Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
LESSON OUTCOME
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Naturally occuring underground stresses resist wellbore
fracturing.
The general stress condition underground can be defined
in terms of the effective stresses, z, along the vertical Z
axis and x and y along the horizontal X and Y axes.
In the absence of external forces, the stress at any point is
due to the weight of the overburden.
Using an average density rock to be 144 lbm per cu ft, the
vertical stress at any point is expressed by the equation
3
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
(4.1)
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Where E is Youngs modulus.
For rock in compression, x is essentially zero and since the
lateral stress x equals the lateral stress y,
(4.3)
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
If fluid pressure is applied within rocks and increased until
parting of the rocks occurs that plane along which fracture
or parting may first occur is the one perpendicular to the
least principal stress (Fig 4.1).
When a well is drilled the preexisting stress field in the
rock is distorted.
An approximate calculation of this distortion has been
made by assuming the rock to be elastic, the borehole
smooth and cylindrical, and the borehole axis vertical.
6
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
The pressure that will fracture the borehole vertically is
the sum of that required in order to reduce the
compressive stresses on the wall of the hole to zero plus
the tensile strength of the rock, or
(4.4)
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Using 0 to 500 psi as the range of tensile strenghts for
competent sandstones and limestones, the pressure
necessary to induce vertical fracturing should lie between
and
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Once a fracture has been started, the pressure is applied
to the walls of the fracture.
According to Hubbert and Willis, the minimum down-thehole injection pressure requried to hold open and extend a
fracture is slightly in excess of the original stress normal to
the plane of the fracture.
Loss of fluid slightly decreases the pressure required to
produce vertical fractures.
10
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
In the case of horizontal fractures, the confining stress
holding the fracture planes together is equal to the
effective overburden at the depth of the fracture.
In the case of vertical fractures, the confining stress
holding the planes together is some function of the
effective overburden.
In the lower limiting case, horizontal fracturing can take
place when
(4.5)
11
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
The approximate maximum depth at which horizontal
fracturing should occur, can be determined from Eqn (4.4)
and (4.5) by assuming
(4.6)
2/24/2014
13
2/24/2014
By-passed Damage
Production increase from bypassing reduced permeability
zone is a function of the depth of the damaged zone and
the ratio of damaged to undamaged permeability.
Production increase can be estimated more effectively
from transient pressure tests.
Only a short fracture is needed to bypass most damage
zones, but it is very important to prop the fracture in the
area near the well-bore to provide a highly conductive
15
path through the damaged zone.
16
2/24/2014
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
Productivity ratio is the ratio of the productivity index of
the well after fracturing to that of the well before
fracturing, Jf /J.
For the case of a horizontal fracture (fracture gradient
1.0 psi per ft), an equation for the productivity ratio can be
obtained provided it is assumed that there is zero vertical
permeability in the fracture zone.
It has been shown that
(4.7)
17
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
where
kavg is the average permeability of the fractured formation
k is the permeability of the unfractured formation
From Fig. (1.5) that the average permeability of the
fracture zone is equal to the average permeability
predicted for radial flow in parallel beds.
18
2/24/2014
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
Fig.1.5
19
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
(4.8)
Where
kfz is the average permeability of the fracture zone
kf is the permeability of the fracture
W is the thickness of the fracture
k is the formation permeability
20
10
2/24/2014
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
The average permeability of the fractured formation, kavg,
is equal to the average permeability predicted for series
beds in radial flow:
(4.9)
Where
re is the drainage radius of the well
rw is the wellbore radius
rf is the radius of the fracture
21
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
Substituting Eq (4.8) to Eq (4.9), and into Eq (4.7), and
multiplying numerator and denominator by h,
Factoring,
(4.10)
22
11
2/24/2014
PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
To facilitate rapid calculation of the productivity ratio of
horizontal fractures, Fig (4.6) was constructed with the use
of Eqn (4.10).
The correlation between Fig. (4.6) and Eq (4.10) is shown
in Example (4.1).
Fig (4.7) shows the permeability of commonly used
fracture sands.
23
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Fig. 4.6
Estimated
productivity
ratio after
fracturing
(horizontal
fractures)
24
12
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Fig. Estimated
productivity
ratio after
fracturing
(vertical
fracture)
25
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
26
13
2/24/2014
Example (4.1)
Calculate the productivity ratio for a horizontal fracture,
given:
Example (4.1)
Solution
The value of kf W / k h is
The term ln (re / rw) in Eq (4.10) can be expressed as
28
14
2/24/2014
Example (4.1)
In Fig (4.6), the PR is 5.0
It is also desirable to estimate the productivity ratio for the
vertical fractures (fracture gradient 0.7 psi per ft).
The Mobile Oil Company correlated productivity ratios for
various fracture penetrations with the factor C = kf W / k,
as shown in Fig (4.8), where W is the fracture width in feet
and kf and k are the effective fracture and horizontal
formation permeability in milli-darcies respectively.
29
30
15
2/24/2014
PROPPANT HAS TO
Not to crush at formation closure stress
and temperature
Keep desired conductivity over time
Be smaller than perforations
Not to flow back from the fracture
32
16
2/24/2014
PROPPANT SELECTION
1. Calculate optimal fracture half-length
and conductivity
2. Determine applicable proppant mesh sizes
3. Review Proppant Database finding proppants matching
required mesh sizes, formation closure stress and temperature
4. Select proppants with required conductivity
5. Sort selected proppants by price;
Select proppant flowback control additives
33
17
2/24/2014
35
18
2/24/2014
FRACTURE AREA
FRACTURE AREA
19
2/24/2014
MECHANICS OF FRACTURING
Fig. 4.8
39
FRACTURE AREA
40
20
2/24/2014
FRACTURE AREA
41
Thank You
42
21
2/24/2014
Error Function of X
Thank You
43
FRACTURING FLUIDS
44
22
2/24/2014
FRACTURING FLUIDS
FRACTURING FLUIDS
3. Ultra-high viscosity fluids are costly and temperature
sensitive, but can provide wide, highly-conductive
fractures needed to stimulate higher permeability
zones or sand carrying capacity needed to prop long
fractures in low permeability zones.
4. Emulsion fluids provide moderate viscosity, and good
fluid loss and carrying capacity at a reasonable cost.
5. Alcohol, LPG-CO2 and Aerated fluids have limited
application due to cost, safety and/or complexity.
Usefulness is primarily in gas or low permeability zones
where cleanup is paramount.
46
23
2/24/2014
FRACTURING FLUIDS
FRACTURING FLUIDS
48
24
2/24/2014
Viscosity-controlled Fluids
49
Viscosity-controlled Fluids
50
25
2/24/2014
Example (4.2)
Example (4.2)
Solution
The differential pressure is
52
26
2/24/2014
Reservoir-controlled Fluids
53
Reservoir-controlled Fluids
27
2/24/2014
Wall-building Fluids
The use of modern additives to limit fluid loss (asphaltictype materials, synthetic gums, and insoluble solids added
to oil or water) creates a third class of fracturing fluids.
These fluids build a temporary filter cake or wall on the
face of the fracture as it is exposed.
While a small amount of fluid leaks through to form the
wall, once formed, the wall presents quite an effective
barrier to further leak-off due to its low permeability.
55
Wall-building Fluids
The volume of fluid which has leaked off through the filter
cake at any times is proportional to the volume of the
filter cake at that time, or
(4.14)
where
V = volume of fluid
Af= cross sectional area of filter cake
L = thickness of filter cake
C = proportional constant
If a standard fluid loss test is run on a fracturing fluid, and
If V is plo ed against t, the slope of the curve is m, and it is
expressed as cu cm/min.
56
28
2/24/2014
Wall-building Fluids
(4.15)
57
Wall-building Fluids
58
29
2/24/2014
Wall-building Fluids
(4.17)
59
Example (4.3)
60
30
2/24/2014
Example (4.3)
Solution
Example (4.3)
Any fracturing fluid is somewhat viscous, and so Cv
mechanism helps retard leak-off.
Also, the reservoir contains a compressible fluid, and thus
the Cc mechanism will be operative.
Finally, many oils without additives will have a wall-building
effect, and so the Cw mechanism usually comes into play.
Combined coefficient could be calculated similarly to the
combined conductance of a series of conductors,
62
31
2/24/2014
FRACTURE EFFICIENCY
Once fracturing fluid coefficient is calculated, fracture area
can be determined from the basic equation
(4.11)
63
FRACTURE EFFICIENCY
If we define the efficiency of a fracture job as the volume
of the fracture divided by the volume of fluid pumped,
then
(4.18)
32
2/24/2014
FRACTURE EFFICIENCY
65
Example (4.4)
Solution
The fracture time is
66
33
2/24/2014
Example (4.4)
and
Example (4.4)
The use of Fig. 4.11 and Eq. (4.19) provide a simplified
method of calculating the area of the fracture at any time,
A (t).
For example, if the injection volume is 20,000 gal of fluid
with a coefficient of 2.22 x 10-3 ft/ min, the fracture width
is 0.2 in., and the pumping time is 20 min, then
68
34
2/24/2014
Example (4.4)
From Table (4.1), the efficiency is 37%. Then from Eqn.
(4.18), the fracture area is
69
Q&A
70
35
2/24/2014
Thank You
71
36