbon also destroys the ability of the fly ash to be use as a cement
in a variety of applications.
In modern combustion systems coal is usually ground into a fine powder
(-200 mesh or - 74 micrometers) that features many single maceral particles
. This is significant in that the various macerals tend to have different reactivities
and therefore burn at different rates. Because the different maceral groups form
chars with different morphologies, it is possible to analyze coal combustion chars
to gain information about the nature and reactivity of coals being combusted.
The vitrinite macrerals form chars that take the form of hollow spheres, centispheres
. Semifusinite macerals form centispheres with a lacey or honeycomb structure, and fusinite
maceral char come through the combustion process unfused.
Coal Combustion Char Classification

Tenuisphere
Fused or partially fused hollow spherical or angular char with walls

less than 10 micrometers and porosity greater than 85 %
Crassisphere
Fused to partially fused hollow spherical or angular char with walls

thicker than 10 micrometers and porosity greater than 75 %
Tenuinetwork
Partly fused, thin-wall char with internal network structure and porosity
greater than 75%
Mesophere
Partly fused, thin-wall char with internal network structure and

porosity 40-60%
Inertoid
Unfused particle with a rectangular to irregular shape and low porosity of

5-40%
Solid
Unfused particle with a rectangular to irregular shape and no porosity
Fusinoid
Unfused particle resembling fusinite with original plant cell structure
Mixed Porous
Mixed particle showing both fused and unfused sections with fused
porous section dominant
Mixed Dense
Mixed particle showing both fused and unfused sections with unfused
porous section dominant
Skeletal
Unfused, angular but highly burnt out char, still resembling fusinite
Mineraloid
Char with over 50% mineral matter
Smaller, this balloon- like spheres and thinner its walls ,faster the
combustion. It is very difficult to form such spheres(ceno spheres) from
Pet coke because of low volatile
presence.It needs very high
energy and longer
retention time in ignition zone.
Description: The object in the center of the field is a typical tenuisphere.

It is characterized by its spheroidal shape, open center, and thin walls.
The char forms such hollow spheres , also called Cenospheres before
Mixing with with Oxygen to form gases of various oxides.It easily bursts
Into micro particles of carbon.
Cenosphere
Combustion of char
Once the ignition has occurred the critical reactions as far as
a good combustion in kiln is concerned are:
H + O2 = OH + O
C n H m+ O = C
n-1
Hm+C O
CO + OH = CO2 + H
2CO +O2 +M = 2CO2 + M
H2O + O = 2 OH
2C + O2 = 2 CO
Effect of coal properties on combustion

Moisture content
A moisture content of 1 to 1.5 % in the pulverized coal
promotes combustion.In the presence of hydroxyl ions
(OH)-, the formation CO and CO2 takes place by chain reaction.
on the other hand a higher moisture content increases the thermal
Inertia of reacting species , shift the flame and reduces the flame
temperature.
Volatile matter
The volatile rich coal has a high porosity offering a larger space
area for combustion hence requiring a lower ignition temperature
than volatile less coal ( eg anthracite , pet coke etc).Thus coal rich
volatile matter > 30% decomposes with higher rate and
promotes faster combustion . Volatile rich coal form small
cenospheres with thin walls and decompose faster.
Ash
Ash is an inert component of coal and an increase in quantity
leads to increase in heating time due to added thermal inertia.
Most of the combustible particles of coal will be covered by ash
and hence less surface is available for oxygen diffusion. This
increases the burning time and the residual char causing an
increase in flame length. Overall there is delay in combustion,
elongates the flame . If there is a cloud of clinker dust , what will
happen? This dust will absorb the radiated heat from flame ,
reduce the heat flow to the refractory( and coating) and get
reheated with more stickiness.
Hence optimized cooler airflow with good clinker bed , overall
cooler efficient operation will enhance the combustion efficiency.
Effect of coal moisture content on degree of combustion

Vs distance from the burner.
0
100
90
80
70
60
High moisture
50
40
7
8
30
Low moisture
20
10
9
10
Distance from burner (m)
9 10 0
Degree of combustion
Moisture content
Effect of coal moisture on flame temperature vs

distance from burner
1700
Flame temperature , deg . C
1600
1500
1400
Low moisture
High moisture
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
10
Effect of volatile content on degree of combustion vs

distance from burner
100
90
80
low volatilite , 9.8 %
60
50
40
30
High
Volatilite , 38 %
20
10
9 10 0
Degree of combustion
70
Effect of secondary air velocity on flame temperature Vs

distance from the burner
10
1700
Flame temperature, deg C
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
3
1000
2
900
800
1
1
9 10
Secondary air velocity, m/ s
1800
Heat loss Kcal
Effect of oxygen level on exit gas heat loss
In complete
combustion
-0.5
Optimum operating range

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
oxygen level in kiln exit , %

2.5
3.0
Simulated oxygen content for an ideal flame
Oxygen concentration in kiln

Flame
Cement kiln flame types
Straight flame essentially external recirculation
Type-1 flame
Weak internal recirculation
external recirculation
Type-2 flame
Strong internal recirculation external recirculation
Straight flame of single channel burner

Straight flame is stabilized ( single pipe burner) by the strength of
the external recirculation flow established
by the shear forces between the primary and secondary air streams
Multi channel burner

For multi annual burners , enhancing the internal recirculation flow
patterns can increase the flame stability. This can be accomplished by
reducing the momentum of the inner zones while increasing the
momentum of the outer air zones , or by mounting a bluff body flame
stabilizer in front of the primary stream.
Heat transfer from coal dust flames

Flue gases or flame gases respectively pass their heat to the
environment mainly by radiation and only to a small degree by
conduction and convection. Normally 13 % ( ideal) of the kiln
volume is usually filled , therefore major portion of the heat is
transferred to kiln refractory lining with kiln feed receiving a
relatively a small portion of the total heat volume. Many tried
to keep the flame close to charge but it has negative influence
as coal may get trapped and cause reducing conditions in the
charge which causes reduction of Fe2 O3 and also volatile
recycling of alkalis and sulfur.If it is close to charge which
is 13 18 % , the heat radiated to refractory weakened and
causes poor heat exchange.The heat is carried always by the flue
gases only to result in high backend temperature.
If kiln has stable and optimum coating then then we get the
best heat exchange as it acts as the best heat reservoir.
Burner positioning
We do positioning of the
burner for centering the
flame.The positions
1,2,3, 4 and 7are close
to the refractory and
they are away from the
charge.
Positions9 and 8
are close to charge .
Only 5 is close to charge
and refractory and this is
best as the flame in this
gives the best thermal
distribution to do
effective burning.
Position 8 & 9 is very
close to charge if coal is
trapped it has serious
negative
impact.Position 1,4 & 7
is very close to refractory
and it can burn the
refractory.
Flame positioning towards the charge

There is an illusion if the burner is kept just above the charge or
Impinges the charge burning is better but it is on the other way. In heat
exchange process 85 % of the heat is radiated to refractory and 15 % to the
charge. If flame is kept above the flame.( Beyond the plume it is invisible)If
we are not careful the char takes more time to burn out and hence it is highly
possible the char gets trapped , form local reducing condition , reduce
the haematite ( vicious redox cycle), spoils the liquid and increase the
recycle of sulfurous cycles.
The rules of radiation of solids cannot be applied by the radiation of flames.
Monatomic and diatomic gases like N2 and O2 are in the range of infra-red
entirely transparent and their radiation equals zero.Therefore , the presence
of these gases is only ballast. On the other hand gases with a higher no.of
atoms such as H2), CO2 and SO2 develop a considerable thermal radiation
due to their absorption bands in the IR range.CO2 radiates more than the
others.
The radiation active constituents of the pulverized coal flame are

a. The CO2 content of the flame gases
b. The H2O content of the flame gases
c. C the content of suspended dust in the flame gases
The following requirements result in promoting the heat transfer
By the gases in the clinkering zone
1. An increase in the flame temperature
2. An increase in the concentration of CO2
3. An increase in kiln diameter ( to have 13 % degree of filling)
Thick coating increases the degree of filling , reduces the effective diameter
300 mm thickness is considered as ideal to improve the refractory life as
Well as the heat exchange process.
Multi channel burner
Traditional burner
Function of burner or requisites of a

good flame.
1.The burner must be able to burn fuel with a low excess air and
with a minimum generation of carbon monoxide , nitrogen
Oxides and volatile recycling like SO2 etc.
2 The burner must be able to produce a short, narrow , and
strongly radiant flame which is a requisite for good heat transfer
from flame to material in the sintering zone of the kiln.
3. The flame formation must be conducive to the formation of a
dense . stable coating on the refractory in the burning zone of
the kiln as well as a nodular clinker with a low dust content and
correctly developed clinker minerals.
4.The burner must use as little primary air possible since primary
air is basically false air.
Flame momentum
The burner in kiln functions as an injector, the purpose of
which is to draw the secondary air coming from the cooler
into the flame in order to burn the fuel as near the center of
Kiln as possible.The explains why momentum of the burner
is deciding factor for the flame formation.
Multi channel burner makes a faster entrainment of secondary
air than single channel burner.Higher the momentum better the
entrainment of secondary air and faster the combustion of fuel.
momentum or impulse = % primary air * velocity of primary air
for normal coal = 1200 1500 % m/s
for petcoke > 2500 % m/s
Momentum obtained by low primary air % and higher velocity
is better than higher primary air % and lower velocity
Secondary air
Velocity= 5 6 m/s
Ignition
This depends upon
Rate of mixing of
sec air
and coal particles,
size of,
the fuel particle
and volatile
Content and the
injection
Velocity.
This depends on the

pressure difference
between secondary
air region and
primary air region.
Higher the pressure
difference higher
inner Circulation.
If the jet has good

momentum
it will pull back
the flue gases ,causing
external recirculation.
This is an indication of
Sec,air entrainment into
the primary air jet.Multi
Channel burners do this
Job efficiently. This reduces
the NOX formation.
Secondary
air
Ejector effect
Inside
circulation
Secondary air
Ignition area
Outside
circulation
Ejector effect
Secondary air
taking area
Axial outer stream

Swirl coal +transport air
Swirl inner stream
Recirculated combustion
gas area
Different flames
Flame at the center
Normal flame
Flame with low

Secondary air temp
Distorted nozzle
Flame poor
hood geometry
Or distorted nozzle
Flame downward
Flame upward
Different flames
Normal snappy flame

forms dense and
stable coating
Indication of first dam

Long , lazy flame
With unstable coating
To be remembered: if burner pipe is at the center that does not mean flame
is in center. Visualizing is the best thing to do and it should be done from
right and left peeping holes . If there is a peeping hole just above the burner in
the center help us further to center the flame. A good uniform coating is a fairly
good criterion for a good flame. Uniform shell temperature around the shell is
good indication.
Secondary air velocity Vs flame length

Secondary air
Velocity influences flame
length and shape
Higher the secondary
air velocity longer is
the flame.Here we have
to increase the flame
momentum by increasing
the primary air velocity
at the tip
Higher the sec.air velocity
Lower the hot air pressure region.
Hence we have to increase
the pressure drop at the
tip to pull back more
secondary air towards
the flame. Coating
at the tip , called shark teeth,
increases the secondary
air velocity and so increases the flame length.
Flame trouble shooting

Pulsating flame with CO Peaks at the kiln inlet
1. Fluctuations in coal flow
Check the flow promoters.clean the bin as there may be coating
formation.check the liners in the cone. Bin dusting pressure
should be maintained. Coal flow discharge chute can have coating
formation. Un uniform gap between screw flight and casing.
Firing pump discharge flaps -counter weight needs adjustment .
dedusting for coal feeders device is to be optimum.If FK pump
seal is leaking transport air can go inside the pump screw and
fluidise the coal , change its bulk density and hence the flow.
Pump is a volumetric transport device.
2.insufficient secondary air temperature and flow variation

Optimise the clinker bed in cooler and cooling air to recuperate more
heat. Reduce the variations in the under grate pressure as well as
hood pressure pulsation. If shock blasters are there adjust the
time interval to avoid pressurization of hood.
3. Insufficient transport air velocity or coal injection

velocity
Check the material /air ratio. It is 4 kg coal/ cu .m air to 6 kgs, cu m.
The velocity is 25 to 30 m/s . If it is not so, modify the transport
pipe inner dia or increase the transport air volume.
Too long transport air pipe. The maximum length is 250 meters.
Avoid sharp bends as these bends will cause pressure variations.
during lay out itself it should be considered.
Check the coarseness of coal.Too coarse coal can settle in the

pipe line.
Flame characterised by a long blackcore

( long plume) , increased CO-value at the
kiln inlet
1.Too high coal injection velocity. It is normally 25 - 30 m /s
Increase the coal pipe annular space at tip to have 25 - 30 m/s
tip velocity.Some plants plants run with < 25 m/s also.
2.Insufficient mixing of coal and secondary air( delay in
combustion)
Low secondary air temperature. Arrest false air ingress through
nose ring by cooling fan or false outlet sealing.
3.Coarse coal
Check the separator . Increase the fineness.
Flame burning at the burner tip or

sometimes coal drops
1.Too low coal injection velocity .
This may be due to rotor gap fo blowe has increased or blower filter
got choked. If coal pipe got punctured inside the burner coal will mix
with primary air flow and damage further.
check for wear of the coal injection pipe tip.
Monitor filter DP and rotor gap ( blower pressure )
2. Excessive swirl air

Optimize the swirl air
Flame burning unilaterally

1 .Partial pipe clogging due to foreign matter existing in coal
channel
Remove the foreign matter. When we do the casting ensure
that wet castable mix should not drop into the burner.close
the burner by a plate while casting
2. Worn out centering element for coal channel or air channel.
Unequal spacing of air flow annular space.
Aligning of burner channels so that annular spacing is equal
for coal flow pipe as well for primary airflow
3. Coal pipe got punctured inside the burner and the coal flows
into primary air flow channels.
Change the burner along with coal injection pipe.
As per Pillard, burner needs changes when

coal quality changes.
Coal property
Volatile
increases
Grindability
decreases
Heating value
decreases
Effect
Flame shortens and
Burning zone
Temperature rises
Burner
adjustment
Reduce swirl air,
Increase axial air,
move Burner into kiln
Fineness decreases,
flame lengthens and
temperature drops
Increase swirl air,

retract burner
Heat input drops,

Flame lengthens and
Sintering Temperature
drops
Increase swirl air,

reduce axial air
and increase coal
feed
Characteristic of Flames with and without recirculation

Fuel / air mixing
Flame with recirculation
Flame without recirculation
Good
Poor
Reducing/ oxidizing
conditions
Oxidizing conditions exist

throughout the flame
Flame impingement
None- recirculating gases

Flame impingement occurs
protect refractory and product on refractory where jet
from direct contact
expands to hit the wall( 1114 %)
Carbon monoxide level
CO only produced in
significant quantities below
0.5 %
High levels of CO produced

at oxygen levels as high as 2
4%
Heat release pattern
Rapid mixing gives high

flame temperature and good
heat transfer
Poor fuel/ air mixing gives

gradual heat release with
long flame
Kiln stability
Good flame shape with stable Heat release pattern

considerably affected by
hat release pattern
changes in secondary air
Gives stable operation
temperature, excess air , fuel
quality etc.
Reducing condition occur in

fuel rich part of the flame and
in the area of flame
impingement
Burner swirl number = tangential momentum( N) * characteristic swirl radius(m)

Axial momentum(N)*charateristical channel radius(m)
Flame temperature (T) = Hv / 1.11A s

T
A
Hv
S
= theoretical flame temperature

= combustion air required kg / kg coal
= heating value of fuel
= specific heat of combustion gas ( 0.29)
Heat flux and combustion intensity
Hr = mf C v
Lf D
Where
Hr
mf
Cv
Lf
D
= combustion intensity, kw/ m2

= fuel flow rate, Kg/ s
= net calorific value , kj/ kg
= flame length , m
= kiln internal diameter , m
Swirl coefficient( Swirl number)

As per M.A.S/ Burner,
Sn
tan
.R
ax
.R
e.tan
e.ax
Where
Sn = swirl coefficient ( swirl number)
I
= momentum of swirl air in tangential momentum

Re.tan
= momentum of swirl air in axial direction
tan
I ax = equivalent radius of swirl air duct

R e.ax
= equivalent radius of the axial air duct
Axial index
This index refers to the generation of gaseous re-circulations
externally to the flame/ It is directly to the aspiration and
mixing of secondary air by both primary air and fuel / conveying
air streams. The axial index also has some relation to
reicirculation at the kiln area and the formation of build-ups
at the nose-ring called the so-called shark teeth
Tangential index:
This index refers to re-circulations internally to the flame,
Which has influence in the ignition of the particles and
flame spread. The tangential index has close relationship
With the position and intensity of the first temperature peak
In the kiln. Usually , during burner design the dimensions
Of the nozzles at the tip are calculated in order to allow
The variation of this index inside a predetermined range,
depending on the adjustment of the primary air components.
So , if the basis of design indicates narrower flames , the burner
designer should calculate the tip dimensions to get lower values
of tangential index in the burner operational range. On the other
hand , if the basis of project indicates that the process would
require wide and short flames , then the designer should
calculate The burner operational range to present higher
tangential indexes.
Turbulence index:
This index refers to the position of both temperature

peaks in the kiln.During the calculation of the burner tip
dimensions the turbulence index is checked to be above
a minimum value all over the range of adjustment of the burner.
Usually this minimum value is calculated as a function of
fuel type , fuel preparation ( moisture and fineness ),
secondary air temperature and kiln dimensions.With relationship
to that minimum value of the turbulence index it should be
pointed out that:
Bituminous coal finely ground ( 90 < 170 ) would require
lower turbulence indexes than petroleum coke ground to
the same fineness.
One system operating with 100 % petroleum coke ground to
170 would require higher turbulence index than another
90 <
system operating with the same coke ground to 99 <
170
Dispersion index:
This index refers to the conditions of dispersion of the
pulverized fuel cloud in the primary and secondary air streams.
the dispersion index is related to the intensity of both
Temperature peaks and as consequence , plays a major role
in the study of the thermal NOX generation.
Some additional factors , not directly related to characteristic
dimensionless indexes must be considered during burner
design. The first one refers to the secondary air conditions
( temperature , velocity distribution , dust content, etc). The
second factor is the burner pipe penetration into the kiln
cylinder in view that the length of this penetration has proved
To interfere in both kiln performance and clinker quality.
Finally , the firing hood geometry has some influence in the flame
characteristics as it interferes with secondary air flow pattern
Conclusion
After taking account of all considerations above , it is possible
to conclude that the combustion plays a major role in the
rotary kiln operation , but any improvement in this area should
be faced , first of all , as a cooking problem and merely as a
firing problem. It must be considered all the predominant
Variables of the process and not only those related to the
Oxidation of a fuel. Statement by Peter J Mullinger
Adelaide combustion institute
Though the burner is very efficient we should know how use it.
An experienced man must know how to look into the kiln to have
Proper judgment about the flame being formed by the burner.
Thank you for your kind

attention

Flame For Cement Kilns KP Pradeep Kumar

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Flame For Cement Kilns KP Pradeep Kumar

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Combustion techniques

If coal is mixed it is burnt

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Kinetics of coal combustion in kilns

Heating of coal particles takes place by conduction and convection

4. Residual char burning

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Volatile matter evolution

Coal combustion process

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Main Processes in Coal Combustion

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Stages of coal combustion

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CO, CO2, H2O, N2

CO, CO2, H2O, N2

Combustion time as a function of particle

For pet coke

For bituminous coal

Relationship between coal types,compostion

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Total combustion time

The physical processes influencing

Turbulent/swirling flow of air and coal.

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COAL COMBUSTION CHARS

Coal Combustion Char Classification

Fused or partially fused hollow spherical or angular char with walls

Fused to partially fused hollow spherical or angular char with walls

Partly fused, thin-wall char with internal network structure and

Unfused particle with a rectangular to irregular shape and low porosity of

Unfused particle with a rectangular to irregular shape and no porosity

Unfused particle resembling fusinite with original plant cell structure

Char with over 50% mineral matter

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Description: The object in the center of the field is a typical tenuisphere.

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Effect of coal properties on combustion

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Effect of coal moisture content on degree of combustion

Distance from burner (m)

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Effect of coal moisture on flame temperature vs

Flame temperature , deg . C

Distance from burner (m)

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Effect of volatile content on degree of combustion vs

low volatilite , 9.8 %

Distance from burner (m)

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Effect of secondary air velocity on flame temperature Vs

Flame temperature, deg C

Distance from burner (m)

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Secondary air velocity, m/ s

Heat loss Kcal

Effect of oxygen level on exit gas heat loss

Optimum operating range

oxygen level in kiln exit , %

Simulated oxygen content for an ideal flame

Oxygen concentration in kiln