Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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Lecture contributions
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Prof. Marco Perino, DENERG Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi
24, 10129 Torino, e-mail: marco.perino@polito.it, http://www.polito.it/tebe/
heliochemical,
helioelectrical
heliothermal.
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THE SUN- 1
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http://www.pveducation.org/
The produced energy must be transferred out to the surface and then be
radiated into the space (Stefan Boltzmann law: T4)
THE SUN- 2
At a distance of about O.7R from the center, the temperature drops to about
1.3 x 105 K and the density to 70 kg/m3. Hence for r > 0.7 R convection begins to be
important and the region 0.7R < r < R is known as the convective zone.
The outer layer of this zone is called the photosphere. The edge of the
photosphere is sharply defined, even though it is of low density.
Above the photosphere is a layer of cooler gases several hundred kilometers deep
called the reversing layer.
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Still further out is the corona, of very low density and of very high temperature
(about 106 K).
THE SUN- 3
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THE SUN- 4
The simplified picture of the sun, its physical structure, temperature and density
gradients indicate that the sun, in fact, does not function as a blackbody radiator
at a fixed temperature.
Rather, the emitted solar radiation is the composite result of the several layers
that emit and absorb radiation of various wavelength.
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The photosphere is the source of most solar radiation and is essentially opaque,
as the gases, of which it is composed, are strongly ionized and able to absorb
and emit a continuous spectrum or radiation.
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Extra-atmosferic
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Extra-atmosferic
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The solar constant, Gsc, is the energy from the sun per unit time [W/m2] received
on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
radiation at mean earth-sun distance outside the atmosphere.
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The World Radiation Center (WRC) has adopted a value of Gsc = 1367 W/m2,
with an uncertainty of the order of 1%.
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(1)
where Gon is the extraterrestrial radiation incident on the plane normal to the
radiation on the nth day of the year
DEFINITIONS - 1
Beam Radiation b (e.g. Gb): is the solar radiation received from the sun without
having been scattered by the atmosphere (beam radiation is often referred to as
direct solar radiation; to avoid confusion between subscripts for direct and diffuse,
we use the term beam radiation, subscript b).
Diffuse Radiation d (e.g. Gd): is the solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere (diffuse radiation is
referred to, in some meteorological literature, as sky radiation or solar sky radiation;
the definition used here will distinguish the diffuse solar radiation from infrared
radiation emitted by the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation, subscript d).
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Total Solar Radiation (e.g. G): is the sum of the beam and the diffuse solar
radiation on a surface (the most common measurements of solar radiation are total
radiation on a horizontal surface, often referred to as global radiation on the surface.
When we will make reference to total solar radiation we will not use any subscript).
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G = Gb + Gd
DEFINITIONS - 3
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Irradiance, G [W/m2]: is the rate at which radiant energy (energy flux) is incident on
a surface per unit area of surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance, with
appropriate subscripts for beam (b), diffuse (d), or spectral radiation ().
Irradiation or Radiant Exposure, I or H [J/m2]: is the incident energy per unit area
on a surface, found by integration of irradiance over a specified period (usually an
hour or a day). Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation.
The symbol H is used for insolation for a day. The symbol I is used for insolation for
an hour (or other period if specified).
The symbols H and I can represent beam, or total and can be on surfaces of any
orientation (with their corresponding subscripts).
Subscripts on G, H, and I are as follows:
o refers to radiation above the earth's atmosphere, referred to as
extraterrestrial radiation,
b and d refer, respectively, to beam and diffuse radiation;
T and n refer to radiation on a tilted plane and on a plane normal to the
direction of propagation. If neither T nor n appears, the radiation is on a
horizontal plane.
DEFINITIONS - 4
Radiosity or Radiant Exitance, [W/m2]: is the rate at which radiant energy leaves
a surface per unit area by combined emission, reflection, and transmission.
Emissive Power or Radiant Self-Exitance, [W/m2]: The rate at which radiant
energy leaves a surface per unit area by emission only.
Any of the above defined radiation fluxes, except insolation, can apply to any
specified wavelength range (such as the solar energy spectrum) or to
monochromatic radiation.
Insolation refers only to irradiation in the solar energy spectrum.
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Solar Time: is the time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across
the sky, with solar noon defined as the time the sun crosses the meridian of the
observer.
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Solar time is the time used in all of the sun-angle relationships; it does not coincide
with local clock time (standard time).
It is necessary to convert standard time to solar time by applying two corrections:
First, there is a constant correction for the difference in longitude between the
observer's meridian (local longitude, Lloc) and the meridian on which the local
standard time is based (longitude of the standard meridian for the local time
zone, Lst).
(to find the local standard meridian, in degree, multiply the time difference in
hour between local standard clock time and Greenwhich Mean Time GMT,
by 15. In fact, the sun takes 4 min to transverse 1of longitude).
The second correction is from the equation of time, which takes into account
the perturbations in the earth's rate of rotation which affect the time the sun
crosses the observer's meridian.
The difference in minutes between solar time and standard time is:
Sun
12 PM
day i+1
12 PM
day i
Sun path
swept in 24 h
12 PM
day i+1
12 PM
day i
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Sun path
swept in 24 h
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http://www.artesolare.it/tempo_solare_medio.htm
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http://www.kowoma.de/
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Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone (in ),
Lloc is the longitude of the location in question (in ) ,
longitudes are in degrees west, that is 0< L < 360 .
The parameter E is the equation of time (in minutes)
(4)
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(5)
the equation of time, E, and displacement from the standard meridian (i.e. first
term of right hand side of equation 3) are both in minutes,
there is a 60-min difference between daylight saving time and standard time.
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Care must be exercised in applying the corrections between standard time and
solar time, which can total more than 60 min.
ANGLE DEFINITIONS 1
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ANGLE DEFINITIONS 2
, Latitude: is the angular location north or south of the equator, north positive:
-90 +90
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, Declination: is the angular position of the sun at solar noon (i.e., when the sun is
on the local meridian) with respect to the plane of the equator (e.g. is the angle
between the equator plane and a line drawn from the centre of the earth to the centre
of the sun), north positive:
-23.45 + 23.45
, Slope: is the angle between the plane of the surface in question and the
horizontal ( > 90means that the surface has a downward-facing component ):
0 180
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ANGLE DEFINITIONS 3
, Hour angle: is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 15per hour; morning negative
afternoon positive (solar time must be in hours, hour angle in degrees):
(6)
Additional angles are defined that describe the position of the sun in the sky:
z, Zenith angle: is the angle between the vertical and the line to the sun, that is,
the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface (0 z 90
when the sun is above the horizon)
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s, Solar altitude angle: is the angle between the horizontal and the line to the
sun, that is the complement of the zenith angle (s = 90- z )
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s Solar azimuth angle: the angular displacement from south of the projection of
beam radiation on the horizontal plane. Displacements east of south are negative
and west of south are positive (-180 s +180)
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ANGLES SCHEME 1
Zenith
Sun
z
s
Earth
s = 90 z
S
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Variation in sun-earth distance, the equation of time, E, and declination, , are all
continuously varying functions of time of year.
It is customary to express the time of year in terms of n, the day of the year, and
thus as an integer between 1 and 365.
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All equations could also be used with non integer values of n, but the use of
integer values is adequate for most engineering calculations (the maximum
rate of change of declination is about 0.4per day) .
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http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/
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Tabular data (see table below) help the assessment of n and supply information
about which day of the month must be used as the representative average day of
the month (to be used in some formulas - to be seen later)
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(8)
and
(9)
The angle may exceed 90, which means that the sun is behind the surface.
When using equation (8), it is necessary to ensure that the earth is not blocking
the sun (i.e., that the hour angle, , is between sunrise and sunset).
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reduces to:
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(10a)
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For this case = 0 and the angle of incidence of surfaces sloped due south (or due
North) can be derived from the fact that surfaces with slope to the north or south
have the same angular relationship to beam radiation as a horizontal surface at an
artificial latitude of ( - ) :
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Equation 10 can be solved for the sunset hour angle s , that is when z = 90:
(11)
the sunrise hour angle is the negative of the sunset hour angle.
From this it follows the number of daylight hours, N :
(12)
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(13)
SHADING - 1
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b) The second type includes shading of collectors in other than the first row of
multi-row arrays by the collectors on the adjoining row.
c) shading of windows by overhangs and wingwalls.
When the geometries are regular, shading problems can be assessed through
analytical calculation, and the results can be presented in general form.
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Solar plots are a 2D representation of the sun paths over the sky dome.
These paths are plotted for different periods of the year and are the projection of
the sun orbits over the horizontal plane.
Each solar plot is draw for a specific location (that is, for a certain latitude, ) and
allows to assess the sun position for every hour of the day and for every day of
the year, by means of the solar altitude angle, s, and of the solar azimuth, s.
Solar plots may be plotted in either polar or rectangular coordinate charts.
Solar position plot of z and s, versus s , for latitudes of 45is shown in Figure.
Lines of constant declination, , are labeled by dates of mean days of the months
(see Table 1.6.1). Lines of constant hour angles, , are labeled by hours.
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(plots for latitudes from 0 to 70are included in App endix H of Duffie & Beckman).
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A
B
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maggio - luglio
aprile - agosto
marzo - settembre
febbraio - ottobre
gennaio - novembre
dicembre
90.0
80.0
70.0
altezza zenitale
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
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10.0
0.0
-180.0
-135.0
-90.0
-45.0
0.0
45.0
90.0
135.0
180.0
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azimuth
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Implicit in the preceding discussion is the idea that the solar position at a point in
time can be represented for a point location.
Collectors and receivers, in reality, have finite size, and what one point on a large
receiving surface sees may not he the same as what another point sees.
The hypotheses of a point collector/receiver can be made if the distance between
collector and obstruction is larger compared to the size of the collector itself
(this also implies that the collector is either completely shaded or completely
lighted).
For partially shaded collectors (that is no point hypotheses), it can be considered
to consist of a number of smaller areas, each of which is shaded or not shaded.
Besides solar plots in Rectangular Cartesian coordinates, quite common are also
solar plots in polar coordinates.
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Linea dellora: 15
Results:
s = 30
s = 55
S = 30
S = -55 (= 305)
Assess the sun position at 15.00 oclock of 23rd September at a latitude of 46N
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Alternatively the concept of shading planes and profile angle, p, can be used:
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If the profile angle , p, is less than (90 - ) the receiver surface will see the sun
and it will not be shaded).
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Shading calculations are needed when flat-plate collectors are arranged in rows.
Normally, the first row is unobstructed, but the second row may be partially shaded
by the first, the third by the second, and so on.
For the case where the collectors are long in extent so the end effects are
negligible, the profile angle provides a useful means of determining shading.
As long as the profile angle is greater than the angle CAB, no point on row N will
be shaded by row M (with M = N-1).
If the profile angle at a certain time is CAB and is less than CAB, the portion of
row N below point A will be shaded from beam radiation.
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EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON A
HORIZONTAL SURFACE, Go
Several types of radiation calculations are done using normalized radiation levels,
that is, the ratio of radiation level to the theoretically possible radiation that would
be available if there were no atmosphere.
G o = G o,n cos z
Go,n
z Go
Atmosphere
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(15)
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where Gsc, is the solar constant and n is the day of the year.
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Sun
Gb,n
r
n
z Gb
r
n
Gb,n
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(16)
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Ho
for latitudes in the range +60to -60can be calcul ated, with good approximation,
with the same equation (16), using n and corresponding to the mean day of the
months from Table 1.6.1
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(17)
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The limits 1 and 2 may define a different time other than an hour.
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Atmosphere
GO,n
r
n'
Gb,n
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Gb
r
n
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The symbol G is used to denote rates [W/m2], while I [J/m2], is used for energy
quantities integrated over 1 hour (and H over one day).
Rb =
G b,T
Gb
Rb =
I b,T
Ib
The typical development of Rb, was for hourly periods; in such case to assess
angles with the previous equations angles assessed at the midpoint of the hour
must be used (e.g. for the assessment of Rb for the hour comprised between 10
and 11 am the evaluation of the angles must be done at the time 10.30).
The optimum azimuth angle for flat-plate collectors is usually 0in the northern
hemisphere (or 180in the southern hemisphere).
Thus it is a common situation that = 0(or 180).
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