Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Branch
Sem./Year
Subject code
Subject Name
: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
: III sem. / II A year
: ME 113302
: KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY
Objective:
To study the mechanism, machine and the geometric aspect of motion.
in
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Rattan S.S., Theory of Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1998.
2. Shigley J.E. and Uicker J.J., Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, McGrawHill, Inc. 1995.
3. Khurmi R.S. and Gupta J.K., Theory of Machines, Eurasia Publishing House,
New Delhi,2006
up
da
te
s.
REFERENCES:
1. Thomas Bevan, Theory of Machines, CBS Publishers and Distributors, 1984.
2. Ghosh A. and Mallick A.K., Theory of Mechanisms and Machines, Affiliated
East-West Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1988.
3. Rao J.S. and Dukkipati R.V., Mechanism and Machine Theory, Wiley-Eastern
Ltd., New Delhi, 1992.
NOTES OF LESSON
fre
sh
Introduction:
Definitions : Link or Element, Pairing of Elements with degrees of freedom,
Grublers criterion (without derivation), Kinematic chain, Mechanism, Mobility of
Mechanism, Inversions, Machine.
Kinematic Chains and Inversions :
Kinematic chain with three lower pairs, Four bar chain, Single slider crank chain
and Double slider crank chain and
their inversions.
Mechanisms:
i) Quick return motion mechanisms Drag link mechanism, Whitworth
mechanism and Crank and slotted lever mechanism
ii) Straight line motion mechanisms Peaceliers mechanism and Roberts
mechanism.
iii) Intermittent motion mechanisms Geneva mechanism and Ratchet & Pawl
mechanism.
iv) Toggle mechanism, Pantograph, Hookes joint and Ackerman Steering gear
mechanism.
in
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
Key concepts:
Degrees of freedom: The number of inputs required to completely control a
system. Examples: A simple rotating link. A two link system. A four-bar
linkage. A five-bar linkage.
Types of motion: Mechanisms may produce motions that are pure rotation,
pure translation, or a combination of the two. We reduce the degrees of
freedom of a mechanism by restraining the ability of the mechanism to move
in translation (x-y directions for a 2D mechanism) or in rotation (about the zaxis for a 2-D mechanism).
Link: A rigid body with two or more nodes (joints) that are used to connect to
other rigid bodies. (WM examples: binary link, ternary link (3 joints),
quaternary link (4 joints))
Joint: A connection between two links that allows motion between the links.
The motion allowed may be rotational (revolute joint), translational (sliding or
prismatic joint), or a combination of the two (roll-slide joint).
Kinematic chain: An assembly of links and joints used to coordinate an
output motion with an input motion.
Link or element:
A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out of which some may have
motions relative to the others. A resistant body or a group of resistant bodies with
rigid connections preventing their relative movement is known as a link.
up
da
te
s.
in
Kinematic Pair:
A Kinematic Pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion
between them.
Example:
In the above given Slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative to link 1 and
constitutes a revolute or turning pair. Similarly, links 2, 3 and 3, 4 constitute turning
pairs. Link 4 (Slider) reciprocates relative to link 1 and its a sliding pair.
fre
sh
b) Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known
as a higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are dissimilar.
Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and
roller bearings, etc.
ii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint.
a) Closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it is
known as a closed pair. The contact between the two can only be broken only by the
destruction of at least one of the members. All the lower pairs and some of the higher
pairs are closed pairs.
b) Unclosed pair: When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity
or some spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this the links are not held
together mechanically. Ex.: Cam and follower pair.
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other links, it is a nonkinematic chain. However, some authors prefer to call all chains having relative
motions of the links as kinematic chains.
Linkage, Mechanism and structure:
A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain is fixed to the ground. If
motion of each link results in definite motion of the others, the linkage is known as
mechanism. If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.
To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is
necessary to know how many inputs are needed. In some mechanisms, only one input
is necessary that determines the motion of other links and are said to have one degree
of freedom. In other mechanisms, two inputs may be necessary to get a constrained
motion of the other links and are said to have two degrees of freedom and so on.
The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degrees
of freedom is known as a Superstructure.
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
fre
Partially
Constrained
Motion
in
te
Incompletely
Constrained
Motion
s.
Completely
Constrained
Motion
fre
sh
up
da
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
Machine:
It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully constrained motion which is
used to transmit or transform motion to do some useful work. E.g.: Lathe, Shaper,
Steam Engine, etc.
Kinematic chain with three lower pairs
It is impossible to have a kinematic chain consisting of three turning pairs only. But it
is possible to have a chain which consists of three sliding pairs or which consists of a
turning, sliding and a screw pair.
The figure shows a kinematic chain with three sliding pairs. It consists of a frame B,
wedge C and a sliding rod A. So the three sliding pairs are, one between the wedge C
and the frame B, second between wedge C and sliding rod A and the frame B.
This figure shows the mechanism of a fly press. The element B forms a sliding with A
and turning pair with screw rod C which in turn forms a screw pair with A. When link
A is fixed, the required fly press mechanism is obtained.
te
s.
in
fre
sh
up
da
Grashoff's law:
Grashoff 4-bar linkage: A linkage that contains one or more links capable
of undergoing a full rotation. A linkage is Grashoff if: S + L < P + Q (where:
S = shortest link length, L = longest, P, Q = intermediate length links). Both
joints of the shortest link are capable of 360 degrees of rotation in a Grashoff
linkages. This gives us 4 possible linkages: crank-rocker (input rotates 360),
rocker-crank-rocker (coupler rotates 360), rocker-crank (follower); double
crank (all links rotate 360). Note that these mechanisms are simply the
possible inversions (section 2.11, Figure 2-16) of a Grashoff mechanism.
Non Grashoff 4 bar: No link can rotate 360 if: S + L > P + Q
Lets examine why the Grashoff condition works:
Consider a linkage with the shortest and longest sides joined together.
Examine the linkage when the shortest side is parallel to the longest side (2
positions possible, folded over on the long side and extended away from the
long side). How long do P and Q have to be to allow the linkage to achieve
these positions?
Consider a linkage where the long and short sides are not joined. Can you
figure out the required lengths for P and Q in this type of mechanism
3. Kinematic Inversions of 4-bar chain and slider crank chains:
Types of Kinematic Chain: 1) Four bar chain 2) Single slider chain 3) Double
Slider chain
Four bar Chain:
The chain has four links and it looks like a cycle frame and hence it is also called
quadric cycle chain. It is shown in the figure. In this type of chain all four pairs will
be turning pairs.
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
Inversions:
By fixing each link at a time we get as many mechanisms as the number of links, then
each mechanism is called Inversion of the original Kinematic Chain.
Inversions of four bar chain mechanism:
There are three inversions: 1) Beam Engine or Crank and lever mechanism. 2)
Coupling rod of locomotive or double crank mechanism. 3) Watts straight line
mechanism or double lever mechanism.
Beam Engine:
When the crank AB rotates about A, the link CE pivoted at D makes vertical
reciprocating motion at end E. This is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating
motion and vice versa. It is also known as Crank and lever mechanism. This
mechanism is shown in the figure below.
in
up
da
te
s.
sh
rd
fre
A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the sliding piston 4
reciprocates in the slotted link 1. This mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps,
compressors, I.C. engines, etc.
in
sh
fre
up
da
te
s.
In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted
lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The
ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with
the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus
the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle and the
return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle or 360 .
Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,
Time to cutting = =
Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth quick return
mechanism is an application of third inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure
below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted
link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided
on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken
to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in
shapers and slotting machines. The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2
in counter clockwise direction is or 360 -2. During the return stroke, the angle
covered is 2 or .
Therefore,
up
da
te
s.
in
sh
fre
1. Elliptical Trammel:
This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed. The sliding
block P and Q in vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates an
ellipse with the displacement of sliders P and Q.
The co-ordinates of the point R are x and y. From the fig. cos = x. PR
and Sin = y. QR
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii) we get
x2 + y2 = cos2 + sin2
2
(PR)
(QR)
x2
+ y2 = 1
2
(PR) (QR)
The equation is that of an ellipse, Hence the instrument traces an ellipse. Path traced
2
s.
in
fre
sh
up
da
te
Transmission angle.
The extreme values of the transmission angle occur when the crank lies along
the line of frame.
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction
is or 360 -2. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2 or .
2. Drag link mechanism :
This is four bar mechanism with double crank in which the shortest link is fixed. If
the crank AB rotates at a uniform speed, the crank CD rotate at a non-uniform speed.
This rotation of link CD is transformed to quick return reciprocatory motion of the
ram E by the link CE as shown in figure. When the crank AB rotates through an angle
in
in Counter clockwise direction during working stroke, the link CD rotates through
180. We can observe that / >/ . Hence time of working stroke is / times more or
the return stroke is / times quicker. Shortest link is always stationary link. Sum of
the shortest and the longest links of the four links 1, 2, 3 and 4 are less than the sum of
the other two. It is the necessary condition for the drag link quick return mechanism.
3. Crank and slotted lever mechanism:
It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is
shown in figure below.
sh
up
da
te
s.
In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted
lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The
ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with
the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus
the cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle and the
return stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle or 360 .
Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,
Time to cutting = =
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
fre
This is a simple figure of a Pantograph. The links are pin jointed at A, B, C and D.
AB is parallel to DC and AD is parallel to BC. Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q
is a point on the link AD. If the motion of Q is to be enlarged then the link BC is
extended to P such that O, Q and P are in a straight line. Then it can be shown that the
points P and Q always move parallel and similar to each other over any path straight
or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distance from the fixed point.
Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1 , then all the links
and the joints will move to the new positions (such as A moves to A1 , B moves to
Q1, C moves to Q1 , D moves to D1 and P to P1 ) and the new configuration of the
mechanism is shown by dotted lines. The movement of Q (Q Q1) will be enlarged to
PP1 in a definite ratio.
4. Toggle Mechanism:
s.
in
In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches one of its dead centre position, the
slider approaches zero. The ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement
approaching infinity is proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the principle
used in toggle mechanism. A toggle mechanism is used when large forces act through
a short distance is required. The figure below shows a toggle mechanism. Links CD
and CE are of same length. Resolving the forces at C vertically F Sin =P Cos 2
Therefore, F = P . (because Sin /Cos = Tan ) 2 tan Thus for the given value of
P, as the links CD and CE approaches collinear position (O), the force F rises
rapidly.
5. Hookes joint:
fre
sh
up
da
te
Hookes joint used to connect two parallel intersecting shafts as shown in figure. This
can also be used for shaft with angular misalignment where flexible coupling does not
serve the purpose. Hence Hookes joint is a means of connecting two rotating shafts
whose axes lie in the same plane and their directions making a small angle with each
other. It is commonly known as Universal joint. In Europe it is called as Cardan joint.
5. Ackermann steering gear mechanism:
This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is made of only turning pairs wear
and tear of the parts is less and cheaper in manufacturing. The cross link KL connects
two short axles AC and BD of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL
which forms bell crank levers CAK and DBL respectively as shown in fig, the longer
links AB and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and BL are inclined at an angle
. When the vehicles steer to the right as shown in the figure, the short link BL is
turned so as to increase , where as the link LK causes the other short link AK to turn
so as to reduce . The fundamental equation for correct steering is, CotCos = b / l
In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle through which AK turns is less
than the angle through which the BL turns and therefore the left front axle turns
through a smaller angle than the right front axle. For different angle of turn , the
corresponding value of and (Cot Cos ) are noted. This is done by actually
drawing the mechanism to a scale or by calculations. Therefore for different value of
the corresponding value of and are tabulated. Approximate value of b/l for correct
steering should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an Ackermann steering gear mechanism,
the instantaneous centre I does not lie on the axis of the rear axle but on a line parallel
to the rear axle axis at an approximate distance of 0.3l above it.
s.
in
BELL CRANK:
up
da
te
BELL CRANK: The bell crank was originally used in large house to operate the
servants bell, hence the name. The bell crank is used to convert the direction of
reciprocating movement. By varying the angle of the crank piece it can be used to
change the angle of movement from 1 degree to 180 degrees.
fre
sh
GENEVA STOP: The Geneva stop is named after the Geneva cross, a similar shape
to the main part of the mechanism. The Geneva stop is used to provide intermittent
motion, the orange wheel turns continuously, the dark blue pin then turns the blue
cross quarter of a turn for each revolution of the drive wheel. The crescent shaped cut
out in dark orange section lets the points of the cross past, then locks the wheel in
place when it is stationary. The Geneva stop mechanism is used commonly in film
cameras.
ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL
PISTON ARRANGEMENT
piston changes. The piston starts from one end, and increases its speed. It reaches
maximum speed in the middle of its travel then gradually slows down until it reaches
the end of its travel.
RACK AND PINION
RATCHET
up
da
te
s.
in
RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and
linear motion. The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion
can convert from rotary to linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear
determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are
commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the rotary motion of the
steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears give a
positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the
rack and pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on
the engine allowing the train to be pulled up very steep slopes.
fre
sh
RATCHET: The ratchet can be used to move a toothed wheel one tooth at a time.
The part used to move the ratchet is known as the pawl. The ratchet can be used as a
way of gearing down motion. By its nature motion created by a ratchet is intermittent.
By using two pawls simultaneously this intermittent effect can be almost, but not
quite, removed. Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion only occurs in only one
direction, useful for winding gear which must not be allowed to drop. Ratchets are
also used in the freewheel mechanism of a bicycle.
WORM GEAR
WATCH ESCAPEMENT.
WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the
worm shaft the gear shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a
twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation
is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the motion is not reversible, a worm
can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to increase it. As the
speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears are a
compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power.
Ideal for use with small electric motors.
WATCH ESCAPEMENT: The watch escapement is the centre of the time piece. It
is the escapement which divides the time into equal segments. The balance wheel, the
gold wheel, oscillates backwards and forwards on a hairspring (not shown) as the
balance wheel moves the lever is moved allowing the escape wheel (green) to rotate
by one tooth. The power comes through the escape wheel which gives a small 'kick' to
the palettes (purple) at each tick.
CAM FOLLOWER.
in
GEARS
up
da
te
s.
GEARS: Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement. In the example
above the blue gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the
orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as
the blue gear turns clockwise the orange gear turns anti-clockwise. In the above
example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not divisible by the number of teeth
on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear had thirty three teeth then every
three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh together which could cause
excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh only every
seventeen turns of the blue gear.
fre
sh
CAMS: Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The
motion created can be simple and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns,
driven by the circular motion, the cam follower traces the surface of the cam
transmitting its motion to the required mechanism. Cam follower design is important
in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower will more
accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate movement is at the
expense of the strength of the cam follower.
STEAM ENGINE.
Steam engines were the backbone of the industrial revolution. In this common design
high pressure steam is pumped alternately into one side of the piston, then the other
forcing it back and forth. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to useful
rotary motion using a crank.
As the large wheel (the fly wheel) turns a small crank or cam is used to move the
small red control valve back and forth controlling where the steam flows. In this
animation the oval crank has been made transparent so that you can see how the
control valve crank is attached.
7. Straight line generators, Design of Crank-rocker Mechanisms:
in
up
da
te
s.
a. Peaucillier mechanism :
The pin Q is constrained to move long the circumference of a circle by means of the
link OQ. The link OQ and the fixed link are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on
opposite corners of a four bar chain which has all four links QC, CP, PB and BQ of
equal length to the fixed pin A. i.e., link AB = link AC. The product AQ x AP remain
constant as the link OQ rotates may be proved as follows: Join BC to bisect PQ at F;
then, from the right angled triangles AFB, BFP, we have AB=AF+FB and
BP=BF+FP. Subtracting, AB-BP= AF-FP=(AFFP)(AF+FP) = AQ x AP .
Since AB and BP are links of a constant length, the product AQ x AP is constant.
Therefore the point P traces out a straight path normal to AR.
fre
sh
b. Roberts mechanism:
This is also a four bar chain. The link PQ and RS are of equal length and the tracing
pint O is rigidly attached to the link QR on a line which bisects QR at right angles.
The best position for O may be found by making use of the instantaneous centre of
QR. The path of O is clearly approximately horizontal in the Roberts mechanism.
a. Peaucillier mechanism
b. Hart mechanism
Unit II KINEMATICS
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
s.
in
up
da
te
sh
fre
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
Cams:
Type of cams, Type of followers, Displacement, Velocity and acceleration time
curves for cam profiles, Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife edge,
roller follower, Follower motions including SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform
acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motion.
up
da
te
s.
Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created
can be simple and regular or complex and irregular. As the cam turns, driven by the
circular motion, the cam follower traces the surface of the cam transmitting its motion
to the required mechanism. Cam follower design is important in the way the profile of
the cam is followed. A fine pointed follower will more accurately trace the outline of
the cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of the strength of the cam
follower.
fre
sh
Drawing the displacement diagrams for the different kinds of the motions and
the plate cam profiles for these different motions and different followers.
SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal
motions
Knife-edge, Roller, Flat-faced and Mushroom followers.
up
da
te
s.
in
fre
sh
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
Unit IV GEARS
Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement.
te
s.
in
In the example above the blue gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty
five. To turn the orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r
turns. Notice that as the blue gear turns clockwise the orange gear turns anticlockwise. In the above example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not
divisible by the number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear
had thirty three teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would
mesh together which could cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers
the same teeth mesh only every seventeen turns of the blue gear.
up
da
fre
sh
WORM GEAR
te
s.
in
RACK AND PINION: The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and
linear motion. The rack is the flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion
can convert from rotary to linear of from linear to rotary. The diameter of the gear
determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns. Rack and pinions are
commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the rotary motion of the
steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels. Rack and pinion gears give a
positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel in tarmac. In the
rack and pinion railway a central rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on
the engine allowing the train to be pulled up very steep slopes.
fre
sh
up
da
WORM GEAR: A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the
worm shaft the gear shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. In this case, with a
twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of rotation
is turned by 90 degrees. Unlike ordinary gears, the motion is not reversible, a worm
can drive a gear to reduce speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to increase it. As the
speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears are a
compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power.
Ideal for use with small electric motors.
in
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
34. Differentials:
Used in the rear axle of an automobile.
To enable the rear wheels to revolve at different speeds when negotiating a
curve.
To enable the rear wheels to revolve at the same speeds when going straight.
Problem:
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
Unit V FRICTION
fre
fre
sh
up
da
te
s.
in
in
s.
te
up
da
sh
fre