Preventing School Failure, 55(1), 19, 2011

C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Copyright

ISSN: 1045-988X print
DOI: 10.1080/10459880903217978

Promoting Successful Transitions: What Can We Learn

From RTI to Enhance Outcomes for All Students?
SUZANNE B. THOMAS and FRANK DYKES
University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA

Achieving positive postschool outcomes continues to be a challenge for many students. These challenges are compounded for students
with disabilities, even years after the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (1990; IDEA) required systematic transition
planning. In this era of accountability through high-stakes testing, schools and families may feel that they are sidelined to stand
by helplessly as studentsparticularly those with special needsexperience life-altering circumstances such as high dropout rates,
underemployment and unemployment, failure to access continuing education, and dependent living situations. To nd practical and
relevant suggestions for promoting successful transitions and enhancing postschool outcomes for all students, the authors examine
the emerging tiered-intervention paradigm known as response to intervention.
Keywords: response to intervention, school outcomes, transition planning

Transition planning can be a powerful process for affecting

successful movement from school to postschool for students receiving special education. The Individuals With
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1990) requires transition planning and transition-related activities, dened as a
coordinated set of activities for a student with a disability that is designed in an outcome-oriented process that
promotes movement from school to post-school activities.
Postschool outcomes are described in the areas of employment, postsecondary education and training, and community living and community participation. Beginning at the
age of 16 years (or younger, if appropriate), a statement of
transition services must be included in the individualized
education program. For more than 2 decades since transition services have been prescribed by IDEA, the transition
process has had positive effects on the lives of students and
families, although differential educational and employment
outcomes have been reported by gender, race and ethnicity, SES, and disability classication (Trainor, Lindstrom,
Simon-Burroughs, Martin, & Sorrells, 2008).
Nonetheless, at present, two concerns motivate reconsideration of how and when schools emphasize transition
services. First, postschool outcomes continue to be compromised not only for special education students but also
for general education students. Second, students who are
not classied as being in need of special education and

Address correspondence to Suzanne B. Thomas, University of

Texas at Tyler, 3900 University Boulevard, Tyler, TX 75799, USA.
E-mail: sthomas@uttyler.edu

related services as they are served through response-tointervention (RTI) systems are in danger of not receiving
needed transition support. Risks incurred by this vulnerable population of children are exacerbated when viewed
in light of population statistics that verify increases in the
number of people with intellectual or developmental disabilities who live alone or with unrelated persons (Larson,
Scott, & Lakin, 2008) and who thereby would benet from
transition-related supports.
Although much has been written about the role of the
tiered approach of RTI in the eligibility process for specic learning disabilities and emotional and behavior disorders, researchers have promoted the application of RTI
processes as appropriate as a much broader general education initiative (Batsche, 2007). In this article, we show
how the principles of RTI can be applied to individualize
transition planning to ensure that at least some measure
of transition support is available for youth with or without
special education classication and to maximize optimal
postschool outcomes for all students, not just those in special education.

Postschool outcome concerns

Apprehension has been expressed that the No Child Left
Behind (NCLB; 2001) Act has emphasized teaching core
academic subjects at the expense of teaching functional curricula that would support the development of essential skills
necessary for living successful adult lives. However, there
is evidence showing that even before NCLB, post-school

2
measures showed less-than-optimal outcomes for special education students despite IDEAs transition-related
protections. A January 2007 report indicated signicant
disparities between Americans with and without disabilities
in terms of employment, income levels, education, community activities, political and religious life, access to housing,
transportation, and health care, as well as in emergency
preparedness (National Organization on Disability, 2007).
Examples of disparities experienced by people with disabilities include the following:
1. The employment rate for young adults with disabilities
is substantially lower than that of youth in the general
population. In addition, a signicant number of young
adults with disabilities who are employed are underemployed in low-level, low-paying jobs (Lindstrom, Doren,
Metheny, Johnson, & Zane, 2007; National Organization on Disability, 2007).
2. Young people with disabilities are more likely to drop
out of school and live in dependent arrangements or
in poverty and lack access to affordable housing, transportation, and health care. If these students begin postsecondary education, they are far less likely to complete
it (National Organization on Disability, 2007).
3. People with disabilities report being more isolated. They
participate in fewer community activities such as eating
at a restaurant or attending church services. They do not
have enduring social relationships, report being lonely
and fearful in their homes and communities, and are
less satised with their lives (National Organization on
Disability, 2007; Stancliffe et al., 2007; Wehman, Inge,
Ravelle, & Brooke, 2007).
4. Fewer than half of Americans with disabilities expect
their overall quality of life to improve. In fact, 4 in 10
Americans expect their lives to get worse compared with
1 in 10 for their counterparts without disabilities (National Organization on Disability, 2007; Wehman et al.,
2007).
Similar to their special education counterparts, many
general education students are struggling with life-skill demands. Dropout rates of approximately 30% nationally and
teen pregnancy rates of just under one-third show dismal
postschool conditions that many of todays general education youth face. Both conditions have been shown to be
related to other less-than-optimal adult outcomes: high levels of depression, poverty, incarceration, receipt of public
assistance, and having children who drop out themselves
(Diplomas Count, 2008). Frequently, alarming stories surface about the number of high school graduates who are
unable to carry out routine daily tasks such as balancing
a checkbook, reading a map, making correct change, or
showing a basic understanding of current political issues.
Business leaders and college instructors report that high
school leavers, including a large percentage of high school
graduates, are not prepared for life after high school and
are inadequately prepared either to meet college-level ex-

Thomas and Dykes

pectations or to contribute to a potential workforce talent
pool (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2006). This has
resulted in schools being called upon not only to meet accountability requirements of NCLB, but also to do more
to prepare all students for postsecondary education and
employment (National Alliance for Secondary Education
and Transition, 2005). Therefore, both general and special
education students need planned and coordinated efforts
to better prepare them for a time when school supports are
no longer available.

New concerns presented by RTI

RTI is a multitiered, proactive approach to educational intervention that provides services at increasing levels of intensity to match the services a student receives with his or
her level of need. IDEA does not require the use of RTI, but
its use is encouraged as a way of identifying potential problems and providing research-based interventions sooner
with the hope of reducing inappropriate referrals to special
education, addressing disproportionality and achieving annual yearly progress goals. One of the often-cited benets
of RTI is the ability to intervene early to help all students
succeed (Allington, 2009; Cummings, Atkins, Allison, &
Cole, 2008; Fairbanks, Sugai, Guardino, & Lathrop, 2007).
It is reasonable to question whether RTI models alone
even if effectively and rigorously implementedprovide the
protections promoted by IDEA to appropriately transition students from high school to postsecondary services
(Oesh, 2006). If RTI is successful in reducing referrals
to special education, questions arise about the postschool
effect on those who will no longer receive mandated transition services. Decreased identication does not necessarily
equate to a decreased need for transition planning. Attention is needed, particularly from teachers of children at risk,
to ensure these students do not become a casualty of RTI
in their quest for successful transitions to adulthood.

Coexistence of RTI and successful transition planning

Traditionally, RTI has focused on elementary grades as
a means to identify students with learning disabilities
and those in need of social and behavioral intervention
(Fairbanks et al., 2007). Most schools have chosen a threeor four-tiered approach based on similar core constructs,
although there are many variations in instructional interventions and levels of intervention before special education
referral. Tier I, a school- or classwide approach, provides
screening and group interventions that can help overcome
student heterogeneity by ensuring that all children have a
level foundation through exposure to quality curriculum
and instruction and behavioral support in the general
education classroom. Tier II activities represent more
intensive, short-term interventions designed to overcome

Promoting Successful Transitions

exposed gaps or decits in groups of children engaging in
similar error patterns or in need of similar experiences and
supports. (Fairbanks, Simonsen, & Sugai, 2008; National
Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2005; Stichter,
Conroy, & Kaufmann, 2008).
In this article, we suggest that transition planning is
an important activity for all students, not solely for those
who receive special education services. We further suggest
that even in todays environment of accountability, teachers
can affect childrens postschool lives without compromising academic achievement or accountability. We examine
three approaches to transition and provide suggestions on
how teachers can support transition in three specic areas
consistent with the underlying philosophical principles of
an RTI approach. We highlighted the following areas: begin earlybegin with the end in mind, self-determination,
and the role of technology.
We selected these three transition areas because they represent basic core areas among transition-related concerns;
are supported by a history of scientic research-based interventions in the transition literature; and easily fall under RTIs tiered approach to intervention, including multimodel service delivery, data-based decision making, and
frequent progress monitoring. All are areas in which techniques to identify concerns and apply strategic interventions are available to meet the varying intensity of needs of
all students.
A sample of potential Tier I and Tier II activities are
included in the discussion of each of the three transition areas we highlight in this article. The Tier I and
Tier II approaches listed are intended only as suggestions of the multiple hands-on learning activities at a
teachers disposal. Although many of the activities listed
have been previously used in general education classrooms, some approachessuch as strategic teaching, task
analysis, assistive technology, and instruction in selfdeterminationhave been considered special education
practices. These techniques are not provided as replacements for required age appropriate transition assessments,
but as suggested practical, easily implemented interventions appropriate to maximize the learning environment
for all students. Because Tier III is highly individualized
and based on responses to Tier I and Tier II interventions,
we did not include Tier III interventions.

Begin earlybegin with the end in mind

There is no one-size-ts-all approach to planning a persons
future and no one date when children begin to think about
their future. Even small children devise games around the
topic what I want to be when I grow up. The focus of
the strategies in Table 1 introduce children (both special
education and general education) of all ages to career development and encourage them to look ahead and think
about their future. To be relevant, efforts must include ac-

3
tivities that each child can relate to, that peaks his or her
interests, and that are culturally valid, taking into account
the ecology in which the school and individual students
exist daily.
In a traditional approach to transition, transition planning does not begin until the IEP meeting where transitioning is rst considered. When conceptualized as a
tiered approach, thoughts of transition begin early in each
childs educational career. Research has shown that careerpreparation activities should start early in a childs experience and continue as a sequence of coordinated and comprehensive activities designed to expose young people to
a variety of options (National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition, 2005). Therefore, thinking about
transition begins as a lifelong task as an elementary rather
than a secondary activity.
Younger children such as those who are at risk of developing behavior problems have been shown to be more
likely to respond to, and maintain positive outcomes from,
early intervention, thereby diverting lifelong problems (Cheney, Flower, & Templeton, 2008). In a separate study,
when a focus group of school leavers were asked to identify when things began falling apart for them at school,
all participants mentioned middle school as the time they
realized they were different from successful students and
reported seeing no possibility of becoming accepted or
successful in school (Stensrud, 2006). It is apparent that
waiting until secondary school to think about the future
may be too late for many youngsters. For middle school
students, the middle-level educational development, called
the MidEx Model, has a goal to provide young adolescents with a safe environment to grow and learn, explore,
and dene him- or herself in the many personal and professional postschool roles (Repetto, Web, Neubert, & Curran, 2006), thereby promoting an early start to transition
planning.
To pay attention to transition early in each childs career, teachers should consistently promote activities that
explore educational, vocational, recreational, and personal
interests thereby facilitating successful outcomes in postsecondary education and training, employment, and civic
engagement (National Alliance for Secondary Education
and Transition, 2005). Early and varied experiences help
support the ability to dream and heighten condence in
each childs capabilities to achieve these dreams.
To channel and build upon student interests, skills and
interests assessments, both formal and informal, should
assess interests and preferences across time, include a variety of individuals in the assessment process, and interpret assessment of preferences and interests as embedded
in the history and culture that is unique to each student.
The tiered logic of RTI provides an efcient and effective
way to provide assessment screening universally, leading to
an efcient and effective method of assessing growth and
progress (Cheney et al., 2008). Table 1 shows possible Tier
I and Tier II interventions.

Thomas and Dykes

Table 1. Begin EarlyBegin With the End in Mind

Tier I activities

Tier II activities

Develop portfolio of childs work in career exploration activities (stories, pictures, etc.). Increase community involvement and
Portfolios follow the student through the maturation process.
expose to work experiences through site
tours, work exploration projects, job
internship experiences.
Use both formal and informal assessments to assess interests across time.
Involve a cultural mediator to assist with
interpretations beliefs, values, and
practices of students lives.
Mediators can help overcome problematic
Assess social skills and strengths and behaviors outside of academics (individual
assumptions about how the students
interests, preferences, life ambitions). Use assessment techniques that reect cultural
culture impacts goal development and
and linguistic differences.
future dreams.
Provide community resource information to families.
Develop mentorship programs involving
successful school leavers.
Infuse role models, including cultural role models, into curricula.
Recruit and facilitate volunteer programs.
Expose students to a variety of opportunities (work and non-work) through eld trips, Teach skill development
virtual eld trips, and career fairs.
problem solving
goal setting
decision making
social skills
Begin each day with current events discussion (weather, politics, local celebrations,
Form drop-out prevention committees to
sporting events, etc.). Let children rotate selecting articles for the days activity from
support children identied at risk of
newspapers, magazines, television / radio broadcasts. Create mock TV/radio show;
dropping out.
let children form their own newscast, write letter to editor, follow stock market or gas
prices.
Provide lesson units on various cultural/ethnic groups.
Involve students in school leadership opportunities.
Incorporate students interest into activity projects and learning units.
Extend learning activities through technology (e.g., desk-top publishing), art, and
music.
Implement Positive Behavior Support programs to identify and ameliorate factors
predictive of failure across the school population.
Develop plans to ease transitions as students change schools: particularly elementary to
middle and middle to high school (e.g., freshman advisory mentors).

Self-determination
To be able to clarify their wishes, desires, and goals, students must possess self-determination skills exhibited in
such activities as choice making, problem solving, goal setting, risk taking, self-advocacy, and self-awareness (Steere
& Cavaiuolo, 2002). Self-determination and life visioning
are essential to maximize personal freedom and citizenship, self-sufciency, and full participation in family and
society (Skouge, Kelly, Roberts, Leake, & Stodden, 2007).
Ample evidence links early and systematic address of selfdetermination skills to an increase a childs chances of (a)
being successful in school, in postschool academics, and in
the job market; of becoming effective decision makers and
causal agents in their own lives; and of becoming more capable of self-sufciency and living quality lives in adulthood
(Devlin, 2008; Martin, Van Dycke, DOttavio, & Nickerson, 2007; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Buchanan, & Lopez, 2006;
Skouge et al.; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).

Transition-related activities should be available on a variety of levels to promote the ability of students to evaluate
their own strengths and weaknesses, set goals, develop condence and motivation, make and carry out choices, and
effect positive social change in their environment (National
Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition, 2005;
Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998). Self-determination
may include skills in a variety of areas: social and interpersonal relationships, safety, nancial management, parenting, home management, career choices, work behaviors,
and recreation and leisure activities (Steere & Caviuolo,
2002).
It is not enough to assume that students with identied special education needs do not possess these skills,
whereas those who receive general education do exhibit
sufcient skills in these areas. All students, not just special
education students, need previous experiences, the ability
to crystallize and clarify their preferences and interests, and
the ability to communicate preferences and interests in an

Promoting Successful Transitions

age-appropriate manner. All students can experience
a more satisfying and fullling adult life by selfdetermination instruction during elementary, middle, and
secondary years.
Although skill requirements may vary by child, family,
and community inuences, schools and families can establish basic guidelines. For example, children in elementary and middle school should gain experience with choice
making and in personal planning, such as what to study
rst, what to eat for lunch, or what to do during free time.
As teenagers enter secondary school, they should have the
opportunity to gain self-awareness of and be able to explain their own strengths and challenges. Middle school
students should gain experience in making future plans
and assuming increasing responsibility. They should prot
by acknowledging and adhering to expectations, expressing interests and dreams, setting goals, and taking steps to
achieve these goals. Self-determination skills support students in exploring career interests and pursuing activities
to this end (Steere & Cavaiuolo, 2002).
As noted, many, if not most, children do not come
equipped with ready-made self-determination skills and
too frequently a lack of success or opportunity begets
future failure. Early on, teachers and schools can promote both skill development and the opportunity for student self-reection, self-expression, and self-responsibility
in each child as related to his or her future. Table 2 shows
possible Tier I and Tier II interventions to enhance selfdetermination skills.

The role of technology

Technological advances ranging from increased Internet
accessibility, screen reading devices, voice recognition software, and wireless phone technology are now available and
can enhance transition assessment and planning as well as
provide boundless possibilities to maximize the potential
of people with and without disabilities (National Organization on Disability, 2007). The number of ways RTI and
transitions systems can benet from emerging technology
is too numerous to count. In this world of ever-advancing
technology, educators must keep up to date on what is
available and integrate information systems as each student explores and plans for the future. The benets of infusing technology into transition-planning activities have
been noted to give a new voice to youth and their families
(Skouge et al., 2007). Computer-based instruction has been
shown to be an effective tool for teaching such communityrelevant skills as shopping and purchasing (Hansen & Morgan, 2008), and more frequently schools are implementing
systems for such activities as identifying both general and
special education students who are at risk of dropping out,
tracking the benets of positive behavioral support programs, identifying factors inuencing school climate, and
guiding peer mentoring programs.

Technology is an integral part of all tiered intervention

systems because it is essential to be able to handle the
large amounts of data generated by such systems. The same
would hold true for managing transition activities. Therefore, a wealth of Tier I and Tier II opportunities can be
created through the application of emerging technologies.
Table 3 shows ideas for Tier I and Tier II interventions.

Where do we go from here?

The future of RTI and transition may hold more questions
than answers. There is continuing need for efcacy data on
the RTI processes. As more schools implement RTI, questions remain about both implementation and efcacy. A
consensus has yet to be reached on what constitutes appropriate interventions, how long a child should remain on
a tier, and what various tiers should look like (Allington,
2009; National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities,
2005). Although RTI is seen as a means to address shortcomings in a discrepancy or wait-to-fail approach, the need
for continued research on the efcacy of RTI has been documented (Cheney et al., 2008; Stichter et al., 2008). Nonetheless, though renements are needed and questions remain,
RTI holds promise for identifying at-risk learners and focusing on student outcomes (National Joint Committee on
Learning Disabilities, 2005).
In addition, there is continuing need for data on postschool outcomes and the efcacy of transition efforts. Continued discussion is warranted on criteria for evaluation
and measurement of postschool outcomes, the treatment
of various outcome criteria (employment versus volunteer
activities), as well as the efcacy of early and technologybased interventions on postschool outcomes. It will be necessary to monitor the postschool outcomes and challenges
experienced by students served under an RTI system versus
those served by more traditional special education transition programs. Only with the end in mind can any approach be successful. For schools in general and transition
planning in particular, doing well on high-stakes testing or
passing to the next grade level is necessary but not sufcient to optimize postschool outcomes. Evaluation forces
schools and parents to target preferred outcomes, ensure
delity of intervention implementation, and evaluate outcome achievement. Efforts such as developing basic evaluation criteria; designing ways to incorporate changing skill
levels, interests, and preferences; doing periodic checks of
progress; celebrating successes; and measuring satisfaction
are examples of strategies schools and teachers can implement to judge the efcacy of both short- and long-term
actions.
Educators, both general and special education, need
training. A knowledge base is needed in implementing
empirically based strategies; assessment, monitoring,
and documentation of academic and behavior progress;
collaboration; and data-based decision making (National

Thomas and Dykes

Table 2. Self Determination

Tier I activities

Tier II activities

Assess ability to express interests and preferences, including the ability to communicate Provide direct teaching that includes
these interests.
role-play, modeling and shaping for skill
development
Expand on classroom experiences through eld trips and virtual eld trips and have
social skills and self-esteem
students reect on the experiences for them.
Celebrate accomplishments of transition related objectives
safety
nancial management
parenting
self-management to increase
self-responsibility
Rotate classroom chores so that all share responsibility of running the classroom.
Teach and practice decision making and
goal setting skills.
Employ group contingencies through cooperative learning activities as a way of
Support the formation of self-advocacy
increasing condence, self-esteem, self-responsibility.
groups.
Require completion of student journals to include reections, pictures, drawings, maps, Support special interest groups.
etc. Help students reect on long-term as well as emerging interests.

Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2005). In a

traditional transition system, the role of the transition
specialists has long been acknowledged as crucial in
bridging the gap in school to postschool success. In a
transition process supporting all students using some of
the techniques previously outlined, all teachers take on
some of the activities traditionally performed by transition
specialists. Both a knowledge base and comfort level and
collaborative support of transition specialists are needed.
Administrative, family, and community support and
guidance are needed. Early and systematic implementation
of transition-related activities holds increased opportunity
for collaborative approaches that bring together the collective expertise of schools and the community through the
sharing of resources, knowledge, and skills (National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition, 2005). In
systems where general and special education are treated as
separate, attention is needed to address the cultural factors
supporting the interdependence required by RTI systems
(National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2005).

As pressures escalate for high-stakes accountability, it will

take diligence on the part of all stakeholders to not lose focus on maximizing the future potentials for all studentsa
goal not mutually exclusive of maximizing high-stakes academic achievement.
If transition is conceptualized as the process students
and families use to think about life after school, identify
desired outcomes, plan experiences, and acquire knowledge
and skills to meet these goals, it stands to reason that these
processes benet all students. The standards and accountability movement has forced schools to examine school
achievement from multiple angles and has increased the realization that how well kids are prepared for transition will
signicantly affect their success.
The practices of a tiered intervention system has the potential to have a positive affect on the ability of schools
to meet the needs of all students and to identify students
earlier who are in need of additional support. Although
typically RTI is seen as an approach for students struggling with behavior or in the content areas of reading,

Table 3. The Role of Technology

Tier I activities
Use web based and other electronic media for exploring
career and life interests.
Teach technology use (how to use computer, surf the web,
etc.). For special education students, integrate technology
use into the IEP as appropriate.
Reward technology use in curricula assignments.

Support technology use in career planning activities

Keep data on various aspects of transition and track and
trend accomplishments and concerns.

Tier II activities
Support and further enhance technology and multi-media use in
career exploration activities (e.g., the use of a Power Point,
multi-media, video presentation of transition interests and goals).
Encourage vocational training/tech center training in computer
use as of interests to individual students.
Provide or teach the use of adaptive equipment (PDAs, electronic
calendars, etc.) to encourage work behaviors (time management,
scheduling, etc.)
Promoting Transitions

Promoting Successful Transitions

mathematics, writing, and language, we present evidence
that the principles and practices of an early- and tieredresponse system can be useful outside of the content areas
as schools struggle to enhance outcomes for all students.
The investment of efforts will produce high levels of return
for both students and society.

Author notes
Suzanne B. Thomas is an assistant professor at the University of Texas
at Tyler. Her research interests are postschool experiences of exceptional
learners, students with rare diseases, self-determination, and early childhood special education.
Frank Dykes is an assistant professor at the University of Texas at Tyler.
His research interests are differentiated instruction, the role of the principal in the delivery of special education, and special education assessment.

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Thomas and Dykes

APPENDIX A
Tiers I and II Activities: Begin EarlyBegin With the End in Mind
Tier I activities
Tier II activities

Develop portfolio of childs work in career-exploration activities (e.g.,

Increase community involvement and expose to work
stories, pictures). Portfolios follow the student through the maturation
experiences through job site tours, work-exploration
process.
projects, internship experiences.
Use both formal and informal assessments to assess interests across time. Involve a cultural mediator to assist with
Assess social skills and strengths and behaviors outside of academics
interpretations of beliefs, values, and practices of
(e.g., individual interests, preferences, life ambitions). Use assessment
students lives. Mediators can help overcome
techniques that reect cultural and linguistic differences.
problematic assumptions about how the students
culture affects goal development and future dreams.
Provide community resource information to families.
Develop mentorship programs involving successful
school leaders.
Infuse role modelsincluding cultural role modelsinto curricula.
Recruit and facilitate volunteer programs.
Expose students to a variety of opportunities (e.g., work and nonwork)
Teach skill development (e.g., problem solving, goal
through eld trips, virtual eld trips, and career fairs.
setting, decision making, social skills).
Begin each day with current events discussion (e.g., weather, politics, local Form dropout prevention committees to support
celebrations, sporting events). Let children rotate selecting articles for the children identied as at risk of dropping out of
days activity from newspapers, magazines, television, or radio
school.
broadcasts. Create mock TV or radio show; let children form their own
newscast, write letter to editor, follow stock market, or form gas prices.
Provide lesson units on various cultural or ethnic groups.
Involve students in school leadership opportunities.
Incorporate students interest into activity projects and learning units.
Extend learning activities through technology (e.g., desktop publishing),
art, and music.
Implement positive behavior support programs to identify and ameliorate
factors predictive of failure across the school population.
Develop plans to ease transitions as students change schools, particularly
from elementary to middle school and middle to high school (e.g.,
freshman advisory mentors).

APPENDIX B
Tiers I and II Activities to Enhance Self-Determination Skills
Tier I activities
Tier II activities
Assess ability to express interests and preferences, including the ability to
communicate these interests.

Provide direct teaching that includes role-play,

modeling, and shaping for skill development (e.g.,
social skills, self-esteem, safety, nancial
management, parenting, self-management to
increase self-responsibility)
Expand on classroom experiences through eld trips and virtual eld trips Teach and practice decision-making and goal-setting
and have students reect on the experiences for them.
skills.
Celebrate accomplishments of transition-related objectives.
Support the formation of self-advocacy groups.
Rotate classroom chores so that all students share responsibility of running Support special interest groups.
the classroom.
Use group contingencies through cooperative learning activities as a way
of increasing condence, self-esteem, and self-responsibility.
Require completion of student journals to include reections, pictures,
drawings, and maps. Help students reect on long-term and emerging
interests.

Promoting Successful Transitions

APPENDIX C
Tiers I and II Activities: The Role of Technology
Tier I activities
Use Web-based and other electronic media for exploring career and life
interests.

Tier II activities

Support and further enhance technology and

multimedia use in career-exploration activities (e.g.,
the use of Microsoft PowerPoint, multimedia, or
video presentation of transition interests and goals).
Teach technology use (e.g., how to use computer, how to surf the Internet). Encourage vocational training and technology center
For special education students, integrate technology use into the
training in computer use as pertaining to the
individualized education program, as appropriate.
interests of individual students.
Reward technology use in curricula assignments.
Provide or teach the use of adaptive equipment (e.g.,
PDAs, electronic calendars) to encourage work
behaviors (e.g., time management, scheduling)
Support technology use in career-planning activities.
Keep data on various aspects of transition and track and trend
accomplishments and concerns.

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Copyright of Preventing School Failure is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.