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Semester 1, 2014
LECTURE 5
Introduction to
Evolutionary Computation
April 8, 2014
2
OVERVIEW
Aims of this Lecture
Introduction
7
Literature and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Basic Features of Evolutionary Systems . . . . . . . 9
Representation of Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Areas of Evolutionary Computation
11
12
35
EC + ANN
38
EC + ANN Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Evolutionary Programming (EP)
40
Three Steps of Basic EP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Differences between GAs, EP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Evolution Strategies
43
Simulated Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Differences between EP and ES . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Genetic Programming (GP)
48
Applications of EAs
49
4
Multi-objective Optimisation
53
54
Correspondences
56
57
Summary
58
Critical Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
c
2013
Chalup
Introduction
1. Computer simulations in the 1960s allowed to analyse systems
that were too complex for mathematical modelling.
2. Evolutionary biologists became interested in models of natural
evolutionary systems.
3. Computer scientists and engineers used them for optimisation
(Rechenberg, 1973; Schwefel, 1995).
4. Artificial life: Design and experiment with artificial worlds.
c
2012
Chalup
Representation of Organisms
How can the individuals of a population, i.e. the organisms, be
represented?
One possibility is to represent them as a fixed length vector of
features that are chosen because of their relevance for fitness
evaluation, e.g.:
< hair colour, eye colour, skin colour, height, weight >
Loosely this can be regarded as:
Genotype of an individual that is specified by a chromosome of
five genes, or
Observable physical trait of an individual, i.e. its phenotype.
By specifying the range of values (alleles) the 5 features in the
example might take on, a 5-dimensional space of all possible
genotypes (or phenotypes) in this artificial world is defined.
10
c
2006
(De Jong, 2006)
11
12
13
14
15
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17
Genetic Operators
Mutation
Recombination or crossover
Selection
20
Mutation
00101011000111010011
21
Mutation
00101011000111010011
22
Mutation
00101011010111010011
23
Mutation
00101011010111010011
24
Crossover
00101011000111010011
11001001101011111101
25
Crossover
00101011|000111010011
11001001|101011111101
26
Crossover
00101011|101011111101
11001001|000111010011
27
Crossover
00101011|000111010011
11001001|101011111101
28
00101011|00011101|0011
11001001|10101111|1101
29
00101011|10101111|0011
11001001|00011101|1101
30
00101011|10101111|0011
11001001|00011101|1101
31
00101011101011110011
11001001000111011101
32
33
Evolution of a Population
epigenesis
phenotype1
genotype2
mutation
genotype2'
representation
phenotype2
selection
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35
36
EC + ANN
evolution of connection weights (an alternative to standard
network training)
evolution of architectures (topology and activation functions)
evolution of learning rules (adaption of learning parameters)
The evolution can take place on three levels simultaneously, e.g.
the evolution of the learning rule can interact with the evolution of
the architecture.
38
EC + ANN Systems
EPNet (Yao and Liu, 1997)
ENZO (Braun and Zagorski, 1994)
NeuroEvolution of Augmenting Topologies (NEAT) (Stanley
and Miikkulainen, 2002)
39
41
42
Evolution Strategies
ES were developed in experiments which used a wind tunnel to
find the optimal shapes of bodies in a flow.
First (1+1) ES with Gaussian distributed mutation was used.
(+) ES: = the population size, = number of offspring
generated per generation; incorporates recombination; mutation
scheme and the stepsize control are taken across unchanged
from (1+1)ES.
( + ) ES: The parental generation is taken into account
during selection.
(, ) ES: Only the offspring undergoes selection, and the
parents die off.
43
44
Simulated Annealing
Simulated Annealing can be seen as a (1+1)ES with
time-dependent selection pressure but constant mutation rate
(Kirkpatrick et al., 1983).
The term annealing is used in metallurgy where metals or
glass are first heated and then gradually cooled to achieve a
hardening effect.
Idea: Bounce the solution just hard enough to escape local
minima while not to loosing momentum towards the global
minimum.
46
48
Applications of EAs
EAs can compute any computable function, i.e. everything a
normal digital computer can do.
EAs should be used when there is no other known problem
solving strategy.
ALife: Attempts to simulate the kind of behaviour exhibited by
real, living creatures, e.g.
Framsticks is a three-dimensional ALife project. The physical
structure of creatures and their control systems are evolved.
This system uses the standard EA framework to evolve 3D
agents equipped with neural networks.
Creatures
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52
Multi-objective Optimisation
Standard EAs optimise a single objective function.
Sometimes simultaneaous optimisation of more than one
objective function is required.
Easy solution: Combine all objective functions into one by
using, e.g. a linear combination.
Alternative: Use vector of fitness values and trade off one
objective against others.
Pareto optimal front: Points that are not dominated by other
points and fitness of one objective results in a decrease in the
fitness associated with one or more other objectives.
53
Correspondences
Term
chromosome
biological meaning
string of DNA
gene
locus
allele
genome
genotype
phenotype
selection
recombination
(crossover)
mutation
epistasis
mathematical object
point in vector space
point in subspace
coordinate of a point
vector
mapping
mapping
56
IIa
IIb
III
Neurobiology
evolution of the brain,
co-evolution of brain
areas,
co-evolution
of language and the
brain
prenatal neural development
critical phases (postnatal), early learning,
child language acquisition
adaptive
learning
processes which continue after the critical
phases
Machine Learning
evolutionary algorithms generate and connect functional
modules, incremental learning
Summary
EC = GA + EP + ES + GP
Mutation, Recombination, Selection
Optimisation tasks
Many applications
Modular fitness function
The essential of natural evolution: selection ?
Combinations of ANN and EAs.
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80
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40
20
0
4
20
4
2
3
0
0
2
3
x = -4:0.1:4;
y = -4:0.1:4;
[X,Y] = meshgrid(x,y);
z = 20 + 2*X.^2 + 2*Y.^2 -10*(cos(pi*2*X)+cos(pi*2*Y));
surf(x,y,z);
59
Critical Discussion
How close can we get to biologically plausible artificial
intelligence ?
Is the current Turing machine based concept of computing
appropriate for biologically realistic real-time information
processing ?
60
LITERATURE
Atmar, W. (1994). Notes on the simulation of evolution. IEEE
Transactions on Neural Networks, 5:130147.
Braun, H. and Zagorski, P. (1994). Enzo-m - a hybrid approach for
optimizing neural networks by evolution and learning. In Proceedings of the third Int. Conference on Parallel Problem Solving from
Nature, pages 440451. Springer-Verlag.
Chalup, S. and Maire, F. (1999). A study on hill climbing for neural
network training. In Proceedings of the 1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation (CEC99), July 6-9, 1999, Mayflower Hotel,
Washington D.C., USA, volume 3, pages 20142021.
De Jong, K. A. (2006). Evolutionary Computation. A Unified Approach. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA.
Fogel, D. B. (2000). Evolutionary Computation: Towards a New
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